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.infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Henry L. Roediger III</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">July 24, 1947<span style="display:none"> (<span class="dtstart bday">1947-07-24</span>)</span> (age <span class="currentage"></span>77)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Roanoke,_Virginia" title="Roanoke, Virginia">Roanoke, Virginia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category">United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">Studies of human <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Washington_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington University">Washington University</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Henry L.</b> "<b>Roddy</b>" <b>Roediger III</b> (born July 24, 1947) is an American <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> researcher in the area of human learning and memory. He rose to prominence for his work on the psychological aspects of <a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">false memories</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_L._Roediger_III&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Born in <a href="/wiki/Roanoke,_Virginia" title="Roanoke, Virginia">Roanoke, Virginia</a>, and raised in <a href="/wiki/Danville,_Virginia" title="Danville, Virginia">Danville, Virginia</a>, Roediger received his undergraduate education from <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University" title="Washington and Lee University">Washington and Lee University</a>, graduating <a href="/wiki/Magna_cum_laude" class="mw-redirect" title="Magna cum laude">magna cum laude</a> with a Bachelor of Arts in 1969. He went on to study at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>, receiving his PhD in 1973 with his dissertation "Inhibition in recall from cueing with recall targets". After receiving his doctorate he joined the faculty at <a href="/wiki/Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a>, where he stayed for fifteen years (except for two appointments as a visiting assistant professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a>: 1976–1978, and 1981–1982). In 1988 he was appointed as the Lynette S. Autrey Professor of Psychology at <a href="/wiki/Rice_University" title="Rice University">Rice University</a>, and in 1996 he moved to <a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a> where he was the Chair of Psychology until 2004. Since 1998 he has been the James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor of Psychology at Washington University.<sup id="cite_ref-Purdue_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Purdue-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout his career, Roediger has become known for his focus on memory accessibility and retrieval – the ways in which we access and recall memories that we have stored. From this standpoint, he has developed theories, explored phenomena, and pioneered research techniques. He has supervised over 25 students in postgraduate research, and 9 postdoctoral fellows.<sup id="cite_ref-Vitae_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vitae-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His former students include <a href="/wiki/Suparna_Rajaram" title="Suparna Rajaram">Suparna Rajaram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_McDermott_(psychologist)" title="Kathleen McDermott (psychologist)">Kathleen McDermott</a>, Jeffrey Karpicke, and Elizabeth Marsh.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, he has published over 175 articles and has an <a href="/wiki/H-index" title="H-index">h-index</a> of over 40.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alongside his academic work, Roediger oversaw the launch of the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Science_in_the_Public_Interest" title="Psychological Science in the Public Interest">Psychological Science in the Public Interest</a></i>, he has been editor of the journals <i>Psychonomic Bulletin and Review</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Experimental_Psychology" title="Journal of Experimental Psychology">Journal of Experimental Psychology</a>: Learning, Memory and Cognition</i>, and also has been involved in the administration of a number of scientific societies, most notably as the 2003–2004 president of the <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Psychological_Science" title="Association for Psychological Science">Association for Psychological Science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-APS_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APS-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elections,_honours,_and_awards"><span id="Elections.2C_honours.2C_and_awards"></span>Elections, honours, and awards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_L._Roediger_III&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Elections, honours, and awards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roediger has been elected as a Fellow of the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="American Psychological Society">American Psychological Society</a> (now the <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Psychological_Science" title="Association for Psychological Science">Association for Psychological Science</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Psychological_Association" title="Canadian Psychological Association">Canadian Psychological Association</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Interview_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Interview-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He has also received a number of honours and awards. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:10%;">Year </th> <th style="width:80%;">Award </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">1989 – 1990 </td> <td>Chair of the governing board of the <a href="/wiki/Psychonomic_Society" title="Psychonomic Society">Psychonomic Society</a><sup id="cite_ref-APS_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APS-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">1992 – 1993 </td> <td>President of the Midwestern Psychological Association.<sup id="cite_ref-Interview_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Interview-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">1994 – 1995 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship" title="Guggenheim Fellowship">Guggenheim Fellowship</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">1996 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Scientific_Information" title="Institute for Scientific Information">Institute for Scientific Information</a> Psychologist with highest impact <sup id="cite_ref-Purdue_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Purdue-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">2002 – 2003 </td> <td>Chair of <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Experimental_Psychologists" title="Society of Experimental Psychologists">Society of Experimental Psychologists</a><sup id="cite_ref-Awards_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Awards-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">2003 – 2004 </td> <td>President of the <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Psychological_Science" title="Association for Psychological Science">Association for Psychological Science</a><sup id="cite_ref-APS_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APS-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">2004 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Honorary_Doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Honorary Doctorate">Honorary Doctorate</a> in Social Sciences from Purdue University <sup id="cite_ref-Purdue_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Purdue-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">2008 </td> <td>Awarded the <a href="/wiki/Howard_C._Warren" title="Howard C. Warren">Howard C. Warren</a> medal <sup id="cite_ref-Awards_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Awards-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">2008 </td> <td>Arthur Holly Compton Faculty Achievement Award, Washington University<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_consequences_of_retrieval">The consequences of retrieval</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_L._Roediger_III&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The consequences of retrieval"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roediger was one of the first scholars to see the value of studying how humans retrieve memories. As Roediger started his career the <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">cognitive revolution</a> was in full swing. Human memory researchers had been predominantly focusing on memory storage, and were only beginning to look at memory encoding.<sup id="cite_ref-Nairne_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nairne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, inspired by his graduate advisor at Yale, Robert G. Crowder, Roediger began to see the importance of a retrieval-based approach to memory research.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since his doctoral dissertation, much of Roediger's research through the 1970s focused on retrieval based inhibition – the idea that retrieving an item reduces the subsequent accessibility of other stored items. This phenomenon is more commonly experienced when we try to remember a list of items and find that we keep thinking of the ones we have already recalled, rather than the ones we still need to remember.<sup id="cite_ref-Nairne_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nairne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roediger was able to show, under certain conditions, that recall cues can inhibit recall, which seemed inconsistent with previously widely accepted research findings showing that cues aid recall.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Close to a decade of research helped to define the situations in which cues can aid recall and the situations in which cues can inhibit recall. In 1978 Roediger concluded that this dissociation occurs because, although some cues can facilitate recall, other cues provide irrelevant information, which hinders recall. Most importantly, Roediger showed that the accessibility of one memory biases the process of searching for another memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Nairne_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nairne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transfer_appropriate_processing">Transfer appropriate processing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_L._Roediger_III&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Transfer appropriate processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1980s saw an increase in research on <a href="/wiki/Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">implicit memory</a> – memories that we have without being aware of them. The norm among researchers in this area was to test implicit memory using some task that required the subject to unintentionally remember previously learned information, such as completing a word fragment (E_E_ _ A _ T to ELEPHANT) or an anagram (PNLEHETA to ELEPHANT),<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as compared with testing for memories that we are aware of (<a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">explicit memory</a>) using direct instructions to remember. These researchers found that the intentionally learned information was better remembered in an intentional remembering test, and unintentionally learned information was better remembered in an unintentional remembering test.<sup id="cite_ref-Nairne_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nairne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roediger, however, approached this phenomenon from a more retrieval-based standpoint. Rather than looking at intentionality of learning, he looked to the conditions in which the information was to be recalled. He saw that unintentional learning seemed to be driven by bottom-up processes (using small details from the stimulus to build meaning) and that intentional learning seemed to be driven by top-down processes (using pre-existing concepts to make sense of a stimulus). He predicted that information learned in a bottom-up manner (e.g. reading a word) would be better recalled in a bottom-up test (e.g. completing a word fragment), and information learned in a top-down manner (e.g. generating a mental image) would be better remembered in a top-down test (e.g. recalling a list of words).<sup id="cite_ref-Nairne_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nairne-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roediger hypothesised that the more that the processes used in retrieval matched those used in encoding, the better memory performance would be, and called this framework '<a href="/wiki/Transfer-appropriate_processing" title="Transfer-appropriate processing">transfer-appropriate processing</a>'. In a number of experiments Roediger and his colleagues showed that, rather than the intentionality when remembering, it was in fact the overlap between the conditions in which learning and remembering occurred that aided memory.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neurophysiological studies have provided further evidence suggesting that transfer appropriate processes play a crucial role in memory. Studies using <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> have shown that the overlap in brain activity between encoding and retrieval facilitates memory performance.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theory of transfer appropriate processing has since been adapted by numerous scientists to further study a number of different problems. Scientists have used transfer appropriate processing to better understand how humans that speak more than two languages might organise their different <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexica</a>, which has important implications for those trying to learn a new language as well as for potentially better understanding language disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transfer appropriate processing also had a notable impact on the field of marketing, by providing a more comprehensive understanding of consumer memory. A focus on retrieval as the goal of advertising, and a better understanding of how interference can impact marketing communications, left a lasting impression on advertising practice.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Transfer appropriate processing theory has also been shown to be particularly valuable in exploring the organisation of memory,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the workings of <a href="/wiki/Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">prospective memory</a> – remembering to carry out previously planned actions,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in exploring how people learn to read fluently.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="False_memories">False memories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_L._Roediger_III&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: False memories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roediger did advanced research in the area of false memory, looking at why and how people develop memories of events that never happened to them. Throughout the 1990s, he and his colleagues took the methodology from a relatively unknown study by James Deese from 1959 and worked to develop it into one of the most widely used tools in human memory research; the <a href="/wiki/Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">DRM Paradigm</a>. In a typical DRM experiment, a subject listens to a list of related words, for example; Thread, Pin, Eye, Sewing, Sharp, Point, Prick, Thimble, Haystack, Torn, Hurt, Injection, Syringe, Cloth, Knitting, and is then tested on their memory for this list. Typically, subjects will recall or recognise an associated, but unpresented lure word (Needle).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roediger and <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_McDermott_(psychologist)" title="Kathleen McDermott (psychologist)">Kathleen McDermott</a> asked people whether they actually remembered hearing this unpresented word, or if they merely felt like they had heard it. Participants often reported remembering hearing the word, illustrating memory for an event that never occurred. </p><p>Naturally, Roediger's approach to explaining this phenomenon was through retrieval processes. He thought that perhaps recalling list items would increase the availability of the lure word to a level where it became so available that it was mistaken for a presented word. However, retrieval processes alone were not enough to explain the findings – in a number of studies Roediger and his colleagues showed that a warning about developing a false memory had no effect if it was presented before retrieval, but could reduce false memories if presented before the encoding phase, suggesting an important role being played by the encoding process. Further work led Roediger and his research team to acknowledge both encoding and retrieval processes in explaining this phenomenon. </p><p>Although a wealth of research was conducted on the DRM paradigm, Roediger's interest in false memory went further still. His research into other false memory procedures helped further research on <a href="/wiki/Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">imagination inflation</a> – the idea that imagining an event can make someone later believe that it really happened.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, research into the social environment around creating memories helped to shed light on how other people's memories can become part of our own, a process Roediger and colleagues called 'Social Contagion'.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cognitive_psychology_and_education">Cognitive psychology and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_L._Roediger_III&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cognitive psychology and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roediger's most recent interests have involved applying knowledge from cognitive psychology research to the realm of education.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although many teachers feel that using standardized tests stifles creativity and takes away from time that could be better utilised in teaching, Roediger's studies indicate that the demands that testing places on recall significantly enhance learning compared to untested situations. His work suggests that a ratio of 3–4 "tests" (uses of the learned information without recourse to reference material) to each study session (learning of new information) may be most effective.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roediger's early research on testing effects and <a href="/wiki/Hypermnesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypermnesia">hypermnesia</a> on final-exam results showed that subjects who receive two tests on newly learned material out-perform subjects tested only once, even if no feedback is given on any of the tests. This effect persists even if the group that is only tested once is given a second opportunity to study the material. Roediger explains this effect in terms of enhanced retrievability, claiming that testing provides practice at retrieving memories, making the memory itself stronger.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roediger and his colleagues have also studied the form of test which is most effective. They report that short answer questions produce stronger testing-enhancements of learning compared to multiple-choice testing. Further research is being conducted to discover the optimal timing between tests and the best media for conducting tests.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_L._Roediger_III&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Purdue-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Purdue_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Purdue_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Purdue_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Purdue roll of honorary degrees 2004 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://news.uns.purdue.edu/html3month/2004/04hondocs/04.Roediger.html">http://news.uns.purdue.edu/html3month/2004/04hondocs/04.Roediger.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170109114109/https://news.uns.purdue.edu/html3month/2004/04hondocs/04.Roediger.html">Archived</a> 2017-01-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vitae-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vitae_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100626205452/http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roediger/Roediger_Vita.pdf">"Roediger, 2010 Curriculum Vitae"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Retrieval+Practice%3A+A+Powerful+Strategy+to+Improve+Learning&rft.atitle=Remember%21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.retrievalpractice.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+L.+Roediger+III" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. L. Roediger, 3rd and A. C. Butler. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. <i>Trends Cogn Sci</i>, <b>15</b>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003">20–7</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220420002852/https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(10)00208-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1364661310002081%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Archived</a> 2022-04-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleeman, J. (2011). Advice from cognitive psychologist Roddy Roediger on using retrieval practice to aid learning. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://blog.questionmark.com/advice-from-cognitive-psychologist-roddy-roediger-on-using-retrieval-practice-to-aid-learning">http://blog.questionmark.com/advice-from-cognitive-psychologist-roddy-roediger-on-using-retrieval-practice-to-aid-learning</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121229233737/http://blog.questionmark.com/advice-from-cognitive-psychologist-roddy-roediger-on-using-retrieval-practice-to-aid-learning">Archived</a> 2012-12-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roediger, H.L., McDaniel, M., & McDermott, K. (2006). Test enhanced learning. Observer, 19 (3) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/getArticle.cfm?id=1951">http://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/getArticle.cfm?id=1951</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120205134619/http://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/getArticle.cfm?id=1951">Archived</a> 2012-02-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_memory" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Memory" title="Template:Memory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Memory" title="Template talk:Memory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Memory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Memory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_memory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forgetting" title="Forgetting">Forgetting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">Motivated forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactive_memory" title="Transactive memory">Transactive memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="/wiki/State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levels_of_Processing_model" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Molaison" title="Henry Molaison">HM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_Cochrane" title="Kent Cochrane">KC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_N.A." title="Patient N.A.">NA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. McHugh">Paul R. McHugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_O%27Brien" title="Dominic O'Brien">Dominic O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Pridmore" title="Ben Pridmore">Ben Pridmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_Rossellius" title="Cosmos Rossellius">Cosmos Rossellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriy_Slyusarchuk" title="Andriy Slyusarchuk">Andriy Slyusarchuk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" 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