Climate - Monsoon, Rainfall, Seasonal

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class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="121560"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/climate-meteorology">climate</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/science/climate-meteorology">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref53244"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Solar-radiation-and-temperature">Solar radiation and temperature</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref53245"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Solar-radiation-and-temperature#ref53245">Solar radiation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53246"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Solar-radiation-and-temperature#ref53246">Distribution of radiant energy from the Sun</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53247"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Effects-of-the-atmosphere">Effects of the atmosphere</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53248"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Effects-of-the-atmosphere#ref53248">Average radiation budgets</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53249"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Effects-of-the-atmosphere#ref53249">Surface-energy budgets</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref53250"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Temperature">Temperature</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53251"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Temperature#ref53251">Global variation of mean temperature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53252"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Temperature#ref53252">Diurnal, seasonal, and extreme temperatures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53253"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Temperature#ref53253">Variation with height</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53254"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Circulation-currents-and-ocean-atmosphere-interaction">Circulation, currents, and ocean-atmosphere interaction</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53255"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Circulation-currents-and-ocean-atmosphere-interaction#ref53255">Short-term temperature changes</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref53256"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Atmospheric-humidity-and-precipitation">Atmospheric humidity and precipitation</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref53257"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Atmospheric-humidity-and-precipitation#ref53257">Atmospheric humidity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53258" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Humidity-indexes">Humidity indexes</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53259"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Humidity-indexes#ref53259">Absolute humidity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53260"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Humidity-indexes#ref53260">Specific humidity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53261"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Humidity-indexes#ref53261">Relative humidity</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53262"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Relation-between-temperature-and-humidity">Relation between temperature and humidity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53263" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Relation-between-temperature-and-humidity#ref53263">Humidity and climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53264"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Average-relative-humidity">Average relative humidity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53265"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Average-relative-humidity#ref53265">Evaporation and humidity</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref53266"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Precipitation">Precipitation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53267" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Precipitation#ref53267">Origin of precipitation in clouds</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53268"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Precipitation#ref53268">Cloud formation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53269"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Cloud-types">Cloud types</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53270"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Mechanisms-of-precipitation-release">Mechanisms of precipitation release</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53271"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Mechanisms-of-precipitation-release#ref53271">Showers, thunderstorms, and hail</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53272" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Types-of-precipitation">Types of precipitation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53273"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Types-of-precipitation#ref53273">Drizzle</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53274"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Types-of-precipitation#ref53274">Rain and freezing rain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53275"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Snow-and-sleet">Snow and sleet</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53276"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Snow-and-sleet#ref53276">Hail</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53277" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/World-distribution-of-precipitation">World distribution of precipitation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53278"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/World-distribution-of-precipitation#ref53278">Regional and latitudinal distribution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53279"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Amounts-and-variability">Amounts and variability</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53280" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Amounts-and-variability#ref53280">Effects of precipitation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53281"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Amounts-and-variability#ref53281">Raindrop impact and soil erosion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53282"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Amounts-and-variability#ref53282">Surface runoff</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref53283"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Atmospheric-pressure-and-wind">Atmospheric pressure and wind</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref53284"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Atmospheric-pressure-and-wind#ref53284">Atmospheric pressure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref53285"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Wind">Wind</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53286"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Wind#ref53286">Relationship of wind to pressure and governing forces</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53287" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Cyclones-and-anticyclones">Cyclones and anticyclones</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53288"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Extratropical-cyclones">Extratropical cyclones</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53289"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Anticyclones">Anticyclones</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53290"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Anticyclones#ref53290">Cyclone and anticyclone climatology</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53291" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Anticyclones#ref53291">Local winds</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53292"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Scale-classes">Scale classes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref53293"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Scale-classes#ref53293">Local wind systems</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53294"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Zonal-surface-winds">Zonal surface winds</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref53295"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Monsoons">Monsoons</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref272943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Monsoons#ref272943">Diurnal variability</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref272944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Monsoons#ref272944">Intra-annual variability</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref272945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Monsoons#ref272945">Interannual variability</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref272946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Upper-level-winds">Upper-level winds</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53301"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Upper-level-winds#ref53301">Characteristics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53302"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Propagation-and-development-of-waves">Propagation and development of waves</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53303"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Propagation-and-development-of-waves#ref53303">Relationships to surface features</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53304"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Jet-streams">Jet streams</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref53305"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Winds-in-the-stratosphere-and-mesosphere">Winds in the stratosphere and mesosphere</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref301633"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Climate-and-the-oceans">Climate and the oceans</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301634"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Climate-and-the-oceans#ref301634">The ocean surface and climate anomalies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301635"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Formation-of-tropical-cyclones">Formation of tropical cyclones</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301636"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Formation-of-tropical-cyclones#ref301636">Conditions associated with cyclone formation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301637"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Formation-of-tropical-cyclones#ref301637">Effects of tropical cyclones on ocean waters</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301638"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Formation-of-tropical-cyclones#ref301638">Influence on atmospheric circulation and rainfall</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301639"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Poleward-transfer-of-heat">Poleward transfer of heat</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301640"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/Poleward-transfer-of-heat#ref301640">Thermohaline circulation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301641"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/The-Gulf-Stream">The Gulf Stream</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301642"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/The-Gulf-Stream#ref301642">The Kuroshio</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref301643"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/El-Nino-Southern-Oscillation-and-climatic-change">El Niño/Southern Oscillation and climatic change</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref301644"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/climate-meteorology/El-Nino-Southern-Oscillation-and-climatic-change#ref301644">The El Niño 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Author of <i>Études de glaciologie en Terre...</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Fritz P. 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They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-22T00:00:00CST" >Nov 22, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/climate-meteorology/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Charles-Greeley-Abbot" topicid="579">Charles Greeley Abbot</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Frank-Hall-Knowlton" topicid="1352459">Frank Hall Knowlton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Ellsworth-Huntington" topicid="277146">Ellsworth Huntington</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Eduard-Bruckner" topicid="81985">Eduard Brückner</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/science/climate-change" topicid="121632">climate change</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/Koppen-climate-classification" topicid="322068">Köppen climate classification</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/urban-climate" topicid="619425">urban climate</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/microclimate" topicid="380278">microclimate</a></dd> <dd><a href="/science/highland-climate" topicid="265518">highland climate</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>On the Web: </dt> <dd><a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/32/10/jcli-d-18-0472.1.xml" target="_blank">American Meteorological Society - Journal of Climate - Climate Variability and Change of Mediterranean-Type Climates</a> (Nov. 22, 2024)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/climate-meteorology"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://abcnews.go.com/International/live-updates/climate-environment-updates" rel="nofollow">Climate and environment updates: Climate leaders call for major overhaul of COP summit</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 15, 2024, 12:28 AM ET (ABC News (U.S.)) </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="2" id="ref53295">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="97231" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/80567-050-B2397DBE/Monsoon-storm-Apache-Junction-Ariz.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/121560/97231"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/80567-050-B2397DBE/Monsoon-storm-Apache-Junction-Ariz.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/80567-050-B2397DBE/Monsoon-storm-Apache-Junction-Ariz.jpg?w=300" alt="monsoon" data-width="1600" data-height="1252" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/80567-050-B2397DBE/Monsoon-storm-Apache-Junction-Ariz.jpg" data-href="/media/1/121560/97231">monsoon</a><span>Monsoon storm, Apache Junction, Ariz.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Particularly strong seasonal <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/pressure" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">pressure</a> variations occur over continents, as shown in the <span class="link-blue media-overlay-link asmref" data-href="/media/1/121560/99766">January</span> and <span class="link-blue media-overlay-link asmref" data-href="/media/1/121560/99767">July</span> maps of sea-level <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/atmospheric-pressure" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">atmospheric pressure</a>. Such seasonal fluctuations, commonly called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/monsoon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">monsoons</a>, are more pronounced over land surfaces because these surfaces are subject to more significant seasonal <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/temperature" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">temperature</a> variations than are water bodies. Since land surfaces both warm and cool faster than water bodies, they often quickly modify the temperature and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="density" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/density" data-type="EB">density</a> characteristics of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/air" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">air</a> parcels passing over them.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Monsoons blow for approximately six months from the northeast and six months from the southwest, principally in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Asia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">South Asia</a> (<em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Indian-monsoon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indian monsoon</a>) and parts of Africa (<em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/West-African-monsoon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">West African monsoon</a>); however, similar conditions also occur in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Central-America" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Central America</a> (<em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/North-American-monsoon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North American monsoon</a>) and the area between <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Southeast-Asia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Australia</a> (<em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Malaysian-Australian-monsoon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Malaysian-Australian monsoon</a>). <span id="ref966290"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/summer-monsoon" class="md-crosslink ">Summer monsoons</a> have a dominant westerly component and a strong tendency to converge, rise, and produce <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/rain" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">rain</a>. <span id="ref966291"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/winter-monsoon" class="md-crosslink ">Winter monsoons</a> have a dominant easterly component and a strong tendency to diverge, subside, and cause <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/drought" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">drought</a>. Both are the result of differences in annual temperature trends over land and sea.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="3" id="ref272943"><h2 class="h3"><span id="ref966295"></span>Diurnal variability</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Landmasses in regions affected by monsoons warm up very rapidly in the afternoon hours, especially on days with cloud-free conditions; surface air temperatures between 35 and 40 °C (95 and 104 °F) are not uncommon. Under such conditions, warm air is slowly and continually steeped in the moist and cloudy <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/environment" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">environment</a> of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/monsoon" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">monsoon</a>. Consequently, over the course of a 24-hour period, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/energy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">energy</a> from this pronounced <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="diurnal" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/diurnal" data-type="EB">diurnal</a>, or daily, change in terrestrial heating is transferred to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cloud-meteorology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">cloud</a>, rain, and diurnal circulation systems. The scale of this diurnal change extends from that of coastal sea breezes to that of continent-sized processes. Satellite observations have confirmed that the effects of rapid diurnal temperature change occur at continental scales. For example, air from surrounding areas is drawn into the lower troposphere over warmer land areas of South Asia during summer afternoon hours. This buildup of afternoon heating is accompanied by the production of clouds and rain. In contrast, a reverse circulation, characterized by suppressed clouds and rain, is noted in the early morning hours.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span></section> <section data-level="3" id="ref272944"><h2 class="h3">Intra-annual variability</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Monsoon rainfall and dry spells alternate on several timescales. One such well-known timescale is found around periods of 40–50 or 30–60 days. This is called the <span id="ref966296"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Madden-Julian-oscillation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Madden-Julian oscillation</a> (MJO), named for American atmospheric scientists Roland Madden and Paul Julian in 1971. This phenomenon comes in the form of alternating cyclonic and anticyclonic regions that <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="enhance" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/enhance" data-type="MW">enhance</a> and suppress rainfall, respectively, and flow eastward along the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Equator" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Equator</a> in the Indian and Pacific oceans. The MJO has the ability to influence monsoonal circulation and rainfall by adding moisture during its cyclonic (wet) phase and reducing convection during its anticyclonic (dry) phase. At the surface in monsoon regions, both dry and wet spells result. These periods may alternate locally on the order of two or more weeks per phase.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span></section> <section data-level="3" id="ref272945"><h2 class="h3">Interannual variability</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="107941" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/102498-004-ABF2275E/Graph-influence-summer-monsoon-rainfall-El-Nino.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/121560/107941"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/102498-004-ABF2275E/Graph-influence-summer-monsoon-rainfall-El-Nino.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/102498-004-ABF2275E/Graph-influence-summer-monsoon-rainfall-El-Nino.jpg?w=300" alt="Graph depicting the influence of El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on rainfall produced by the Indian summer monsoon. During years when ENSO is active, monsoon-driven precipitation over India often declines." data-width="450" data-height="330" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/102498-004-ABF2275E/Graph-influence-summer-monsoon-rainfall-El-Nino.jpg" data-href="/media/1/121560/107941">Graph depicting the influence of El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on rainfall produced by the Indian summer monsoon. During years when ENSO is active, monsoon-driven precipitation over India often declines.</a><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The variability of monsoon-driven rainfall in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indian-Ocean" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Indian Ocean</a> and Australia appears to parallel <span id="ref966297"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/El-Nino" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">El Niño</a> episodes. During El Niño events, which occur about every two to seven years, ocean temperatures rise over the central equatorial <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Pacific Ocean</a> by about 3 °C (5.4 °F). <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Atypical" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Atypical" data-type="MW">Atypical</a> conditions characterized by increased rising air motion, convection, and rain are created in the western equatorial Pacific. At the same time, a compensating lobe of descending air, producing below-normal rainfall, appears in the vicinity of eastern Australia, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Malaysia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Malaysia</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">India</a>. The graph illustrates a well-known El Niño–monsoon rainfall relationship. Here, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/precipitation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">precipitation</a> figures from above- and below-normal monsoon rainfall periods over India are expressed as a function of years. Years <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="characterized" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/characterized" data-type="EB">characterized</a> by El Niño events are marked by darkened histogram barbs. The graph shows that many of the years with below-normal monsoon rainfall coincide with El Niño years. This illustration provides only limited guidance to seasonal forecasters since monsoon rainfall is close to normal during many El Niño and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/La-Nina" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">La Niña</a> years.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Many other factors, aside from equatorial Pacific Ocean surface temperatures, contribute to the interannual variability of monsoon rainfall. Excessive spring <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/snow-weather" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">snow</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ice" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">ice</a> cover on the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Plateau-of-Tibet" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Plateau of Tibet</a> is related to the deficient monsoon rainfall that occurs during the following summer <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/season" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">season</a> in India. Furthermore, strong evidence exists that relates excessive snow and ice cover in western Siberia to deficient Asian summer rainfall. Warmer than normal sea surface temperatures over the Indian Ocean may also contribute somewhat to above-normal rainfall in South Asia. The interplay among these many factors makes forecasting monsoon strength a challenging problem for researchers.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="107945" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/99/102499-004-1609ABAF/Graph-monsoon-rainfall-India-trend-percentages-amounts-1981.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/121560/107945"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/99/102499-004-1609ABAF/Graph-monsoon-rainfall-India-trend-percentages-amounts-1981.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/99/102499-004-1609ABAF/Graph-monsoon-rainfall-India-trend-percentages-amounts-1981.jpg?w=300" alt="Graph of monsoon rainfall in India, 1871–1981. Annual rainfall amounts are depicted as percentages departing from the 110-year average. The red line superimposed on the graph suggests a recurring trend over this time period." data-width="380" data-height="300" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/99/102499-004-1609ABAF/Graph-monsoon-rainfall-India-trend-percentages-amounts-1981.jpg" data-href="/media/1/121560/107945">Graph of monsoon rainfall in India, 1871–1981. Annual rainfall amounts are depicted as percentages departing from the 110-year average. The red line superimposed on the graph suggests a recurring trend over this time period.</a><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">A rather clear signature on the decadal variability of Indian rainfall has been documented by the Indian Weather Service. Decadal-scale variability appears in the graph as an annual running mean that combines average rainfall <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="anomalies" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anomalies" data-type="MW">anomalies</a> (totals as a departure from normal rainfall amounts) occurring at all Indian rain gauge sites. Periods of heavier-than-normal rainfall are followed by decades of somewhat less rainfall.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span><span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Joseph-Gentilli/4055">Joseph Gentilli</a></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Phillip-J-Smith/2773">Phillip J. Smith</a></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/TN-Krishnamurti/5331">T.N. 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Climate - Monsoon, Rainfall, Seasonal | Britannica