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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="zh-Hans-SG" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg/220px-VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg/330px-VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg/440px-VKG_Energia_panoraam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2333" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E6%B2%99%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="爱沙尼亚">爱沙尼亚</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viru_Keemia_Grupp%E6%8E%A7%E8%82%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viru Keemia Grupp控股（页面不存在）">Viru Keemia Grupp控股</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viru_Keemia_Grupp" class="extiw" title="en:Viru Keemia Grupp">Viru Keemia Grupp</a>）旗下电力公司 - VKG Energia。</figcaption></figure> 油页岩产业（英语：Oil shale industry）是种<a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%A1%E7%A4%A6%E6%A5%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="采矿业">开采</a>出<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9" title="油页岩">油页岩</a>之后，将之加工的产业。而油页岩是种细粒组成的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%89%E7%A9%8D%E5%B2%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="沉积岩">沉积岩</a>，含有大量<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E6%AF%8D%E8%B3%AA" title="油母质">油母质</a>（固态有机<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" title="化合物">化合物</a>），可从中提炼出液态<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E6%B0%AB%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="碳氢化合物">碳氢化合物</a>。此产业在<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E8%A5%BF" title="巴西">巴西</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B" title="中国">中国</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E6%B2%99%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="爱沙尼亚">爱沙尼亚</a>有不短的历史，而在<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="德国">德国</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="俄罗斯">俄罗斯</a>也有一定程度的发展。目前有几个国家正研究其国内<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E5%84%B2%E9%87%8F" title="油页岩储量">油页岩储量</a>，也研究能提高效率及采收率的生产工艺（参见<a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E6%B2%B9%E6%8F%90%E7%85%89" title="页岩油提炼">页岩油提炼</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a>根据一份在2005年发表的研究报告，爱沙尼亚的油页岩产量在世界的占比约为70%。<a href="#cite_note-research-2">[2]</a> 人类在17世纪初即已开采油页岩，取得其中的矿物质用于工业目的。自19世纪后期起，因其含有<a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E6%B2%B9" title="页岩油">页岩油</a>而被当作火力发电的低阶燃料使用。但除拥有大量油页岩矿藏的国家外，这种材料并未广泛用于发电。同样的，对拥有油页岩矿藏，却仰赖进口常规石油的国家，因油页岩可提炼<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%88%E6%88%90%E5%8E%9F%E6%B2%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="合成原油（页面不存在）">合成原油</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_crude" class="extiw" title="en:Synthetic crude">Synthetic crude</a>），而被视为是种可增加国内油料产量的方案。 <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="歷史">历史</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节：历史">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r85100532">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E7%94%A2%E6%A5%AD%E5%8F%B2" title="油页岩产业史">油页岩产业史</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Production_of_oil_shale.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Production_of_oil_shale.png/350px-Production_of_oil_shale.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Production_of_oil_shale.png 1.5x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>世界各国油页岩产量线图（单位：百万公吨，期间：1880年-2010年，作者：Pierre Allix及Alan K. Burnham（<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%B0%E8%B3%AA%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%A5%E5%B1%80" title="美国地质调查局">美国地质调查局</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-oilfield-3">[3]</a></figcaption></figure> 人类自远古以来就开始使用油页岩。现代工业化的开采始于1837年<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="法国">法国</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E5%9D%A6" title="欧坦">欧坦</a>油页岩矿，随后<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="英国">英国</a>、德国和其他几国跟进。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-laherrere-4">[4]</a>此产业在<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="第一次世界大战">第一次世界大战</a>之前即开始增长，原因是汽车和卡车的大规模生产以及所需的汽油短缺。位于爱沙尼亚的塔林发电厂（Tallinn Power Plant）于1924年改以油页岩为燃料，是世界上首做如此做的<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E9%9B%BB%E5%BB%A0" title="发电厂">发电厂</a>。 <a href="#cite_note-arvoots-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="第二次世界大战">第二次世界大战</a>结束后，由于有大量易于开采且价格低廉的常规石油被发现，油页岩产业随之没落。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-laherrere-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-dyni-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-fushun2-7">[7]</a>但爱沙尼亚、俄罗斯和中国的产量仍持续增长。 <a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9%E5%8D%B1%E6%A9%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="第一次石油危机">1973年石油危机</a>之后，有几国重启油页岩产业，又因<a href="/wiki/1980%E5%B9%B4%E4%BB%A3%E7%9F%B3%E6%B2%B9%E9%81%8E%E5%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="1980年代石油过剩">1980年代石油过剩</a>导致油价下跌，许多业者因之倒闭。全球油页岩产业从1990年代中期再次增长。<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="美国">美国</a>在2003年启动油页岩开发计划，在2005年引入油页岩和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E7%A0%82" title="油砂">油砂</a>矿藏所在土地的商业租赁计划。<a href="#cite_note-blm-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-anl-9">[9]</a> 截至2007年5月，爱沙尼亚仍有大规模的油页岩开采活动，产量占全世界的70%。<a href="#cite_note-bbj-10">[10]</a>爱沙尼亚的独特之处是其油页岩储量仅占<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2%E8%81%AF%E7%9B%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="欧洲联盟">欧盟</a>总储量的17%，但国内的电力中有90%系依靠燃烧油页岩所生产。该国油页岩产业雇用7,500人，约占全国就业人数的1%，占<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%A7%E7%94%9F%E7%94%A2%E6%AF%9B%E9%A1%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="国内生产毛额">国内生产毛额</a>（GDP）的4%。<a href="#cite_note-eu-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="採礦">采矿</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节：采矿">编辑</a>]</div> 开采油页岩，利用的是传统的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E5%BC%80%E9%87%87" title="地下开采">地下开采</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_soft-rock_mining" class="extiw" title="en:Underground soft-rock mining">Underground soft-rock mining</a>）或是<a href="/wiki/%E9%9C%B2%E5%A4%A9%E5%BC%80%E9%87%87" title="露天开采">露天开采</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfac_mining" class="extiw" title="en:Surfac mining">Surfac mining</a>）法。有几种开采技术，但共同目标是把油页岩矿石破碎，而后运送到发电厂或是干馏厂。最常见的露天开采方式有<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9C%B2%E5%A4%A9%E6%8E%A1%E7%A4%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="露天采矿（页面不存在）">露天采矿</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/open-pit_mining" class="extiw" title="en:open-pit mining">open-pit mining</a>）和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%A6%E5%B1%A4%E6%8E%A1%E7%A4%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="矿层采矿（页面不存在）">矿层采矿</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/strip_mining" class="extiw" title="en:strip mining">strip mining</a>）两种。地下开采的重要工艺是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%88%BF%E6%9F%B1%E5%BC%8F%E6%8E%A1%E7%A4%A6%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="房柱式采矿法（页面不存在）">房柱式采矿法</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/room-and-pillar_method" class="extiw" title="en:room-and-pillar method">room-and-pillar method</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-rand-12">[12]</a>此法采平面式开采，并刻意留下未采的部分，当作“柱子”来支撑矿顶。这类支柱可把矿坑倒塌的可能性降低。有时在<a href="/wiki/%E7%85%A4%E7%82%AD%E9%96%8B%E6%8E%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="煤炭开采">煤矿开采</a>作业中，也会采到油页岩，作为副产品。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a> 爱沙尼亚油页岩矿（Estonia Mine）是世界上最大的油页岩矿场，由<a href="/w/index.php?title=Enefit_Kaevandused&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enefit Kaevandused（页面不存在）">Enefit Kaevandused</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enefit_Kaevandused" class="extiw" title="en:Enefit Kaevandused">Enefit Kaevandused</a>）（为国营能源公司<a href="/w/index.php?title=Eesti_Energia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eesti Energia（页面不存在）">Eesti Energia</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eesti_Energia" class="extiw" title="en:Eesti Energia">Eesti Energia</a>）的子公司）经营。<a href="#cite_note-ep-13">[13]</a>爱沙尼亚在2005年已开采1,480万吨油页岩。<a href="#cite_note-eu-11">[11]</a>而该国在同年核准近2,400万吨的采矿许可，且另有2,600万吨的采矿申请。<a href="#cite_note-eu-11">[11]</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%84%9B%E6%B2%99%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E5%96%AE%E4%B8%80%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="爱沙尼亚单一国会（页面不存在）">爱沙尼亚单一国会</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riigikogu" class="extiw" title="en:Riigikogu">Riigikogu</a>）在2008年核准《2008-2015年国家油页岩利用发展计划（National Development Plan for the Use of Oil Shale 2008-2015）》，把油页岩年开采量限制最高为2,000万吨。<a href="#cite_note-nationalplan-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="發電">发电</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节：发电">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg/220px-%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg/330px-%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg/440px-%D0%AD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>位于爱沙尼亚<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E7%93%A6" title="纳瓦">纳瓦</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narva" class="extiw" title="en:Narva">Narva</a>），燃烧油页岩发电的Eesti发电厂（Eesti Power Plant）。</figcaption></figure> 油页岩像<a href="/wiki/%E7%85%A4" title="煤">煤</a>一样，可作火力发电厂燃料，用来驱动<a href="/wiki/%E8%92%B8%E6%B1%BD%E6%B8%A6%E8%BC%AA%E5%BC%95%E6%93%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="蒸汽涡轮引擎">蒸汽涡轮机</a>。截至2012年，爱沙尼亚拥有4座油页岩发电厂，发电量为2,967兆瓦 (MW)。<a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-qian3-16">[16]</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="以色列">以色列</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E" title="罗马尼亚">罗马尼亚</a>和俄罗斯也曾建有油页岩发电厂，但已关闭，或转而使用天然气等其他燃料。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-globes220311-17">[17]</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E6%97%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="约旦">约旦</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="埃及">埃及</a>已宣布要建造油页岩火力发电厂的计划，而<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%BF%E5%A4%A7" title="加拿大">加拿大</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E8%80%B3%E5%85%B6" title="土耳其">土耳其</a>计划在发电厂中采同时燃烧油页岩与煤炭的做法。 <a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-alali-18">[18]</a> 以油页岩为燃料的火力发电厂大多使用两种燃烧方式。传统的是粉状燃烧（Pulverized combustion，PC），爱沙尼亚发电厂的老机组采用；而更先进的方法是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B5%81%E5%8C%96%E5%BA%8A%E7%87%83%E7%87%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="流化床燃烧（页面不存在）">流化床燃烧</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidized_bed_combustion" class="extiw" title="en:Fluidized bed combustion">Fluidized bed combustion</a>）（Fluidized bed combustion，FBC），有德国<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E6%BB%95%E8%B1%AA%E6%A3%AE" title="多滕豪森">多滕豪森</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9C%8D%E7%88%BE%E5%B8%8C%E5%A7%86" title="霍尔希姆">霍尔希姆</a>水泥厂，以及以色列的<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mishor_Rotem%E7%99%BC%E9%9B%BB%E5%BB%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mishor Rotem发电厂（页面不存在）">Mishor Rotem发电厂</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mishor_Rotem_power_station" class="extiw" title="en:Mishor Rotem power station">Mishor Rotem power station</a>）采用。主要的FBC技术是气泡流化床燃烧 (Bubbling fluidized bed combustion，BFBC) 和循环流化床燃烧 (Circulating fluidized bed combustion ，CFBC)。<a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-jordan2-19">[19]</a> 全球有60多家发电厂采用CFBC技术，以煤和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A4%90%E7%85%A4" title="褐煤">褐煤</a>为燃料，但只有爱沙尼亚<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B4%8D%E7%93%A6%E9%9B%BB%E5%BB%A0%E7%BE%A4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="纳瓦电厂群（页面不存在）">纳瓦电厂群</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narva_PowerPlants" class="extiw" title="en:Narva PowerPlants">Narva PowerPlants</a>）的两座新机组，和中国华电集团电厂一座机组采用油页岩作燃料的CFBC技术。<a href="#cite_note-qian3-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-alali-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Estonia-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-oilshale1-21">[21]</a>最先进、最高效率的燃烧技术是加压流化床燃烧 (Pressurized fluidized-bed combustion，PFBC)。但这项技术还处于起步阶段，尚未成熟。<a href="#cite_note-agabus-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="提煉">提炼</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节：提炼">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E6%B2%B9%E6%8F%90%E7%85%89" title="页岩油提炼">页岩油提炼</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A vertical flowchart begins with an oil shale deposit and follows two major branches. Conventional ex situ processes, shown on the right, proceed through mining, crushing, and retorting. Spent shale output is noted. In situ process flows are shown in the left branch of the flowchart. The deposit may or may not be fractured; in either case, the deposit is retorted and the oil is recovered. The two major branches converge at the bottom of the chart, indicating that extraction is followed by refining, which involves thermal and chemical treatment and hydrogenation, yielding liquid fuels and useful byproducts." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/300px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/450px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/600px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png 2x" data-file-width="1352" data-file-height="883" /></a><figcaption>页岩油开采与提炼概述</figcaption></figure> 主要页岩油生产国是中国和爱沙尼亚，巴西排在第三位，而<a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="澳大利亚">澳大利亚</a>、美国、加拿大和约旦已计划建立或重启页岩油生产。<a href="#cite_note-emd-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-alali-18">[18]</a>根据<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E7%90%86%E4%BA%8B%E6%9C%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="世界能源理事会（页面不存在）">世界能源理事会</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Energy_Council" class="extiw" title="en:World Energy Council">World Energy Council</a>）的数据，2008年全球页岩油总产量为93万吨，相当于每天17,700桶（2,810立方米/天），其中中国生产375,000吨，爱沙尼亚生产355,000吨，巴西生产200吨。而在2008年，全球的常规石油和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E7%84%B6%E6%B0%A3%E5%87%9D%E6%9E%90%E6%B2%B9" title="天然气凝析油">天然气凝析油</a>的产量为39.5亿吨（即8,212万桶/天（13.056×106立方米/天）。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a> 虽然干馏油页岩的技术有很多种，但目前投入商业使用的只有四种 - <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kiviter%E5%B7%A5%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kiviter工艺（页面不存在）">Kiviter工艺</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiviter_process" class="extiw" title="en:Kiviter process">Kiviter process</a>）、<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galoter%E5%B7%A5%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Galoter工艺（页面不存在）">Galoter工艺</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galoter_process" class="extiw" title="en:Galoter process">Galoter process</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E6%92%AB%E9%A0%86%E5%B7%A5%E8%97%9D" class="mw-redirect" title="抚顺工艺">抚顺工艺</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=Petrosix&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petrosix（页面不存在）">Petrosix</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrosix" class="extiw" title="en:Petrosix">Petrosix</a>）工艺。<a href="#cite_note-qian-24">[24]</a>从油页岩中提炼页岩油的主要方法有两种：异地（ex situ）工艺和原位（<a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a>）工艺。异地工艺是油页岩经开采后，运送到干馏厂提炼。原位工艺则是把当地油页岩沉积物中的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E6%AF%8D%E8%B3%AA" title="油母质">油母质</a>转化，再透过钻井提取，如同开采普通石油一样。<a href="#cite_note-AICHE-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="其他工業用途">其他工业用途</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节：其他工业用途">编辑</a>]</div> 爱沙尼亚的Kunda Nordic Cement（水泥厂）、德国的霍尔希姆水泥厂和中国的抚顺水泥厂用油页岩于水泥生产。<a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-koel-26">[26]</a>油页岩还可用来生产不同的化学产品、建筑材料和医药产品，例如<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8F%B8%E9%85%B8%E9%8A%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="烟酸铵（页面不存在）">烟酸铵</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ammonium_bituminosulfonate" class="extiw" title="en:ammonium bituminosulfonate">ammonium bituminosulfonate</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-eu-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-alali-18">[18]</a>但用来生产这类产品的情况仍非常少，仅处于试验阶段。 <a href="#cite_note-wec-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-dyni-6">[6]</a> 一些油页岩经常可产出<a href="/wiki/%E7%A1%AB" title="硫">硫</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A8" title="氨">氨</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E9%8B%81" class="mw-redirect" title="氧化铝">氧化铝</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E9%85%B8%E9%88%89" class="mw-redirect" title="碳酸钠">碳酸钠</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%98%87%E6%89%93%E7%9F%B3" title="苏打石">苏打石</a>之类的副产品。一些油页岩还可产出<a href="/wiki/%E9%88%BE" title="铀">铀</a>和其他稀有化学元素。在1946年至1952年期间，位于爱沙尼亚<a href="/wiki/%E9%8C%AB%E6%8B%89%E9%82%81%E5%9F%83" title="锡拉迈埃">锡拉迈埃</a>的海洋变种<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%91%E7%89%87%E8%A1%A3%E5%B1%9E" title="云片衣属">云片衣属</a>页岩被用来提炼铀，而在1950年至1989年期间，瑞典从明矾页岩提炼铀。<a href="#cite_note-dyni-6">[6]</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E6%B0%94" title="油页岩气">油页岩气</a>也可作为天然气的替代品。爱沙尼亚生产的油页岩气在二次世界大战后供应列宁格勒（现称<a href="/wiki/%E8%81%96%E5%BD%BC%E5%BE%97%E5%A0%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="圣彼得堡">圣彼得堡</a>）和爱沙尼亚北部的城市使用。 <a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>但依目前的天然气价格水准，生产油页岩气无法产生经济利益。<a href="#cite_note-ttu-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-proceedings-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="經濟學">经济学</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节：经济学">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8" title="油页岩经济学">油页岩经济学</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WTI_price_96_09.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graph of NYMEX light-sweet crude oil price changes from 1996 to 2009 (not adjusted for inflation). In 1996, the price was about $20 per barrel. Since then, the prices saw a sharp rise, peaking at over $140 per barrel in 2008. It dropped to about $70 per barrel in mid 2009." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/WTI_price_96_09.PNG/250px-WTI_price_96_09.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/WTI_price_96_09.PNG/375px-WTI_price_96_09.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/WTI_price_96_09.PNG/500px-WTI_price_96_09.PNG 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%90%E7%B4%84%E5%95%86%E5%93%81%E4%BA%A4%E6%98%93%E6%89%80" class="mw-redirect" title="纽约商品交易所">纽约商品交易所</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BD%8E%E7%A1%AB%E5%8E%9F%E6%B2%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="低硫原油（页面不存在）">低硫原油</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sweet_crude_oil" class="extiw" title="en:sweet crude oil">sweet crude oil</a>）1996年到2009年价格走势图（未做通膨价格调整）。</figcaption></figure> 目前对经济上可采的油页岩数量尚属未知之数。<a href="#cite_note-weo2010-30">[30]</a>只有当特定地区的页岩油生产成本低于常规原油或其他替代品之时，开发油页岩矿才有成功的机会。<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>根据<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E5%BA%AB" title="智库">智库</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B0%E5%BE%B7%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8" title="兰德公司">兰德公司</a>所做的调查，在一个美国假设的地上干馏综合组合（包括矿山、干馏厂、升级厂、配套公用设施和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BB%A2%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="废油页岩（页面不存在）">废油页岩</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/spent_oil_shale" class="extiw" title="en:spent oil shale">spent oil shale</a>）回收），生产页岩油的成本（依据2005年的美金价值作调整）会落在每桶70-95美元（440-600美元/立方米）。假设产量在商业生产开始后逐渐增加，在达到10亿桶（160×106立方米）的里程碑后，成本将进一步下降至每桶30-40美元（190-250美元/立方米）。<a href="#cite_note-eu-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-rand-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E6%AE%BC%E7%89%8C" title="壳牌">壳牌</a>公司在2005年宣布其<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AE%BC%E7%89%8C%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8D%E9%96%8B%E6%8E%A1%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E6%B2%B9%E5%B7%A5%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="壳牌原位开采页岩油工艺（页面不存在）">原位开采工艺</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_in_situ_conversion_process" class="extiw" title="en:Shell in situ conversion process">Shell in situ conversion process</a>）所产，在每桶30美元以上的市场价格（190美元/立方米）即可获利。<a href="#cite_note-rockymountainnews-32">[32]</a> 为提高干馏油页岩的效率，并由此提高页岩油生产量的可行性，研究人员提出并测试过几种共同<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%AD%E8%A3%82%E8%A7%A3" title="热裂解">热裂解</a>工艺，另加入其他材料，如<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8" title="生物质">生物质</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A5%E7%82%AD" title="泥炭">泥炭</a>、废<a href="/wiki/%E7%80%9D%E9%9D%92" title="沥青">沥青</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%A1%E8%86%A0" title="橡胶">橡胶</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%91%E6%96%99" title="塑料">塑料</a>废料。<a href="#cite_note-co-pyrolisis-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-co-pyrolisis2-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-veski1-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morocco-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-turkey2-37">[37]</a>一些改进的技术，建议把流化床干馏炉与循环流化床炉结合，用来燃烧热裂解产生的副产品（碳焦和油页岩气），而提高产油率、增加产量并减少干馏所需时间。<a href="#cite_note-siirde-38">[38]</a> 在1972年石油信息杂志 (Petrole Informations,ISSN 0755-561X<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>）的报导，页岩油的生产与煤炭的液化相比，处于不利地位。文章指出，煤炭液化成本更低，可产出更多的液体燃料，对环境的影响更小。文章提出每吨煤可转化出650升（170美制加仑；140英制加仑）油品，而每吨油页岩可产出出150升（40美制加仑）的页岩油，因此该等到煤炭耗尽之后才开采油页岩。<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> 开采可行性的一个关键指标，是油页岩产生的能量与开采和加工过程中所需的能量的比率，这种比率称为“<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E6%8A%95%E8%B3%87%E5%9B%9E%E5%A0%B1%E7%8E%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="能源投资回报率（页面不存在）">能源投资回报率</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_return_on_investment" class="extiw" title="en:Energy return on investment">Energy return on investment</a>）”(EROEI)。当EROEI为2（即2:1比率）时，表示要生产2桶石油，必须燃烧/消耗1桶石油的等量能量。在1984年所做的一项研究，估计各种已知油页岩矿藏的EROEI落在0.7–13.3之间。<a href="#cite_note-science2-41">[41]</a>但已知的油页岩开采项目声称EROEI在3到10之间。根据<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E7%BD%B2" title="国际能源署">国际能源署</a>（IEA）发表的《2010年<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E5%B1%95%E6%9C%9B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="世界能源展望（页面不存在）">世界能源展望</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Energy_Outlook" class="extiw" title="en:World Energy Outlook">World Energy Outlook</a>）》，非原位加工的EROEI通常为4至5，而原位加工甚至可能低至2。根据IEA，大部分的能源可利用燃烧废油页岩或是油页岩气来达成。<a href="#cite_note-laherrere-4">[4]</a> 干馏油页岩过程中的大量用水也造成额外的经济考虑：这会在<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B0%B4%E8%B3%87%E6%BA%90%E7%A8%80%E7%BC%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="水资源稀缺（页面不存在）">水资源稀缺</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water_scarcity" class="extiw" title="en:water scarcity">water scarcity</a>）地区成为问题。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="環境考慮">环境考虑</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=7" title="编辑章节：环境考虑">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85100532"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E7%94%A2%E6%A5%AD%E5%B0%8D%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%B1%E9%9F%BF" title="油页岩产业对环境的影响">油页岩产业对环境的影响</a></div> 开采油页岩会差生许多环境影响，露天开采比地下开采更为明显。<a href="#cite_note-mittal-42">[42]</a>包括埋在地下材料突然快速暴露，和随后<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96" title="氧化">氧化</a>引起的酸排放，把包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%9E" title="汞">汞</a>在内的金属<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>引入<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%A1%A8%E6%B0%B4" title="地表水">地表水</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E6%B0%B4" title="地下水">地下水</a>，连同<a href="/wiki/%E4%BE%B5%E8%9A%80%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="侵蚀作用">侵蚀作用</a>加剧，含硫气体排放，以及加工、运输和支持活动产生的<a href="/wiki/%E6%87%B8%E6%B5%AE%E5%BE%AE%E7%B2%92" class="mw-redirect" title="悬浮微粒">悬浮微粒</a>，而造成危害环境的污染。<a href="#cite_note-Burnham-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-carlson-45">[45]</a> <a href="#cite_note-openpitimpacts-46">[46]</a>在2002年，爱沙尼亚约97%的空气污染、86%的总废弃物和23%的水污染来自电力行业，而这个行业主要使用页岩油取得能源。<a href="#cite_note-raukas-47">[47]</a> 油页岩开采会破坏矿区土地和生态系统的生物和娱乐价值。燃烧和热处理会产生废料。此外，油页岩加工和燃烧产生的大气排放物包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%AB%E5%AE%A4%E6%B0%A3%E9%AB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="温室气体">温室气体</a> - <a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E7%A2%B3" title="二氧化碳">二氧化碳</a>。环保主义者反对油页岩的生产和使用，因为它比传统的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3%E7%87%83%E6%96%99" title="化石燃料">化石燃料</a>产生更多的温室气体。<a href="#cite_note-nrdc-48">[48]</a>实验性原位转化过程和<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E6%8D%95%E9%9B%86%E4%B8%8E%E5%B0%81%E5%AD%98" title="碳捕集与封存">碳捕集与封存</a>技术可能在未来可将其中一些担忧降低，但同时又会产生其他问题，包括地下水污染。<a href="#cite_note-BartisBoston-49">[49]</a>通常与油页岩生产相关的水污染物包括氧和氮<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%9C%E7%92%B0%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="杂环化合物">杂环化合物</a>。常见检测到的案例包含有<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%B9%E5%95%89" title="喹啉">喹啉</a>衍生物、<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%A1%E5%95%B6" title="吡啶">吡啶</a>和吡啶的各种烷基<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E7%B3%BB%E7%89%A9" title="同系物">同系物</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B2%E5%9F%BA%E5%90%A1%E5%95%B6" class="mw-disambig" title="甲基吡啶">甲基吡啶</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%8C%E7%94%B2%E5%9F%BA%E5%90%A1%E5%95%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="二甲基吡啶（页面不存在）">二甲基吡啶</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lutidine" class="extiw" title="en:lutidine">lutidine</a>））。<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> 水资源是干旱地区的敏感问题，例如美国西部和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97" title="以色列">以色列</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A7%E8%93%8B%E5%A4%AB_(%E4%BB%A5%E8%89%B2%E5%88%97)" title="内盖夫 (以色列)">内盖夫</a>沙漠，在水资源稀缺的情况下仍计划扩大油页岩开采。<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>根据不同技术，地上干馏每生产1桶页岩油需用到1到5桶水。<a href="#cite_note-rand-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-BLM2008-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-water-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Al-Ayed-54">[54]</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%A7%E6%94%BF%E9%83%A8%E5%9C%9F%E5%9C%B0%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E5%B1%80" title="美国内政部土地管理局">美国内政部土地管理局</a>发布的2008年<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E5%BD%B1%E9%9F%BF%E8%81%B2%E6%98%8E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="环境影响声明（页面不存在）">环境影响声明</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_statement" class="extiw" title="en:Environmental impact statement">Environmental impact statement</a>）指出，露天采矿和干馏作业每产生1短吨（0.91吨）油页岩，会产生2至10美制加仑（7.6至37.9升；1.7至8.3英制加仑）的污水。<a href="#cite_note-BLM2008-52">[52]</a>据一项估计，原位工艺所用的水量约为旧法的10分之1。<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> 包括<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%A0%E8%89%B2%E5%92%8C%E5%B9%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="绿色和平">绿色和平</a>组织成员在内的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%AF%E5%A2%83%E4%BF%9D%E6%8A%A4%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="环境保护主义">环境保护主义</a>组织针对油页岩产业所发起的强烈抗议活动。造成<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%86%E5%A3%AB%E8%98%AD%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="昆士兰能源公司（页面不存在）">昆士兰能源公司</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Energy_Resources" class="extiw" title="en:Queensland Energy Resources">Queensland Energy Resources</a>）于2004年把拟议中的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%AF%E5%9C%96%E7%88%BE%E7%89%B9%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E9%A0%85%E7%9B%AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="斯图尔特油页岩项目（页面不存在）">斯图尔特油页岩项目</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Oil_Shale_Project" class="extiw" title="en:Stuart Oil Shale Project">Stuart Oil Shale Project</a>）搁置。<a href="#cite_note-Burnham-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參見">参见</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=8" title="编辑章节：参见">编辑</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E5%84%B2%E9%87%8F" title="油页岩储量">油页岩储量</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%B2%B9%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E7%94%A2%E6%A5%AD%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="美国油页岩产业历史（页面不存在）">美国油页岩产业历史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_oil_shale_industry_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="en:History of the oil shale industry in the United States">History of the oil shale industry in the United States</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%81%E5%B2%A9%E6%B2%B9%E6%8F%90%E7%85%89" title="页岩油提炼">页岩油提炼</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參考文獻">参考文献</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&action=edit&section=9" title="编辑章节：参考文献">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-wec-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-0">1.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-1">1.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-2">1.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-3">1.3</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-4">1.4</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-5">1.5</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_1-6">1.6</a> <a 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Sydney. 2002-05-02 [2009-04-10]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230310015733/http://www.smedg.org.au/miningc/SMCMay02text.pdf">存档</a> (PDF)于2023-03-10）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%B2%B9%E9%A1%B5%E5%B2%A9%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A&rft.aufirst=Campbell&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.btitle=Greenpeace+vs+the+future+of+Australian+oil+shale&rft.date=2002-05-02&rft.genre=conference&rft.place=Sydney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smedg.org.au%2Fminingc%2FSMCMay02text.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A%E6%A5%AD" title="资讯业">讯信技术</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BB%9F%E9%AB%94%E6%A5%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="软件业（页面不存在）">软件</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_industry" class="extiw" title="en:Software industry">Software industry</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%A8%E7%B7%9A%E6%9C%8D%E5%8B%99%E7%87%9F%E9%81%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="在线服务营运（页面不存在）">在线服务</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_service_provider" class="extiw" title="en:Online service provider">Online service provider</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E8%9E%8D%E6%9C%8D%E5%8B%99" title="金融服务">金融</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E9%9A%AA" title="保险">保险</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%85%E6%B8%B8" title="旅游">旅游和接待</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%85%92%E5%BA%97%E6%A5%AD" 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