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aria-controls="toc-In_South_Asia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In South Asia subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_South_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nepal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nepal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Nepal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nepal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pakistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pakistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Pakistan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pakistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sri_Lanka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sri_Lanka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Sri Lanka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sri_Lanka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_South_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_South_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Outside South Asia</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Outside_South_Asia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Outside South Asia subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Outside_South_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Southeast Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Indonesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Philippines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>East Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China_and_Mongolia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China_and_Mongolia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>China and Mongolia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China_and_Mongolia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tibet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tibet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Tibet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tibet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>North Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>West Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kurdistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kurdistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Kurdistan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kurdistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Yazidis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yazidis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1.1</span> <span>Yazidis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yazidis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Iran</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yemen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yemen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Yemen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yemen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-West_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>West Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Central Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Horn_of_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horn_of_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Horn of Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horn_of_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basque_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basque_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Basque region</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basque_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1</span> <span>Latin America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.2</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racial_casteism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_casteism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Racial casteism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_casteism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caste_and_higher_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caste_and_higher_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Caste and higher education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caste_and_higher_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caste_in_sociology_and_entomology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caste_in_sociology_and_entomology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Caste in sociology and entomology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caste_in_sociology_and_entomology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Caste</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 72 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-72" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">72 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaste" title="Kaste – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kaste" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%81_%D8%A5%D8%AB%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="طوائف إثنية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طوائف إثنية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta" title="Casta – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Casta" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta_sistemi" title="Kasta sistemi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kasta sistemi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3" title="জাতবর্ণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জাতবর্ণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Каста – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каста" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Каста – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Каста" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta" title="Casta – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Casta" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta" title="Kasta – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kasta" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaste" title="Kaste – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kaste" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaste" title="Kaste – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kaste" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Κάστα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κάστα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta" title="Casta – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Casta" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasto" title="Kasto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kasto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta" title="Kasta – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kasta" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA_(%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%DB%8C)" title="کاست (نظام اجتماعی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کاست (نظام اجتماعی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaat" title="Jaat – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Jaat" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste" title="Caste – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Caste" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceast" title="Ceast – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ceast" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A6" title="જાતિવાદ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="જાતિવાદ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste" title="Caste – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="Caste" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8" title="카스트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="카스트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Կաստաներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կաստաներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="जाति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जाति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta" title="Kasta – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kasta" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasto" title="Kasto – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kasto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta" title="Kasta – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kasta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta" title="Casta – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Casta" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%94" title="קאסטה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קאסטה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಜಾತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜಾತಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Касталар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Касталар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Каста – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Каста" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribus_(India)" title="Tribus (India) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Tribus (India)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta" title="Kasta – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kasta" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kast" title="Kast – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kast" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta" title="Kasta – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kasta" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaszt" title="Kaszt – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kaszt" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF_(%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%82)" title="ജാതി (സമൂഹം) – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജാതി (സമൂഹം)" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4" title="जात – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जात" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_kasta" title="Sistem kasta – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sistem kasta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastenstelsel" title="Kastenstelsel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kastenstelsel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88" title="カースト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="カースト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaste" title="Kaste – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kaste" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaste" title="Kaste – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kaste" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta" title="Casta – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Casta" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta" title="Kasta – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kasta" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4" title="ਜਾਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜਾਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasasa%27er_no_%27orip" title="Kasasa'er no 'orip – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Kasasa'er no 'orip" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangcah</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ذات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ذات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta" title="Kasta – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kasta" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta" title="Casta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Casta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast%C4%83" title="Castă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Castă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Каста – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Каста" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱡᱟᱹᱛᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱡᱟᱹᱛᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste" title="Caste – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Caste" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste" title="Caste – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Caste" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ذات پات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ذات پات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta" title="Kasta – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kasta" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Каста – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Каста" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasta" title="Kasta – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kasta" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastilaitos" title="Kastilaitos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kastilaitos" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastv%C3%A4sen" title="Kastväsen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kastväsen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF" title="சாதி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சாதி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%82" title="కులం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కులం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1" title="วรรณะทางสังคม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วรรณะทางสังคม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kast_sistemi" title="Kast sistemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kast sistemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Каста – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Каста" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ذات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ذات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A2n_bi%E1%BB%87t_%C4%91%E1%BA%B3ng_c%E1%BA%A5p" title="Phân biệt đẳng cấp – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phân biệt đẳng cấp" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A8%AE%E5%A7%93" title="種姓 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="種姓" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A8%AE%E5%A7%93" title="種姓 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="種姓" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%8D%E5%A7%93%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="种姓制度 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="种姓制度" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q484416#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Social stratification conferring status</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Caste_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Caste (disambiguation)">Caste (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Caste system" redirects here. For the system in India, see <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">Caste system in India</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Basor_Dalit_caste.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Basor_Dalit_caste.jpg/220px-Basor_Dalit_caste.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Basor_Dalit_caste.jpg/330px-Basor_Dalit_caste.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Basor_Dalit_caste.jpg/440px-Basor_Dalit_caste.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/Basor" title="Basor">Basor</a></i> weaving bamboo baskets in a 1916 book. The <i>Basor</i> are a <a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Caste" class="mw-redirect" title="Scheduled Caste">Scheduled Caste</a> found in the state of <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a> in India.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;"><i>Part of <a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">a series</a> on</i></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff; color:var(--color-base,#202122);"><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">legal anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Status and rank</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascribed_status" title="Ascribed status">Ascribed status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achieved_status" title="Achieved status">Achieved status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Social status</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_grade" title="Age grade">Age grade</a>/<a href="/wiki/Age_set" title="Age set">Age set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leveling_mechanism" title="Leveling mechanism">Leveling mechanism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_man_(anthropology)" title="Big man (anthropology)">Big man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_(administrative_title)" title="Elder (administrative title)">Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantribal_sodalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantribal sodalities">Pantribal sodalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">Chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramount_chief" title="Paramount chief">Paramount chief</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Polities</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">Band society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmentary_lineage" title="Segmentary lineage">Segmentary lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiefdom" title="Chiefdom">Chiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petty_kingdom" title="Petty kingdom">Petty kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_society" title="House society">House society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_state" title="Theatre state">Theatre state</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Law and custom</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customary law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_culture" title="Legal culture">Legal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_warfare" title="Ritual warfare">Ritual warfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Acephelous</dt> <dd></dd> <dd>Societies without hierarchical leaders</dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/African_Political_Systems" title="African Political Systems">African Political Systems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moka_exchange" title="Moka exchange">Papuan Big man system</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Not_Being_Governed" title="The Art of Not Being Governed">The Art of Not Being Governed</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt>State</dt> <dd></dd> <dd>Non-western state systems</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negara:_The_Theatre_State_in_Nineteenth-Century_Bali" title="Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali">Negara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_(Southeast_Asian_political_model)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandala (Southeast Asian political model)">Mandala</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Technology,_Tradition,_and_the_State_in_Africa" title="Technology, Tradition, and the State in Africa">Technology, Tradition,<br /> and the State in Africa</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Legal systems</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapu_(Hawaiian_culture)" title="Kapu (Hawaiian culture)">Kapu</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Colonialism and resistance</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europe_and_the_People_Without_History" title="Europe and the People Without History">Europe and the People <br />Without History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult" title="Cargo cult">Cargo cult</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E._Adamson_Hoebel" title="E. Adamson Hoebel">E. Adamson Hoebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Balandier" title="Georges Balandier">Georges Balandier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._G._Bailey" title="F. G. Bailey">F. G. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Barth" title="Fredrik Barth">Fredrik Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Boissevain" title="Jeremy Boissevain">Jeremy Boissevain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Carneiro" title="Robert L. Carneiro">Robert L. Carneiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_J._M._Claessen" title="Henri J. M. Claessen">Henri J. M. Claessen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Comaroff" title="Jean Comaroff">Jean Comaroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Comaroff" title="John Comaroff">John Comaroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Clastres" title="Pierre Clastres">Pierre Clastres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._E._Evans-Pritchard" title="E. E. Evans-Pritchard">E. E. Evans-Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Fikentscher" title="Wolfgang Fikentscher">Wolfgang Fikentscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meyer_Fortes" title="Meyer Fortes">Meyer Fortes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_Fried" title="Morton Fried">Morton Fried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Denis_Fustel_de_Coulanges" title="Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges">Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gellner" title="Ernest Gellner">Ernest Gellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesley_Gill" title="Lesley Gill">Lesley Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulf_Hannerz" title="Ulf Hannerz">Ulf Hannerz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Blom_Hansen" title="Thomas Blom Hansen">Thomas Blom Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_C._Lewellen" title="Ted C. Lewellen">Ted C. Lewellen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Linton" title="Ralph Linton">Ralph Linton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Mertz" title="Elizabeth Mertz">Elizabeth Mertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Mintz" title="Sidney Mintz">Sidney Mintz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_Falk_Moore" title="Sally Falk Moore">Sally Falk Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Needham" title="Rodney Needham">Rodney Needham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Scott" title="James C. Scott">James C. Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elman_Service" title="Elman Service">Elman Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aidan_Southall" title="Aidan Southall">Aidan Southall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spencer" title="Jonathan Spencer">Jonathan Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjorn_Thomassen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjorn Thomassen">Bjorn Thomassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_R._White" title="Douglas R. White">Douglas R. White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumscription_theory" title="Circumscription theory">Circumscription theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left%E2%80%93right_paradigm" title="Left–right paradigm">Left–right paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_formation" title="State formation">State formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy in anthropology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Network_Analysis_and_Ethnographic_Problems" title="Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems">Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Journals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Political_and_Legal_Anthropology_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Political and Legal Anthropology Review">Political and Legal Anthropology Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Legal_Anthropology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Legal Anthropology (page does not exist)">Journal of Legal Anthropology</a></i></li> <li><i>Journal of Law and Society</i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li>Caste</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Nationality or citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">mental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">in poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgroup_favoritism" title="Outgroup favoritism">Outgroup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_supremacism" title="Autistic supremacism">Autistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">Human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_supremacy" title="Jewish supremacy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_in_China" title="Antireligious campaigns in China">Campaigns in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Australian_sentiment" title="Anti-Australian sentiment">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_racism" title="Anti-Black racism">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Han_sentiment" title="Anti-Han sentiment">Han people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Yiddish_sentiment" title="Anti-Yiddish sentiment">Anti-Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Taiwanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Taiwanese sentiment">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Tibetan_sentiment" title="Anti-Tibetan sentiment">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-white_racism" title="Anti-white racism">White people</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_bias" title="Algorithmic bias">Algorithmic bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">Sexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_medical_interventions" title="Intersex medical interventions">Intersex medical interventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence against LGBTQ people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Violence against transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_LGBTQ%2B_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination against LGBTQ+ people">LGBTQ+</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">Linguicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Braves_tomahawk_chop_and_name_controversy" title="Atlanta Braves tomahawk chop and name controversy">Braves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks_name_and_logo_controversy" title="Chicago Blackhawks name and logo controversy">Blackhawks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_City_Chiefs_name_controversy" title="Kansas City Chiefs name controversy">Chiefs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_prosecution" title="Selective prosecution">Selective prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentencing_disparity" title="Sentencing disparity">Sentencing disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untermensch" title="Untermensch">Untermensch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_wage_discrimination" title="Algorithmic wage discrimination">Algorithmic wage discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breadwinner_model" title="Breadwinner model">Breadwinner model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protecting_Women%27s_Private_Spaces_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act">Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit_study" title="Audit study">Audit study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiia" title="Korenizatsiia">Korenizatsiia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization of homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_sexism" title="Reverse sexism">Reverse sexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>caste</b> is a fixed <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social group</a> into which an individual is born within a particular system of <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a>: a <b>caste system</b>. Within such a system, individuals are expected to marry exclusively within the same caste (<a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a>), follow lifestyles often linked to a particular occupation, hold a ritual status observed within a hierarchy, and interact with others based on cultural notions of <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">exclusion</a>, with certain castes considered as either more pure or more polluted than others.<sup id="cite_ref-caste-lead_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caste-lead-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScottMarshall200566_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScottMarshall200566-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinthrop199127–30_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinthrop199127–30-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "caste" is also applied to morphological groupings in <a href="/wiki/Eusocial" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusocial">eusocial</a> insects such as <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Termites#caste" class="mw-redirect" title="Termites">termites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste is the division of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> society into rigid social groups. Its roots lie in South Asia's ancient history and it still exists;<sup id="cite_ref-caste-lead_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caste-lead-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBéteille200266_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBéteille200266-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the economic significance of the <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">caste system in India</a> seems to be declining as a result of urbanisation and affirmative action programs. A subject of much scholarship by sociologists and anthropologists, the Hindu caste system is sometimes used as an analogical basis for the study of caste-like social divisions existing outside Hinduism and India. In colonial <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish America</a>, mixed-race <i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">castas</a></i> were a category within the Hispanic sector but the social order was otherwise fluid. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The English word <i>caste</i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span>) derives from the Spanish and Portuguese <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">casta</a></i></span>, which, according to the <a href="/wiki/John_Minsheu" title="John Minsheu">John Minsheu</a>'s Spanish dictionary (1569), means "race, lineage, tribe or breed".<sup id="cite_ref-oed-caste_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed-caste-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Portuguese and Spanish word "casta" originated in <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> "kasts" - "group of animals". The word entered the languages of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> with the sense "type of animal," and soon developed into "race of men" and later "class, condition of men".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Spanish colonised the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, they used the word to mean a 'clan or lineage'. It was, however, the Portuguese, the first Europeans to reach India by sea in 1498, to first employ <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">casta</i></span> in the primary modern sense of the English word 'caste' when they applied it to the thousands of endogamous, hereditary Indian social groups they encountered.<sup id="cite_ref-oed-caste_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed-caste-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pitt-rivers_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pitt-rivers-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of the spelling <i>caste</i>, with this latter meaning, is first attested in English in 1613.<sup id="cite_ref-oed-caste_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed-caste-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Latin American context, the term <i>caste</i> is sometimes used to describe the <i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">casta</a></i> system of racial classification, based on whether a person was of pure European, Indigenous or African descent, or some mix thereof, with the different groups being placed in a racial hierarchy; however, despite the etymological connection between the Latin American <i>casta</i> system and South Asian caste systems (the former giving its name to the latter), it is controversial to what extent the two phenomena are really comparable.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_South_Asia">In South Asia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: In South Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">Caste system in India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_among_South_Asian_Muslims" title="Caste system among South Asian Muslims">Caste system among South Asian Muslims</a></div> <p>Modern India's caste system is based on the superimposition of an old four-fold theoretical classification called <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varna</a> on the social ethnic grouping called <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti" title="Jāti">jāti</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> conceptualised a society as consisting of four types of <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varnas</a>, or categories: <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudra</a>, according to the nature of the work of its members. Varna was not an inherited category and the occupation determined the varna. However, a person's <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti" title="Jāti">Jati</a> is determined at birth and makes them take up that Jati's occupation; members could and did change their occupation based on personal strengths as well as economic, social and political factors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A 2016 study based on the <a href="/wiki/DNA_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA analysis">DNA analysis</a> of unrelated Indians determined that <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamous</a> jatis originated during the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist" style="width:20em; border: 4px double #D4AF37;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">This article is part of a series on the</span></b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #FF671F; border: 1px double #8C959A;"><small><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Politics of India</span></a></small></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_India.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Emblem_of_India.svg/80px-Emblem_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Emblem_of_India.svg/120px-Emblem_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Emblem_of_India.svg/160px-Emblem_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="933" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Constitution</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amendment_of_the_Constitution_of_India" title="Amendment of the Constitution of India">Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India" title="Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India">Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and<br /> Fundamental Duties of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_India" title="Human rights in India">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_India" title="Judicial review in India">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_India" title="Taxation in India">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Civil_Code" title="Uniform Civil Code">Uniform Civil Code</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Government</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">President of India</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Droupadi_Murmu" title="Droupadi Murmu">Droupadi Murmu</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of India">15th</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_India" title="Vice President of India">Vice President of India</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jagdeep_Dhankhar" title="Jagdeep Dhankhar">Jagdeep Dhankhar</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Vice_Presidents_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Vice Presidents of India">14th</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">Prime Minister of India</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of India">14th</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Secretary_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet Secretary of India">Cabinet secretary</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rajiv_Gauba" title="Rajiv Gauba">Rajiv Gauba</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_government_ministries_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Union government ministries of India">Ministries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_Council_of_Ministers" title="Union Council of Ministers">Ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agencies_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of agencies of the government of India">Departments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_to_the_Government_of_India" title="Secretary to the Government of India">Secretaries</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_India" title="Parliament of India"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Parliament</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Lok_Sabha" title="Lok Sabha">Lok Sabha</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_18th_Lok_Sabha" title="List of members of the 18th Lok Sabha">18th</a>)</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Lok_Sabha" title="Speaker of the Lok Sabha">Speaker</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_Birla" title="Om Birla">Om Birla</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Speaker_of_the_Lok_Sabha" title="Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha">Deputy Speaker</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><i>Vacant</i></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_(Lok_Sabha)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader of the House (Lok Sabha)">Leader of the House</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">BJP</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_in_Lok_Sabha" title="Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha">Leader of the Opposition</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rahul_Gandhi" title="Rahul Gandhi">Rahul Gandhi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">INC</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Secretary_General_of_the_Lok_Sabha" title="Secretary General of the Lok Sabha">Secretary General</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li>Utpal Kumar Singh</li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Rajya_Sabha" title="Rajya Sabha">Rajya Sabha</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_Rajya_Sabha" title="List of current members of the Rajya Sabha">Members</a>)</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_India" title="Vice President of India">Chairman</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jagdeep_Dhankhar" title="Jagdeep Dhankhar">Jagdeep Dhankhar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Chairperson_of_the_Rajya_Sabha" title="Deputy Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha">Deputy Speaker</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harivansh_Narayan_Singh" title="Harivansh Narayan Singh">Harivansh Narayan Singh</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_(Rajya_Sabha)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader of the House (Rajya Sabha)">Leader of the House</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jagat_Prakash_Nadda" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagat Prakash Nadda">Jagat Prakash Nadda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">BJP</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_in_Rajya_Sabha" title="Leader of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha">Leader of the Opposition</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mallikarjun_Kharge" title="Mallikarjun Kharge">Mallikarjun Kharge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">INC</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Secretary_General_of_the_Rajya_Sabha" title="Secretary General of the Rajya Sabha">Secretary General</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pramod_Chandra_Mody" title="Pramod Chandra Mody">Pramod Chandra Mody</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Parliamentary_Affairs_(India)" title="Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs (India)">Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Parliamentary_Affairs_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of Parliamentary Affairs (India)">Cabinet Minister</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiren_Rijiju" title="Kiren Rijiju">Kiren Rijiju</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_State_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of State (India)">Minister of State</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Ram_Meghwal" title="Arjun Ram Meghwal">Arjun Ram Meghwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Murugan" title="L. Murugan">L. Murugan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_India" title="Judiciary of India"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Law and judiciary</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">Law of India</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Indian_criminal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian criminal law">Indian criminal law</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Nyaya_Sanhita" title="Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita">Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Nagarik_Suraksha_Sanhita" title="Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita">Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Sakshya_Act,_2023" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharatiya Sakshya Act, 2023">Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Civil_Procedure_(India)" title="Code of Civil Procedure (India)">Code of Civil Procedure</a></b></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court of India</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chief_Justices_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Chief Justices of India">50th</a>)</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhananjaya_Y._Chandrachud" title="Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud">Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sitting_judges_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_India" title="List of sitting judges of the Supreme Court of India">Judges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Bar_Association_(India)" title="Supreme Court Bar Association (India)">Bar Association</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Council_of_India" title="Bar Council of India">Bar Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_Courts_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="District Courts of India">District Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_courts_in_India" title="List of district courts in India">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gram_Nyayalayas_Act,_2008" title="Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008">Gram Nyayalaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Courts_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="High Courts of India">High Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_chief_justices" title="List of current Indian chief justices">Chief Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sitting_judges_of_the_high_courts_of_India" title="List of sitting judges of the high courts of India">Judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lok_Adalat" title="Lok Adalat">Lok Adalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya_Panchayat" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyaya Panchayat">Nyaya Panchayat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendency_of_court_cases_in_India" title="Pendency of court cases in India">Pendency of court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunals_in_India" title="Tribunals in India">Other tribunals</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_(India)" title="Ministry of Law and Justice (India)">Ministry of Law and Justice</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Law_and_Justice" title="Minister of Law and Justice">Minister</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Ram_Meghwal" title="Arjun Ram Meghwal">Arjun Ram Meghwal</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Attorney-General_for_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Attorney-General for India">Attorney-General</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R._Venkataramani" title="R. Venkataramani">R. Venkataramani</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_India" title="Solicitor General of India">Solicitor General</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tushar_Mehta" title="Tushar Mehta">Tushar Mehta</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Additional_Solicitor_General_of_India" title="Additional Solicitor General of India">Additional Solicitor General</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_Commission_of_India" title="Law Commission of India">Law Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Judicial_Appointments_Commission" title="National Judicial Appointments Commission">National Judicial Appointments Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Legal_Services_Authority" title="National Legal Services Authority">National Legal Services Authority</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Politics_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics in India"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Elections and politics</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Election_Commission_of_India" title="Election Commission of India">Election Commission</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Chief_Election_Commissioner_of_India" title="Chief Election Commissioner of India">Chief Election Commissioner</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rajiv_Kumar_(civil_servant)" title="Rajiv Kumar (civil servant)">Rajiv Kumar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Election_Commissioner_of_India" title="Election Commissioner of India">Election Commissioner</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyanesh_Kumar" title="Gyanesh Kumar">Gyanesh Kumar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhbir_Singh_Sandhu" title="Sukhbir Singh Sandhu">Sukhbir Singh Sandhu</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_election_commission_(India)" title="State election commission (India)">State Election Commission</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_India" title="Elections in India">Elections</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(India)" title="Electoral College (India)">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voting_in_India" title="Electronic voting in India">Electronic voting</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_presidential_elections" title="List of Indian presidential elections">Presidential elections</a> </b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_Indian_presidential_election" title="2022 Indian presidential election">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Indian_presidential_election" title="2017 Indian presidential election">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Indian_presidential_election" title="2012 Indian presidential election">2012</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_vice_presidential_elections" title="List of Indian vice presidential elections">Vice Presidential elections</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_Indian_vice_presidential_election" title="2022 Indian vice presidential election">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Indian_vice_presidential_election" title="2017 Indian vice presidential election">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Indian_vice_presidential_election" title="2012 Indian vice presidential election">2012</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_general_elections" title="List of Indian general elections">Lok Sabha elections</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_constituencies_of_the_Lok_Sabha" title="List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha">Constituencies</a>)</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2014_Indian_general_election" title="2014 Indian general election">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election" title="2019 Indian general election">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Indian_general_election" title="2024 Indian general election">2024</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Rajya_Sabha_elections" title="List of Rajya Sabha elections">Rajya Sabha elections</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2024_Rajya_Sabha_elections" title="2024 Rajya Sabha elections">2024</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Rajya_Sabha_elections" title="2023 Rajya Sabha elections">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Rajya_Sabha_elections" title="2022 Rajya Sabha elections">2022</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/State_Assembly_elections_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="State Assembly elections in India">State Assembly elections</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_elections_in_India" title="2019 elections in India">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_elections_in_India" title="2020 elections in India">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_elections_in_India" title="2021 elections in India">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_elections_in_India" title="2022 elections in India">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_elections_in_India" title="2023 elections in India">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_elections_in_India" title="2024 elections in India"><i>2024</i></a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li>National coalitions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Alliance" title="National Democratic Alliance">NDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Developmental_Inclusive_Alliance" title="Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance">INDIA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India" title="List of political parties in India">Political parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India#National_parties" title="List of political parties in India">National parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India#State_parties" title="List of political parties in India">State parties</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Administrative divisions</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">States and union territories</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_state_and_union_territory_capitals_in_India" title="List of state and union territory capitals in India">Capitals</a>)</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/State_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="State (India)">States</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarh" title="Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jharkhand" title="Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meghalaya" title="Meghalaya">Meghalaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizoram" title="Mizoram">Mizoram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagaland" title="Nagaland">Nagaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telangana" title="Telangana">Telangana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripura" title="Tripura">Tripura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Union_territory_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Union territory (India)">Union territories</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandigarh" title="Chandigarh">Chandigarh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli_and_Daman_and_Diu" title="Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu">Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakh" title="Ladakh">Ladakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory)" title="Puducherry (union territory)">Puducherry</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_states_and_union_territories_of_India" title="Proposed states and union territories of India">Proposed states and union territories</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Autonomous administrative divisions of India">Autonomous Divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_divisions_in_India" title="List of divisions in India">Divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_India" title="List of districts in India">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subdistricts_in_India" title="List of subdistricts in India">Sub-districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_Development_Block" class="mw-redirect" title="Community Development Block">Community Development Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_India" title="List of metropolitan areas in India">Metropolitan Areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_million-plus_urban_agglomerations_in_India" title="List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India">Urban Agglomerations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_India" title="Federalism in India"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Federalism</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_India" title="State governments of India">Executive</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(India)" title="Governor (India)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_governors" title="List of current Indian governors">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Governor (India)">Lieutenant Governor/Administrator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_lieutenant_governors_and_administrators" title="List of current Indian lieutenant governors and administrators">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_minister_(India)" title="Chief minister (India)">Chief Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_chief_ministers" title="List of current Indian chief ministers">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_deputy_chief_ministers" title="List of current Indian deputy chief ministers">Deputy Chief Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_deputy_chief_ministers" title="List of current Indian deputy chief ministers">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Current_Indian_ministries" title="Template:Current Indian ministries">Ministries</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(India)" title="State legislature (India)">Legislative</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_councils_of_India" title="State legislative councils of India">Legislative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_India" title="State legislative assemblies of India">Legislative Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_legislative_speakers_and_chairpersons" title="List of current Indian legislative speakers and chairpersons">Speaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_legislative_speakers_and_chairpersons" title="List of current Indian legislative speakers and chairpersons">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Opposition_(India)" title="Official Opposition (India)">Official Opposition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Indian_opposition_leaders" title="List of current Indian opposition leaders">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_India" title="Local government in India">Local Government</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Municipal_governance_in_India" title="Municipal governance in India">Municipal Governance</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_Corporation_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipal Corporation of India">Municipal Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagar_Palika_(Municipality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagar Palika (Municipality)">Municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_Panchayat" class="mw-redirect" title="Town Panchayat">Town Panchayat</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Panchayati_Raj" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchayati Raj">Panchayati Raj</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/District_Panchayat" class="mw-redirect" title="District Panchayat">District Panchayat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchayat_Samiti_(Block)" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchayat Samiti (Block)">Block Panchayat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gram_Panchayat" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram Panchayat">Gram Panchayat</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#0f8a46; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_India" title="Foreign relations of India"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Foreign relations</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_External_Affairs_(India)" title="Ministry of External Affairs (India)">Ministry of External Affairs</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_External_Affairs_(India)" title="Minister of External Affairs (India)">Cabinet Minister</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S._Jaishankar" title="S. Jaishankar">S. Jaishankar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_State_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of State (India)">Minister of State</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kirti_Vardhan_Singh" title="Kirti Vardhan Singh">Kirti Vardhan Singh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pabitra_Margherita" title="Pabitra Margherita">Pabitra Margherita</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Secretary_(India)" title="Foreign Secretary (India)">Foreign Secretary</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vinay_Mohan_Kwatra" title="Vinay Mohan Kwatra">Vinay Mohan Kwatra</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_India" title="List of diplomatic missions of India">Diplomatic missions of</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_in_India" title="List of diplomatic missions in India">in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_and_high_commissioners_of_India" title="List of ambassadors and high commissioners of India">Ambassadors and High Commissioners of India</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_and_high_commissioners_to_India" title="List of ambassadors and high commissioners to India">to India</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationality_law" title="Indian nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overseas_Citizenship_of_India" title="Overseas Citizenship of India">Overseas Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_passport" title="Indian passport">Passports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_policy_of_India" title="Visa policy of India">Visa policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_requirements_for_Indian_citizens" title="Visa requirements for Indian citizens">Visa requirements</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Template:Foreign_relations_of_India" title="Template:Foreign relations of India">Foreign Relations</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2%2B2_Ministerial_Dialogue" title="2+2 Ministerial Dialogue">2+2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal_Initiative_for_Multi-Sectoral_Technical_and_Economic_Cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation">BIMSTEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BBIN" title="BBIN">BBIN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">BRICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G4_nations" title="G4 nations">G4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G20" title="G20">G20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBSA_Dialogue_Forum" title="IBSA Dialogue Forum">IBSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Naval_Symposium" title="Indian Ocean Naval Symposium">IONS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Rim_Association" title="Indian Ocean Rim Association">IORA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mekong%E2%80%93Ganga_Cooperation" title="Mekong–Ganga Cooperation">MGC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="India and the Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">SCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_the_United_Nations" title="India and the United Nations">United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrilateral_Security_Dialogue" title="Quadrilateral Security Dialogue">QUAD</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa%E2%80%93India_relations" title="Africa–India relations">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Summit" title="East Asia Summit">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="India–European Union relations">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India-Latin_America_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="India-Latin America relations">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_India%E2%80%93Pacific_Islands_Cooperation" title="Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation">Pacific Islands</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_diaspora" title="Indian diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_foreign_relations" title="History of Indian foreign relations">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_extradition_treaties" title="List of Indian extradition treaties">Extradition Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_foreign_aid" title="Indian foreign aid">Foreign aid by India</a> / <a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_India" title="Foreign aid to India">to India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_sanctions" title="India sanctions">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_trips_made_by_prime_ministers_of_India" title="List of international trips made by prime ministers of India">State Visits by Indian Prime Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_visits_to_India" title="List of diplomatic visits to India">State Visits to India</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmir Conflict">Kashmir Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts" title="Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts">Indo-Pakistani Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian Disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_disputes_of_India_and_Nepal" class="mw-redirect" title="Territorial disputes of India and Nepal">Disputes with Nepal</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:lightblue; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign policy of India">Foreign Policy</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Technical_and_Economic_Cooperation_Programme" title="Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme">ITEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Look_East_policy_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Look East policy (India)">Look East policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_e-Network_project" title="Pan-African e-Network project">Pan-African e-Network project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Indira_Gandhi_government" title="Foreign policy of the Indira Gandhi government">Indira Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Narendra_Modi_government" title="Foreign policy of the Narendra Modi government">Narendra Modi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/32px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/48px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/64px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India portal</a> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_India" title="Template:Politics of India"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_India" title="Template talk:Politics of India"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_India" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of India"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>From 1901 onwards, for the purposes of the <a href="/wiki/Census_of_India_prior_to_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Census of India prior to independence">Decennial Census</a>, the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British colonial authorities</a> arbitrarily and incorrectly forced all Jātis into the four <i><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a></i> categories as described in ancient texts. <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hope_Risley" title="Herbert Hope Risley">Herbert Hope Risley</a>, the Census Commissioner, noted that "The principle suggested as a basis was that of classification by social precedence as recognized by native public opinion at the present day, and manifesting itself in the facts that particular castes are supposed to be the modern representatives of one or other of the castes of the theoretical Indian system."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Varna</i>, as mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">ancient Hindu</a> texts, describes society as divided into four categories: <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmins</a> (scholars and yajna priests), <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriyas</a> (rulers and warriors), <a href="/wiki/Vaishyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaishyas">Vaishyas</a> (farmers, merchants and artisans) and <a href="/wiki/Shudras" class="mw-redirect" title="Shudras">Shudras</a> (workmen/service providers). Scholars believe that the <i>Varnas</i> system was never truly operational in society and there is no evidence of it ever being a reality in Indian history. The practical division of the society has been in terms of <i>Jatis</i> (birth groups), which are not based on any specific religious principle but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations to geographic areas. The <i>Jātis</i> have been endogamous social groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle and social, political, or economic status. Many of India's major empires and dynasties like the Mauryas,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Shalivahanas,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chalukyas,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (February 2025)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Kakatiyas<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> among many others, were founded by people who would have been classified as Shudras, under the <i>Varnas</i> system, as interpreted by the British rulers. It is well established that by the 9th century, kings from all the four Varnas, including Brahmins and Vaishyas, had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India, contrary to the Varna theory.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically the kings and rulers had been called upon to mediate on the ranks of <i>Jātis</i>, which might number in thousands all over the subcontinent and vary by region. In practice, the <i>jātis</i> are seen to fit into the <i>varna</i> classes, but the <i>varna</i> status of <i>jātis</i> itself was subject to articulation over time.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting with the <a href="/wiki/Census_of_India_prior_to_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Census of India prior to independence">1901 Census of India</a> led by colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley, all the <i>jātis</i> were grouped under the theoretical <i>varnas</i> categories.<sup id="cite_ref-dirks_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dirks-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to political scientist <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Rudolph" title="Lloyd Rudolph">Lloyd Rudolph</a>, Risley believed that <i>varna</i>, however ancient, could be applied to all the modern castes found in India, and "[he] meant to identify and place several hundred million Indians within it."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terms <i>varna</i> (conceptual classification based on occupation) and <i>jāti</i> (groups) are two distinct concepts: while <i>varna</i> is a theoretical four-part division, <i>jāti</i> (community) refers to the thousands of actual endogamous social groups prevalent across the subcontinent. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the <i>varnas</i>, as it provided a convenient shorthand; but a problem arises when colonial Indologists sometimes confuse the two.<sup id="cite_ref-Chicago_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chicago-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_(62).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2862%29.jpg/220px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2862%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2862%29.jpg/330px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2862%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2862%29.jpg/440px-Seventy-two_Specimens_of_Castes_in_India_%2862%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1118" /></a><figcaption>An image of a man and woman from the toddy-tapping community in Malabar from the manuscript <i>Seventy-two Specimens of Castes in India</i>, which consists of 72 full-color hand-painted images of men and women of various religions, occupations and ethnic groups found in <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madura, India</a> in 1837, which confirms the popular perception and nature of caste as Jati, before the British colonial authorities made it applicable only to Hindus grouped under the <i><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">varna</a></i> categories from the 1901 census onwards</figcaption></figure> <p>Upon independence from Britain, the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Indian Constitution</a> listed 1,108 Jatis across the country as <a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">Scheduled Castes</a> in 1950, for <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">positive discrimination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This constitution would also ban discrimination of the basis of the caste, though its practice in India remained intact.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Untouchable communities are sometimes called <i><a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Dalit</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Harijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Harijan">Harijan</a></i> in contemporary literature.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2001, Dalits were 16.2% of India's population.<sup id="cite_ref-censtat01_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-censtat01-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Independent India has witnessed <a href="/wiki/Caste-related_violence_in_India" title="Caste-related violence in India">caste-related violence</a>. In 2005, government recorded approximately 110,000 cases of reported violent acts, including rape and murder, against Dalits.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to <a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_India" title="Urbanization in India">urbanisation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Affirmative action in India">affirmative action</a>. Nevertheless, the caste system still exists in <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Family_patrimony" title="Family patrimony">patrimony</a>, and politics. The globalisation and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of India's middle-class population. Some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community (CPCC) are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. There is persistence of caste in Indian <a href="/wiki/Caste_politics" title="Caste politics">politics</a>. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties. Political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilisation of people and policy development.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies by Bhatt and Beteille have shown changes in status, openness, mobility in the social aspects of Indian society. As a result of modern socio-economic changes in the country, India is experiencing significant changes in the dynamics and the economics of its social sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While arranged marriages are still the most common practice in India, the internet has provided a network for younger Indians to take control of their relationships through the use of dating apps. This remains isolated to informal terms, as marriage is not often achieved through the use of these apps.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a> is still a common practice in India and Hindu culture. Men are expected to marry within their caste, or one below, with no social repercussions. If a woman marries into a higher caste, then her children will take the status of their father. If she marries down, her family is reduced to the social status of their son in law. In this case, the women are bearers of the egalitarian principle of the marriage. There would be no benefit in marrying a higher caste if the terms of the marriage did not imply equality.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, men are systematically shielded from the negative implications of the agreement. </p><p>Geographical factors also determine adherence to the caste system. Many Northern villages are more likely to participate in exogamous marriage, due to a lack of eligible suitors within the same caste. Women in <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a> have been found to be less likely to leave or divorce their husbands since they are of a relatively lower caste system, and have higher restrictions on their freedoms. On the other hand, Pahari women, of the northern mountains, have much more freedom to leave their husbands without stigma. This often leads to better husbandry as his actions are not protected by social expectations.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chiefly among the factors influencing the rise of exogamy is the rapid <a href="/wiki/Urbanisation_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation in India">urbanisation in India</a> experienced over the last century. It is well known that urban centers tend to be less reliant on agriculture and are more progressive as a whole. As India's cities boomed in population, the job market grew to keep pace. Prosperity and stability were now more easily attained by an individual, and the anxiety to marry quickly and effectively was reduced. Thus, younger, more progressive generations of urban Indians are less likely than ever to participate in the antiquated system of arranged endogamy. </p><p>India has also implemented a form of Affirmative Action, locally known as "reservation groups". Quota system jobs, as well as placements in publicly funded colleges, hold spots for the 8% of India's minority, and underprivileged groups. As a result, in states such as <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> or those in the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">north-east</a>, where underprivileged populations predominate, over 80% of government jobs are set aside in quotas. In education, colleges lower the marks necessary for the Dalits to enter.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nepal">Nepal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nepal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Nepal" title="Caste system in Nepal">Caste system in Nepal</a></div> <p>The Nepali caste system resembles in some respects the Indian <i>jāti</i> system, with numerous <i>jāti</i> divisions with a <i>varna</i> system superimposed. Inscriptions attest the beginnings of a caste system during the <a href="/wiki/Licchavi_(kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Licchavi (kingdom)">Licchavi</a> period. <a href="/wiki/Jayasthiti_Malla" title="Jayasthiti Malla">Jayasthiti Malla</a> (1382–1395) categorised Newars into 64 castes (Gellner 2001). A similar exercise was made during the reign of Mahindra Malla (1506–1575). The Hindu social code was later set up in the <a href="/wiki/Gorkha_Kingdom" title="Gorkha Kingdom">Gorkha Kingdom</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ram_Shah" title="Ram Shah">Ram Shah</a> (1603–1636). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pakistan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_among_South_Asian_Muslims" title="Caste system among South Asian Muslims">Caste system among South Asian Muslims</a></div> <p>McKim Marriott claims a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan. Frederik Barth in his review of this system of social stratification in Pakistan suggested that these are castes.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sri_Lanka">Sri Lanka</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sri Lanka"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Caste system in Sri Lanka">Caste system in Sri Lanka</a></div> <p>The caste system in Sri Lanka is a division of society into strata,<sup id="cite_ref-John_Rogers_51–77_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Rogers_51–77-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> influenced by the textbook <i>jāti</i> system found in India. Ancient Sri Lankan texts such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya and Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptional evidence show that the above hierarchy prevailed throughout the feudal period. The repetition of the same caste hierarchy even as recently as the 18th century, in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kandy" title="Kingdom of Kandy">Kandyan-period</a> Kadayimpoth – Boundary books as well indicates the continuation of the tradition right up to the end of Sri Lanka's monarchy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outside_South_Asia">Outside South Asia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Outside South Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_soedra_een_man_uit_de_laagste_kaste_van_Bali._TMnr_60002169.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_soedra_een_man_uit_de_laagste_kaste_van_Bali._TMnr_60002169.jpg/170px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_soedra_een_man_uit_de_laagste_kaste_van_Bali._TMnr_60002169.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_soedra_een_man_uit_de_laagste_kaste_van_Bali._TMnr_60002169.jpg/255px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_soedra_een_man_uit_de_laagste_kaste_van_Bali._TMnr_60002169.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_soedra_een_man_uit_de_laagste_kaste_van_Bali._TMnr_60002169.jpg/340px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_soedra_een_man_uit_de_laagste_kaste_van_Bali._TMnr_60002169.jpg 2x" data-file-width="569" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>A Sudra caste man from <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>. Photo from 1870, courtesy of <a href="/wiki/Tropenmuseum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropenmuseum">Tropenmuseum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Indonesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Balinese_caste_system" title="Balinese caste system">Balinese caste system</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Balinese</a> caste structure has been described as being based either on three categories—the noble triwangsa (thrice born), the middle class of <i>dwijāti</i> (twice born), and the lower class of <i>ekajāti</i> (once born), much similar to the traditional Indian <a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">BKVS social stratification</a> — or on four castes<sup id="cite_ref-boon_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boon-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahminas</a> – <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Satrias</a> – <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knighthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Wesias</a> – <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Sudras</a> – <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">servitude</a></li></ul> <p>The Brahmana caste was further subdivided by Dutch ethnographers into two: Siwa and Buda. The Siwa caste was subdivided into five: Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher-caste Brahmana men with lower-caste women. The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar to <i>castas</i> in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish colonies</a> such as <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">Mexico</a>, and caste system studies in British colonies such as India.<sup id="cite_ref-boon_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boon-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philippines">Philippines</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Philippines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naturales_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Naturales_3.png/170px-Naturales_3.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Naturales_3.png/255px-Naturales_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Naturales_3.png/340px-Naturales_3.png 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_people" title="Tagalog people">Tagalog</a> royal couple (<i><a href="/wiki/Maginoo" title="Maginoo">maginoo</a></i>), from the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Codex" title="Boxer Codex">Boxer Codex</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1590</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>In the Philippines, pre-colonial societies do not have a single social structure. The class structures can be roughly categorised into four types:<sup id="cite_ref-Scott1979_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott1979-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Classless societies – egalitarian societies with no class structure. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Mangyan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangyan people">Mangyan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kalanguya_people" title="Kalanguya people">Kalanguya peoples</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott1979_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott1979-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Warrior societies – societies where a distinct warrior class exists, and whose membership depends on martial prowess. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Mandaya_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandaya people">Mandaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bagobo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Bagobo people">Bagobo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tagakaulo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tagakaulo people">Tagakaulo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/B%27laan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="B'laan people">B'laan peoples</a> who had warriors called the <i>bagani</i> or <i>magani</i>. Similarly, in the <a href="/wiki/Cordillera_Central_(Luzon)" title="Cordillera Central (Luzon)">Cordillera highlands</a> of <a href="/wiki/Luzon" title="Luzon">Luzon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Isneg_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Isneg people">Isneg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_people" title="Kalinga people">Kalinga peoples</a> refer to their warriors as <i>mengal</i> or <i>maingal</i>. This society is typical for <a href="/wiki/Head-hunting" class="mw-redirect" title="Head-hunting">head-hunting</a> ethnic groups or ethnic groups which had seasonal raids (<i><a href="/wiki/Mangayaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangayaw">mangayaw</a></i>) into enemy territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott1979_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott1979-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Petty <a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">plutocracies</a> – societies which have a wealthy class based on property and the hosting of periodic prestige feasts. In some groups, it was an actual caste whose members had specialised leadership roles, married only within the same caste, and wore specialised clothing. These include the <i>kadangyan</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Ifugao_people" title="Ifugao people">Ifugao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bontoc_people" title="Bontoc people">Bontoc</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kankanaey_people" title="Kankanaey people">Kankanaey</a> peoples, as well as the <i>baknang</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Ibaloi_people" title="Ibaloi people">Ibaloi people</a>. In others, though wealth may give one prestige and leadership qualifications, it was not a caste per se.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott1979_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott1979-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Principalities – societies with an actual ruling class and caste systems determined by birthright. Most of these societies are either <a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Indianized</a> or <a href="/wiki/Islamized" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamized">Islamized</a> to a degree. They include the larger coastal ethnic groups like the <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_people" title="Tagalog people">Tagalog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kapampangan_people" title="Kapampangan people">Kapampangan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visayan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Visayan people">Visayan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moro_people" title="Moro people">Moro</a> societies. Most of them were usually divided into four to five caste systems with different names under different ethnic groups that roughly correspond to each other. The system was more or less <a href="/wiki/Feudalistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudalistic">feudalistic</a>, with the <i>datu</i> ultimately having control of all the lands of the community. The land is subdivided among the enfranchised classes, the <i>sakop</i> or <i>sa-op</i> (<a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a>, lit. "those under the power of another"). The castes were hereditary, though they were not rigid. They were more accurately a reflection of the interpersonal political relationships, a person is always the follower of another. People can move up the caste system by marriage, by wealth, or by doing something extraordinary; and conversely they can be demoted, usually as criminal punishment or as a result of debt. Shamans are the exception, as they are either volunteers, chosen by the ranking shamans, or born into the role by innate propensity for it. They are enumerated below from the highest rank to the lowest:<sup id="cite_ref-Scott1979_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott1979-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-arcilla_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arcilla-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-scott2_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scott2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2025)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>Royalty – (<a href="/wiki/Visayan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Visayan people">Visayan</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Kadatoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadatoan">kadatoan</a></i>) the <i><a href="/wiki/Datu" title="Datu">datu</a></i> and immediate descendants. They are often further categorised according to purity of lineage. The power of the <i>datu</i> is dependent on the willingness of their followers to render him respect and obedience. Most roles of the datu were judicial and military. In case of an unfit <i>datu</i>, support may be withdrawn by his followers. <i>Datu</i> were almost always male, though in some ethnic groups like the <a href="/wiki/Banwaon_people" title="Banwaon people">Banwaon people</a>, the female shaman (<i><a href="/wiki/Philippine_shamans" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine shamans">babaiyon</a></i>) co-rules as the female counterpart of the <i>datu</i>.</li> <li>Nobility – (Visayan: <i><a href="/wiki/Tumao" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumao">tumao</a></i>; <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_people" title="Tagalog people">Tagalog</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Maginoo" title="Maginoo">maginoo</a></i>; <a href="/wiki/Kapampangan_people" title="Kapampangan people">Kapampangan</a> <i>ginu</i>; <a href="/wiki/Tausug_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tausug people">Tausug</a>: <i>bangsa mataas</i>) the ruling class, either inclusive of or exclusive of the royal family. Most are descendants of the royal line or gained their status through wealth or bravery in battle. They owned lands and subjects, from whom they collected taxes.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_shamans" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine shamans">Shamans</a> – (Visayan: <i>babaylan</i>; Tagalog: <i>katalonan</i>) the spirit mediums, usually female or feminised men. While they were not technically a caste, they commanded the same respect and status as nobility.</li> <li>Warriors – (Visayan: <i><a href="/wiki/Timawa" title="Timawa">timawa</a></i>; Tagalog: <i><a href="/wiki/Maharlika" title="Maharlika">maharlika</a></i>) the martial class. They could own land and subjects like the higher ranks, but were required to fight for the <i>datu</i> in times of war. In some Filipino ethnic groups, they were often tattooed extensively to record feats in battle and as protection against harm. They were sometimes further subdivided into different classes, depending on their relationship with the <i>datu</i>. They traditionally went on seasonal raids on enemy settlements.</li> <li>Commoners and slaves – (Visayan, <a href="/wiki/Maguindanao_people" title="Maguindanao people">Maguindanao</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Ulipon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulipon">ulipon</a></i>; Tagalog: <i><a href="/wiki/Alipin" title="Alipin">alipin</a></i>; Tausug: <i>kiapangdilihan</i>; <a href="/wiki/Maranao_people" title="Maranao people">Maranao</a>: <i>kakatamokan</i>) – the lowest class composed of the rest of the community who were not part of the enfranchised classes. They were further subdivided into the commoner class who had their own houses, the servants who lived in the houses of others, and the slaves who were usually captives from raids, criminals, or debtors. Most members of this class were equivalent to the European <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serf</a> class, who paid taxes and can be conscripted to communal tasks, but were more or less free to do as they please.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China_and_Mongolia">China and Mongolia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: China and Mongolia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the period of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, ruler <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> enforced a <i>Four Class System</i>, which was a legal caste system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The order of four classes of people in descending order were: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semu" title="Semu">Semu</a> people</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> people (in the northern areas of China)</li> <li>Southerners (people of the former Southern <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tibet">Tibet</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tibet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_classes_of_Tibet" class="mw-redirect" title="Social classes of Tibet">Social classes of Tibet</a></div> <p>There is significant controversy over the <a href="/wiki/Social_classes_of_Tibet" class="mw-redirect" title="Social classes of Tibet">social classes of Tibet</a>, especially with regards to the <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Tibet_controversy" title="Serfdom in Tibet controversy">serfdom in Tibet controversy</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heidi_Fjeld&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heidi Fjeld (page does not exist)">Heidi Fjeld</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidi_Fjeld" class="extiw" title="no:Heidi Fjeld">no</a>]</sup> has put forth the argument that pre-1950s Tibetan society was functionally a caste system, in contrast to previous scholars who defined the Tibetan social class system as similar to European <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>, as well as non-scholarly western accounts which seek to romanticise a supposedly 'egalitarian' ancient Tibetan society.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Edo_society" title="Edo society">Edo society</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edo_social_structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Edo_social_structure.svg/330px-Edo_social_structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Edo_social_structure.svg/495px-Edo_social_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Edo_social_structure.svg/660px-Edo_social_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>A social hierarchy chart based on old academic theories. Such hierarchical diagrams were removed from Japanese textbooks after various studies in the 1990s revealed that peasants, craftsmen, and merchants were in fact equal and merely social categories.<sup id="cite_ref-tokyoshoseki_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tokyoshoseki-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-uki300823_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uki300823-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shimonoseki_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shimonoseki-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Successive shoguns held the highest or near-highest <a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_court_ranks,_positions_and_hereditary_titles" title="List of Japanese court ranks, positions and hereditary titles">court ranks</a>, higher than most court nobles.<sup id="cite_ref-kakaku_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kakaku-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In Japan's history, social strata based on inherited position rather than personal merit, were rigid and highly formalised in a system called <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">mibunsei</i></span> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">身分制</span></span>). At the top were the Emperor and Court nobles (<a href="/wiki/Kuge" title="Kuge">kuge</a>), together with the <a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dgun" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōgun">Shōgun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daimy%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Daimyō">daimyō</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Older scholars believed that there were <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">Shi-nō-kō-shō</i></span><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">士農工商</span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Four_divisions_of_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Four divisions of society">four classes</a>)</span> of "samurai, peasants (<i>hyakushō</i>), craftsmen, and merchants (<i><a href="/wiki/Ch%C5%8Dnin" title="Chōnin">chōnin</a></i>)" under the daimyo, with 80% of peasants under the 5% samurai class, followed by craftsmen and merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeasley197222_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeasley197222-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, various studies have revealed since about 1995 that the classes of peasants, craftsmen, and merchants under the samurai are equal, and the old hierarchy chart has been removed from Japanese history textbooks. In other words, peasants, craftsmen, and merchants are not a social pecking order, but a social classification.<sup id="cite_ref-tokyoshoseki_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tokyoshoseki-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-uki300823_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uki300823-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shimonoseki_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shimonoseki-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marriage between certain classes was generally prohibited. In particular, marriage between <a href="/wiki/Daimyo" title="Daimyo">daimyo</a> and court nobles was forbidden by the <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa shogunate</a> because it could lead to political maneuvering.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For the same reason, marriages between daimyo and high-ranking <a href="/wiki/Hatamoto" title="Hatamoto">hatamoto</a> of the samurai class required the approval of the Tokugawa shogunate. It was also forbidden for a member of the samurai class to marry a peasant, craftsman, or merchant, but this was done through a loophole in which a person from a lower class was adopted into the samurai class and then married. Since there was an economic advantage for a poor samurai class person to marry a wealthy merchant or peasant class woman, they would adopt a merchant or peasant class woman into the samurai class as an adopted daughter and then marry her.<sup id="cite_ref-asahi_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asahi-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-livedoor_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livedoor-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> had its own untouchable caste, shunned and ostracised, historically referred to by the insulting term <i>eta</i>, now called <i><a href="/wiki/Burakumin" title="Burakumin">burakumin</a></i>. While modern law has officially abolished the class hierarchy, there are reports of discrimination against the <i>buraku</i> or <i>burakumin</i> underclasses.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>burakumin</i> are regarded as "ostracised".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>burakumin</i> are one of the main <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Japan" title="Demographics of Japan">minority groups in Japan</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Ainu_people" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hokkaid%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Hokkaidō">Hokkaidō</a> and those of <a href="/wiki/Zainichi_Korean" class="mw-redirect" title="Zainichi Korean">Korean</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chinese_in_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese in Japan">Chinese</a> descent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Korea">Korea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:left; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> <caption style="font-size:115%; background:#b0c4de;">Joseon class system </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Class</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></th> <th>Status </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Yangban" title="Yangban">Yangban</a></i></td> <td>양반</td> <td>兩班</td> <td>noble class </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Jungin" title="Jungin">Jungin</a></i></td> <td>중인</td> <td>中人</td> <td>intermediate class </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Sangmin" title="Sangmin">Sangmin</a></i></td> <td>상민</td> <td>常民</td> <td>common people </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Cheonmin" title="Cheonmin">Cheonmin</a></i></td> <td>천민</td> <td>賤民</td> <td>lowborn people (<i><a href="/wiki/Nobi" title="Nobi">nobi</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Baekjeong" title="Baekjeong">baekjeong</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Mudang" class="mw-redirect" title="Mudang">mudang</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gisaeng" class="mw-redirect" title="Gisaeng">gisaeng</a></i>, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;" colspan="4"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Joseon_caste_system" title="Template:Joseon caste system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Joseon_caste_system" title="Template talk:Joseon caste system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li></ul></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea-History-Goban_Game_in_Seoul_Korea_1904_(LOC).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Korea-History-Goban_Game_in_Seoul_Korea_1904_%28LOC%29.jpg/170px-Korea-History-Goban_Game_in_Seoul_Korea_1904_%28LOC%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Korea-History-Goban_Game_in_Seoul_Korea_1904_%28LOC%29.jpg/255px-Korea-History-Goban_Game_in_Seoul_Korea_1904_%28LOC%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Korea-History-Goban_Game_in_Seoul_Korea_1904_%28LOC%29.jpg/340px-Korea-History-Goban_Game_in_Seoul_Korea_1904_%28LOC%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1374" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A typical Yangban family scene from 1904. The Yoon family had an enduring presence in Korean politics from the 1800s until the 1970s.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Baekjeong" title="Baekjeong">baekjeong</a> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">백정</span></span>) were an "untouchable" outcaste of Korea. The meaning today is that of butcher. It originates in the <a href="/wiki/Goryeo-Khitan_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Goryeo-Khitan Wars">Khitan invasion of Korea</a> in the 11th century. The defeated <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a> who surrendered were settled in isolated communities throughout Goryeo to forestall rebellion. They were valued for their skills in hunting, herding, butchering, and making of leather, common skill sets among nomads. Over time, their ethnic origin was forgotten, and they formed the bottom layer of Korean society.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1392, with the foundation of the Confucian <a href="/wiki/Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon dynasty">Joseon dynasty</a>, Korea systemised its own native class system. At the top were the two official classes, the <a href="/wiki/Yangban" title="Yangban">Yangban</a>, which literally means "two classes". It was composed of scholars (<span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">munban</i></span>) and warriors (<span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">muban</i></span>). Scholars had a significant social advantage over the warriors. Below were the <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">jung-in</i></span> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">중인-中人</span></span>: literally "middle people"). This was a small class of specialised professions such as medicine, accounting, translators, regional bureaucrats, etc. Below that were the <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">sangmin</i></span> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">상민-常民</span></span>: literally 'commoner'), farmers working their own fields. Korea also had a <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serf</a> population known as the <i>nobi</i>. The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1801, the vast majority of government nobi were emancipated,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5% of the total population of Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-nobi_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobi-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87 and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with the <a href="/wiki/Gabo_Reform" title="Gabo Reform">Gabo Reform</a> of 1894,<sup id="cite_ref-nobi_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobi-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but traces remained until 1930. </p><p>The opening of Korea to foreign <a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Christian missionary</a> activity in the late 19th century saw some improvement in the status of the <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">baekjeong</i></span>. However, everyone was not equal under the Christian congregation, and even so protests erupted when missionaries tried to integrate <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">baekjeong</i></span> into worship, with non-<span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">baekjeong</i></span> finding this attempt insensitive to traditional notions of hierarchical advantage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Around the same time, the <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">baekjeong</i></span> began to resist open social discrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They focused on social and economic injustices affecting them, hoping to create an <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarian</a> Korean society. Their efforts included attacking social discrimination by upper class, authorities, and "commoners", and the use of degrading language against children in public schools.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the <a href="/wiki/Gabo_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabo reform">Gabo reform</a> of 1896, the class system of Korea was officially abolished. Following the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment Party">Gabo government</a>, the new cabinet, which became the Gwangmu government after the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a>, introduced systematic measures for abolishing the traditional class system. One measure was the new household registration system, reflecting the goals of formal <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">social equality</a>, which was implemented by the loyalists' cabinet. Whereas the old registration system signified household members according to their hierarchical social status, the new system called for an occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-proper_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-proper-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While most Koreans by then had surnames and even <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Bongwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bongwan">bongwan</a></i></span>, although still substantial number of <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Cheonmin" title="Cheonmin">cheonmin</a></i></span>, mostly consisted of <a href="/wiki/Serfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs">serfs</a> and slaves, and <a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">untouchables</a> did not. According to the new system, they were then required to fill in the blanks for surname in order to be registered as constituting separate households. Instead of creating their own family name, some <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">cheonmins</i></span> appropriated their masters' surname, while others simply took the most common surname and its <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">bongwan</i></span> in the local area. Along with this example, activists within and outside the Korean government had based their visions of a new relationship between the government and people through the concept of citizenship, employing the term <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">inmin</i></span> ("people") and later, <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">kungmin</i></span> ("citizen").<sup id="cite_ref-proper_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-proper-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_Korea">North Korea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: North Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Songbun" title="Songbun">Songbun</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Human_Rights_in_North_Korea" title="Committee for Human Rights in North Korea">Committee for Human Rights in North Korea</a> reported that "Every North Korean citizen is assigned a heredity-based class and socio-political rank over which the individual exercises no control but which determines all aspects of his or her life."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Called <i><a href="/wiki/Songbun" title="Songbun">Songbun</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Demick" title="Barbara Demick">Barbara Demick</a> describes this "class structure" as an updating of the hereditary "caste system", a combination of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It originated in 1946 and was entrenched by the 1960s, and consisted of 53 categories ranging across three classes: loyal, wavering, and impure. The privileged "loyal" class included members of the <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Korea" title="Workers' Party of Korea">Korean Workers' Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_People%27s_Army" title="Korean People's Army">Korean People's Army</a> officers' corps, the wavering class included peasants, and the impure class included <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Imperial_Japan" title="Collaboration with Imperial Japan">collaborators with Imperial Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">landowners</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She claims that a bad family background is called "tainted blood", and that by law this "tainted blood" lasts three generations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemick201028,_197,_202_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemick201028,_197,_202-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_Asia">West Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: West Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Kurdistan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Yazidis">Yazidis</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Yazidis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Yazidi_social_organization" title="Yazidi social organization">Yazidi social organization</a></div> <p>There are three hereditary groups, often called castes, in <a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a>. Membership in the Yazidi society and a caste is conferred by birth. Pîrs and Sheikhs are the <a href="/wiki/Priestly_caste" title="Priestly caste">priestly castes</a>, which are represented by many sacred lineages (<a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>: <i lang="ku-Latn">Ocax</i>). Sheikhs are in charge of both religious and administrative functions and are divided into three endogamous houses, Şemsanî, Adanî and Qatanî who are in turn divided into lineages. The Pîrs are in charge of purely religious functions and traditionally consist of 40 lineages or clans, but approximately 90 appellations of Pîr lineages have been found, which may have been a result of new sub-lineages arising and number of clans increasing over time due to division as Yazidis settled in different places and countries. Division could occur in one family, if there were a few brothers in one clan, each of them could become the founder of their own Pîr sub-clan (<a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>: <i lang="ku-Latn">ber</i>). Mirîds are the lay caste and are divided into <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_tribes" title="Kurdish tribes">tribes</a>, who are each affiliated to a Pîr and a Sheikh priestly lineage assigned to the tribe.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iran">Iran</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Iran"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pre-Islamic <a href="/wiki/Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid">Sassanid</a> society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organisation governing numerous different groups within the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._11_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolle,_p._11-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians believe society comprised four<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social classes</a>, which linguistic analysis indicates may have been referred to collectively as "pistras".<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The classes, from highest to lowest status, were priests (<span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">Asravan</i></span>), warriors (<span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">Arteshtaran</i></span>), secretaries (<span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">Dabiran</i></span>), and commoners (<span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">Vastryoshan</i></span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Yemen">Yemen</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Yemen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Al-Akhdam" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Akhdam">Al-Akhdam</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> there exists a hereditary caste, the <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African</a>-descended <a href="/wiki/Al-Akhdam" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Akhdam">Al-Akhdam</a> who are kept as perennial manual workers. Estimates put their number at over 3.5 million residents who are discriminated, out of a total Yemeni population of around 22 million.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Caste systems in Africa</a></div> <p>Various sociologists have reported caste systems in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Obinna1_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obinna1-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-James_B._Watson_356–379_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-James_B._Watson_356–379-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tamari1_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tamari1-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The specifics of the caste systems have varied in ethnically and culturally diverse Africa; however, the following features are common – it has been a closed system of social stratification, the social status is inherited, the castes are hierarchical, certain castes are shunned while others are merely endogamous and exclusionary.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, concepts of purity and impurity by birth have been prevalent in Africa. In other cases, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Nupe_people" title="Nupe people">Nupe</a></i> of Nigeria, the <i><a href="/wiki/Beni_Amer" title="Beni Amer">Beni Amer</a></i> of East Africa, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Tira_people" title="Tira people">Tira</a></i> of Sudan, the exclusionary principle has been driven by evolving social factors.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="West_Africa">West Africa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: West Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GriotF%C3%AAte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/GriotF%C3%AAte.jpg/170px-GriotF%C3%AAte.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/GriotF%C3%AAte.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Griot" title="Griot">Griot</a>, who have been described as an endogamous caste of West Africa who specialise in oral story telling and culture preservation. They have been also referred to as the bard caste.</figcaption></figure> <p>Among the <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> – especially <a href="/wiki/Enugu_State" title="Enugu State">Enugu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anambra_State" title="Anambra State">Anambra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imo_State" title="Imo State">Imo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abia_State" title="Abia State">Abia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ebonyi_State" title="Ebonyi State">Ebonyi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edo_State" title="Edo State">Edo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delta_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta state">Delta</a> states of the country – scholar <a href="/w/index.php?title=Elijah_Obinna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elijah Obinna (page does not exist)">Elijah Obinna</a> finds that the <a href="/wiki/Osu_caste_system" title="Osu caste system">Osu caste system</a> has been and continues to be a major social issue. The Osu caste is determined by one's birth into a particular family irrespective of the religion practised by the individual. Once born into Osu caste, this Nigerian person is an outcast, shunned and ostracised, with limited opportunities or acceptance, regardless of his or her ability or merit. Obinna discusses how this caste system-related identity and power is deployed within government, Church and indigenous communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Obinna1_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obinna1-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>osu</i> class systems of eastern <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> are derived from indigenous religious beliefs and discriminate against the "Osus" people as "owned by deities" and outcasts. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Songhai_people" title="Songhai people">Songhai</a> economy was based on a caste system. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a review of social stratification systems in Africa, Richter reports that the term caste has been used by French and American scholars to many groups of West African artisans. These groups have been described as inferior, deprived of all political power, have a specific occupation, are hereditary and sometimes despised by others. Richter illustrates caste system in <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a>, with six sub-caste categories. Unlike other parts of the world, mobility is sometimes possible within sub-castes, but not across caste lines. Farmers and artisans have been, claims Richter, distinct castes. Certain sub-castes are shunned more than others. For example, exogamy is rare for women born into families of woodcarvers.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Mand%C3%A9_peoples" title="Mandé peoples">Mandé</a> societies in <a href="/wiki/Gambia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gambia">Gambia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> have social stratification systems that divide society by ethnic ties. The Mande class system regards the <i>jonow</i> slaves as inferior. Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Wolof_people" title="Wolof people">Wolof</a> in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the <i>geer</i> (freeborn/nobles), <i>jaam</i> (slaves and slave descendants) and the underclass <i>neeno</i>. In various parts of West Africa, <a href="/wiki/Fula_people" title="Fula people">Fulani</a> societies also have class divisions. Other castes include <i>Griots</i>, <i>Forgerons</i>, and <i>Cordonniers</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Tamari has described endogamous castes of over fifteen West African peoples, including the <a href="/wiki/Toucouleur_people" title="Toucouleur people">Tukulor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Songhai_people" title="Songhai people">Songhay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dogon_people" title="Dogon people">Dogon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Senufo_people" title="Senufo people">Senufo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minyanka_language" title="Minyanka language">Minianka</a>, Moors, <a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people">Manding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soninke_people" title="Soninke people">Soninke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolof_people" title="Wolof people">Wolof</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serer_people" title="Serer people">Serer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fula_people" title="Fula people">Fulani</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_people" title="Tuareg people">Tuareg</a>. Castes appeared among the <a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people"><i>Malinke</i> people</a> no later than 14th century, and was present among the <i>Wolof</i> and <i>Soninke</i>, as well as some <i>Songhay</i> and <i>Fulani</i> populations, no later than 16th century. Tamari claims that wars, such as the <i>Sosso-Malinke</i> war described in the <i>Sunjata</i> epic, led to the formation of blacksmith and bard castes among the people that ultimately became the Mali empire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As West Africa evolved over time, sub-castes emerged that acquired secondary specialisations or changed occupations. Endogamy was prevalent within a caste or among a limited number of castes, yet castes did not form demographic isolates according to Tamari. Social status according to caste was inherited by off-springs automatically; but this inheritance was paternal. That is, children of higher caste men and lower caste or slave concubines would have the caste status of the father.<sup id="cite_ref-tamari1_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tamari1-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Central_Africa">Central Africa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Central Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ethel_M._Albert" title="Ethel M. Albert">Ethel M. Albert</a> in 1960 claimed that the societies in <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a> were caste-like social stratification systems.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, in 1961, Maquet notes that the society in <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a> can be best described as castes.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsi</a>, noted Maquet, considered themselves as superior, with the more numerous <a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a> and the least numerous <a href="/wiki/Twa" title="Twa">Twa</a> regarded, by birth, as respectively, second and third in the hierarchy of Rwandese society. These groups were largely endogamous, exclusionary and with limited mobility.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Horn_of_Africa">Horn of Africa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Horn of Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Ethiopia, there have been a number of studies of castes. Broad studies of castes have been written by <a href="/wiki/Alula_Pankhurst" title="Alula Pankhurst">Alula Pankhurst</a>, who has published a study of caste groups in <a href="/wiki/South_West_Ethiopia_Peoples%27_Region" title="South West Ethiopia Peoples' Region">SW Ethiopia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a later volume by Dena Freeman writing with Pankhurst.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2025)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NSRW_Africa_Midgan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/NSRW_Africa_Midgan.png" decoding="async" width="168" height="199" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="168" data-file-height="199" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Madhiban" title="Madhiban">Madhiban</a> (Midgan) specialise in leather occupation. Along with the Tumal and Yibir, they are collectively known as <i>sab</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In a review published in 1977, Todd reports that numerous scholars report a system of social stratification in different parts of Africa that resembles some or all aspects of caste system. Examples of such caste systems, he claims, are to be found in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> in communities such as the <a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">Gurage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Konso_people" title="Konso people">Konso</a>. He then presents the Dime of Southwestern Ethiopia, amongst whom there operates a system which Todd claims can be unequivocally labelled as caste system. The Dime have seven castes whose size varies considerably. Each broad caste level is a hierarchical order that is based on notions of purity, non-purity and impurity. It uses the concepts of defilement to limit contacts between caste categories and to preserve the purity of the upper castes. These caste categories have been exclusionary, endogamous and the social identity inherited.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kafa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Kafa">Kafa</a>, there were also traditionally groups labelled as castes. "Based on research done before the Derg regime, these studies generally presume the existence of a social hierarchy similar to the caste system. At the top of this hierarchy were the Kafa, followed by occupational groups including blacksmiths (Qemmo), weavers (Shammano), bards (Shatto), potters, and tanners (Manjo). In this hierarchy, the Manjo were commonly referred to as hunters, given the lowest status equal only to slaves."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Borana_Oromo" class="mw-redirect" title="Borana Oromo">Borana Oromo</a> of southern <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> also have a class system, wherein the Wata, an acculturated hunter-gatherer group, represent the lowest class. Though the Wata today speak the <a href="/wiki/Oromo_language" title="Oromo language">Oromo language</a>, they have traditions of having previously spoken another language before adopting Oromo.<sup id="cite_ref-Westermann_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Westermann-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditionally nomadic <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali people</a> are divided into clans, wherein the <a href="/wiki/Rahanweyn" title="Rahanweyn">Rahanweyn</a> agro-pastoral clans and the occupational clans such as the <a href="/wiki/Madhiban" title="Madhiban">Madhiban</a> were traditionally sometimes treated as outcasts.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Gabboye, the Madhiban along with the <a href="/wiki/Yibir" title="Yibir">Yibir</a> and Tumaal (collectively referred to as <i>sab</i>) have since obtained political representation within <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, and their general social status has improved with the expansion of urban centers.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>European <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> with its rigid aristocracy can also be considered as a caste system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A formal political expression of the system was the system of three or four <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">estates of the realm</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Basque_region">Basque region</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Basque region"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For centuries, through the modern times, the majority regarded <a href="/wiki/Cagot" title="Cagot">Cagots</a> who lived primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Basque_Country_(greater_region)" title="Basque Country (greater region)">Basque region</a> of France and Spain as an inferior caste, and a group of untouchables.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While they had the same skin color and religion as the majority, in the churches they had to use segregated doors, drink from segregated fonts, and receive communion on the end of long wooden spoons. It was a closed social system. The socially isolated Cagots were endogamous, and chances of social mobility non-existent.<sup id="cite_ref-indi-2008-07-28_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indi-2008-07-28-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In July 2013, the UK government announced its intention to amend the <a href="/wiki/Equality_Act_2010" title="Equality Act 2010">Equality Act 2010</a>, to "introduce legislation on caste, including any necessary exceptions to the caste provisions, within the framework of domestic discrimination law".<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Section 9(5) of the Equality Act 2010 provides that "a <a href="/wiki/Minister_(government)" title="Minister (government)">Minister</a> may by <a href="/wiki/Statutory_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory order">order</a> amend the statutory definition of race to include caste and may provide for exceptions in the Act to apply or not to apply to caste".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>From September 2013 to February 2014, <a href="/wiki/Meena_Dhanda" title="Meena Dhanda">Meena Dhanda</a> led a project on "Caste in Britain" for the UK <a href="/wiki/Equality_and_Human_Rights_Commission" title="Equality and Human Rights Commission">Equality and Human Rights Commission</a> (EHRC).<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas">Americas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Latin America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mestizaje" class="mw-redirect" title="Mestizaje">Mestizaje</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casta_painting_all.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Casta_painting_all.jpg/150px-Casta_painting_all.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Casta_painting_all.jpg/225px-Casta_painting_all.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Casta_painting_all.jpg/300px-Casta_painting_all.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1419" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Casta painting showing 16 racial groupings. Anonymous, 18th century</figcaption></figure> <p>In colonial Spanish America (16th-early 19th centuries), there were legal divisions of society, the Republic of Spaniards (<span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">República de Españoles</i></span>), comprising European whites, African slaves (<span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">negros</i></span>), and mixed-race <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">castas</a></i></span>, the offspring of unions between whites, blacks, and indigenous. The Republic of Indians (<span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">República de Indios</i></span>) comprised all the various indigenous peoples, now classified in a single category, <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">indio</i></span>, by their colonial rulers. In the social and racial hierarchy, European Spaniards were at the apex, with legal rights and privileges. Lower racial groups (Africans, mixed-race castas, and pure indigenous), had fewer legal rights and lower social status. Unlike the rigid caste system in India, in colonial Spanish America there was some fluidity within the social order.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caste_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Caste discrimination in the United States">Caste discrimination in the United States</a></div> <p>In the opinion of <a href="/wiki/W._Lloyd_Warner" title="W. Lloyd Warner">W. Lloyd Warner</a>, discrimination in the Southern United States in the 1930s against <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">Blacks</a> was similar to Indian castes in such features as <a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">residential segregation</a> and marriage restrictions.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In her 2020 book <i><a href="/wiki/Caste:_The_Origins_of_Our_Discontents" title="Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents">Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents</a></i>, journalist <a href="/wiki/Isabel_Wilkerson" title="Isabel Wilkerson">Isabel Wilkerson</a> used caste as an analogy to understand racial discrimination in the United States.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Berreman" title="Gerald Berreman">Gerald D. Berreman</a> contrasted the differences between discrimination in the United States and India. In India, there are complex religious features which make up the system, whereas in the United States race and color are the basis for differentiation. The caste systems in India and the United States have higher groups which desire to retain their positions for themselves and thus perpetuate the two systems.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The process of creating a homogenized society by social engineering in both India and the Southern US has created other institutions that have made class distinctions among different groups evident. Anthropologist <a href="/wiki/James_C._Scott" title="James C. Scott">James C. Scott</a> elaborates on how "global <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> is perhaps the most powerful force for homogenization, whereas the state may be the defender of local difference and variety in some instances".<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The caste system, a relic of feudalistic economic systems, emphasizes differences between socio-economic classes that are obviated by openly free market capitalistic economic systems, which reward individual initiative, enterprise, merit, and thrift, thereby creating a path for social mobility.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> When the feudalistic slave economy of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">southern United States</a> was dismantled, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> and acts of <a href="/wiki/Domestic_terrorism" title="Domestic terrorism">domestic terrorism</a> committed by <a href="/wiki/White_supremacists" class="mw-redirect" title="White supremacists">white supremacists</a> prevented many industrious <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> from participating in the formal economy and achieving economic success on parity with their white peers, or destroying that economic success in instances where it was achieved, such as <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_District,_Tulsa" title="Greenwood District, Tulsa">Black Wall Street</a>, with only rare but commonly touted exceptions to lasting personal success such as <a href="/wiki/Maggie_L._Walker" title="Maggie L. Walker">Maggie Walker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annie_Turnbo_Malone" title="Annie Turnbo Malone">Annie Malone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Madam_C._J._Walker" title="Madam C. J. Walker">Madame C.J. Walker</a>. Parts of the United States are sometimes divided by race and class status despite the national narrative of integration.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A survey on caste discrimination conducted by Equality Labs<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found 67% of Indian Dalits living in the US reporting that they faced caste-based harassment at the workplace, and 27% reporting verbal or physical assault based on their caste.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEquality_Labs,_201820,_27_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEquality_Labs,_201820,_27-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace" title="Carnegie Endowment for International Peace">Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</a> study in 2021 criticizes Equality Labs findings and methodology noting Equality Labs study "relied on a nonrepresentative snowball sampling method to recruit respondents. Furthermore, respondents who did not disclose a caste identity were dropped from the data set. Therefore, it is likely that the sample does not fully represent the South Asian American population and could skew in favor of those who have strong views about caste. While the existence of caste discrimination in India is incontrovertible, its precise extent and intensity in the United States can be contested".<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a> became the first city in the United States to ban discrimination based on caste.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Racial_casteism">Racial casteism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Racial casteism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Racial casteism is a term used to identify the relationship between caste, race, and colorism. In modern-day India, the caste system has expanded to include groups and identities from diasporic groups as well such as the Africana Siddis and Kaffirs. Siddis make up 40,000 of India's vast population and are perceived as untouchables under the caste framework.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>This categorization is paired with anti-black ideology in the country, that is often adapted by broader uses of the term caste in western countries, most notably the United States. Like the Siddis, Africana caste <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Kaffirs" title="Sri Lanka Kaffirs">Sri Lanka Kaffirs</a> make up a small minority of the population with scholars noting that the exact number is hard to determine due to exclusion and lack of recognition from the government. Siddis and Kaffirs are considered untouchables due to their darker skin color alongside other physical factors that distinguish the group as lower caste.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The migration of Africana groups such as the Siddis and Kaffirs to South Asia is widely considered to be a result of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean Slave Trade</a>, initiated by Muslim Arabs. During the trade, enslaved Africans were often brought as court servants, herbalists, midwives, or as bonded labor. The limited awareness of these groups can be attributed to caste-ideology fueled from this trade.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The racial understanding of caste has largely been debated by scholars, with some like <a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Dr. B. R. Ambedkar</a> arguing that caste differences between higher caste Aryans and lower cast native-Indians being more due to religious factors. While the term remains contended, it is widely understood that this racial assessment is based on the way lower-caste people are treated. Africana diasporic groups who do not fit the caste system reflected by the <a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">scheduled tribe</a> are thus considered inferior for their darker skin and grouped in with the untouchables.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Since caste is inherited at birth and is inflexible to change throughout a lifetime, this can lead to a racial caste system where colorism largely influences the mobility one has in their lifetime. Terminology shifted away from race-conscious terms in South Asian antiquity, where Aryans had pre-conceived social hierarchies built off of race, to a caste framework during <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>'s rise in the <a href="/wiki/3rd_century_BC" title="3rd century BC">third century BCE</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Racial caste is embedded in the institutions that make up South Asia, particularly its governing bodies. When it comes to the electorate of India, voter preference is often based on race, caste, religion, alongside other attributing physical and political factors. This power imbalance alongside the rigid nature of caste can work against those of darker skin complexion to hold positions of power.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Caste_and_higher_education">Caste and higher education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Caste and higher education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The foundational divisions of caste have historically been seen as a determining factor in one's skills and career prospects. Today, many people perceive higher education as a means of achieving their own professional goals, but there are still methods based on caste assumptions used to keep lower caste out of universities. This leads to their exclusion from the potential to be part of higher-paying jobs that are perceived as more elite. This social expectation and prevention of access to education and opportunity have elongated the struggle for financial and social equity amongst people from scheduled tribes and castes. </p><p>Affirmative Action has been a global phenomenon to develop more spaces in politics, jobs, and education for people from historically disadvantaged backgrounds, which has led to the reservation system being applied to universities. Even with these regulations, caste nevertheless remains a largely determining factor in the university system in <a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">India</a>. The guarantee of admittance to a certain proportion of people from oppressed castes is not enough to deal with the implications of divisions in higher education. For example, the reservation percentage can vary by state but is generally around 15% for Scheduled Castes, but 2019-20 data shows most universities miss this mark. Across the board, there is an average of 14.7% of scheduled caste students, meaning many universities are at a far lower rate than legislated.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These reservation systems have backlash from upper caste groups, who claim that people are only admitted due to their caste status, as opposed to merit, in a similar argument playing out to affirmative action in the United States. </p><p>Reservation policies constitute a first step in providing access to admittance into higher education opportunities but do not overcome the overarching challenge of casteism.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caste-based discrimination and social stigma can still affect the experiences of students from marginalized communities in academic institutions. Universities are a crucial place of integration and moving to offer equitable opportunity beyond just attendance, but implementing protective policies to ensure students can be successful. Attendance at university has already been shown to impact how people view caste and has the potential to shape equity building beyond the current interpersonal and systemic relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several forms of discrimination manifest in universities: </p><p>Social Discrimination: Students from marginalized castes face social discrimination, exclusion, and/or isolation on campuses. This affects their general educational experience and mental well-being. Numerous cases of harassment and bullying based on caste lines have been reported, with drastic consequences for the victims, but often none for the perpetrators. This promotes a hostile environment for students and hampers their ability to engage positively in the academic community. </p><p>"When I was enrolled for an undergraduate course, I was vocal about his Dalit identity and vouched for the rights of Dalits and marginalized sections. Most of my upper-caste mates were against reservation. I was always typecast, stereotyped and even labeled with derogatory nicknames," Nishat Kabir, who is studying film at Ambedkar University in New Delhi, told Anadolu Agency.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Campus Facilities: Discrimination can also be observed in access to living facilities, food services, and other campus amenities. Students from marginalized castes may encounter difficulties in availing of these services without bias, and the living arrangements are often internally segregated. </p><p>Academic + Faculty Discrimination: Discrimination may extend to the academic sphere, with students facing biased treatment, unfair grading, or limited access to academic resources based on their caste background. Instances of discrimination can involve faculty members, who may hold biases that affect their interactions with students. This comes from the inherent hierarchical nature of caste having built centuries of prejudice against lower caste and indigenous students. This influences academic mentorship, guidance, and opportunities for students from marginalized backgrounds. </p><p>Eighty-four percent of the SC/ST students surveyed said examiners had asked them about their caste directly or indirectly during their evaluations. One student said: "Teachers are fine till they do not know your caste. The moment they come to know, their attitude towards you changes completely."<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the challenges experienced on top of the normal pressure of being a student, the discrimination that Dalits and people of OBCs face has led to increased rates of suicide, with numerous examples shown to be tied directly to campus harassment and lack of administrative support. </p><p>The clarity that comes from people sharing their experiences has led to significant pushback in the 21st century, where students have been centering fights for justice and equity, often based on movements that student activists of the past have used. Allahabad University has seen a spike in student protests and demonstrations against institutional discrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Students used tactics of information spreading from pamphlets and court cases, to public civil disobedience through marches and sit-ins to disrupt the flow of university life and lead to broader discussions. The student unrest was not unique to Allahabad University but was strong enough to last over 90 days. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Caste_in_sociology_and_entomology">Caste in sociology and entomology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Caste in sociology and entomology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The initial observational studies of the division of labour in ant colonies attempted to demonstrate that ants specialized in tasks that were best suited to their size when they emerged from the pupae stage into the adult stage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGordon201026_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon201026-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large proportion of the experimental work was done in species that showed strong variation in size.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGordon201026_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon201026-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the size of an adult was fixed for life, workers of a specific size range came to be called a "caste", calling up the traditional caste system in India in which a human's standing in society was decided at birth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGordon201026_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon201026-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The notion of caste encouraged a link between scholarship in entomology and sociology because it served as an example of a division of labour in which the participants seemed to be uncompromisingly adapted to special functions and sometimes even unique environments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200880_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200880-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To bolster the concept of caste, entomologists and sociologists referred to the complementary social or natural parallel and thereby appeared to generalize the concept and give it an appearance of familiarity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200880–82_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200880–82-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, the perceived similarities between the Indian caste system and <a href="/wiki/Ant#polymorphism" title="Ant">caste polymorphism</a> in insects were used to create a correspondence or parallelism for the purpose of explaining or clarifying racial stratification in human societies; the explanations came particularly to be employed in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200881_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200881-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ideas from <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> influenced some sociologists who believed that some groups were predetermined to belong to a lower social or occupational status.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200881_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200881-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiefly through the work of <a href="/wiki/W._Lloyd_Warner" title="W. Lloyd Warner">W. Lloyd Warner</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, a group of sociologists sharing similar principles came to evolve around the creed of caste in the 1930s and 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200881_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200881-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ecologically oriented sociologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Park" title="Robert E. Park">Robert E. Park</a>, although attributing more weight to environmental explanations than the biological nonetheless believed that there were obstacles to the assimilation of blacks into American society and that an "accommodation stage" in a biracially organized caste system was required before full assimilation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200882_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200882-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did disavow his position in 1937, suggesting that blacks were a minority and not a caste.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200882_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200882-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indian sociologist <a href="/wiki/Radhakamal_Mukerjee" title="Radhakamal Mukerjee">Radhakamal Mukerjee</a> was influenced by Robert E. Park and adopted the concept of "caste" to describe race relations in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200881–82_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200881–82-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to anthropologist Diane Rodgers, Mukerjee "proceeded to suggest that a caste system should be correctly instituted in the (US) South to ease race relations."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200881–82_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200881–82-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mukerjee often employed both entomological and sociological data and clues to describe caste systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200882_116-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200882-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote "while the fundamental industries of man are dispersed throughout the insect world, the same kind of polymorphism appears again and again in different species of social insects which have reacted in the same manner as man, under the influence of the same environment, to ensure the supply and provision of subsistence."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukerjee1926228_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukerjee1926228-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comparing the caste system in India to caste polymorphism in insects, he noted, "where we find the organization of social insects developed to perfection, there also has been seen among human associations a minute and even rigid specialization of functions, along with ant- and bee-like societal integrity and cohesiveness."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200882_116-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200882-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He considered the "resemblances between insect associations and caste-ridden societies" to be striking enough to be "amusing".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200882_116-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200882-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Estates of the realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-caste_marriages_in_India" title="Inter-caste marriages in India">Inter-caste marriages in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job" class="mw-redirect" title="Job">Job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamaiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamaiya">Kamaiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priestly_caste" title="Priestly caste">Priestly caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propiska_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propiska in the Soviet Union">Propiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Warrior caste</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Described as a "Dalit rights organisation"<sup id="cite_ref-The_Hindu_opposes_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Hindu_opposes-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a "nonprofit organization focused on ending what it calls caste apartheid".<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-caste-lead-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-caste-lead_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-caste-lead_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><div><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLagasse2007" class="citation book cs1">Lagasse, Paul, ed. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231001133425/https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/anthropology-and-archaeology/anthropology-terms-and-concepts/caste">"Caste"</a>. <i>The Columbia Encyclopedia</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14446-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14446-9"><bdi>978-0-231-14446-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/caste.aspx#3">the original</a> on 1 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2012</span>. <q><b>caste</b> [Port., casta=basket], ranked groups based on heredity within rigid systems of social stratification, especially those that constitute Hindu India. Some scholars deny that true caste systems are found outside India. The caste is a closed group whose members are severely restricted in their choice of occupation and degree of social participation. Marriage outside the caste is prohibited. Social status is determined by the caste of one's birth and may only rarely be transcended.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=The+Columbia+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-14446-9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Ftopic%2Fcaste.aspx%233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadan2012" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/T._N._Madan" title="T. N. Madan">Madan, T. N.</a> (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231024154247/https://www.britannica.com/topic/caste-social-differentiation"><i>caste</i></a>, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98395/caste">the original</a> on 24 October 2023, <q><b>caste</b>, any of the ranked, hereditary, endogamous social groups, often linked with occupation, that together constitute traditional societies in South Asia, particularly among Hindus in India. Although sometimes used to designate similar groups in other societies, the "caste system" is uniquely developed in Hindu societies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=caste&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Madan&rft.aufirst=T.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F98395%2Fcaste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta2008" class="citation book cs1">Gupta, Dipankar (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YMUola6pDnkC&pg=PA246">"Caste"</a>. In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society</i>. Thousand Oaks: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">246–</span>250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-2694-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-2694-2"><bdi>978-1-4129-2694-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2012</span>. <q><b>Caste</b>: What makes Indian society unique is the phenomenon of caste. Economic, religious, and linguistic differentiations, even race-based discrimination, are known elsewhere, but nowhere else does one see caste but in India.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Race%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Society&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E246-%3C%2Fspan%3E250&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-2694-2&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Dipankar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYMUola6pDnkC%26pg%3DPA246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBéteille2002">Béteille 2002</a>, pp. 136–137. Quote: "<b>Caste</b>: Caste has been described as the fundamental social institution of India. Sometimes the term is used metaphorically to refer to rigid social distinctions or extreme social exclusiveness wherever found, and some authorities have used the term 'colour-caste system' to describe the stratification based on race in the United States and elsewhere. But it is among the Hindus in India that we find the system in its most fully developed form although analogous forms exist among Muslims, Christians, Sikhs and other religious groups in South Asia. It is an ancient institution, having existed for at least 2,000 years among the Hindus who developed not only elaborate caste practices but also a complex theory to explain and justify those practices (Dumont 1970). The theory has now lost much of its force although many of the practices continue."</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2006" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Geoffrey Duncan (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-a4vvdBrSVgC&pg=PA194">"Castes (part of SOCIAL STRATIFICATION)"</a>. <i>A New Dictionary of the Social Sciences</i>. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction Publishers. pp. <span class="nowrap">194–</span>195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-202-30878-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-202-30878-4"><bdi>978-0-202-30878-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2012</span>. <q><b>Castes</b> A pure caste system is rooted in the religious order and may be thought of as a hierarchy of hereditary, endogamous, occupational groups with positions fixed and mobility barred by ritual distances between each caste. Empirically, the classical Hindu system of India approximated most closely to pure caste. The system existed for some 3,000 years and continues today despite many attempts to get rid of some of its restrictions. It is essentially connected with Hinduism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Castes+%28part+of+SOCIAL+STRATIFICATION%29&rft.btitle=A+New+Dictionary+of+the+Social+Sciences&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E194-%3C%2Fspan%3E195&rft.pub=Aldine+Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-202-30878-4&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+Duncan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-a4vvdBrSVgC%26pg%3DPA194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/28546">"caste, n."</a>, <i>Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition; online version June 2012</i>, Oxford, UK: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1989<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2019</span>, <q><b>caste, n.</b> 2a. spec. One of the several hereditary classes into which society in India has from time immemorial been divided; ... <i>This is now the leading sense, which influences all others.</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=caste%2C+n.&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary%2C+Second+edition%3B+online+version+June+2012&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F28546&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanti_Ghosh2023" class="citation journal cs1">Kanti Ghosh, Sumit (18 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14759756.2023.2208502">"Body, Dress, and Symbolic Capital: Multifaceted Presentation of PUGREE in Colonial Governance of British India"</a>. <i>Textile</i>. <b>22</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">334–</span>365. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14759756.2023.2208502">10.1080/14759756.2023.2208502</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-9756">1475-9756</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258804155">258804155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Textile&rft.atitle=Body%2C+Dress%2C+and+Symbolic+Capital%3A+Multifaceted+Presentation+of+PUGREE+in+Colonial+Governance+of+British+India&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E334-%3C%2Fspan%3E365&rft.date=2023-05-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A258804155%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1475-9756&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14759756.2023.2208502&rft.aulast=Kanti+Ghosh&rft.aufirst=Sumit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F14759756.2023.2208502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScottMarshall200566-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScottMarshall200566_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScottMarshall2005">Scott & Marshall 2005</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinthrop199127–30-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinthrop199127–30_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWinthrop1991">Winthrop 1991</a>, pp. 27–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1979" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, E. O. (1979). "The Evolution of Caste Systems in Social Insects". <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society" title="Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society">Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</a></i>. <b>123</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">204–</span>210. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/986579">986579</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Caste+Systems+in+Social+Insects&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E204-%3C%2Fspan%3E210&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F986579%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=E.+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBéteille200266-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBéteille200266_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBéteille2002">Béteille 2002</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oed-caste-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oed-caste_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oed-caste_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oed-caste_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-caste" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/28546">"caste"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=caste&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F28546&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolodow2010" class="citation book cs1">Solodow, Joseph B. (21 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q6UgAwAAQBAJ"><i>Latin Alive: The Survival of Latin in English and the Romance Languages</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48471-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48471-8"><bdi>978-1-139-48471-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+Alive%3A+The+Survival+of+Latin+in+English+and+the+Romance+Languages&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010-01-21&rft.isbn=978-1-139-48471-8&rft.aulast=Solodow&rft.aufirst=Joseph+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ6UgAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pitt-rivers-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pitt-rivers_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPitt-Rivers1971" class="citation book cs1">Pitt-Rivers, Julian (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f509AAAAIAAJ&pg=231">"On the word 'caste'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. In Beidelman, T. O. (ed.). <i>The translation of culture essays to E.E. Evans-Pritchard</i>. London, UK: Tavistock. pp. <span class="nowrap">231–</span>256. GGKEY:EC3ZBGF5QC9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+word+%27caste%27&rft.btitle=The+translation+of+culture+essays+to+E.E.+Evans-Pritchard&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E231-%3C%2Fspan%3E256&rft.pub=Tavistock&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Pitt-Rivers&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df509AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3D231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinson2018" class="citation book cs1">Vinson, Ben (2018). <i>Before Mestizaje: The Frontiers of Race and Caste in Colonial Mexico</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02643-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02643-8"><bdi>978-1-107-02643-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Mestizaje%3A+The+Frontiers+of+Race+and+Caste+in+Colonial+Mexico&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-107-02643-8&rft.aulast=Vinson&rft.aufirst=Ben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231024105448/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/genetic-study-suggests-caste-began-to-dictate-marriage-from-gupta-reign/">"Genetic study suggests caste began to dictate marriage from Gupta reign"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Indian_Express" title="The Indian Express">The Indian Express</a></i>. 16 February 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/genetic-study-suggests-caste-began-to-dictate-marriage-from-gupta-reign/">the original</a> on 24 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Express&rft.atitle=Genetic+study+suggests+caste+began+to+dictate+marriage+from+Gupta+reign&rft.date=2016-02-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findianexpress.com%2Farticle%2Findia%2Findia-news-india%2Fgenetic-study-suggests-caste-began-to-dictate-marriage-from-gupta-reign%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalyan2016" class="citation news cs1">Kalyan, Ray (27 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240301144303/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/525390/caste-originated-during-gupta-dynasty.html">"Caste originated during Gupta dynasty: Study"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deccanherald.com/content/525390/caste-originated-during-gupta-dynasty.html">the original</a> on 1 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Caste+originated+during+Gupta+dynasty%3A+Study&rft.date=2016-01-27&rft.aulast=Kalyan&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deccanherald.com%2Fcontent%2F525390%2Fcaste-originated-during-gupta-dynasty.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2019" class="citation web cs1">Martin, Phillip (27 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240729192245/https://theworld.org/stories/2019/02/27/surajs-shadow-wherever-he-goes-his-caste-follows-even-america">"Even with a Harvard pedigree, caste follows 'like a shadow'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The World from PRX</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-03-05/even-harvard-pedigree-caste-follows-shadow">the original</a> on 29 July 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+from+PRX&rft.atitle=Even+with+a+Harvard+pedigree%2C+caste+follows+%27like+a+shadow%27&rft.date=2019-02-27&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pri.org%2Fstories%2F2019-03-05%2Feven-harvard-pedigree-caste-follows-shadow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrooke" class="citation book cs1">Crooke, William. "Social Types". In Risley, Herbert Hope (ed.). <i>The People of India</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Types&rft.btitle=The+People+of+India&rft.aulast=Crooke&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2012" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Kaushik (2012). <i>Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01736-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01736-8"><bdi>978-1-107-01736-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism+and+the+Ethics+of+Warfare+in+South+Asia%3A+From+Antiquity+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01736-8&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Kaushik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1838" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, William Cooke (1838). <i>Examination and Analysis of the Mackenzie Manuscripts Deposited in the Madras College Library</i>. Asiatic Society. pp. <span class="nowrap">49–</span>55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Examination+and+Analysis+of+the+Mackenzie+Manuscripts+Deposited+in+the+Madras+College+Library&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E49-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.pub=Asiatic+Society&rft.date=1838&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=William+Cooke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bilhana, in his Sanskrit work Vikramanakadevacharitam claims the Chalukyas were born from the feet of Brahma, implying they were Shudras, while some sources claim they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence were Kshatriyas (Ramesh 1984, p. 15)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalbot2001" class="citation book cs1">Talbot, Austin Cynthia (2001). <i>Pre-colonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19803-123-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19803-123-9"><bdi>978-0-19803-123-9</bdi></a>. <q>Most of the Kakatiya records proudly describe them as Shudra.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pre-colonial+India+in+Practice%3A+Society%2C+Region%2C+and+Identity+in+Medieval+Andhra&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19803-123-9&rft.aulast=Talbot&rft.aufirst=Austin+Cynthia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span>; Examples include the Bothpur and Vaddamanu inscriptions of Ganapati's general Malyala Gunda senani. The Kakatiyas also maintained marital relations with other Shudra families, such as the Kotas and the Natavadi chiefs. All these evidences indicate that the Kakatiyas were of Shudra origin.[Sastry, P. V. Parabhrama (1978). N. Ramesan, ed. The Kākatiyas of Warangal. Hyderabad: Government of Andhra Pradesh. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/252341228">252341228</a>, p. 29]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAltekar1934" class="citation book cs1">Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1934). <i>The Rashtrakutas And Their Times; being a political, administrative, religious, social, economic and literary history of the Deccan during C. 750 A.D. to C. 1000 A.D</i>. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. p. 331. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3793499">3793499</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rashtrakutas+And+Their+Times%3B+being+a+political%2C+administrative%2C+religious%2C+social%2C+economic+and+literary+history+of+the+Deccan+during+C.+750+A.D.+to+C.+1000+A.D.&rft.place=Poona&rft.pages=331&rft.pub=Oriental+Book+Agency&rft.date=1934&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3793499&rft.aulast=Altekar&rft.aufirst=Anant+Sadashiv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamarendra2015" class="citation journal cs1">Samarendra, Padmanabh (5 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240521102625/https://www.epw.in/journal/2011/33/special-articles/census-colonial-india-and-birth-caste.html">"Census in Colonial India and the Birth of Caste"</a>. <i>Economic and Political Weekly</i>: <span class="nowrap">7–</span>8. 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(13 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231024032557/https://www.economist.com/banyan/2013/06/29/indian-reservations">"Indian Reservations"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/banyan/2013/06/29/indian-reservations">the original</a> on 24 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Indian+Reservations&rft.date=2013-06-13&rft.aulast=R.&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fbanyan%2F2013%2F06%2F29%2Findian-reservations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarth1956" class="citation journal cs1">Barth, Fredrick (December 1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1956.58.6.02a00080">"Ecologic Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i>. <b>58</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1079–</span>1089. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1956.58.6.02a00080">10.1525/aa.1956.58.6.02a00080</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Ecologic+Relationships+of+Ethnic+Groups+in+Swat%2C+North+Pakistan&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1079-%3C%2Fspan%3E1089&rft.date=1956-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1956.58.6.02a00080&rft.aulast=Barth&rft.aufirst=Fredrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1956.58.6.02a00080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed1977" class="citation book cs1">Ahmed, Zeyauddin (1977). David, Kenneth (ed.). <i>The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia</i>. Aldine Publishing Company. pp. <span class="nowrap">337–</span>354. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7959-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7959-9"><bdi>978-90-279-7959-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Wind%3A+Changing+Identities+in+South+Asia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E337-%3C%2Fspan%3E354&rft.pub=Aldine+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-90-279-7959-9&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Zeyauddin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarriott1960" class="citation book cs1">Marriott, McKim (1960). <i>Caste ranking and community structure in five regions of India and Pakistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/186146571">186146571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste+ranking+and+community+structure+in+five+regions+of+India+and+Pakistan&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F186146571&rft.aulast=Marriott&rft.aufirst=McKim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Rogers_51–77-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-John_Rogers_51–77_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers2004" class="citation journal cs1">Rogers, John (February 2004). "Caste as a social category and identity in colonial Lanka". <i>Indian Economic and Social History Review</i>. <b>41</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">51–</span>77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001946460404100104">10.1177/001946460404100104</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143883066">143883066</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Economic+and+Social+History+Review&rft.atitle=Caste+as+a+social+category+and+identity+in+colonial+Lanka&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.date=2004-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F001946460404100104&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143883066%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-boon-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-boon_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-boon_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoon1977" class="citation book cs1">Boon, James (1977). <i>The Anthropological Romance of Bali 1597-1972: Dynamic Perspectives in Marriage and Caste, Politics and Religion</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21398-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21398-1"><bdi>978-0-521-21398-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anthropological+Romance+of+Bali+1597-1972%3A+Dynamic+Perspectives+in+Marriage+and+Caste%2C+Politics+and+Religion&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press+Archive&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-21398-1&rft.aulast=Boon&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scott1979-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scott1979_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott1979_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott1979_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott1979_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott1979_41-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott1979" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, William Henry (1979). "Class Structure in the Unhispanized Philippines". <i>Philippine Studies</i>. <b>27</b> (2, Special Issue in Memory of Frank Lynch): <span class="nowrap">137–</span>159. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42632474">42632474</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philippine+Studies&rft.atitle=Class+Structure+in+the+Unhispanized+Philippines&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2%2C+Special+Issue+in+Memory+of+Frank+Lynch&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E137-%3C%2Fspan%3E159&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42632474%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=William+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-arcilla-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-arcilla_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcilla1998" class="citation book cs1">Arcilla, José S. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uxEYobbU-D8C&q=timawa&pg=PA14"><i>An Introduction to Philippine History</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Ateneo_de_Manila_University_Press" title="Ateneo de Manila University Press">Ateneo de Manila University Press</a>. p. 14–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-971-550-261-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-971-550-261-0"><bdi>978-971-550-261-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Philippine+History&rft.pages=14-16&rft.pub=Ateneo+de+Manila+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-971-550-261-0&rft.aulast=Arcilla&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuxEYobbU-D8C%26q%3Dtimawa%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scott2-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-scott2_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott1994" class="citation book cs1">Scott, William Henry (1994). <i>Barangay: sixteenth-century Philippine culture and society</i>. <a href="/wiki/Ateneo_de_Manila_University_Press" title="Ateneo de Manila University Press">Ateneo de Manila University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-971-550-135-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-971-550-135-4"><bdi>978-971-550-135-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barangay%3A+sixteenth-century+Philippine+culture+and+society&rft.pub=Ateneo+de+Manila+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-971-550-135-4&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=William+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tokyoshoseki-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tokyoshoseki_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tokyoshoseki_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231130175341/https://www.tokyo-shoseki.co.jp/question/e/syakai.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Shinōkōshō' ya ' sì mín píng děng ' No yōgo ga tsukawa rete inai koto ni tsuite" <bdi lang="ja">「士農工商」や「四民平等」の用語が使われていないことについて</bdi></a> [Regarding the absence of the terms "Shi-no-Ko-Sho" and "Equality of the Four Classes"]. <i><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Shoseki" title="Tokyo Shoseki">Tokyo Shoseki</a></i> (in Japanese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tokyo-shoseki.co.jp/question/e/syakai.html">the original</a> on 30 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tokyo+Shoseki&rft.atitle=%27Shin%C5%8Dk%C5%8Dsh%C5%8D%27+ya+%27+s%C3%AC+m%C3%ADn+p%C3%ADng+d%C4%9Bng+%27+No+y%C5%8Dgo+ga+tsukawa+rete+inai+koto+ni+tsuite+%E3%80%8C%E5%A3%AB%E8%BE%B2%E5%B7%A5%E5%95%86%E3%80%8D%E3%82%84%E3%80%8C%E5%9B%9B%E6%B0%91%E5%B9%B3%E7%AD%89%E3%80%8D%E3%81%AE%E7%94%A8%E8%AA%9E%E3%81%8C%E4%BD%BF%E3%82%8F%E3%82%8C%E3%81%A6%E3%81%84%E3%81%AA%E3%81%84%E3%81%93%E3%81%A8%E3%81%AB%E3%81%A4%E3%81%84%E3%81%A6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tokyo-shoseki.co.jp%2Fquestion%2Fe%2Fsyakai.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-uki300823-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-uki300823_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-uki300823_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230830135959/https://www.city.uki.kumamoto.jp/2028316">"Dai 35-kai kyōkasho kara "shinōkōshō" ga kieta ̄ kōhen ̄-rei wa 3-nen kōhō uki 'ukikara' 8 tsuki-gō" <bdi lang="ja">第35回　教科書から『士農工商』が消えたー後編ー　令和3年広報うき「ウキカラ」8月号</bdi></a> [No. 35: The disappearance of the four classes of samurai, farmers, artisans and merchants from textbooks - Part 2 - August issue of the Reiwa 3rd year Uki Public Relations "Ukikara"]. <i><a href="/wiki/Uki,_Kumamoto" title="Uki, Kumamoto">Uki, Kumamoto</a></i> (in Japanese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.city.uki.kumamoto.jp/2028316">the original</a> on 30 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Uki%2C+Kumamoto&rft.atitle=Dai+35-kai+ky%C5%8Dkasho+kara+%22shin%C5%8Dk%C5%8Dsh%C5%8D%22+ga+kieta+%CC%84+k%C5%8Dhen+%CC%84-rei+wa+3-nen+k%C5%8Dh%C5%8D+uki+%27ukikara%27+8+tsuki-g%C5%8D+%E7%AC%AC35%E5%9B%9E%E3%80%80%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8%E3%81%8B%E3%82%89%E3%80%8E%E5%A3%AB%E8%BE%B2%E5%B7%A5%E5%95%86%E3%80%8F%E3%81%8C%E6%B6%88%E3%81%88%E3%81%9F+%E3%83%BC%E5%BE%8C%E7%B7%A8%E3%83%BC%E3%80%80%E4%BB%A4%E5%92%8C3%E5%B9%B4%E5%BA%83%E5%A0%B1%E3%81%86%E3%81%8D%E3%80%8C%E3%82%A6%E3%82%AD%E3%82%AB%E3%83%A9%E3%80%8D8%E6%9C%88%E5%8F%B7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.city.uki.kumamoto.jp%2F2028316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shimonoseki-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shimonoseki_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shimonoseki_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230606001503/https://www.city.shimonoseki.lg.jp/uploaded/attachment/58936.pdf">"Jinken ishiki no appudēto" <bdi lang="ja">人権意識のアップデート</bdi></a> [Update on human rights awareness] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Shimonoseki" title="Shimonoseki">Shimonoseki</a></i> (in Japanese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.city.shimonoseki.lg.jp/uploaded/attachment/58936.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Shimonoseki&rft.atitle=Jinken+ishiki+no+appud%C4%93to+%E4%BA%BA%E6%A8%A9%E6%84%8F%E8%AD%98%E3%81%AE%E3%82%A2%E3%83%83%E3%83%97%E3%83%87%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.city.shimonoseki.lg.jp%2Fuploaded%2Fattachment%2F58936.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kakaku-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kakaku_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240307120204/https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%AE%B6%E6%A0%BC-43286">"Kakaku" <bdi lang="ja">家格</bdi></a> [Family status]. <i>Kotobank</i> (in Japanese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%AE%B6%E6%A0%BC-43286#">the original</a> on 7 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kotobank&rft.atitle=Kakaku+%E5%AE%B6%E6%A0%BC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkotobank.jp%2Fword%2F%25E5%25AE%25B6%25E6%25A0%25BC-43286%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeasley197222-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeasley197222_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeasley1972">Beasley 1972</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-asahi-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-asahi_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240307171356/https://dot.asahi.com/articles/-/42642?page=2">"Kekkon wa shukun no kyoka ga hitsuyōdaga, rikon suru toki wa dōdatta? Edo jidai 'bushi' no isshō gyōji" <bdi lang="ja">結婚は主君の許可が必要だが、離婚するときはどうだった？江戸時代「武士」の一生行事</bdi></a> [Marriage required the permission of the lord, but what about divorce? The life events of the Edo period "samurai"] (in Japanese). <a href="/wiki/The_Asahi_Shimbun" title="The Asahi Shimbun">The Asahi Shimbun</a>. 31 January 2022. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dot.asahi.com/articles/-/42642?page=2">the original</a> on 7 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kekkon+wa+shukun+no+kyoka+ga+hitsuy%C5%8Ddaga%2C+rikon+suru+toki+wa+d%C5%8Ddatta%3F+Edo+jidai+%27bushi%27+no+issh%C5%8D+gy%C5%8Dji+%E7%B5%90%E5%A9%9A%E3%81%AF%E4%B8%BB%E5%90%9B%E3%81%AE%E8%A8%B1%E5%8F%AF%E3%81%8C%E5%BF%85%E8%A6%81%E3%81%A0%E3%81%8C%E3%80%81%E9%9B%A2%E5%A9%9A%E3%81%99%E3%82%8B%E3%81%A8%E3%81%8D%E3%81%AF%E3%81%A9%E3%81%86%E3%81%A0%E3%81%A3%E3%81%9F%EF%BC%9F%E6%B1%9F%E6%88%B8%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E3%80%8C%E6%AD%A6%E5%A3%AB%E3%80%8D%E3%81%AE%E4%B8%80%E7%94%9F%E8%A1%8C%E4%BA%8B&rft.pub=The+Asahi+Shimbun&rft.date=2022-01-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdot.asahi.com%2Farticles%2F-%2F42642%3Fpage%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-livedoor-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-livedoor_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240307171300/https://news.livedoor.com/article/detail/24377409/">"Edo jidai no buke no kekkon wa kantan janakatta. Bakufu no kyoka mo hitsuyōdatta" <bdi lang="ja">江戸時代の武家の結婚は簡単じゃなかった。幕府の許可も必要だった</bdi></a> [Marriage among samurai in the Edo period was not easy. They needed permission from the shogunate.]. <i>Livedoor News</i> (in Japanese). 6 June 2023. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.livedoor.com/article/detail/24377409/">the original</a> on 7 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Livedoor+News&rft.atitle=Edo+jidai+no+buke+no+kekkon+wa+kantan+janakatta.+Bakufu+no+kyoka+mo+hitsuy%C5%8Ddatta+%E6%B1%9F%E6%88%B8%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6%E3%81%AE%E7%B5%90%E5%A9%9A%E3%81%AF%E7%B0%A1%E5%8D%98%E3%81%98%E3%82%83%E3%81%AA%E3%81%8B%E3%81%A3%E3%81%9F%E3%80%82%E5%B9%95%E5%BA%9C%E3%81%AE%E8%A8%B1%E5%8F%AF%E3%82%82%E5%BF%85%E8%A6%81%E3%81%A0%E3%81%A3%E3%81%9F&rft.date=2023-06-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.livedoor.com%2Farticle%2Fdetail%2F24377409%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNair2001" class="citation web cs1">Nair, Ravi (18 June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220331133636/https://hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF39.htm">"Class, Ethnicity and Nationality: Japan Finds Plenty of Space for Discrimination"</a>. South Asia Human Rights Documentation System. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF39.htm">the original</a> on 31 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Class%2C+Ethnicity+and+Nationality%3A+Japan+Finds+Plenty+of+Space+for+Discrimination&rft.pub=South+Asia+Human+Rights+Documentation+System&rft.date=2001-06-18&rft.aulast=Nair&rft.aufirst=Ravi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrdc.net%2Fsahrdc%2Fhrfeatures%2FHRF39.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewell1961" class="citation journal cs1">Newell, William H. (December 1961). "The Comparative Study of Caste in India and Japan". <i><a href="/wiki/Asian_Survey" title="Asian Survey">Asian Survey</a></i>. <b>1</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3023467">10.2307/3023467</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3023467">3023467</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Survey&rft.atitle=The+Comparative+Study+of+Caste+in+India+and+Japan&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.date=1961-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3023467&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3023467%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Newell&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez1997" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P. (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr"><i>The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr/page/392">392</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7"><bdi>978-0-87436-885-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2017</span>. <q>10 percent of the total population on average, but it could rise up to one-third of the total.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Encyclopedia+of+World+Slavery&rft.pages=392&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-87436-885-7&rft.aulast=Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Junius+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoricalencycl01rodr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimPettid2011" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Youngmin; Pettid, Michael J. (1 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UwgUa6WWFBMC&pg=PA141"><i>Women and Confucianism in Choson Korea: New Perspectives</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. p. 141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3777-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3777-4"><bdi>978-1-4384-3777-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Confucianism+in+Choson+Korea%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.pages=141&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2011-11-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-3777-4&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Youngmin&rft.au=Pettid%2C+Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUwgUa6WWFBMC%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobi-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobi_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobi_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2004" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Gwyn (23 November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J0iRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163"><i>Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-75917-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-75917-9"><bdi>978-1-135-75917-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Structure+of+Slavery+in+Indian+Ocean+Africa+and+Asia&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004-11-23&rft.isbn=978-1-135-75917-9&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Gwyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ0iRAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim1999" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Joong-Seop (1999). "In Search of Human Rights: The Paekchŏng Movement in Colonial Korea". In Shin, Gi-Wook; Robinson, Michael (eds.). <i>Colonial Modernity in Korea</i>. Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 326. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00594-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00594-5"><bdi>978-0-674-00594-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=In+Search+of+Human+Rights%3A+The+Paekch%C5%8Fng+Movement+in+Colonial+Korea&rft.btitle=Colonial+Modernity+in+Korea&rft.pages=326&rft.pub=Harvard+Univ+Asia+Center&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00594-5&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Joong-Seop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2003" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Joong-Seop (2003). <i>The Korean Paekjŏng under Japanese rule: the quest for equality and human rights</i>. p. 147.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Korean+Paekj%C5%8Fng+under+Japanese+rule%3A+the+quest+for+equality+and+human+rights&rft.pages=147&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Joong-Seop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-proper-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-proper_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-proper_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHwang2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hwang, Kyung Moon (2004). 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UK. 6 June 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/9313174/North-Korea-caste-system-underpins-human-rights-abuses.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=North+Korea+caste+system+%27underpins+human+rights+abuses%27&rft.date=2012-06-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fasia%2Fnorthkorea%2F9313174%2FNorth-Korea-caste-system-underpins-human-rights-abuses.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemick2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Demick" title="Barbara Demick">Demick, Barbara</a> (2010). <i>Nothing to Envy: Love, Life and Death in North Korea</i>. London: Fourth Estate. pp. <span class="nowrap">26–</span>27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nothing+to+Envy%3A+Love%2C+Life+and+Death+in+North+Korea&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E26-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.pub=Fourth+Estate&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Demick&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCha2013" class="citation book cs1">Cha, Victor D. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/impossiblestaten0000chav_j2c1"><i>The Impossible State: North Korea, Past and Future</i></a>. Internet Archive. New York: Ecco. p. 186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-199850-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-199850-8"><bdi>978-0-06-199850-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Impossible+State%3A+North+Korea%2C+Past+and+Future&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=Ecco&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-06-199850-8&rft.aulast=Cha&rft.aufirst=Victor+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimpossiblestaten0000chav_j2c1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemick201028,_197,_202-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemick201028,_197,_202_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDemick2010">Demick 2010</a>, pp. 28, 197, 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPirbariMossakiYezdin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Pirbari, Dimitri; Mossaki, Nodar; Yezdin, Mirza Sileman (March 2020). "A Yezidi Manuscript:—Mišūr of P'īr Sīnī Bahrī/P'īr Sīnī Dārānī, Its Study and Critical Analysis". <i>Iranian Studies</i>. <b>53</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">223–</span>257. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2019.1669118">10.1080/00210862.2019.1669118</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-0862">0021-0862</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214483496">214483496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranian+Studies&rft.atitle=A+Yezidi+Manuscript%3A%E2%80%94Mi%C5%A1%C5%ABr+of+P%27%C4%ABr+S%C4%ABn%C4%AB+Bahr%C4%AB%2FP%27%C4%ABr+S%C4%ABn%C4%AB+D%C4%81r%C4%81n%C4%AB%2C+Its+Study+and+Critical+Analysis&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E223-%3C%2Fspan%3E257&rft.date=2020-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A214483496%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0021-0862&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00210862.2019.1669118&rft.aulast=Pirbari&rft.aufirst=Dimitri&rft.au=Mossaki%2C+Nodar&rft.au=Yezdin%2C+Mirza+Sileman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmarkhali2008" class="citation journal cs1">Omarkhali, Khanna (31 December 2008). "On the Structure of the Yezidi Clan and Tribal System and its Terminology among the Yezidis of the Caucasus". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Kurdish_Studies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Kurdish Studies (page does not exist)">Journal of Kurdish Studies</a></i>. <b>6</b>: <span class="nowrap">104–</span>119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2143%2Fjks.6.0.2038092">10.2143/jks.6.0.2038092</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1370-7205">1370-7205</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Kurdish+Studies&rft.atitle=On+the+Structure+of+the+Yezidi+Clan+and+Tribal+System+and+its+Terminology+among+the+Yezidis+of+the+Caucasus&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E104-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.date=2008-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2143%2Fjks.6.0.2038092&rft.issn=1370-7205&rft.aulast=Omarkhali&rft.aufirst=Khanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmarkhali2017" class="citation book cs1">Omarkhali, Khanna (2017). <i>The Yezidi religious textual tradition: from oral to written categories, transmission, scripturalisation and canonisation of the Yezidi oral religious texts</i>. Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-10856-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-10856-0"><bdi>978-3-447-10856-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1007841078">1007841078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Yezidi+religious+textual+tradition%3A+from+oral+to+written+categories%2C+transmission%2C+scripturalisation+and+canonisation+of+the+Yezidi+oral+religious+texts&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1007841078&rft.isbn=978-3-447-10856-0&rft.aulast=Omarkhali&rft.aufirst=Khanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicolle,_p._11-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._11_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicolle, p. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> These four are the three common "Indo-Euoropean" <a href="/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis" title="Trifunctional hypothesis">social tripartition</a> common among ancient Iranian, Indian and Romans with one extra Iranian element (from Yashna xix/17). cf. Frye, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaheri1986" class="citation book cs1">Taheri, Amir (1986). <i>The Persian Night: Iran under the Khomeinist Revolution</i>. 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(Caste in Africa?)". <i><a href="/wiki/Africa_(journal)" title="Africa (journal)">Africa</a></i>. <b>47</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">398–</span>412. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1158345">10.2307/1158345</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1158345">1158345</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144428371">144428371</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Africa&rft.atitle=La+Caste+en+Afrique%3F+%28Caste+in+Africa%3F%29&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E398-%3C%2Fspan%3E412&rft.date=1977-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144428371%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1158345%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1158345&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=D.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoshida2009" class="citation book cs1">Yoshida, Sayuri (2009). "Why did the Manjo convert to Protestant? Social Discrimination and Coexistence in Kafa, Southwest Ethiopia?". In Ege, Svein; Aspen, Harald; Teferra, Birhanu; Bekele, Shiferaw (eds.). <i>Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies</i>. Trondheim. pp. 299–309 [299].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Why+did+the+Manjo+convert+to+Protestant%3F+Social+Discrimination+and+Coexistence+in+Kafa%2C+Southwest+Ethiopia%3F&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+16th+International+Conference+of+Ethiopian+Studies&rft.place=Trondheim&rft.pages=299-309+299&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Yoshida&rft.aufirst=Sayuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Westermann-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Westermann_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithFordeWestermann1981" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Edwin William; Forde, Cyril Daryll; Westermann, Diedrich (1981). <i>Africa</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 853.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa&rft.pages=853&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Edwin+William&rft.au=Forde%2C+Cyril+Daryll&rft.au=Westermann%2C+Diedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1999" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, I. M. (1999). <i>A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa</i>. LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster. pp. <span class="nowrap">13–</span>14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+pastoral+democracy%3A+a+study+of+pastoralism+and+politics+among+the+Northern+Somali+of+the+Horn+of+Africa&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+Berlin-Hamburg-M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=I.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelacampagne1983" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Delacampagne, Christian (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230419111416/https://www.cairn.info/l-invention-du-racisme--9782213011172.htm"><i>L'invention du racisme: Antiquité et Moyen-Âge</i></a> [<i>The invention of racism: Antiquity and the Middle Ages</i>]. Hors collection (in French). Paris: <a href="/wiki/Fayard" title="Fayard">Fayard</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">114–</span>115, <span class="nowrap">121–</span>124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Ffayar.delac.1983.01">10.3917/fayar.delac.1983.01</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782213011172" title="Special:BookSources/9782213011172"><bdi>9782213011172</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cairn.info/l-invention-du-racisme--9782213011172.htm">the original</a> on 19 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27invention+du+racisme%3A+Antiquit%C3%A9+et+Moyen-%C3%82ge&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Hors+collection&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E114-%3C%2Fspan%3E115%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E121-%3C%2Fspan%3E124&rft.pub=Fayard&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Ffayar.delac.1983.01&rft.isbn=9782213011172&rft.aulast=Delacampagne&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Fl-invention-du-racisme--9782213011172.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-indi-2008-07-28-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-indi-2008-07-28_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2008" class="citation news cs1">Thomas, Sean (28 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/the-last-untouchable-in-europe-878705.html">"The Last Untouchable in Europe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a></i>. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210112024608/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/last-untouchable-europe-878705.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=The+Last+Untouchable+in+Europe&rft.date=2008-07-28&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fthe-last-untouchable-in-europe-878705.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolly2000" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jolly, Geneviève (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213120731/https://www.persee.fr/doc/mar_0758-4431_2000_num_28_1_1716">"Les cagots des Pyrénées: une ségrégation attestée, une mobilité mal connue"</a> [The cagots of the Pyrenees: an attested segregation, a poorly known mobility]. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Le_Monde_alpin_et_rhodanien&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le Monde alpin et rhodanien (page does not exist)">Le Monde alpin et rhodanien</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Monde_alpin_et_rhodanien" class="extiw" title="fr:Le Monde alpin et rhodanien">fr</a>]</span></i> (in French). <b>28</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>3): 197–222 [205]. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/mar_0758-4431_2000_num_28_1_1716">the original</a> on 13 February 2023. <q>L'étendue des aires matrimoniales et la distribution des patronymes constituent les principaux indices de la mobilité des cagots. F. Bériac relie l'extension des aires matrimoniales des cagots des différentes localités étudiées (de 20 à plus de 35 km) à l'importance et la densité relative des groupes de cagots, corrélant la recherche de conjoints lointains à l'épuisement des possibilités locales. A. Guerreau et Y. Guy, en utilisant la documentation gersoise exploitée par G. Loubès et les documents publiés par Fay pour le Béarn et la Chalosse (XVe–XVIIe s.) concluent que l'endogamie des cagots semble s'opérer au sein de trois sous-ensembles qui correspondent à ceux que distingue la terminologie à partir du XVIe siècle: agotes, cagots, capots. Au sein de chacun d'eux, les distances moyennes d'intermariage sont relativement importantes: entre 12 et 15 km en Béarn et Chalosse, plus de 30 km dans le Gers, dans une société où plus de la moitié des mariages se faisaient à l'intérieur d'un même village.</q> [The extent of marital areas and the distribution of surnames are the main indices of cagot mobility. F. Bériac links the extension of the matrimonial areas of the Cagots of the different localities studied (from 20 to more than 35 km) to the importance and the relative density of the groups of cagots, correlating the search for distant spouses with the exhaustion of possibilities local. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alain_Guerreau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alain Guerreau (page does not exist)">Alain Guerreau</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain_Guerreau" class="extiw" title="fr:Alain Guerreau">fr</a>]</span> and Y. Guy, using the <a href="/wiki/Gers" title="Gers">Gers</a> documentation exploited by G. Loubès and the documents published by Fay for Béarn and <a href="/wiki/Chalosse" title="Chalosse">Chalosse</a> (15th–17th century) conclude that the endogamy of Cagots seems to operate within three subsets that correspond to those distinguished by terminology from the 16th century: agotes, cagots, capots. Within each of them, the average intermarriage distances are relatively long: between 12 and 15 km in Béarn and Chalosse, more than 30 km in the Gers, in a society where more than half of marriages took place at home, inside the same village.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde+alpin+et+rhodanien%3Cspan+class%3D%22noprint%22+style%3D%22font-size%3A85%25%3B+font-style%3A+normal%3B+%22%3E+%26%2391%3Bfr%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.atitle=Les+cagots+des+Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es%3A+une+s%C3%A9gr%C3%A9gation+attest%C3%A9e%2C+une+mobilit%C3%A9+mal+connue&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=197-222+205&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Jolly&rft.aufirst=Genevi%C3%A8ve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fmar_0758-4431_2000_num_28_1_1716&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/225658/130726-Caste-Discrimination.pdf">"Caste legislation introduction – programme and timetable"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Government Equalities Office</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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id="CITEREFAdil2022" class="citation web cs1">Adil, Ahmad (24 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/india-struggling-with-casteism-in-higher-education/2483623">"India 'struggling' with casteism in higher education"</a>. <i>Anadolu Ajansı</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125175225/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/india-struggling-with-casteism-in-higher-education/2483623">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Anadolu+Ajans%C4%B1&rft.atitle=India+%27struggling%27+with+casteism+in+higher+education&rft.date=2022-01-24&rft.aulast=Adil&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aa.com.tr%2Fen%2Fasia-pacific%2Findia-struggling-with-casteism-in-higher-education%2F2483623&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSitlhou2017" class="citation web cs1">Sitlhou, Makepeace (21 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thewire.in/caste/india-universities-caste-discrimination">"India's Universities Are Falling Terribly Short on Addressing Caste Discrimination"</a>. <i>The Wire</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125175211/https://thewire.in/caste/india-universities-caste-discrimination">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Wire&rft.atitle=India%27s+Universities+Are+Falling+Terribly+Short+on+Addressing+Caste+Discrimination&rft.date=2017-11-21&rft.aulast=Sitlhou&rft.aufirst=Makepeace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthewire.in%2Fcaste%2Findia-universities-caste-discrimination&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumar2022" class="citation book cs1">Kumar, Satendra (31 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/43057/chapter/361484410">"Transforming universities: Student activism, caste, and politics in North India"</a>. <i>Universities as Transformative Social Spaces</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780192865571.003.0008">10.1093/oso/9780192865571.003.0008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286557-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286557-1"><bdi>978-0-19-286557-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transforming+universities%3A+Student+activism%2C+caste%2C+and+politics+in+North+India&rft.btitle=Universities+as+Transformative+Social+Spaces&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022-05-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780192865571.003.0008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-286557-1&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Satendra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F43057%2Fchapter%2F361484410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon201026-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGordon201026_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGordon201026_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGordon201026_112-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGordon2010">Gordon 2010</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200880-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200880_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodgers2008">Rodgers 2008</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200880–82-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200880–82_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodgers2008">Rodgers 2008</a>, pp. 80–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200881-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200881_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200881_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200881_115-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodgers2008">Rodgers 2008</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200882-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200882_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200882_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200882_116-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200882_116-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200882_116-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodgers2008">Rodgers 2008</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodgers200881–82-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200881–82_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodgers200881–82_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodgers2008">Rodgers 2008</a>, pp. 81–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukerjee1926228-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukerjee1926228_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMukerjee1926">Mukerjee 1926</a>, p. 228.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeasley1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_G._Beasley" title="William G. Beasley">Beasley, William G.</a> (1972). <i>The Meiji Restoration</i>. Stanford, California: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-0815-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-0815-0"><bdi>0-8047-0815-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meiji+Restoration&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-8047-0815-0&rft.aulast=Beasley&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBéteille2002" class="citation book cs1">Béteille, André (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o1VpdrbH3BUC&pg=PA136">"Caste"</a>. In Barnard, Alan; Spencer, Jonathan (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology</i>. New York; London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">136–</span>137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28558-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28558-2"><bdi>978-0-415-28558-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.place=New+York%3B+London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E136-%3C%2Fspan%3E137&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-28558-2&rft.aulast=B%C3%A9teille&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do1VpdrbH3BUC%26pg%3DPA136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoniger1999" class="citation book cs1">Doniger, Wendy, ed. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&pg=PA186">"Caste"</a>. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/186"><i>Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions</i></a></span>. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/186">186</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87779-044-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87779-044-0"><bdi>978-0-87779-044-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster%27s+Encyclopedia+of+World+Religions&rft.place=Springfield%2C+MA&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-87779-044-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZP_f9icf2roC%26pg%3DPA186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2010" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Deborah M. (2010). <i>Ant Encounters: Interaction Networks and Colony Behavior</i>. Primers in Complex Systems. Princeton and Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13879-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13879-4"><bdi>978-0-691-13879-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ant+Encounters%3A+Interaction+Networks+and+Colony+Behavior&rft.place=Princeton+and+Oxford&rft.series=Primers+in+Complex+Systems&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13879-4&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Deborah+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1999" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Deborah M. (1999). <i>Ants at work: How an insect society is organized</i>. New York: The Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-85733-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-85733-2"><bdi>0-684-85733-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ants+at+work%3A+How+an+insect+society+is+organized&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Free+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-684-85733-2&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Deborah+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta2008" class="citation book cs1">Gupta, Dipankar (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YMUola6pDnkC&pg=PA246">"Caste"</a>. In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society</i>. Thousand Oaks: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">246–</span>250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-2694-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-2694-2"><bdi>978-1-4129-2694-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Race%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Society&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E246-%3C%2Fspan%3E250&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-2694-2&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Dipankar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYMUola6pDnkC%26pg%3DPA246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLagasse2007" class="citation cs2">Lagasse, Paul, ed. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/caste.aspx#3">"Caste"</a>, <i>The Columbia Encyclopedia</i>, New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14446-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14446-9"><bdi>978-0-231-14446-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=The+Columbia+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-14446-9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Ftopic%2Fcaste.aspx%233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadan2012" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/T._N._Madan" title="T. N. Madan">Madan, T. N.</a> (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98395/caste"><i>caste</i></a>, Encyclopæida Britannica Online</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=caste&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6ida+Britannica+Online&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Madan&rft.aufirst=T.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F98395%2Fcaste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2006" class="citation cs2">Mitchell, Geoffrey Duncan (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-a4vvdBrSVgC&pg=PA194">"Castes (part of Social Stratification)"</a>, <i>A New Dictionary of the Social Sciences</i>, New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction Publishers, pp. <span class="nowrap">194–</span>195, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-202-30878-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-202-30878-4"><bdi>978-0-202-30878-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Castes+%28part+of+Social+Stratification%29&rft.btitle=A+New+Dictionary+of+the+Social+Sciences&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E194-%3C%2Fspan%3E195&rft.pub=Aldine+Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-202-30878-4&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+Duncan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-a4vvdBrSVgC%26pg%3DPA194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2012" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Mike (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5lTQRZru1SQC&pg=PA33">"caste"</a>. <i>Concise Dictionary of Social and Cultural Anthropology</i>. Malden, MA: <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3209-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3209-4"><bdi>978-1-4443-3209-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=caste&rft.btitle=Concise+Dictionary+of+Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3209-4&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5lTQRZru1SQC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMukerjee1926" class="citation book cs1">Mukerjee, Radhakamal (1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2X84AQAAIAAJ"><i>Regional Sociology</i></a>. New York and London: The Century Co. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/899573">899573</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Regional+Sociology&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=The+Century+Co.&rft.date=1926&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F899573&rft.aulast=Mukerjee&rft.aufirst=Radhakamal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2X84AQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagar2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richa_Nagar" title="Richa Nagar">Nagar, Richa</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5gCHckKszz0C&pg=PA72">"caste"</a>. In Gregory, Derek (ed.). <i>The Dictionary of Human Geography</i>. Ron Johnston, Geraldine Pratt, Michael Watts, Sarah Whatmore. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5995-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5995-4"><bdi>978-1-4443-5995-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=caste&rft.btitle=The+Dictionary+of+Human+Geography&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-5995-4&rft.aulast=Nagar&rft.aufirst=Richa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5gCHckKszz0C%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/28546">"caste, n."</a>, <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> (Second ed.), Oxford, UK: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1989<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=caste%2C+n.&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F28546&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span>) Quote: <b>caste, n.</b> 2a. spec. One of the several hereditary classes into which society in India has from time immemorial been divided; ... <i>This is now the leading sense, which influences all others.</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParry2003" class="citation book cs1">Parry, Jonathan (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IKXj9sQ3aqIC&pg=PA131">"Caste"</a>. In Kuper, Adam; Kuper, Jessica (eds.). <i>Social Science Encyclopedia</i>. London and New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28560-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28560-5"><bdi>978-0-415-28560-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=Social+Science+Encyclopedia&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-28560-5&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIKXj9sQ3aqIC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPavri2004" class="citation cs2">Pavri, Firooza (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=93OsjK8GjE0C&pg=PA63">"Caste"</a>, in Forsyth, Tim (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofin0000unse_u5w6/page/63"><i>Encyclopedia of International Development</i></a>, Abingdon, Oxon; New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofin0000unse_u5w6/page/63">63–</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25342-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25342-0"><bdi>978-0-415-25342-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+International+Development&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxon%3B+New+York&rft.pages=63-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25342-0&rft.aulast=Pavri&rft.aufirst=Firooza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D93OsjK8GjE0C%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamu2008" class="citation cs2">Ramu, G. N. (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/caste.aspx#2">"Caste"</a>, in William A. Darity (ed.), <i>International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences</i>, (Macmillan social science library), Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference US, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865967-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865967-1"><bdi>978-0-02-865967-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+Sciences&rft.place=Detroit%2C+MI&rft.series=%28Macmillan+social+science+library%29&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+US&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865967-1&rft.aulast=Ramu&rft.aufirst=G.+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Ftopic%2Fcaste.aspx%232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2008" class="citation cs2">Roberts, Nathaniel P. (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045300290.html">"Anthropology of Caste"</a>, in William A. Darity (ed.), <i>International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences</i>, Macmillan social science library, Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference US, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865967-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865967-1"><bdi>978-0-02-865967-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anthropology+of+Caste&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+Sciences&rft.place=Detroit%2C+MI&rft.series=Macmillan+social+science+library&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+US&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865967-1&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Nathaniel+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fdoc%2F1G2-3045300290.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodgers2019" class="citation book cs1">Rodgers, Diane M. (2019). "Scientific Analogies and Hierarchical Thinking: lessons from the hive?". In Brekhus, Wayne H.; Ignatow, Gabe (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Sociology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190273385.013.28">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190273385.013.28</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scientific+Analogies+and+Hierarchical+Thinking%3A+lessons+from+the+hive%3F&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Cognitive+Sociology&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190273385.013.28&rft.aulast=Rodgers&rft.aufirst=Diane+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodgers2008" class="citation book cs1">Rodgers, Diane M. (2008). <i>Debugging the Link between Social Theory and Social Insects</i>. Baton Rouge: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University_Press" title="Louisiana State University Press">Louisiana State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-3369-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-3369-9"><bdi>978-0-8071-3369-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debugging+the+Link+between+Social+Theory+and+Social+Insects&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-3369-9&rft.aulast=Rodgers&rft.aufirst=Diane+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalamone1997" class="citation cs2">Salamone, Frank A. (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA133">"Caste"</a>, in Rodriguez, Junius P. (ed.), <i>The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery</i>, vol. 1, Santa Barbara, CA; Oxford, UK: <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>, p. 133, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7"><bdi>978-0-87436-885-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Encyclopedia+of+World+Slavery&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA%3B+Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-87436-885-7&rft.aulast=Salamone&rft.aufirst=Frank+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATq5_6h2AT0C%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScottMarshall2005" class="citation book cs1">Scott, John; Marshall, Gordon (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=id8iAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA66">"caste"</a>. <i>A Dictionary of Sociology</i>. Oxford; New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860987-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860987-2"><bdi>978-0-19-860987-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=caste&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Sociology&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860987-2&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Marshall%2C+Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Did8iAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSonnad2003" class="citation book cs1">Sonnad, Subhash R. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t1geOjQ6R0MC&pg=PA115">"Caste"</a>. In Christensen, Karen; Levinson, David (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Community: From the Village to the Virtual World</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">115–</span>121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2598-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2598-9"><bdi>978-0-7619-2598-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Community%3A+From+the+Village+to+the+Virtual+World&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E121&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-2598-9&rft.aulast=Sonnad&rft.aufirst=Subhash+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt1geOjQ6R0MC%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSooryamoorthi2006" class="citation book cs1">Sooryamoorthi, Radhamany (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3mE04D9PMpAC&pg=PA252">"Caste Systems"</a>. In Leonard, Thomas M. (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of the Developing World</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 252–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-97662-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-97662-6"><bdi>978-0-415-97662-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste+Systems&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Developing+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=252-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-97662-6&rft.aulast=Sooryamoorthi&rft.aufirst=Radhamany&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3mE04D9PMpAC%26pg%3DPA252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinthrop1991" class="citation book cs1">Winthrop, Robert H. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3xoB_3C5N5QC&pg=PA27"><i>Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">27–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-24280-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-24280-9"><bdi>978-0-313-24280-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Concepts+in+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-313-24280-9&rft.aulast=Winthrop&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3xoB_3C5N5QC%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEquality_Labs,_2018" class="citation cs2">Zwick-Maitreyi, M.; Soundararajan, T.; Dar, N.; Bheel, R. F.; Balakrishnan, P. (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58347d04bebafbb1e66df84c/t/603ae9f4cfad7f515281e9bf/1614473732034/Caste_report_2018.pdf"><i>Caste in the United States: A survey of Caste among South Asian Americans</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Equality Labs, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-692-94411-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-692-94411-0"><bdi>978-0-692-94411-0</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210903051757/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58347d04bebafbb1e66df84c/t/603ae9f4cfad7f515281e9bf/1614473732034/Caste_report_2018.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 3 September 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste+in+the+United+States%3A+A+survey+of+Caste+among+South+Asian+Americans&rft.pub=Equality+Labs&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-692-94411-0&rft.aulast=Zwick-Maitreyi&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Soundararajan%2C+T.&rft.au=Dar%2C+N.&rft.au=Bheel%2C+R.+F.&rft.au=Balakrishnan%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstatic1.squarespace.com%2Fstatic%2F58347d04bebafbb1e66df84c%2Ft%2F603ae9f4cfad7f515281e9bf%2F1614473732034%2FCaste_report_2018.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLudden2001" class="citation web cs1">Ludden, David (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240419100901/https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~dludden/Dharma.htm">"Spectres of Agrarian Territory"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~dludden/Dharma.htm">the original</a> on 19 April 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania&rft.atitle=Spectres+of+Agrarian+Territory&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Ludden&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sas.upenn.edu%2F~dludden%2FDharma.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLudden2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ludden, David (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/001946460203900206">"Spectres of agrarian territory in southern India"</a>. <i>Indian Economic & Social History Review</i>. <b>39</b> (<span class="nowrap">2–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">233–</span>257. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001946460203900206">10.1177/001946460203900206</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Economic+%26+Social+History+Review&rft.atitle=Spectres+of+agrarian+territory+in+southern+India&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E233-%3C%2Fspan%3E257&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F001946460203900206&rft.aulast=Ludden&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%2F001946460203900206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>"Early Evidence for Caste in South India", pp. 467–492 in <i>Dimensions of Social Life: Essays in honour of David G. Mandelbaum</i>, Edited by Paul Hockings and Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam, 1987.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Castes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Castes">Castes</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98395">Caste</a> at the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.casteless.org/">Casteless</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/comte/Philosophy3.pdf">Auguste Comte on why and how castes developed across the world – in The Positive Philosophy, Volume 3 (see page 55 onwards)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5110/merton_sociology_science.pdf">Robert Merton on Caste and The Sociology of Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item1168367/?site_locale=en_GB">Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age</a> – <a href="/wiki/Susan_Bayly" title="Susan Bayly">Susan Bayly</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061105095243/http://www.countercurrents.org/hr-marguerite250404.htm">Class In Yemen</a> by Marguerite Abadjian (Archive of the Baltimore Sun)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://idsn.org/">International Dalit Solidarity Network: An international advocacy group for Dalits</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Segregation_by_type" title="Template:Segregation by type"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Segregation_by_type" title="Template talk:Segregation by type"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Segregation_by_type" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Segregation by type"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Segregation_in_countries_by_type_(in_some_countries,_categories_overlap)584" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Segregation in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tal_Committee" title="Tal Committee">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Muslims_from_Serbia_(1862)" title="Exodus of Muslims from Serbia (1862)">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Greece_and_Turkey" title="Population exchange between Greece and Turkey">Greece and Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1947)" title="Partition of Bengal (1947)">Partition of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Saudi_Arabia" title="Religious segregation">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Bahrain" title="Religious segregation">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Myanmar" title="Religious segregation">Myanmar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Ethnic and racial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pass_system_(Canadian_history)" title="Pass system (Canadian history)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Bahrain" title="Racial segregation">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_apartheid_in_Brazil" title="Social apartheid in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Bulgaria_and_Romania" title="Population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania">Bulgaria and Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Turks_from_Bulgaria_(1950-1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak%E2%80%93Hungarian_population_exchange" title="Czechoslovak–Hungarian population exchange">Czechoslovakia and Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Fiji" title="Racial segregation">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_situation_in_the_French_suburbs" title="Social situation in the French suburbs">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nur_f%C3%BCr_Deutsche" title="Nur für Deutsche">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_and_apartheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel and apartheid">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumiputera_(Malaysia)" title="Bumiputera (Malaysia)">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Rhodesia" title="Racial segregation">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudization" title="Saudization">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emiratisation" title="Emiratisation">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racial segregation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">Massive resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">Gender</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Afghanistan" title="Sex segregation in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Iran" title="Sex segregation in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Sex segregation in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_separation_in_Judaism" title="Gender separation in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_public_restrooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex segregation in public restrooms">Sex segregation in public restrooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist feminism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auto-segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Auto-segregation">Auto-segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkanization" title="Balkanization">Balkanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_federalism" title="Ethnic federalism">Ethnic federalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnopluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">Ethnocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_zoning" title="Exclusionary zoning">Exclusionary zoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labor camps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">Residential segregation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy (United States)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid_legislation" title="Apartheid legislation">laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporative_federalism" title="Corporative federalism">Corporative federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafrada" title="Hafrada">Hafrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_minority" title="Majority minority">Majority minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rankism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservation in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">Second-class citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_school" title="Separate school">Separate school</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">Shunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_apartheid" title="Social apartheid">Social apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>See also: <a href="/wiki/Pillarisation" title="Pillarisation">Pillarisation</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Segregation" title="Category:Segregation">Category</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caste" title="Category:Caste">caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sex_segregation" title="Category:Sex segregation">gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Racial_segregation" title="Category:Racial segregation">racial</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Segregation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Segregation">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Discrimination427" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Nationality or citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">mental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">in poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgroup_favoritism" title="Outgroup favoritism">Outgroup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_supremacism" title="Autistic supremacism">Autistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">Human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_supremacy" title="Jewish supremacy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_in_China" title="Antireligious campaigns in China">Campaigns in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Australian_sentiment" title="Anti-Australian sentiment">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_racism" title="Anti-Black racism">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Han_sentiment" title="Anti-Han sentiment">Han people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Yiddish_sentiment" title="Anti-Yiddish sentiment">Anti-Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Taiwanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Taiwanese sentiment">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Tibetan_sentiment" title="Anti-Tibetan sentiment">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-white_racism" title="Anti-white racism">White people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_bias" title="Algorithmic bias">Algorithmic bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">Sexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_medical_interventions" title="Intersex medical interventions">Intersex medical interventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence against LGBTQ people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Violence against transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_LGBTQ%2B_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination against LGBTQ+ people">LGBTQ+</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">Linguicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Braves_tomahawk_chop_and_name_controversy" title="Atlanta Braves tomahawk chop and name controversy">Braves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks_name_and_logo_controversy" title="Chicago Blackhawks name and logo controversy">Blackhawks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_City_Chiefs_name_controversy" title="Kansas City Chiefs name controversy">Chiefs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_prosecution" title="Selective prosecution">Selective prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentencing_disparity" title="Sentencing disparity">Sentencing disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untermensch" title="Untermensch">Untermensch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discriminatory<br />policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_wage_discrimination" title="Algorithmic wage discrimination">Algorithmic wage discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breadwinner_model" title="Breadwinner model">Breadwinner model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protecting_Women%27s_Private_Spaces_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act">Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countermeasures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit_study" title="Audit study">Audit study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiia" title="Korenizatsiia">Korenizatsiia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization of homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_sexism" title="Reverse sexism">Reverse sexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Prejudice_and_discrimination" title="Category:Prejudice and discrimination">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_class321" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_class" title="Template:Social class"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_class" title="Template talk:Social class"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_class" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social class"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_class321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Status</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Stratum</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic classes">Economic classes</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_model" title="Gilbert model">Gilbert model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Marxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_class" title="New class">New class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoon_class_theory" title="Spoon class theory">Spoon class theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-component_theory_of_stratification" title="Three-component theory of stratification">Weberian (three-component)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Related<wbr /> topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattering_classes" title="Chattering classes">Chattering classes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Class society">Class society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_traitor" title="Class traitor">Class traitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_society" title="High society">High society</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouveau_riche" title="Nouveau riche">Nouveau riche</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Parvenu" title="Parvenu">Parvenu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranked_society" title="Ranked society">Ranked society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_orphan" title="Social orphan">Social orphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_position" title="Social position">Social position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_(postcolonialism)" title="Subaltern (postcolonialism)">Subaltern</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Status_Anxiety" title="Status Anxiety">Status Anxiety</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_demographic321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="demographic">By demographic</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_detention" title="Administrative detention">Administrative detainee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_(law)" title="Alien (law)">Alien</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration" title="Illegal immigration">illegal immigrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">dual or multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jus_soli" title="Jus soli">native-born</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clique" title="Clique">Clique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_clique" title="Adolescent clique">adolescent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_rights_due_to_conviction_for_criminal_offense" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of rights due to conviction for criminal offense">Convicted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_worker" title="Migrant worker">Migrant worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">Political prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">Socioeconomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Stateless</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By "<a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">collar</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_worker" title="Blue-collar worker">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-collar_worker" title="Green-collar worker">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-collar" title="Grey-collar">Grey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New-collar_worker" title="New-collar worker">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink-collar_worker" title="Pink-collar worker">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">Aristocracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoi" title="Aristoi">Aristoi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanseaten_(class)" title="Hanseaten (class)">Hanseaten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">Magnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_oligarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian oligarch">Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Patrician <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(post-Roman_Europe)" title="Patrician (post-Roman Europe)">Post-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_class" title="Political class">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_family" title="Political family">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_families" title="List of political families">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_politicians" title="Hereditary politicians">Hereditary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">Royal family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">Intellectual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">Scholar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chhetri" title="Chhetri">Chhetri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_warrior" title="Eagle warrior">Cuāuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Assassins" title="Order of Assassins">Hashashin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nair_castes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nair castes">Nair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaguar_warrior" title="Jaguar warrior">Ocēlōtl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendekar" title="Pendekar">Pendekar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samurai" title="Samurai">Samurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanniyar" title="Vanniyar">Vanniyar</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vanniar_(Chieftain)" title="Vanniar (Chieftain)">Vanniar (Chieftain)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_magnate" title="Business magnate">Business magnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">Gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord" title="Lord">Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">Nobility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landed_nobility" title="Landed nobility">Landed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petty_nobility" title="Petty nobility">Petty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_money" title="Old money">Old money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overclass" title="Overclass">Overclass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robber_baron_(industrialist)" title="Robber baron (industrialist)">Robber baron</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Seigneur" title="Seigneur">Seigneur</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Superclass_(book)" title="Superclass (book)">Superclass</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Creative_class" title="Creative class">Creative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">Middle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">Petite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgher_(social_class)" title="Burgher (social class)">Burgher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_middle_class" title="Lower middle class">Lower middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_middle_class" title="Upper middle class">Upper middle class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">Working</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commoner" title="Commoner">Commoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazzaroni_(Naples)" title="Lazzaroni (Naples)">Lazzaroni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">Lumpenproletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pea-pickers" title="Pea-pickers">Pea-pickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">Peasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Underclass" title="Underclass">Under</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_tribe" title="Ant tribe">Ant tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rat_tribe" title="Rat tribe">Rat tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slave</a> / <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="country">By country or region</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="United_States92" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_mobility_in_the_United_States" title="Socioeconomic mobility in the United States">Mobility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Social class in the United States">Classes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_upper_class" title="American upper class">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_Class" class="mw-redirect" title="Donor Class">Donor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_gentry" title="American gentry">Gentry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican-American_middle_class" title="Mexican-American middle class">Mexican-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_middle_class_in_the_United_States" title="Upper middle class in the United States">Upper Middle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Underprivileged</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_lower_class" title="American lower class">Lower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Under</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_States" title="Income in the United States">Income</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home-ownership_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Home-ownership in the United States">Home-ownership</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other regions<wbr /> or countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belizean_society" title="Belizean society">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Cambodia" title="Social class in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Colombia" title="Social class in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Haiti" title="Social class in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Iran" title="Social class in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Luxembourg" title="Social class in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Nepal" title="Caste system in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_New_Zealand" title="Social class in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Nigeria" title="Social class in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_Romania" title="Social structure of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Social class in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Tibet" title="Social class in Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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[\"CITEREFCodere1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCope1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoursen-Neff2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrooke\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelacampagne1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDemick2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDirks2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoniger1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDumont1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEquality_Labs,_2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreemanPankhurst2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGandhi1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGandhi2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGundemeda2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHwang2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIgwe2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJolly2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahaliSagarika2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalyan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKanti_Ghosh2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimPettid2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumar2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLagasse2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLakshman2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLudden2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLudden2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadan2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMaquet1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarriott1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatza2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMorris2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukerjee1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNadel1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagar2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagaraj2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNair2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewell1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFObinna2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOmarkhali2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOmarkhali2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPankhurst1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParry2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPavri2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPirbariMossakiYezdin2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPitt-Rivers1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolgreen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR.2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamu2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichter1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodgers2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodgers2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodriguez1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogers2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudolphRudolph1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalamone1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamarendra2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScottMarshall2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSitlhou2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithFordeWestermann1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolodow2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSonnad2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSooryamoorthi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaheri1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTalbot2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTamari1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1838\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTodd1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVinson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarner1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinthrop1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoshida2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFʻAlamdārī\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Britannica\"] = 1,\n [\"Bulleted list\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 12,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite OED\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 55,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 29,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 22,\n [\"Cn\"] = 9,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Discrimination\"] = 1,\n [\"Discrimination sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 3,\n [\"Korean caste system\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 26,\n [\"Langx\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"Nihongo3\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"OCLC\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Pn\"] = 2,\n [\"Political anthropology\"] = 1,\n [\"Politics of India\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Segregation by type\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 22,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Social class\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 4,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","300","19.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","200","12.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","10.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","6.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","6.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","6.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","5.1"],["recursiveClone 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-28T05:32:13Z","dateModified":"2025-02-17T00:12:53Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/13\/Basor_Dalit_caste.jpg","headline":"fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification"}</script> </body> </html>