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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 First World War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Versailles_peace_conference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Versailles_peace_conference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Versailles peace conference </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Versailles_peace_conference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_1920s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_1920s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 In the 1920s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_1920s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-During_the_Great_Depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#During_the_Great_Depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 During the Great Depression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-During_the_Great_Depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Second World War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postwar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postwar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Postwar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postwar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_viewpoint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_viewpoint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Economic viewpoint </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economic_viewpoint-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economic viewpoint subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economic_viewpoint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Views_on_free_trade_and_protectionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_free_trade_and_protectionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Views on free trade and protectionism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_free_trade_and_protectionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Turning_point_of_the_Great_Depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turning_point_of_the_Great_Depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Turning point of the Great Depression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turning_point_of_the_Great_Depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critique_of_the_theory_of_comparative_advantage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_of_the_theory_of_comparative_advantage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Critique of the theory of comparative advantage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_of_the_theory_of_comparative_advantage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_trade_imbalances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_trade_imbalances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Views on trade imbalances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_trade_imbalances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_inflation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_inflation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Views on inflation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_inflation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Influence and legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence_and_legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Influence and legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Influence_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Keynesian_ascendancy_1939–79" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Keynesian_ascendancy_1939–79"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Keynesian ascendancy 1939–79 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Keynesian_ascendancy_1939–79-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Keynesian_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Neo-Keynesian economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Keynesian_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multiplier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiplier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Multiplier </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multiplier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Keynesian_economics_out_of_favour_1979–2007" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Keynesian_economics_out_of_favour_1979–2007"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Keynesian economics out of favour 1979–2007 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Keynesian_economics_out_of_favour_1979–2007-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Keynesian_resurgence_2008–09" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Keynesian_resurgence_2008–09"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Keynesian resurgence 2008–09 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Keynesian_resurgence_2008–09-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Keynesian_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Keynesian_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 New Keynesian economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Keynesian_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overall_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overall_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Overall views </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Overall_views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Overall views subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Overall_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Praise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Praise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Praise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Praise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Critiques </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Views on race </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Personal life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personal life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Relationships </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Marriage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Support_for_the_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Support_for_the_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Support for the arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Support_for_the_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_and_spiritual_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_and_spiritual_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Philosophical and spiritual views </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_and_spiritual_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Investments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Investments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Investments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Political life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heraldic_arms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heraldic_arms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Heraldic arms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heraldic_arms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_representations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_representations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Cultural representations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_representations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Publications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Publications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Publications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articles_and_pamphlets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles_and_pamphlets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Articles and pamphlets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles_and_pamphlets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes_and_citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Notes and citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">John Maynard Keynes</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 131 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-131" aria-hidden="true" > 131 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%86%E1%8A%95_%E1%88%98%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%90%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%B5_%E1%8A%A8%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%9D" title="ጆን መይነርድ ከይንዝ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ጆን መይነርድ ከይንዝ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%B2" title="جون مينارد كينز – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جون مينارد كينز" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Con_Meynard_Keyns" title="Con Meynard Keyns – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Con Meynard Keyns" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B2" title="جان ماینارد کینز – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جان ماینارد کینز" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B8" title="জন মেনার্ড কেইনস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জন মেনার্ড কেইনস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B7" title="Джон Мэйнард Кейнз – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Джон Мэйнард Кейнз" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जॉन मेनार्ड कीन्स – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जॉन मेनार्ड कीन्स" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%B2" title="دجون ميينارد كيينز – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="دجون ميينارد كيينز" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%9C%CE%AD%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%84_%CE%9A%CE%AD%CF%85%CE%BD%CF%82" title="Τζων Μέυναρντ Κέυνς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζων Μέυναρντ Κέυνς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B2" title="جان مینارد کینز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جان مینارد کینز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B4_%EB%A9%94%EC%9D%B4%EB%84%88%EB%93%9C_%EC%BC%80%EC%9D%B8%EC%8A%A4" title="존 메이너드 케인스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="존 메이너드 케인스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%B6%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4_%D5%94%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%B6%D5%BD" title="Ջոն Մեյնարդ Քեյնս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջոն Մեյնարդ Քեյնս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जॉन मेनार्ड कीन्स – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जॉन मेनार्ड कीन्स" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A1" title="ג'ון מיינרד קיינס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'ון מיינרד קיינס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜಾನ್ ಮೇನಾರ್ಡ್ ಕೀನ್ಸ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜಾನ್ ಮೇನಾರ್ಡ್ ಕೀನ್ಸ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="ჯონ მეინარდ კეინზი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჯონ მეინარდ კეინზი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Жон Мейнард Кейнс – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жон Мейнард Кейнс" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%99_%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94_%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%99" title="ຈອນ ເມນາດ ເຄນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຈອນ ເມນາດ ເຄນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iohannes_Meginhardus_Keynes" title="Iohannes Meginhardus Keynes – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iohannes Meginhardus Keynes" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEons_Meinards_Keinss" title="Džons Meinards Keinss – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Džons Meinards Keinss" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Џон Мејнард Кејнс – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Џон Мејнард Кејнс" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8D%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ജോൺ മെയ്‌നാഡ് കെയ്ൻസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജോൺ മെയ്‌നാഡ് കെയ്ൻസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जॉन मेनार्ड केन्स – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जॉन मेनार्ड केन्स" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="ჯონ მეინარდ კეინზი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯონ მეინარდ კეინზი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%B2" title="كينز – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كينز" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Жон Мейнард Кейнс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Жон Мейнард Кейнс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जोन मेनार्ड किन्स – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जोन मेनार्ड किन्स" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D" title="जोन् मेनार्ड कीन्स् – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="जोन् मेनार्ड कीन्स्" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%8A%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%82%BA" title="ジョン・メイナード・ケインズ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジョン・メイナード・ケインズ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Кейнс, Джон Мейнард – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Кейнс, Джон Мейнард" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A1_%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC" title="ਜਾਨ ਮੇਨਾਰਡ ਕੇਨਜ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜਾਨ ਮੇਨਾਰਡ ਕੇਨਜ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangasinan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%88_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B2" title="جان مینارڈ کینز – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جان مینارڈ کینز" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%89_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B2" title="جان مینارډ کینز – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جان مینارډ کینز" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Кейнс, Джон Мейнард – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кейнс, Джон Мейнард" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Дьон Мейнард Кейнс – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Дьон Мейнард Кейнс" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जोन मेनार्ड केन्स – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जोन मेनार्ड केन्स" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%86%D9%86_%D9%85%DB%95%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%DA%A9%DB%95%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B2" title="جۆن مەینارد کەینز – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جۆن مەینارد کەینز" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Џон Мејнард Кејнс – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Џон Мејнард Кејнс" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9C%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D" title="ஜான் மேனார்ட் கெயின்ஸ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஜான் மேனார்ட் கெயின்ஸ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Con_Meynard_Keyns" title="Con Meynard Keyns – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Con Meynard Keyns" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D" title="జాన్ మేనార్డ్ కీన్స్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జాన్ మేనార్డ్ కీన్స్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="จอห์น เมย์นาร์ด เคนส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จอห์น เมย์นาร์ด เคนส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джон Мейнард Кейнс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%88_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B2" title="جان مینارڈ کینز – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جان مینارڈ کینز" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%83%DB%90%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90%D8%B3" title="جون ماينارد كېينېس – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="جون ماينارد كېينېس" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keins_D%C5%BEon_Meinard" title="Keins Džon Meinard – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Keins Džon Meinard" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%A2%85%E7%BA%B3%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%87%AF%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF" title="约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%96%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A1" title="דזשאן מיינארד קינס – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="דזשאן מיינארד קינס" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%A2%85%E7%B4%8D%C2%B7%E5%87%B1%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF" title="約翰·梅納·凱恩斯 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="約翰·梅納·凱恩斯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%A2%85%E7%BA%B3%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%87%AF%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF" title="约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="John Maynard Keynes" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9317#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:John_Maynard_Keynes" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">British economist (1883–1946)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"John Keynes" and "Keynes" redirect here. For his father, see <a href="/wiki/John_Neville_Keynes" title="John Neville Keynes">John Neville Keynes</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Keynes_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Keynes (disambiguation)">Keynes (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Honourable" title="The Right Honourable">The Right Honourable</a></div><div class="fn">The Lord Keynes</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Companion_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath" class="mw-redirect" title="Companion of the Order of the Bath">CB</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_British_Academy" title="Fellow of the British Academy">FBA</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Keynes_1933.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Keynes_1933.jpg/220px-Keynes_1933.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Keynes_1933.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="300" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Keynes in 1933</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1883-06-05)5 June 1883 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">21 April 1946(1946-04-21) (aged 62) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Tilton, near <a href="/wiki/Firle" title="Firle">Firle</a> in Sussex, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eton_College" title="Eton College">Eton College</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="King's College, Cambridge">King's College, Cambridge</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Lopokova" title="Lydia Lopokova">Lydia Lopokova</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1925)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parents</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Neville_Keynes" title="John Neville Keynes">John Neville Keynes</a> (father)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Ada_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Florence Ada Brown">Florence Ada Brown</a> (mother)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Academic career</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Field</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="King's College, Cambridge">King's College, Cambridge</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">School or tradition</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Influences</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Johannsen" title="Nicholas Johannsen">Johannsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._N._Keynes" class="mw-redirect" title="J. N. Keynes">Keynes Sr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knut_Wicksell" title="Knut Wicksell">Wicksell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a><a href="#cite_note-cht-2">[2]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sraffa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Contributions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Liquidity_preference" title="Liquidity preference">Liquidity preference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Spending_multiplier" class="mw-redirect" title="Spending multiplier">Spending multiplier</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/AD%E2%80%93AS_model" title="AD–AS model">AD–AS model</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Demand-side_economics" title="Demand-side economics">Demand-side economics</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_House_of_Lords" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the House of Lords">Member of the House of Lords</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><div class="skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="width:100%; margin:0; color: black; background-color: #eee"><a href="/wiki/Lords_Temporal" title="Lords Temporal">Lord Temporal</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 7 July 1942 – 21 April 1946 <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_peer" title="Hereditary peer">Hereditary peerage</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Peerage abolished</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Peerage created</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:JM_Keynes_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/JM_Keynes_signature.svg/150px-JM_Keynes_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="51" class="mw-file-element" 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Macroeconomics" title="Category:Macroeconomics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ec_8_(26088200676)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Federal Reserve" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Ec_8_%2826088200676%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1633" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">Aggregate demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">Aggregate supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compound_annual_growth_rate" title="Compound annual growth rate">CAGR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">Deflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_shock" title="Demand shock">Demand shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinflation" title="Disinflation">Disinflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_demand" title="Effective demand">Effective demand</a></li> <li>Expectations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_expectations" title="Adaptive expectations">Adaptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_expectations" title="Rational expectations">Rational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">Inflation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand-pull_inflation" title="Demand-pull inflation">Demand-pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost-push_inflation" title="Cost-push inflation">Cost-push</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interest_rate" title="Interest rate">Interest rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_(macroeconomics)" title="Investment (macroeconomics)">Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquidity_trap" title="Liquidity trap">Liquidity trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measures_of_national_income_and_output" title="Measures of national income and output">Measures of national income and output</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross_national_income" title="Gross national income">GNI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_national_income" title="Net national income">NNI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfoundations" title="Microfoundations">Microfoundations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">Money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_money" title="Endogenous money">Endogenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_creation" title="Money creation">Money creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_for_money" title="Demand for money">Demand for money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liquidity_preference" title="Liquidity preference">Liquidity preference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">Money supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_accounts" title="National accounts">National accounts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/System_of_National_Accounts" title="System of National Accounts">SNA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_rigidity" title="Nominal rigidity">Nominal rigidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_level" title="Price level">Price level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrinkflation" title="Shrinkflation">Shrinkflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Stagflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_shock" title="Supply shock">Supply shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_saving" title="National saving">Saving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_policy" title="Commercial policy">Commercial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income" title="Universal basic income">Universal basic income</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Models</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IS%E2%80%93LM_model" title="IS–LM model">IS–LM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AD%E2%80%93AS_model" title="AD–AS model">AD–AS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_cross" title="Keynesian cross">Keynesian cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplier_(economics)" title="Multiplier (economics)">Multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accelerator_effect" title="Accelerator effect">Accelerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_curve" title="Phillips curve">Phillips curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrow%E2%80%93Debreu_model" title="Arrow–Debreu model">Arrow–Debreu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrod%E2%80%93Domar_model" title="Harrod–Domar model">Harrod–Domar</a>Нмиф</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solow%E2%80%93Swan_model" title="Solow–Swan model">Solow–Swan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey%E2%80%93Cass%E2%80%93Koopmans_model" title="Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model">Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overlapping_generations_model" title="Overlapping generations model">Overlapping generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium_theory" title="General equilibrium theory">General equilibrium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_stochastic_general_equilibrium" title="Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium">DSGE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_growth_theory" title="Endogenous growth theory">Endogenous growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matching_theory_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matching theory (economics)">Matching theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundell%E2%80%93Fleming_model" title="Mundell–Fleming model">Mundell–Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overshooting_model" title="Overshooting model">Overshooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAIRU" title="NAIRU">NAIRU</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related fields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Economic statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_economics" title="International economics">International economics</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_macroeconomic_thought" title="History of macroeconomic thought">Schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">Mainstream <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_business-cycle_theory" title="Real business-cycle theory">Real business-cycle theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_school_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockholm school (economics)">Stockholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_neoclassical_synthesis" title="New neoclassical synthesis">New neoclassical synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_and_freshwater_economics" title="Saltwater and freshwater economics">Saltwater and freshwater</a></li></ul> Heterodox <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_monetary_theory" title="Modern monetary theory">Modern monetary theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_circuit_theory" title="Monetary circuit theory">Circuitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disequilibrium_macroeconomics" title="Disequilibrium macroeconomics">Disequilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_monetarism" title="Market monetarism">Market monetarism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Macroeconomists" title="Category:Macroeconomists">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Robert Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Léon Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knut_Wicksell" title="Knut Wicksell">Knut Wicksell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Irving Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_Clair_Mitchell" title="Wesley Clair Mitchell">Wesley Clair Mitchell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Maynard Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Hansen" title="Alvin Hansen">Alvin Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Michał Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Gunnar Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Simon Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Joan Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">John Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stone" title="Richard Stone">Richard Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyman_Minsky" title="Hyman Minsky">Hyman Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Klein" title="Lawrence Klein">Lawrence Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Phelps" title="Edmund Phelps">Edmund Phelps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Robert Lucas Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Prescott" title="Edward C. Prescott">Edward C. Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Diamond" title="Peter Diamond">Peter Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Nordhaus" title="William Nordhaus">William Nordhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Sargent" title="Thomas J. Sargent">Thomas J. Sargent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Mankiw" title="Greg Mankiw">N. Gregory Mankiw</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomic_model" title="Macroeconomic model">Macroeconomic model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics#Macroeconomics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications in macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical economics</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist"> <ul><li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/16px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/24px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/32px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="465" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Money" title="Portal:Money">Money portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Macroeconomics_sidebar" title="Template:Macroeconomics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Macroeconomics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Macroeconomics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Macroeconomics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Macroeconomics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Companion_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath" class="mw-redirect" title="Companion of the Order of the Bath">CB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_British_Academy" title="Fellow of the British Academy">FBA</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/keɪnz/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">KAYNZ</a>; 5 June 1883 – 21 April 1946), was an English economist and philosopher whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Economic_policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic policies">economic policies</a> of governments. Originally trained in mathematics, he built on and greatly refined earlier work on the causes of <a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">business cycles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYerginStanislaw200239–42-4">[4]</a> One of the most influential economists of the 20th century,<a href="#cite_note-JMK-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> he produced writings that are the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">school of thought</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a>, and its various offshoots.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> His ideas, reformulated as <a href="/wiki/New_Keynesianism" class="mw-redirect" title="New Keynesianism">New Keynesianism</a>, are fundamental to <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream macroeconomics</a>. He is known as the "father of macroeconomics".<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s, Keynes spearheaded <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_Revolution" title="Keynesian Revolution">a revolution in economic thinking</a>, challenging the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a> that held that <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free markets</a> would, in the short to medium term, automatically provide full employment, as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands. He argued that <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a> (total spending in the economy) determined the overall level of economic activity, and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment, and since wages and labour costs are <a href="/wiki/Nominal_rigidity" title="Nominal rigidity">rigid downwards</a> the economy will not automatically rebound to full employment.<a href="#cite_note-:0-10">[10]</a> Keynes advocated the use of <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetary policies">monetary policies</a> to mitigate the adverse effects of economic <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recessions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Depression_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Depression (economics)">depressions</a>. After the 1929 crisis, Keynes also turned away from a fundamental pillar of neoclassical economics: <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>. He criticized Ricardian <a href="/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">comparative advantage</a> theory (the foundation of free trade), considering the theory's initial assumptions unrealistic, and became definitively protectionist.<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-National_Self-Sufficiency-13">[13]</a> He detailed these ideas in his magnum opus, <a href="/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" title="The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</a>, published in early 1936. By the late 1930s, leading Western economies had begun adopting Keynes's policy recommendations. Almost all <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> governments had done so by the end of the two decades following Keynes's death in 1946. As a leader of the British delegation, Keynes participated in the design of the international economic institutions established after the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> but was overruled by the American delegation on several aspects. Keynes's influence started to wane in the 1970s, partly as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">stagflation</a> that plagued the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economy of the United Kingdom">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">American</a> economies during that decade, and partly because of criticism of Keynesian policies by <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Monetarist" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetarist">monetarists</a>,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> who disputed the ability of government to favourably regulate the business cycle with <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a> sparked the <a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Keynesian_resurgence" title="2008–2009 Keynesian resurgence">2008–2009 Keynesian resurgence</a>. Keynesian economics provided the theoretical underpinning for economic policies undertaken in response to the <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a> by President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> of the United States, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Brown" title="Gordon Brown">Gordon Brown</a> of the United Kingdom, and other heads of governments.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine included Keynes among its <a href="/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century">Most Important People of the Century</a> in 1999, it reported that "his radical idea that governments should spend money they don't have may have saved capitalism".<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a> has described Keynes as "Britain's most famous 20th-century economist".<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In addition to being an economist, Keynes was also a <a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">civil servant</a>, a director of the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a>, and a part of the <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group" title="Bloomsbury Group">Bloomsbury Group</a> of intellectuals.<a href="#cite_note-The_Bloomsbury_Group-19">[19]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg/220px-KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg/330px-KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg/440px-KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1025" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="King's College, Cambridge">King's College, Cambridge</a>. Keynes's grandmother wrote to him saying that, since he was born in Cambridge, people will expect him to be clever.</figcaption></figure> John Maynard Keynes was born in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England, in June 1883 to an upper-middle-class family. His father, <a href="/wiki/John_Neville_Keynes" title="John Neville Keynes">John Neville Keynes</a>, was an economist and a lecturer in <a href="/wiki/Moral_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral science">moral sciences</a> at the University of Cambridge and his mother, <a href="/wiki/Florence_Ada_Keynes" title="Florence Ada Keynes">Florence Ada Keynes</a>, a local social reformer. Keynes was the firstborn and was followed by two more children – <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Hill_(social_reformer)" title="Margaret Hill (social reformer)">Margaret Neville Keynes</a> in 1885 and <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Keynes" title="Geoffrey Keynes">Geoffrey Keynes</a> in 1887. Geoffrey became a surgeon and Margaret married the Nobel Prize-winning physiologist <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Economic_historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic historian">economic historian</a> and biographer <a href="/wiki/Robert_Skidelsky,_Baron_Skidelsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Skidelsky, Baron Skidelsky">Robert Skidelsky</a>, Keynes's parents were loving and attentive. They attended a Congregational Church<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> and remained in the same house throughout their lives, where the children were always welcome to return. Keynes received considerable support from his father, including expert coaching to help him pass his scholarship exams and financial help both as a young man and when his assets were nearly wiped out at the onset of <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> in 1929. Keynes's mother made her children's interests her own, and according to Skidelsky, "because she could grow up with her children, they never outgrew home".<a href="#cite_note-SkidelP1-21">[21]</a> In January 1889, at the age of five and a half, Keynes started at the kindergarten of the <a href="/wiki/Perse_School_for_Girls" class="mw-redirect" title="Perse School for Girls">Perse School for Girls</a> for five mornings a week. He quickly showed a talent for arithmetic, but his health was poor leading to several long absences. He was tutored at home by a governess, Beatrice Mackintosh, and his mother. In January 1892, at eight and a half, he started as a day pupil at <a href="/wiki/St_Faith%27s_School" title="St Faith's School">St Faith's</a> preparatory school. By 1894, Keynes was top of his class and excelling at mathematics. In 1896, St Faith's headmaster, Ralph Goodchild, wrote that Keynes was "head and shoulders above all the other boys in the school" and was confident that Keynes could get a scholarship to Eton.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> In 1897, Keynes won a King's Scholarship to <a href="/wiki/Eton_College" title="Eton College">Eton College</a>, where he displayed talent in a wide range of subjects, particularly mathematics, <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classics</a> and history: in 1901, he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/George_Tomline_(politician)#Tomline_Prize" title="George Tomline (politician)">Tomline Prize</a> for mathematics. At Eton, Keynes experienced the first "love of his life" in Dan Macmillan, older brother of the future Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Harold_Macmillan" title="Harold Macmillan">Harold Macmillan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Supermac-23">[23]</a> Despite his middle-class background, Keynes mixed easily with upper-class pupils. In 1902, Keynes left Eton for <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="King's College, Cambridge">King's College, Cambridge</a>, after receiving a scholarship for this also, to read mathematics. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Alfred Marshall</a> begged Keynes to become an economist,<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> although Keynes's own inclinations drew him towards philosophy, especially the ethical system of <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>. Keynes was elected to the <a href="/wiki/University_Pitt_Club" title="University Pitt Club">University Pitt Club</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> and was an active member of the semi-secretive <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Apostles" title="Cambridge Apostles">Cambridge Apostles</a> society, a debating club largely reserved for the brightest students. Like many members, Keynes retained a bond to the club after graduating and continued to attend occasional meetings throughout his life. Before leaving Cambridge, Keynes became the president of the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Union_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Union Society">Cambridge Union Society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Liberal_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University Liberal Club">Cambridge University Liberal Club</a>. He was said to be an atheist.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In May 1904, he received a first-class <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a> in mathematics. Aside from a few months spent on holidays with family and friends, Keynes continued to involve himself with the university over the next two years. He took part in debates, further studied philosophy and attended economics lectures informally as a graduate student for one term, which constituted his only formal education in the subject. He took civil service exams in 1906. The economist <a href="/wiki/Harry_Gordon_Johnson" title="Harry Gordon Johnson">Harry Johnson</a> wrote that the optimism imparted by Keynes's early life is a key to understanding his later thinking.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Keynes was always confident he could find a solution to whatever problem he turned his attention to and retained a lasting faith in the ability of government officials to do good.<a href="#cite_note-Cunningham-29">[29]</a> Keynes's optimism was also cultural, in two senses: he was of the last generation raised by <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">an empire</a> still at the height of its power and was also of the last generation who felt entitled to govern by culture, rather than by expertise. According to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Skidelsky" title="Robert Skidelsky">Skidelsky</a>, the sense of cultural unity current in Britain from the 19th century to the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> provided a framework with which the well-educated could set various spheres of knowledge in relation to each other and life, enabling them to confidently draw from different fields when addressing practical problems.<a href="#cite_note-SkidelP1-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career">edit</a>]</div> In October 1906 Keynes began his <a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">Civil Service</a> career as a clerk in the <a href="/wiki/India_Office" title="India Office">India Office</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> He enjoyed his work at first, but by 1908 had become bored and resigned his position to return to Cambridge and work on <a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">probability theory</a>, through a lectureship in economics at first funded personally by economists <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Alfred Marshall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Arthur Pigou</a>; he became a fellow of <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="King's College, Cambridge">King's College</a> in 1909.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> By 1909 Keynes had also published his first professional economics article in <a href="/wiki/The_Economic_Journal" title="The Economic Journal">The Economic Journal</a>, about the effect of a recent global economic downturn on India.<a href="#cite_note-Minksky-32">[32]</a> He founded the <a href="/wiki/Political_Economy_Club_(1909)" title="Political Economy Club (1909)">Political Economy Club</a>, a weekly discussion group. Keynes's earnings rose further as he began to take on pupils for private tuition. In 1911 Keynes was made the editor of The Economic Journal. By 1913 he had published his first book, Indian Currency and Finance.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> He was then appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Commission">Royal Commission</a> on Indian Currency and Finance<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> – the same topic as his book – where Keynes showed considerable talent at applying economic theory to practical problems. His written work was published under the name "J M Keynes", though to his family and friends he was known as Maynard. (His father, John Neville Keynes, was also always known by his middle name).<a href="#cite_note-clarke-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_World_War">First World War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: First World War">edit</a>]</div> The British Government called on Keynes's expertise during the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>. While he did not formally rejoin the civil service in 1914, Keynes travelled to London at the government's request a few days before hostilities started. Bankers had been pushing for the suspension of <a href="/wiki/Hard_money_(policy)" title="Hard money (policy)">specie</a> payments – the gold equivalent of <a href="/wiki/Banknotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Banknotes">banknotes</a> – but with Keynes's help, the <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer" title="Chancellor of the Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</a> (then <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_George" class="mw-redirect" title="Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a>) was persuaded that this would be a bad idea, as it would hurt the future reputation of the city if payments were suspended before it was necessary. In January 1915 Keynes took up an official government position at the <a href="/wiki/HM_Treasury" title="HM Treasury">Treasury</a>. Among his responsibilities were the design of terms of credit between Britain and its continental allies during the war and the acquisition of scarce currencies. According to economist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lekachman" title="Robert Lekachman">Robert Lekachman</a>, Keynes's "nerve and mastery became legendary" because of his performance of these duties, as in the case where he managed to assemble a supply of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_peseta" title="Spanish peseta">Spanish pesetas</a>. The secretary of the Treasury was delighted to hear Keynes had amassed enough to provide a temporary solution for the British Government. But Keynes did not hand the pesetas over, choosing instead to sell them all to break the market: his boldness paid off, as pesetas then became much less scarce and expensive.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> On the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Military_conscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Military conscription">military conscription</a> in 1916, he applied for exemption as a <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">conscientious objector</a>, which was effectively granted conditional upon continuing his government work. In the 1917 King's <a href="/wiki/Birthday_Honours" title="Birthday Honours">Birthday Honours</a>, Keynes was appointed Companion of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath" title="Order of the Bath">Order of the Bath</a> for his wartime work,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> and his success led to the appointment that had a huge effect on Keynes's life and career; Keynes was appointed financial representative for the Treasury to the 1919 <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Versailles peace conference</a>. He was also appointed Officer of the Belgian <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Leopold_(Belgium)" title="Order of Leopold (Belgium)">Order of Leopold</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Versailles_peace_conference">Versailles peace conference</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Versailles peace conference">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Heavenly_Twins_(Sumner_and_Cunliffe)" title="Heavenly Twins (Sumner and Cunliffe)">Heavenly Twins (Sumner and Cunliffe)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Lloyd_George_1902.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/David_Lloyd_George_1902.jpg/170px-David_Lloyd_George_1902.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/David_Lloyd_George_1902.jpg/255px-David_Lloyd_George_1902.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/David_Lloyd_George_1902.jpg/340px-David_Lloyd_George_1902.jpg 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Keynes's colleague, <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a>. Keynes was initially wary of the "Welsh Wizard," preferring his rival <a href="/wiki/Asquith" class="mw-redirect" title="Asquith">Asquith</a>, but was impressed with Lloyd George at Versailles; this did not deter Keynes from painting a scathing picture of the then-prime minister in <a href="/wiki/The_Economic_Consequences_of_the_Peace" title="The Economic Consequences of the Peace">The Economic Consequences of the Peace</a>.</figcaption></figure> Keynes's experience at <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Versailles</a> was influential in shaping his future outlook, yet it was not a successful one. Keynes's main interest had been in trying to prevent <a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations" title="World War I reparations">Germany's compensation payments</a> being set so high it would traumatise innocent German people, damage the nation's ability to pay and sharply limit its ability to buy exports from other countries – thus hurting not just Germany's economy but that of the wider world. Unfortunately for Keynes, conservative powers in the coalition that emerged from the <a href="/wiki/1918_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1918 United Kingdom general election">1918 coupon election</a> were able to ensure that both Keynes himself and the Treasury were largely excluded from formal high-level talks concerning reparations. Their place was taken by the <a href="/wiki/Heavenly_Twins_(Sumner_and_Cunliffe)" title="Heavenly Twins (Sumner and Cunliffe)">Heavenly Twins</a> – the judge <a href="/wiki/John_Hamilton,_1st_Viscount_Sumner" title="John Hamilton, 1st Viscount Sumner">Lord Sumner</a> and the banker <a href="/wiki/Walter_Cunliffe,_1st_Baron_Cunliffe" title="Walter Cunliffe, 1st Baron Cunliffe">Lord Cunliffe</a>, whose nickname derived from the "astronomically" high war compensation they wanted to demand from Germany. Keynes was forced to try to exert influence mostly from behind the scenes. The three principal players at the Paris conferences were Britain's Lloyd George, France's <a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a> and America's President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-origins-39">[39]</a> It was only Lloyd George to whom Keynes had much direct access; until the 1918 election he had some sympathy with Keynes's view but while campaigning had found his speeches were well received by the public only if he promised to harshly punish Germany, and had therefore committed his delegation to extracting high payments. Lloyd George did, however, win some loyalty from Keynes with his actions at the Paris conference by intervening against the French to ensure the dispatch of much-needed food supplies to German civilians. Clemenceau also pushed for substantial reparations, though not as high as those proposed by the British, while on security grounds, France argued for an even more severe settlement than Britain. Wilson initially favoured relatively lenient treatment of Germany – he feared too harsh conditions could foment the rise of extremism and wanted Germany to be left sufficient capital to pay for imports. To Keynes's dismay, Lloyd George and Clemenceau were able to pressure Wilson to agree to include pensions in the reparations bill. Towards the end of the conference, Keynes came up with a plan that he argued would not only help Germany and other impoverished central European powers but also be good for the world economy as a whole. It involved the radical writing down of war debts, which would have had the possible effect of increasing international trade all round, but at the same time thrown over two-thirds of the cost of European reconstruction on the United States.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Lloyd George agreed it might be acceptable to the British electorate. However, America was against the plan; the US was then the largest creditor, and by this time Wilson had started to believe in the merits of a harsh peace and thought that his country had already made excessive sacrifices. Hence despite his best efforts, the result of the conference was a treaty which disgusted Keynes both on moral and economic grounds and led to his resignation from the Treasury.<a href="#cite_note-Skidel20s-41">[41]</a> In June 1919 he turned down an offer to become chairman of the <a href="/wiki/British_Bank_of_Northern_Commerce" title="British Bank of Northern Commerce">British Bank of Northern Commerce</a>, a job that promised a salary of £2,000 in return for a morning per week of work.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Keynes's analysis on the predicted damaging effects of the treaty appeared in the highly influential book, <a href="/wiki/The_Economic_Consequences_of_the_Peace" title="The Economic Consequences of the Peace">The Economic Consequences of the Peace</a>, published in 1919.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> This work has been described as Keynes's best book, where he was able to bring all his gifts to bear – his passion as well as his skill as an economist. In addition to economic analysis, the book contained appeals to the reader's sense of <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I cannot leave this subject as though its just treatment wholly depended either on our pledges or on economic facts. The policy of reducing Germany to servitude for a generation, of degrading the lives of millions of human beings, and of depriving a whole nation of happiness should be abhorrent and detestable, – abhorrent and detestable, even if it was possible, even if it enriched ourselves, even if it did not sow the decay of the whole civilized life of Europe.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</cite></div></blockquote> Also present was striking imagery such as "year by year Germany must be kept impoverished and her children starved and crippled" along with bold predictions which were later justified by events: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">If we aim deliberately at the impoverishment of Central Europe, vengeance, I dare predict, will not limp. Nothing can then delay for very long that final war between the forces of Reaction and the despairing convulsions of Revolution, before which the horrors of the late German war will fade into nothing.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</cite></div></blockquote> Keynes's followers assert that his predictions of disaster were borne out when the German economy suffered the <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic">hyperinflation of 1923</a>, and again by the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a> and the outbreak of the Second World War. However, historian <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Henig" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruth Henig">Ruth Henig</a> claims that "most historians of the Paris peace conference now take the view that, in economic terms, the treaty was not unduly harsh on Germany and that, while obligations and damages were inevitably much stressed in the debates at Paris to satisfy electors reading the daily newspapers, the intention was quietly to give Germany substantial help towards paying her bills, and to meet many of the German objections by amendments to the way the reparations schedule was in practice carried out".<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Only a small fraction of reparations was ever paid. In fact, historian <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Schuker" title="Stephen A. Schuker">Stephen A. Schuker</a> demonstrates in American 'Reparations' to Germany, 1919–33, that the capital inflow from American loans substantially exceeded German out payments so that, on a net basis, Germany received support equal to four times the amount of the post-Second World War <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Schuker also shows that, in the years after Versailles, Keynes became an informal reparations adviser to the German government, wrote one of the major German reparation notes, and supported hyperinflation on political grounds. Nevertheless, The Economic Consequences of the Peace gained Keynes international fame, even though it also caused him to be regarded as anti-establishment – it was not until after the outbreak of the Second World War that Keynes was offered a directorship of a major British Bank, or an acceptable offer to return to government with a formal job. However, Keynes was still able to influence government policy-making through his network of contacts, his published works and by serving on government committees; this included attending high-level policy meetings as a consultant.<a href="#cite_note-Skidel20s-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_1920s">In the 1920s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In the 1920s">edit</a>]</div> Keynes had completed his <a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Probability" title="A Treatise on Probability">A Treatise on Probability</a> before the war but published it in 1921.<a href="#cite_note-Skidel20s-41">[41]</a> The work was a notable contribution to the philosophical and mathematical underpinnings of <a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">probability theory</a>, championing the important view that probabilities were no more or less than <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth values</a> intermediate between simple truth and falsity. Keynes developed the first upper-lower probabilistic <a href="/wiki/Interval_(mathematics)" title="Interval (mathematics)">interval</a> approach to probability in chapters 15 and 17 of this book, as well as having developed the first decision weight approach with his conventional coefficient of risk and weight, c, in chapter 26. In addition to his academic work, the 1920s saw Keynes active as a journalist selling his work internationally and working in London as a financial consultant. In 1924 Keynes wrote an obituary for his former tutor <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Alfred Marshall</a> which <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> called "the most brilliant life of a man of science I have ever read".<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Paley_Marshall" title="Mary Paley Marshall">Mary Paley Marshall</a> was "entranced" by the memorial, while <a href="/wiki/Lytton_Strachey" title="Lytton Strachey">Lytton Strachey</a> rated it as one of Keynes's "best works".<a href="#cite_note-Skidel20s-41">[41]</a> In 1922 Keynes continued to advocate reduction of German reparations with A Revision of the Treaty.<a href="#cite_note-Skidel20s-41">[41]</a> He attacked the post-World War I deflation policies with <a href="/wiki/A_Tract_on_Monetary_Reform" title="A Tract on Monetary Reform">A Tract on Monetary Reform</a> in 1923<a href="#cite_note-Skidel20s-41">[41]</a> – a trenchant argument that countries should target stability of domestic prices, avoiding deflation even at the cost of allowing their currency to depreciate. Britain suffered from high unemployment through most of the 1920s, leading Keynes to recommend the depreciation of <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">sterling</a> to boost jobs by making British exports more affordable. From 1924 he was also advocating a fiscal response, where the government could create jobs by spending on public works.<a href="#cite_note-Skidel20s-41">[41]</a> During the 1920s Keynes's pro-stimulus views had only limited effect on policymakers and mainstream academic opinion – according to <a href="/wiki/Hyman_Minsky" title="Hyman Minsky">Hyman Minsky</a> one reason was that at this time his theoretical justification was "muddled".<a href="#cite_note-Minksky-32">[32]</a> The Tract had also called for an end to the gold standard. Keynes advised it was no longer a net benefit for countries such as Britain to participate in the <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a>, as it ran counter to the need for domestic policy autonomy. It could force countries to pursue deflationary policies at exactly the time when expansionary measures were called for to address rising unemployment. The Treasury and Bank of England were still in favour of the gold standard and in 1925 they were able to convince the then Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> to re-establish it, which had a depressing effect on British industry. Keynes responded by writing The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill and continued to argue against the gold standard until Britain finally abandoned it in 1931.<a href="#cite_note-Skidel20s-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="During_the_Great_Depression">During the Great Depression</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: During the Great Depression">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/170px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/255px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/340px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6205" data-file-height="8066" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> and its periods of worldwide economic hardship formed the backdrop against which the <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_Revolution" title="Keynesian Revolution">Keynesian Revolution</a> took place. This image is <a href="/wiki/Migrant_Mother" title="Migrant Mother">Migrant Mother</a>, taken by photographer <a href="/wiki/Dorothea_Lange" title="Dorothea Lange">Dorothea Lange</a> in March 1936.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" class="extiw" title="q:The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</a>.</div></div> </div> Keynes had begun a theoretical work to examine the relationship between unemployment, money and prices back in the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-50_greats-47">[47]</a> The work, <a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Money" title="A Treatise on Money">Treatise on Money</a>, was published in 1930 in two volumes. A central idea of the work was that if the amount of money being saved exceeds the amount being invested – which can happen if interest rates are too high – then unemployment will rise. This is in part a result of people not wanting to spend too high a proportion of what employers pay out, making it difficult, in aggregate, for employers to make a profit. Another key theme of the book is the unreliability of financial <a href="/wiki/Index_(economics)" title="Index (economics)">indices</a> for representing an accurate – or indeed meaningful – indication of general shifts in purchasing power of currencies over time. In particular, he criticised the justification of Britain's return to the <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a> in 1925 at pre-war valuation by reference to the <a href="/wiki/Wholesale_price_index" title="Wholesale price index">wholesale price index</a>. He argued that the index understated the effects of changes in the costs of services and labour. Keynes was deeply critical of the British government's austerity measures during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. He believed that budget deficits during <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recessions</a> were a good thing and a natural product of an economic slump. He wrote, "For Government borrowing of one kind or another is nature's remedy, so to speak, for preventing business losses from being, in so severe a slump as the present one, so great as to bring production altogether to a standstill."<a href="#cite_note-Cassidy2011-48">[48]</a> At the height of the Great Depression, in 1933, Keynes published The Means to Prosperity, which contained specific policy recommendations for tackling unemployment in a global recession, chiefly counter-cyclical public spending. The Means to Prosperity contains one of the first mentions of the <a href="/wiki/Multiplier_(economics)" title="Multiplier (economics)">multiplier effect</a>. While it was addressed chiefly to the British Government, it also contained advice for other nations affected by the global recession. A copy was sent to the newly elected President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and other world leaders. The work was taken seriously by both the American and British governments, and according to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Skidelsky" title="Robert Skidelsky">Robert Skidelsky</a>, helped pave the way for the later acceptance of Keynesian ideas, though it had little immediate practical influence. In the 1933 <a href="/wiki/London_Economic_Conference" title="London Economic Conference">London Economic Conference</a> opinions remained too diverse for a unified course of action to be agreed upon.<a href="#cite_note-Skid30s-49">[49]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?169138-1/john-maynard-keynes-fighting-freedom">Booknotes interview with Robert Skidelsky on John Maynard Keynes: Fighting for Freedom, 1937–1946, 28 April 2002</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Keynesian-like policies were adopted by Sweden and Germany, but Sweden was seen as too small to command much attention, and Keynes was deliberately silent about the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Nazi_Germany#Pre-war:_1933–1939" title="Economy of Nazi Germany">successful efforts of Germany</a> as he was dismayed by its imperialist ambitions and its treatment of Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Skid30s-49">[49]</a> Apart from Great Britain, Keynes's attention was primarily focused on the United States. In 1931, he received considerable support for his views on counter-cyclical public spending in Chicago, then America's foremost center for economic views alternative to the mainstream.<a href="#cite_note-Minksky-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skid30s-49">[49]</a> However, orthodox economic opinion remained generally hostile regarding fiscal intervention to mitigate the <a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">depression</a>, until just before the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">outbreak of war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Minksky-32">[32]</a> In late 1933 Keynes was persuaded by <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a> to address President Roosevelt directly, which he did by letters and face-to-face in 1934, after which the two men spoke highly of each other.<a href="#cite_note-Skid30s-49">[49]</a> However, according to Skidelsky, the consensus is that Keynes's efforts began to have a more than marginal influence on US economic policy only after 1939.<a href="#cite_note-Skid30s-49">[49]</a> Keynes's <a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnum opus">magnum opus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" title="The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</a> was published in 1936.<a href="#cite_note-:0-10">[10]</a> It was researched and indexed by one of Keynes's favourite students, and later economist, <a href="/wiki/David_Bensusan-Butt" title="David Bensusan-Butt">David Bensusan-Butt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The work served as a theoretical justification for the <a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">interventionist policies</a> Keynes favoured for tackling a recession. Although Keynes stated in his preface that his General Theory was only secondarily concerned with the "applications of this theory to practice," the circumstances of its publication were such that his suggestions shaped the course of the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> In addition, Keynes introduced the world to a new interpretation of taxation: since the legal tender is now defined by the state, inflation becomes "taxation by currency depreciation". This hidden tax meant a) that the standard of value should be governed by deliberate decision; and (b) that it was possible to maintain a middle course between deflation and inflation.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> This novel interpretation was inspired by the desperate search for control over the economy which permeated the academic world after the Depression. The General Theory challenged the earlier <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economic</a> paradigm, which had held that provided it was unfettered by government interference, the market would naturally establish <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a> equilibrium. In doing so Keynes was partly setting himself against his former teachers Marshall and Pigou. Keynes believed the classical theory was a "special case" that applied only to the particular conditions present in the 19th century, his theory being the general one. Classical economists had believed in <a href="/wiki/Say%27s_law" title="Say's law">Say's law</a>, which, simply put, states that "<a href="/wiki/Supply_creates_its_demand" class="mw-redirect" title="Supply creates its demand">supply creates its demand</a>", and that in a free-market workers would always be willing to lower their wages to a level where employers could profitably offer them jobs.<a href="#cite_note-kishtainy-53">[53]</a> An innovation from Keynes was the concept of <a href="/wiki/Nominal_rigidity" title="Nominal rigidity">price stickiness</a> – the recognition that in reality workers often refuse to lower their wage demands even in cases where a classical economist might argue that it is rational for them to do so. Due in part to price stickiness, it was established that the interaction of "<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">aggregate supply</a>" may lead to stable unemployment equilibria – and in those cases, it is on the state, not the market, that economies must depend for their salvation. In contrast, Keynes argued that demand is what creates supply and not the other way around. He questioned Say's Law by asking what would happen if the money that is being given to individuals is not finding its way back into the economy and is saved instead. He suggested the result would be a recession. To tackle the fear of a recession Say's Law suggests government intervention. This government intervention can be used to prevent any further increase in savings in the form of a decreased interest rate. Decreasing the interest rate will encourage people to start spending and investing again, or so it is stated by Say's Law. The reason behind this is that when there is little investing, savings start to accumulate and reach a stopping point in the flow of money. During the normal economic activity, it would be justified to have savings because they can be given out as loans but in this case, there is little demand for them, so they are doing no good for the economy. The supply of savings then exceeds the demand for loans and the result is lower prices or lower interest rates. Thus, the idea is that the money that was once saved is now re-invested or spent, assuming lower interest rates appeal to consumers. To Keynes, however, this was not always the case, and it couldn't be assumed that lower interest rates would automatically encourage investment and spending again since there is no proven link between the two.<a href="#cite_note-kishtainy-53">[53]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Keynes_caricature_Low_1934.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Keynes_caricature_Low_1934.jpg/220px-Keynes_caricature_Low_1934.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Keynes_caricature_Low_1934.jpg/330px-Keynes_caricature_Low_1934.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Keynes_caricature_Low_1934.jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>Caricature by <a href="/wiki/David_Low_(cartoonist)" title="David Low (cartoonist)">David Low</a>, 1934</figcaption></figure> The General Theory argues that demand, not supply, is the key variable governing the overall level of economic activity. Aggregate demand, which equals total un-hoarded income in a society, is defined by the sum of consumption and investment. In a state of unemployment and unused production capacity, one can enhance employment and total income only by first increasing expenditures for either consumption or investment. Without government intervention to increase expenditure, an economy can remain trapped in a low-employment equilibrium. The demonstration of this possibility has been described as the revolutionary formal achievement of the work.<a href="#cite_note-SkidelP2-54">[54]</a> The book advocated activist economic policy by government to stimulate demand in times of high unemployment, for example by spending on <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a>. "Let us be up and doing, using our idle resources to increase our wealth," he wrote in 1928. "With men and plants unemployed, it is ridiculous to say that we cannot afford these new developments. It is precisely with these plants and these men that we shall afford them."<a href="#cite_note-Cassidy2011-48">[48]</a> The General Theory is often viewed as the foundation of modern <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a>. Few senior American economists agreed with Keynes through most of the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-Hazlit-55">[55]</a> Yet his ideas were soon to achieve widespread acceptance, with eminent American professors such as <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Hansen" title="Alvin Hansen">Alvin Hansen</a> agreeing with the General Theory before the outbreak of World War II.<a href="#cite_note-new_economics-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-K_rev._and_critics-58">[58]</a> Keynes himself had only limited participation in the theoretical debates that followed the publication of the General Theory as he suffered a heart attack in 1937, requiring him to take long periods of rest. Among others, <a href="/wiki/Hyman_Minsky" title="Hyman Minsky">Hyman Minsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-Keynesian</a> economists have argued that as a result, Keynes's ideas were diluted by those keen to compromise with classical economists or to render his concepts with mathematical models like the <a href="/wiki/IS%E2%80%93LM_model" title="IS–LM model">IS–LM model</a> (which, they argue, distort Keynes's ideas).<a href="#cite_note-Minksky-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-K_rev._and_critics-58">[58]</a> Keynes began to recover in 1939, but for the rest of his life his professional energies were directed largely towards the practical side of economics: the problems of ensuring optimum allocation of resources for the war efforts, post-war negotiations with America, and the new international financial order that was presented at the <a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_Conference" title="Bretton Woods Conference">Bretton Woods Conference</a>. In the General Theory and later, Keynes responded to the socialists who argued, especially during the Great Depression of the 1930s, that capitalism caused war. He argued that if capitalism were managed domestically and internationally (with coordinated international Keynesian policies, an international monetary system that did not pit the interests of countries against one another, and a high degree of freedom of trade), then this system of managed capitalism could promote peace rather than conflict between countries. His plans during World War II for post-war international economic institutions and policies (which contributed to the creation at Bretton Woods of the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, and later to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</a> and eventually the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>) were aimed to give effect to this vision.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Although Keynes has been widely criticised – especially by members of the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school of economics</a> – for advocating irresponsible government spending financed by borrowing, in fact he was a firm believer in balanced budgets and regarded the proposals for programmes of public works during the Great Depression as an exceptional measure to meet the needs of exceptional circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_World_War">Second World War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Second World War">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WhiteandKeynes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/WhiteandKeynes.jpg/170px-WhiteandKeynes.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/WhiteandKeynes.jpg/255px-WhiteandKeynes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/WhiteandKeynes.jpg/340px-WhiteandKeynes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption> Keynes (right) and the US representative <a href="/wiki/Harry_Dexter_White" title="Harry Dexter White">Harry Dexter White</a> at the inaugural meeting of the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a>'s Board of Governors in <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah, Georgia</a> in 1946</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, Keynes argued in <a href="/wiki/How_to_Pay_for_the_War" title="How to Pay for the War">How to Pay for the War</a>, published in 1940, that the war effort should be largely financed by higher taxation and especially by compulsory saving (essentially workers lending money to the government), rather than <a href="/wiki/Deficit_spending" title="Deficit spending">deficit spending</a>, to avoid inflation. Compulsory saving would act to dampen domestic demand, assist in channelling additional output towards the war efforts, would be fairer than punitive taxation and would have the advantage of helping to avoid a post-war slump by boosting demand once workers were allowed to withdraw their savings. In September 1941 he was proposed to fill a vacancy in the Court of Directors of the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a>, and subsequently carried out a full term from the following April.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> In June 1942, Keynes was rewarded for his service with a <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_peer" title="Hereditary peer">hereditary peerage</a> in the King's Birthday Honours.<a href="#cite_note-TheLondon-62">[62]</a> On 7 July his title was <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">gazetted</a> as "Baron Keynes, of Tilton, in the County of <a href="/wiki/Sussex" title="Sussex">Sussex</a>" and he took his seat in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a> benches.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> victory began to look certain, Keynes was heavily involved, as leader of the British delegation and chairman of the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> commission, in the mid-1944 negotiations that established the <a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system" title="Bretton Woods system">Bretton Woods system</a>. The Keynes plan, concerning an international clearing-union, argued for a radical system for the management of currencies. He proposed the creation of a common world unit of currency, the <a href="/wiki/Bancor" title="Bancor">bancor</a> and new global institutions – a world <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">central bank</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Clearing_Union" title="International Clearing Union">International Clearing Union</a>. Keynes envisaged these institutions as managing an international trade and payments system with strong incentives for countries to avoid substantial trade deficits or surpluses.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The USA's greater negotiating strength, however, meant that the outcomes accorded more closely to the more conservative plans of <a href="/wiki/Harry_Dexter_White" title="Harry Dexter White">Harry Dexter White</a>. According to US economist <a href="/wiki/J._Bradford_DeLong" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Bradford DeLong">J. Bradford DeLong</a>, on almost every point where he was overruled by the Americans, Keynes was later proven correct by events.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The two new institutions, later known as the World Bank and the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF), were founded as a compromise that primarily reflected the American vision. There would be no incentives for states to avoid a large <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_trade" title="Balance of trade">trade surplus</a>; instead, the burden for correcting a trade imbalance would continue to fall only on the <a href="/wiki/Deficit_spending" title="Deficit spending">deficit</a> countries, which Keynes had argued were least able to address the problem without inflicting economic hardship on their populations. Yet, Keynes was still pleased when accepting the final agreement, saying that if the institutions stayed true to their founding principles, "the brotherhood of man will have become more than a phrase."<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postwar">Postwar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Postwar">edit</a>]</div> After the war, Keynes continued to represent the United Kingdom in international negotiations despite his deteriorating health. He succeeded in obtaining preferential terms from the United States <a href="/wiki/Anglo-American_loan" title="Anglo-American loan">for new and outstanding debts</a> to facilitate the rebuilding of the British economy.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Just before his death in 1946, Keynes told Henry Clay, a professor of social economics and advisor to the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> of his hopes that <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">invisible hand</a>" could help Britain out of the economic hole it was in: "I find myself more and more relying for a solution of our problems on the invisible hand which I tried to eject from economic thinking twenty years ago."<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_viewpoint">Economic viewpoint</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Economic viewpoint">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_on_free_trade_and_protectionism">Views on free trade and protectionism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Views on free trade and protectionism">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Turning_point_of_the_Great_Depression">Turning point of the Great Depression</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Turning point of the Great Depression">edit</a>]</div> According to Keynesian theory, trade deficits are harmful.The countries that import more than they export weaken their economies. When the trade deficit increases, unemployment rises and <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a> (GDP) slows down. Furthermore, surplus countries exert a "negative externality" on their trading partners. They get richer at the expense of others and destroy the output of their trading partners. John Maynard Keynes believed that the products of surplus countries should be taxed to avoid trade imbalances.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> At the beginning of his career, Keynes was an economist close to <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Alfred Marshall</a>, deeply convinced of the benefits of free trade. From the crisis of 1929 onwards, noting the commitment of the British authorities to defend the gold parity of the pound sterling and the rigidity of nominal wages, he gradually adhered to protectionist measures.<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a> On 5 November 1929, when heard by the <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Committee" title="Macmillan Committee">Macmillan Committee</a> to bring the British economy out of the crisis, Keynes indicated that the introduction of tariffs on imports would help to rebalance the trade balance. The committee's report states in a section entitled "import control and export aid", that in an economy where there is not full employment, the introduction of tariffs can improve production and employment. Thus, the reduction of the trade deficit favours the country's growth.<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a> In January 1930, in the Economic Advisory Council, Keynes proposed the introduction of a system of protection to reduce imports. In the autumn of 1930, he proposed a uniform tariff of 10% on all imports and subsidies of the same rate for all exports.<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a> In the Treatise on Money, published in the autumn of 1930, he took up the idea of tariffs or other trade restrictions with the aim of reducing the volume of imports and rebalancing the balance of trade.<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a> On 7 March 1931, in the <a href="/wiki/New_Statesman_and_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="New Statesman and Nation">New Statesman and Nation</a>, he wrote an article entitled Proposal for a Tariff Revenue. He pointed out that the reduction in wages led to a reduction in national demand which constrained markets. Instead, he proposed the idea of an expansionary policy combined with a tariff system to neutralise the effects on the balance of trade. The application of customs tariffs seemed to him "unavoidable, whoever the Chancellor of the Exchequer might be". Thus, for Keynes, an economic recovery policy is only fully effective if the trade deficit is eliminated. He proposed a 15% tax on manufactured and semi-manufactured goods and 5% on certain foodstuffs and raw materials, with others needed for exports exempted (wool, cotton).<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a> In 1932, in an article entitled The Pro- and Anti-Tariffs, published in <a href="/wiki/The_Listener_(magazine)" title="The Listener (magazine)">The Listener</a>, he envisaged the protection of farmers and certain sectors such as the automobile and iron and steel industries, considering them indispensable to Britain.<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Critique_of_the_theory_of_comparative_advantage">Critique of the theory of comparative advantage</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Critique of the theory of comparative advantage">edit</a>]</div> In the post-crisis situation of 1929, Keynes judged the assumptions of the free trade model unrealistic. He criticised, for example, the neoclassical assumption of wage adjustment.<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism-12">[12]</a> As early as 1930, in a note to the Economic Advisory Council, he doubted the intensity of the gain from specialisation in the case of manufactured goods. While participating in the MacMillan Committee, he admitted that he no longer "believed in a very high degree of national specialisation" and refused to "abandon any industry which is unable, for the moment, to survive". He also criticised the static dimension of the theory of comparative advantage, which, in his view, by fixing comparative advantages definitively, led in practice to a waste of national resources.<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism-12">[12]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Daily_Mail" title="Daily Mail">Daily Mail</a> of 13 March 1931, he called the assumption of perfect sectoral labour mobility "nonsense" since it states that a person made unemployed contributes to a reduction in the wage rate until he finds a job. But for Keynes, this change of job may involve costs (job search, training) and is not always possible. Generally speaking, for Keynes, the assumptions of full employment and automatic return to equilibrium discredit the theory of comparative advantage.<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism-12">[12]</a> In July 1933, he published an article in the New Statesman and Nation entitled National Self-Sufficiency, in which he criticised the argument of the specialisation of economies, which is the basis of free trade. He thus proposed the search for a certain degree of self-sufficiency. Instead of the specialisation of economies advocated by the Ricardian theory of comparative advantage, he prefers the maintenance of a diversity of activities for nations.<a href="#cite_note-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism-12">[12]</a> In it he refutes the principle of peacemaking trade. His vision of trade became that of a system where foreign capitalists compete for new markets. He defends the idea of producing on national soil when possible and reasonable and expresses sympathy for the advocates of <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-National_Self-Sufficiency-13">[13]</a> He notes in National Self-Sufficiency:<a href="#cite_note-National_Self-Sufficiency-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A considerable degree of international specialization is necessary in a rational world in all cases where it is dictated by wide differences of climate, natural resources, native aptitudes, level of culture and density of population. But over an increasingly wide range of industrial products, and perhaps of agricultural products also, I have become doubtful whether the economic loss of national self-sufficiency is great enough to outweigh the other advantages of gradually bringing the product and the consumer within the ambit of the same national, economic, and financial organization. Experience accumulates to prove that most modern processes of mass production can be performed in most countries and climates with almost equal efficiency.</blockquote> He also writes in National Self-Sufficiency:<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I sympathize, therefore, with those who would minimize, rather than with those who would maximize, economic entanglement among nations. Ideas, knowledge, science, hospitality, travel – these are the things which should of their nature be international. But let goods be homespun whenever it is reasonably and conveniently possible, and, above all, let finance be primarily national.</blockquote> Later, Keynes had a written correspondence with <a href="/wiki/James_Meade" title="James Meade">James Meade</a> centred on the issue of import restrictions. Keynes and Meade discussed the best choice between quota and tariff. In March 1944 Keynes began a discussion with <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Fleming" title="Marcus Fleming">Marcus Fleming</a> after the latter had written an article entitled Quotas versus depreciation. On this occasion, we see that he has definitely taken a protectionist stance after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. He considered that quotas could be more effective than currency depreciation in dealing with external imbalances. Thus, for Keynes, currency depreciation was no longer sufficient and protectionist measures became necessary to avoid trade deficits. To avoid the return of crises due to a self-regulating economic system, it seemed essential to him to regulate trade and stop free trade (deregulation of foreign trade).<a href="#cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_on_trade_imbalances">Views on trade imbalances</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Views on trade imbalances">edit</a>]</div> Keynes was the principal author of a proposal – the so-called Keynes Plan – for an <a href="/wiki/International_Clearing_Union" title="International Clearing Union">International Clearing Union</a>. The two governing principles of the plan were that the problem of settling outstanding balances should be solved by "creating" additional "international money", and that debtor and creditor should be treated almost alike as disturbers of equilibrium. In the event, though, the plans were rejected, in part because "American opinion was naturally reluctant to accept the principle of equality of treatment so novel in debtor-creditor relationships".<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The new system is not founded on free-trade (liberalisation<a href="#cite_note-inve_Dere-73">[73]</a> of foreign trade<a href="#cite_note-inve_Trad-74">[74]</a>) but rather on the regulation of international trade, to eliminate trade imbalances: the nations with a surplus would have an incentive to reduce it, and in doing so they would automatically clear other nations deficits.<a href="#cite_note-scho_-75">[75]</a> He proposed a global bank that would issue its currency – the bancor – which was exchangeable with national currencies at fixed rates of exchange and would become the unit of account between nations, which means it would be used to measure a country's trade deficit or trade surplus. Every country would have an overdraft facility in its bancor account at the International Clearing Union. He pointed out that surpluses lead to weak global aggregate demand – countries running surpluses exert a "negative externality" on trading partners, and pose, far more than those in deficit, a threat to global prosperity.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> In his 1933 <a href="/wiki/Yale_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale Review">Yale Review</a> article "National Self-Sufficiency",<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> he already highlighted the problems created by free trade. His view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance. Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences. In the words of <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Crowther,_Baron_Crowther" title="Geoffrey Crowther, Baron Crowther">Geoffrey Crowther</a>, then editor of <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>, "If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos."<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> These ideas were informed by events prior to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> when – in the opinion of Keynes and others – international lending, primarily by the US, exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Influenced by Keynes, economics texts in the immediate post-war period put a significant emphasis on balance in trade. For example, the second edition of the popular introductory textbook, An Outline of Money,<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> devoted the last three of its ten chapters to questions of foreign exchange management and in particular the "problem of balance". However, in more recent years, since the end of the <a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system" title="Bretton Woods system">Bretton Woods system</a> in 1971, with the increasing influence of <a href="/wiki/Monetarist" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetarist">monetarist</a> schools of thought in the 1980s, and particularly in the face of large sustained trade imbalances, these concerns – and particularly concerns about the destabilising effects of large trade surpluses – have largely disappeared from <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream economics</a> discourse<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] and Keynes's insights have slipped from view.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] They received some attention again after the <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-monb_Clea-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_on_inflation">Views on inflation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Views on inflation">edit</a>]</div> Keynes has been characterised as being indifferent or even positive about mild inflation.<a href="#cite_note-PBS-85">[85]</a> He had expressed a preference for inflation over <a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">deflation</a>, saying that if one has to choose between the two evils, it is "better to disappoint the rentier" than to inflict pain on working-class families.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Keynes was also aware of the dangers of inflation.<a href="#cite_note-K_rev._and_critics-58">[58]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] In <a href="/wiki/The_Economic_Consequences_of_the_Peace" title="The Economic Consequences of the Peace">The Economic Consequences of the Peace</a>, he wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a> is said to have declared that the best way to destroy the Capitalist System was to debauch the currency. By a continuing process of inflation, governments can confiscate, secretly and unobserved, an important part of the wealth of their citizens. There is no subtler, no surer means of overturning the existing basis of society than to debauch the currency. The process engages all the hidden forces of economic law on the side of destruction, and does it in a manner which not one man in a million is able to diagnose.<a href="#cite_note-PBS-85">[85]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_and_legacy">Influence and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Influence and legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attlee_with_GeorgeVI_HU_59486.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Attlee_with_GeorgeVI_HU_59486.jpg/170px-Attlee_with_GeorgeVI_HU_59486.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Attlee_with_GeorgeVI_HU_59486.jpg/255px-Attlee_with_GeorgeVI_HU_59486.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Attlee_with_GeorgeVI_HU_59486.jpg/340px-Attlee_with_GeorgeVI_HU_59486.jpg 2x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a> with King <a href="/wiki/George_VI" title="George VI">George VI</a> after Attlee won the <a href="/wiki/1945_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1945 United Kingdom general election">1945 election</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Keynesian_ascendancy_1939–79">Keynesian ascendancy 1939–79</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Keynesian ascendancy 1939–79">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_Revolution" title="Keynesian Revolution">Keynesian Revolution</a></div> From the end of the Great Depression to the mid-1970s, Keynes provided the main inspiration for economic policymakers in Europe, America and much of the rest of the world.<a href="#cite_note-K_rev._and_critics-58">[58]</a> While economists and policymakers had become increasingly won over to Keynes's way of thinking in the mid and late 1930s, it was only after the outbreak of World War II that governments started to borrow money for spending on a scale sufficient to eliminate unemployment. According to the economist <a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">John Kenneth Galbraith</a> (then a US government official charged with controlling inflation), in the rebound of the economy from wartime spending, "one could not have had a better demonstration of the Keynesian ideas".<a href="#cite_note-Heights1-87">[87]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_Revolution" title="Keynesian Revolution">Keynesian Revolution</a> was associated with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">modern liberalism</a> in the West during the post-war period.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Keynesian ideas became so popular that some scholars point to Keynes as representing the ideals of modern liberalism, as Adam Smith represented the ideals of <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> After the war, <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> attempted to check the rise of Keynesian policy-making in the United Kingdom and used rhetoric critical of the <a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">mixed economy</a> in his <a href="/wiki/1945_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1945 United Kingdom general election">1945 election</a> campaign. Despite his popularity as a war hero, Churchill suffered a landslide defeat to <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a>, whose government's economic policy continued to be influenced by Keynes's ideas.<a href="#cite_note-Heights1-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neo-Keynesian_economics">Neo-Keynesian economics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Neo-Keynesian economics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-Keynesian economics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Islm.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Islm.svg/220px-Islm.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Islm.svg/330px-Islm.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Islm.svg/440px-Islm.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-Keynesian</a> <a href="/wiki/IS%E2%80%93LM_model" title="IS–LM model">IS–LM model</a> is used to analyse the effect of <a href="/wiki/Demand_shock" title="Demand shock">demand shocks</a> on the economy.</figcaption></figure> In the late 1930s and 1940s, economists (notably <a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">John Hicks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franco_Modigliani" title="Franco Modigliani">Franco Modigliani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a>) attempted to interpret and formalise Keynes's writings in terms of formal <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a>. In what had become known as the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical synthesis</a>, they combined Keynesian analysis with <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">neo-Keynesian economics</a>, which came to dominate <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream macroeconomic thought</a> for the next 40 years. By the 1950s, Keynesian policies were adopted by almost the entire developed world and similar measures for a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">mixed economy</a> were used by many developing nations. By then, Keynes's views on the economy had become mainstream in the world's universities. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the developed and emerging free capitalist economies enjoyed exceptionally high growth and low unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-solution-91">[91]</a> Professor Gordon Fletcher has written that the 1950s and 1960s, when Keynes's influence was at its peak, appear in retrospect as a <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">golden age of capitalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-K_rev._and_critics-58">[58]</a> In late 1965 <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine ran a cover article with a title comment from <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> (later echoed by US President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>), "<a href="/wiki/We_are_all_Keynesians_now" title="We are all Keynesians now">We are all Keynesians now</a>". The article described the exceptionally favourable economic conditions then prevailing and reported that "Washington's economic managers scaled these heights by their adherence to Keynes's central theme: the modern capitalist economy does not automatically work at top efficiency, but can be raised to that level by the intervention and influence of the government." The article also states that Keynes was one of the three most important economists who ever lived, and that his <a href="/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" title="The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">General Theory</a> was more influential than the magna opera of other famous economists, such as <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Multiplier">Multiplier</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Multiplier">edit</a>]</div> The concept of the multiplier was first developed by R. F. Kahn<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> in his article "The relation of home investment to unemployment"<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> in The Economic Journal of June 1931. The Kahn multiplier was the employment multiplier; Keynes took the idea from Kahn and formulated the investment multiplier.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Keynesian_economics_out_of_favour_1979–2007">Keynesian economics out of favour 1979–2007</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Keynesian economics out of favour 1979–2007">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Post-war_displacement_of_Keynesianism" title="Post-war displacement of Keynesianism">Post-war displacement of Keynesianism</a></div> Keynesian economics were officially discarded by the British Government in 1979, but forces had begun to gather against Keynes's ideas over 30 years earlier. <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a> had formed the <a href="/wiki/Mont_Pelerin_Society" title="Mont Pelerin Society">Mont Pelerin Society</a> in 1947, with the explicit intention of nurturing intellectual currents to one day displace Keynesianism and other similar influences. Its members included the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian School</a> economist <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a> along with the then-young Milton Friedman. Initially, the society had little impact on the wider world – according to Hayek it was as if Keynes had been raised to sainthood after his death and that people refused to allow his work to be questioned.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Friedman, however, began to emerge as a formidable critic of Keynesian economics from the mid-1950s, and especially after his 1963 publication of <a href="/wiki/A_Monetary_History_of_the_United_States" title="A Monetary History of the United States">A Monetary History of the United States</a>. On the practical side of economic life, "<a href="/wiki/Big_government" title="Big government">big government</a>" had appeared to be firmly entrenched in the 1950s, but the balance began to shift towards the power of private interests in the 1960s. Keynes had written against the folly of allowing "decadent and selfish" speculators and financiers the kind of influence they had enjoyed after World War I. For two decades after World War II public opinion was strongly against private speculators, the disparaging label "<a href="/wiki/Gnomes_of_Zurich" title="Gnomes of Zurich">Gnomes of Zurich</a>" being typical of how they were described during this period. International speculation was severely restricted by the capital controls in place after Bretton Woods. According to the journalists <a href="/wiki/Larry_Elliott" title="Larry Elliott">Larry Elliott</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dan_Atkinson" title="Dan Atkinson">Dan Atkinson</a>, 1968 was the pivotal year when power shifted in favour of private agents such as currency speculators. As the key 1968 event Elliott and Atkinson picked out America's suspension of the conversion of the dollar into gold except on request of foreign governments, which they identified as the beginning of the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system.<a href="#cite_note-failedgods-98">[98]</a> Criticisms of Keynes's ideas had begun to gain significant acceptance by the early 1970s, as they were then able to make a credible case that Keynesian models no longer reflected economic reality. Keynes himself included few formulas and no explicit mathematical models in his General Theory. For economists such as <a href="/wiki/Hyman_Minsky" title="Hyman Minsky">Hyman Minsky</a>, Keynes's limited use of mathematics was partly the result of his scepticism about whether phenomena as inherently uncertain as economic activity could ever be adequately captured by mathematical models. Nevertheless, many models were developed by Keynesian economists, with a famous example being the <a href="/wiki/Phillips_curve" title="Phillips curve">Phillips curve</a> which predicted an inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation. It implied that unemployment could be reduced by government stimulus with a calculable cost to inflation. In 1968, Milton Friedman published a paper arguing that the fixed relationship implied by the Philips curve did not exist.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Friedman suggested that sustained Keynesian policies could lead to both unemployment and inflation rising at once – a phenomenon that soon became known as <a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">stagflation</a>. In the early 1970s stagflation appeared in both the US and Britain just as Friedman had predicted, with economic conditions deteriorating further after the <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a>. Aided by the prestige gained from his successful forecast, Friedman led increasingly successful criticisms against the Keynesian consensus, convincing not only academics and politicians but also much of the general public with his radio and television broadcasts. The academic credibility of Keynesian economics was further undermined by additional criticism from other <a href="/wiki/Monetarist" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetarist">monetarists</a> trained in the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school of economics</a>, by the <a href="/wiki/Lucas_critique" title="Lucas critique">Lucas critique</a> and by criticisms from Hayek's Austrian School.<a href="#cite_note-K_rev._and_critics-58">[58]</a> So successful were these criticisms that by 1980 <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Lucas, Jr.">Robert Lucas</a> claimed economists would often take offence if described as Keynesians.<a href="#cite_note-Blinder-100">[100]</a> Keynesian principles fared increasingly poorly on the practical side of economics – by 1979 they had been displaced by monetarism as the primary influence on Anglo-American economic policy.<a href="#cite_note-K_rev._and_critics-58">[58]</a> However, many officials on both sides of the Atlantic retained a preference for Keynes, and in 1984 the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Reserve System">Federal Reserve</a> officially discarded monetarism, after which Keynesian principles made a partial comeback as an influence on policy-making.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Not all academics accepted the criticism against Keynes – Minsky has argued that Keynesian economics had been debased by excessive mixing with neoclassical ideas from the 1950s, and that it was unfortunate that this branch of economics had even continued to be called "Keynesian".<a href="#cite_note-Minksky-32">[32]</a> Writing in <a href="/wiki/The_American_Prospect" title="The American Prospect">The American Prospect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kuttner" title="Robert Kuttner">Robert Kuttner</a> argued it was not so much excessive Keynesian activism that caused the economic problems of the 1970s but the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system of <a href="/wiki/Capital_control" title="Capital control">capital controls</a>, which allowed <a href="/wiki/Capital_flight" title="Capital flight">capital flight</a> from regulated economies into unregulated economies in a fashion similar to <a href="/wiki/Gresham%27s_law" title="Gresham's law">Gresham's law</a> phenomenon (where weak currencies undermine strong ones).<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Peter_Pugh" title="Peter Pugh">Peter Pugh</a> has stated that a key cause of the economic problems afflicting America in the 1970s was the refusal to raise taxes to finance the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, which was against Keynesian advice.<a href="#cite_note-forBeginners-103">[103]</a> A more typical response was to accept some elements of the criticisms while refining Keynesian economic theories to defend them against arguments that would invalidate the whole Keynesian framework – the resulting body of work largely composing <a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New Keynesian economics</a>. In 1992 <a href="/wiki/Alan_Blinder" title="Alan Blinder">Alan Blinder</a> wrote about a "Keynesian Restoration", as work based on Keynes's ideas had to some extent become fashionable once again in academia, though in the mainstream it was highly synthesised with monetarism and other neoclassical thinking. In the world of policy making, <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free market</a> influences broadly sympathetic to monetarism have remained very strong at government level – in powerful normative institutions like the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, the <a href="/wiki/IMF" class="mw-redirect" title="IMF">IMF</a> and <a href="/wiki/US_Treasury" class="mw-redirect" title="US Treasury">US Treasury</a>, and in prominent opinion-forming media such as the <a href="/wiki/Financial_Times" title="Financial Times">Financial Times</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Keynesian_resurgence_2008–09">Keynesian resurgence 2008–09</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Keynesian resurgence 2008–09">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Keynesian_resurgence" class="mw-redirect" title="2008–09 Keynesian resurgence">2008–09 Keynesian resurgence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manmohansingh04052007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Manmohansingh04052007.jpg/170px-Manmohansingh04052007.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Manmohansingh04052007.jpg/255px-Manmohansingh04052007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Manmohansingh04052007.jpg/340px-Manmohansingh04052007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="1196" /></a><figcaption>The economist <a href="/wiki/Manmohan_Singh" title="Manmohan Singh">Manmohan Singh</a>, the then-prime minister of India, spoke strongly in favour of Keynesian <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(economics)" title="Stimulus (economics)">fiscal stimulus</a> at the <a href="/wiki/2008_G-20_Washington_summit" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 G-20 Washington summit">2008 G-20 Washington summit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a> led to public skepticism about the free market consensus even from some on the economic right. In March 2008, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Wolf" title="Martin Wolf">Martin Wolf</a>, chief economics commentator at the Financial Times, announced the death of the dream of global free-market capitalism.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> In the same month macroeconomist <a href="/wiki/James_K._Galbraith" title="James K. Galbraith">James K. Galbraith</a> used the 25th Annual Milton Friedman Distinguished Lecture to launch a sweeping attack against the consensus for monetarist economics and argued that Keynesian economics were far more relevant for tackling the emerging crises.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Economist <a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Shiller" title="Robert J. Shiller">Robert J. Shiller</a> had begun advocating robust government intervention to tackle the financial crises, specifically citing Keynes.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel laureate</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> also actively argued the case for vigorous Keynesian intervention in the economy in his columns for <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Other prominent economic commentators who have argued for Keynesian government intervention to mitigate the <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a> included <a href="/wiki/George_Akerlof" title="George Akerlof">George Akerlof</a>,<a href="#cite_note-independent.co.uk.2009-114">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/J._Bradford_DeLong" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Bradford DeLong">J. Bradford DeLong</a>,<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Reich" title="Robert Reich">Robert Reich</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Newspapers and other media have also cited work relating to Keynes by <a href="/wiki/Hyman_Minsky" title="Hyman Minsky">Hyman Minsky</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Minksky-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Skidelsky,_Baron_Skidelsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Skidelsky, Baron Skidelsky">Robert Skidelsky</a>,<a href="#cite_note-SkidelP1-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Markwell" title="Donald Markwell">Donald Markwell</a><a href="#cite_note-MarkwellRelations-118">[118]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Axel_Leijonhufvud" title="Axel Leijonhufvud">Axel Leijonhufvud</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> A series of major <a href="/wiki/Bailout" title="Bailout">bailouts</a> were pursued during the <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a>, starting on 7 September 2008 with the announcement that the US Government was to nationalise the two <a href="/wiki/Government-sponsored_enterprise" title="Government-sponsored enterprise">government-sponsored enterprises</a> which oversaw most of the US subprime mortgage market – <a href="/wiki/Fannie_Mae" title="Fannie Mae">Fannie Mae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freddie_Mac" title="Freddie Mac">Freddie Mac</a>. In October, <a href="/wiki/Alistair_Darling" title="Alistair Darling">Alistair Darling</a>, the British <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer" title="Chancellor of the Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</a>, referred to Keynes as he announced plans for substantial <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(economics)" title="Stimulus (economics)">fiscal stimulus</a> to head off the worst effects of recession, in accordance with Keynesian economic thought.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Times_Darling-121">[121]</a> Similar policies have been adopted by other governments worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> This was in stark contrast to the action imposed on <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> during the <a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a>, when it was forced by the IMF to close 16 banks at the same time, prompting a <a href="/wiki/Bank_run" title="Bank run">bank run</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Much of the post-crisis discussion reflected Keynes's advocacy of international coordination of fiscal or monetary stimulus, and of international economic institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank, which many had argued should be reformed as a "new Bretton Woods", and should have been even before the crises broke out.<a href="#cite_note-MarkwellPeace-125">[125]</a> The IMF and United Nations economists advocated a coordinated international approach to fiscal stimulus.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-126">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Markwell" title="Donald Markwell">Donald Markwell</a> argued that in the absence of such an international approach, there would be a risk of worsening international relations and possibly even world war arising from economic factors similar to those present during the depression of the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-MarkwellRelations-118">[118]</a> By the end of December 2008, the Financial Times reported that "the sudden resurgence of Keynesian policy is a stunning reversal of the orthodoxy of the past several decades."<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> In December 2008, Paul Krugman released his book <a href="/wiki/The_Return_of_Depression_Economics_and_the_Crisis_of_2008" title="The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008">The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008</a>, arguing that economic conditions similar to those that existed during the earlier part of the 20th century had returned, making Keynesian policy prescriptions more relevant than ever. In February 2009 <a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Shiller" title="Robert J. Shiller">Robert J. Shiller</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Akerlof" title="George Akerlof">George Akerlof</a> published <a href="/wiki/Animal_Spirits:_How_Human_Psychology_Drives_the_Economy,_and_Why_It_Matters_for_Global_Capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal Spirits: How Human Psychology Drives the Economy, and Why It Matters for Global Capitalism">Animal Spirits</a>, a book where they argue the current US stimulus package is too small as it does not take into account Keynes's insight on the importance of confidence and expectations in determining the future behaviour of <a href="/wiki/Businessperson" title="Businessperson">businesspeople</a> and other economic agents. In the March 2009 speech entitled Reform the International Monetary System, <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Xiaochuan" title="Zhou Xiaochuan">Zhou Xiaochuan</a>, the governor of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">People's Bank of China</a>, came out in favour of Keynes's idea of a centrally managed global reserve currency. Zhou argued that it was unfortunate that part of the reason for the Bretton Woods system breaking down was the failure to adopt Keynes's <a href="/wiki/Bancor" title="Bancor">bancor</a>. Zhou proposed a gradual move towards increased use of IMF <a href="/wiki/Special_drawing_rights" title="Special drawing rights">special drawing rights</a> (SDRs).<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Although Zhou's ideas had not been broadly accepted, leaders meeting in April at the <a href="/wiki/2009_G-20_London_summit" class="mw-redirect" title="2009 G-20 London summit">2009 G-20 London summit</a> agreed to allow $250 billion of special drawing rights to be created by the IMF, to be distributed globally. Stimulus plans were credited for contributing to a better-than-expected economic outlook by both the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">OECD</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> and the IMF,<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> in reports published in June and July 2009. Both organisations warned global leaders that recovery was likely to be slow, so counter-recessionary measures ought not be rolled back too early. While the need for stimulus measures was broadly accepted among policymakers, there had been much debate over how to fund the spending. Some leaders and institutions, such as <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Central_Bank" title="European Central Bank">European Central Bank</a>,<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> expressed concern over the potential impact on inflation, national debt and the risk that a too-large stimulus will create an unsustainable recovery. Among professional economists the revival of Keynesian economics has been even more divisive. Although many economists, such as George Akerlof, Paul Krugman, Robert Shiller and Joseph Stiglitz, supported Keynesian stimulus, others did not believe higher government spending would help the United States economy recover from the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a>. Some economists, such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Lucas, Jr.">Robert Lucas</a>, questioned the theoretical basis for stimulus packages.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Others, like <a href="/wiki/Robert_Barro" title="Robert Barro">Robert Barro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a>, say that <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> for beneficial effects from Keynesian stimulus does not exist.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> However, there is a growing academic literature that shows that fiscal expansion helps an economy grow in the near term, and that certain types of fiscal stimulus are particularly effective.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-GLP_2011-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Keynesian_economics">New Keynesian economics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: New Keynesian economics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New Keynesian economics</a></div> New Keynesian economics developed in the 1990s and early 2000s as a response to the critique that macroeconomics lacked <a href="/wiki/Microfoundations" title="Microfoundations">microeconomic foundations</a>. New Keynesianism developed models to provide microfoundations for Keynesian economics. It incorporated parts of <a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">new classical macroeconomics</a> to develop the <a href="/wiki/New_neoclassical_synthesis" title="New neoclassical synthesis">new neoclassical synthesis</a>, which forms the basis for <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream macroeconomics</a> today.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Two main assumptions define the New Keynesian approach to macroeconomics. Like the New Classical approach, New Keynesian macroeconomic analysis usually assumes that households and firms have <a href="/wiki/Rational_expectations" title="Rational expectations">rational expectations</a>. However, the two schools differ in that New Keynesian analysis usually assumes a variety of <a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">market failures</a>. In particular, New Keynesians assume that there is <a href="/wiki/Imperfect_competition" title="Imperfect competition">imperfect competition</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> in price and wage setting to help explain why prices and wages can become "<a href="/wiki/Sticky_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sticky (economics)">sticky</a>", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions. Wage and price stickiness, and the other market failures present in New Keynesian <a href="/wiki/Model_(macroeconomics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Model (macroeconomics)">models</a>, imply that the economy may fail to attain <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a>. Therefore, New Keynesians argue that macroeconomic stabilisation by the government (using <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">central bank</a> (using <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">monetary policy</a>) can lead to a more <a href="/wiki/Pareto_efficiency" title="Pareto efficiency">efficient</a> macroeconomic outcome than a <a href="/wiki/Laissez_faire" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez faire">laissez faire</a> policy would. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overall_views">Overall views</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Overall views">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Liberalism in the United Kingdom">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD424; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:150%; font-weight:normal; color:black; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">Liberalism in the United Kingdom</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_(2022,_variant_2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%282022%2C_variant_2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="479" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism#Great_Britain" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">Gladstonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Libertarianism in the United Kingdom">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_liberalism#Green_Liberal_Democrats" title="Green liberalism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism#United_Kingdom" title="Neoliberalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)#United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism#United_Kingdom" title="Social liberalism">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Corn_Law_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Corn Law League">Anti-Corn Law League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartism" title="Chartism">Chartism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge" title="William Beveridge">Beveridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millicent_Fawcett" title="Millicent Fawcett">Fawcett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Freeden" title="Michael Freeden">Freeden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._H._Green" title="T. H. Green">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Hammond" title="Barbara Hammond">Hammond (Barbara)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lawrence_Hammond" title="John Lawrence Hammond">Hammond (John Lawrence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill (James)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill (John Stuart)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsay_Muir" title="Ramsay Muir">Muir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Taylor_Mill" title="Harriet Taylor Mill">Taylor Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Trevelyan,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir George Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet">Trevelyan (George)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._M._Trevelyan" title="G. M. Trevelyan">Trevelyan (George Macaulay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(businessman)" title="James Wilson (businessman)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H._H._Asquith" title="H. H. Asquith">Asquith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Thomas_Bass" title="Michael Thomas Bass">Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bright" title="John Bright">Bright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vince_Cable" title="Vince Cable">Cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Campbell-Bannerman" title="Henry Campbell-Bannerman">Campbell-Bannerman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Chamberlain" title="Joseph Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Clegg" title="Nick Clegg">Clegg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_James_Fox" title="Charles James Fox">Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hunt_(politician)" title="Henry Hunt (politician)">Hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kennedy" title="Charles Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill (John Stuart)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsay_Muir" title="Ramsay Muir">Muir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Primrose,_5th_Earl_of_Rosebery" title="Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery">Rosebery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Simon,_1st_Baron_Simon_of_Wythenshawe" title="Ernest Simon, 1st Baron Simon of Wythenshawe">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Steel" title="David Steel">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Thorpe" title="Jeremy Thorpe">Thorpe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_Party_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Alliance Party of Northern Ireland">Alliance Party of Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)" title="Liberal Democrats (UK)">Liberal Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peelite" title="Peelite">Peelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radicals_(UK)" title="Radicals (UK)">Radicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Liberal_Democrats" title="Scottish Liberal Democrats">Scottish Liberal Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_(UK)" title="Social Democratic Party (UK)">Social Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whigs</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="font-style:italic"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Times" title="Financial Times">Financial Times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sunday_Times" title="The Sunday Times">The Sunday Times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">Centre-left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre-right_politics" title="Centre-right politics">Centre-right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservatism in the United Kingdom">Conservatism in the United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Libertarianism in the United Kingdom">Libertarianism in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Politics of the United Kingdom">Politics of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_socialist_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the socialist movement in the United Kingdom">Socialism in the United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_flag_waving.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/15px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/22px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/30px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Liberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom" title="Portal:United Kingdom">United Kingdom portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism_UK" title="Template:Liberalism UK"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism_UK" title="Template talk:Liberalism UK"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism_UK" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism UK"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Praise">Praise</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Praise">edit</a>]</div> On a personal level, Keynes's charm was such that he was generally well received wherever he went – even those who found themselves on the wrong side of his occasionally sharp tongue rarely bore a grudge.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Keynes's speech at the closing of the Bretton Woods negotiations was received with a lasting standing ovation, rare in international relations, as the delegates acknowledged the scale of his achievements made despite poor health.<a href="#cite_note-Cunningham-29">[29]</a> Austrian School economist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a> was Keynes's most prominent contemporary critic, with sharply opposing views on the economy.<a href="#cite_note-SkidelP2-54">[54]</a> Yet after Keynes's death, he wrote: "He was the one really great man I ever knew, and for whom I had unbounded admiration. The world will be a very much poorer place without him."<a href="#cite_note-Wapshott2011-145">[145]</a> A colleague Nicholas Davenport recalled, "There were deep emotional forces about Maynard ... One could sense his humanity. There was nothing of the cold intellectual about him."<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Robbins" title="Lionel Robbins">Lionel Robbins</a>, former head of the economics department at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>, who engaged in many heated debates with Keynes in the 1930s, had this to say after observing Keynes in early negotiations with the Americans while drawing up plans for Bretton Woods:<a href="#cite_note-SkidelP2-54">[54]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">This went very well indeed. Keynes was in his most lucid and persuasive mood: and the effect was irresistible. At such moments, I often find myself thinking that Keynes must be one of the most remarkable men that have ever lived – the quick logic, the birdlike swoop of intuition, the vivid fancy, the wide vision, above all the incomparable sense of the fitness of words, all combine to make something several degrees beyond the limit of ordinary human achievement. </blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Douglas_LePan" title="Douglas LePan">Douglas LePan</a>, an official from the <a href="/wiki/High_Commission_of_Canada_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="High Commission of Canada in the United Kingdom">Canadian High Commission</a>,<a href="#cite_note-SkidelP2-54">[54]</a> wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I am spellbound. This is the most beautiful creature I have ever listened to. Does he belong to our species? Or is he from some other order? There is something mythic and fabulous about him. I sense in him something massive and sphinx like, and yet also a hint of wings. </blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> named Keynes one of the most intelligent people he had ever known,<a href="#cite_note-ES-147">[147]</a> commenting:<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Keynes's intellect was the sharpest and clearest that I have ever known. When I argued with him, I felt that I took my life in my hands, and I seldom emerged without feeling something of a fool.</blockquote> Keynes's obituary in <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a> included the comment: "There is the man himself – radiant, brilliant, effervescent, gay, full of impish jokes ... He was a humane man genuinely devoted to the cause of the common good."<a href="#cite_note-new_economics-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critiques">Critiques</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Critiques">edit</a>]</div> As a man of the centre described by some as having the greatest impact of any 20th-century economist,<a href="#cite_note-50_greats-47">[47]</a> Keynes attracted considerable criticism from both sides of the political spectrum. In the 1920s, Keynes was seen as anti-establishment and was mainly attacked from the right. In the "red 1930s", many young economists favoured <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> views, even in Cambridge,<a href="#cite_note-Minksky-32">[32]</a> and while Keynes was engaging principally with the right to try to persuade them of the merits of more progressive policy, the most vociferous criticism against him came from the left, who saw him as a supporter of capitalism. From the 1950s and onwards, most of the attacks against Keynes have again been from the right. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_Hayek_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Friedrich_Hayek_portrait.jpg/170px-Friedrich_Hayek_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Friedrich_Hayek_portrait.jpg/255px-Friedrich_Hayek_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Friedrich_Hayek_portrait.jpg/340px-Friedrich_Hayek_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a>, one of Keynes's most prominent critics</figcaption></figure> In 1931, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a> extensively critiqued Keynes's 1930 Treatise on Money.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> After reading Hayek's <a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a>, Keynes wrote to Hayek: "Morally and philosophically I find myself in agreement with virtually the whole of it."<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> He concluded the letter with the recommendation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">What we need therefore, in my opinion, is not a change in our economic programmes, which would only lead in practice to disillusion with the results of your philosophy; but perhaps even the contrary, namely, an enlargement of them. Your greatest danger is the probable practical failure of the application of your philosophy in the United States.</blockquote> On the pressing issue of the time, whether deficit spending could lift a country from depression, Keynes replied to Hayek's criticism<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> in the following way: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I should... conclude rather differently. I should say that what we want is not no planning, or even less planning, indeed I should say we almost certainly want more. But the planning should take place in a community in which as many people as possible, both leaders and followers wholly share your moral position. Moderate planning will be safe enough if those carrying it out are rightly oriented in their minds and hearts to the moral issue.</blockquote> Asked why Keynes expressed "moral and philosophical" agreement with Hayek's Road to Serfdom, Hayek stated:<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Because he believed that he was fundamentally still a classical English liberal and wasn't quite aware of how far he had moved away from it. His basic ideas were still those of individual freedom. He did not think systematically enough to see the conflicts. He was, in a sense, corrupted by political necessity.</blockquote> According to some observers,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] Hayek felt that the post-World War II "Keynesian orthodoxy" gave too much power to the state, and that such policies would lead toward socialism.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> described The General Theory as "a great book", he argues that its implicit separation of <a href="/wiki/Real_versus_nominal_value_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Real versus nominal value (economics)">nominal from real magnitudes</a> is neither possible nor desirable. Macroeconomic policy, Friedman argues, can reliably influence only the nominal.<a href="#cite_note-Friedman-154">[154]</a> He and other monetarists have consequently argued that <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a> can result in <a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">stagflation</a>, the combination of low growth and high inflation that developed economies suffered in the early 1970s. More to Friedman's taste was the Tract on Monetary Reform (1923), which he regarded as Keynes's best work because of its focus on maintaining domestic price stability.<a href="#cite_note-Friedman-154">[154]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> was an economist of the same age as Keynes and one of his main rivals. He was among the first reviewers to argue that Keynes's General Theory was not a general theory, but a special case.<a href="#cite_note-HarvardPeter-155">[155]</a> He said the work expressed "the attitude of a decaying civilisation". After Keynes's death Schumpeter wrote a brief biographical piece Keynes the Economist – on a personal level he was very positive about Keynes as a man, praising his pleasant nature, courtesy and kindness. He assessed some of Keynes's biographical and editorial work as among the best he'd ever seen. Yet Schumpeter remained critical of Keynes's economics, linking Keynes's childlessness to what Schumpeter saw as an essentially short-term view. He considered Keynes to have a kind of unconscious patriotism that caused him to fail to understand the problems of other nations. For Schumpeter, "Practical Keynesianism is a seedling which cannot be transplanted into foreign soil: it dies there and becomes poisonous as it dies."<a href="#cite_note-Schumpeter-156">[156]</a> He "admired and envied Keynes, but when Keynes died in 1946, Schumpeter's obituary gave Keynes this same off-key, perfunctory treatment he would later give <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> in the History of Economic Analysis, the "discredit of not adding a single innovation to the techniques of economic analysis."<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Austrian_school_of_economics" title="Austrian school of economics">Austrian economist</a>, describes a Keynesian system as believing it can solve most problems with "more money and credit" which leads to a system of "<a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflationism</a>" in which "prices (of goods) rise higher and higher."<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Rothbard</a> wrote that Keynesian-style governmental regulation of money and credit created a "dismal monetary and banking situation," since it allows for the <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">central bankers</a> that have the exclusive ability to print money to be "unchecked and out of control."<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Rothbard went on to say in an interview that, "There is one good thing about <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">(Karl) Marx</a>: he was not a Keynesian."<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> was sceptical of Keynesian theorising. He told <a href="/wiki/Leon_Keyserling" title="Leon Keyserling">Leon Keyserling</a>, a Keynesian economist who chaired Truman's <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Economic_Advisers" title="Council of Economic Advisers">Council of Economic Advisers</a>: "Nobody can ever convince me that government can spend a dollar that it's not got."<a href="#cite_note-Cassidy2011-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_on_race">Views on race</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Views on race">edit</a>]</div> Some critics have sought to show that Keynes had sympathies towards <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a>, and a number of writers have described him as <a href="/wiki/Antisemitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitic">antisemitic</a>. Keynes's private letters contain portraits and descriptions, some of which can be characterised as antisemitic, while others as <a href="/wiki/Philosemitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosemitic">philosemitic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Scholars have suggested that these reflect clichés current at the time that he accepted uncritically, rather than any racism.<a href="#cite_note-Nina_Paulovicova-163">[163]</a> On several occasions Keynes used his influence to help his Jewish friends, most notably when he successfully lobbied for <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> to be allowed residency in the United Kingdom, explicitly to rescue him from being deported to <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Nazi-occupied Austria</a>. Keynes was a supporter of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>, serving on committees supporting the cause.<a href="#cite_note-Nina_Paulovicova-163">[163]</a> Allegations that he was racist or had totalitarian beliefs have been rejected by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Skidelsky,_Baron_Skidelsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Skidelsky, Baron Skidelsky">Robert Skidelsky</a> and other biographers.<a href="#cite_note-Cunningham-29">[29]</a> Professor Gordon Fletcher wrote that "the suggestion of a link between Keynes and any support of totalitarianism cannot be sustained".<a href="#cite_note-K_rev._and_critics-58">[58]</a> Once the aggressive tendencies of the Nazis towards Jews and other minorities had become apparent, Keynes made clear his loathing of Nazism. As a lifelong pacifist he had initially favoured peaceful containment of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, yet he began to advocate a forceful resolution while many conservatives were still arguing for appeasement. After the war started, he roundly criticised the Left for losing their nerve to confront <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, saying: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The intelligentsia of the Left were the loudest in demanding that the Nazi aggression should be resisted at all costs. When it comes to a showdown, scarce four weeks have passed before they remember that they are pacifists and write defeatist letters to your columns, leaving the defence of freedom and civilisation to <a href="/wiki/Colonel_Blimp" title="Colonel Blimp">Colonel Blimp</a> and the Old School Tie, for whom Three Cheers.<a href="#cite_note-SkidelP2-54">[54]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Personal life">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duncan_Grant_with_John_Maynard_Keynes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Duncan_Grant_with_John_Maynard_Keynes.jpg/220px-Duncan_Grant_with_John_Maynard_Keynes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Duncan_Grant_with_John_Maynard_Keynes.jpg/330px-Duncan_Grant_with_John_Maynard_Keynes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Duncan_Grant_with_John_Maynard_Keynes.jpg/440px-Duncan_Grant_with_John_Maynard_Keynes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="463" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Painter <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Grant" title="Duncan Grant">Duncan Grant</a> (left) with Keynes in 1912</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationships">Relationships</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Relationships">edit</a>]</div> Keynes's early romantic and sexual relationships were exclusively with men.<a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times-164">[164]</a> Keynes had been in relationships while at Eton and Cambridge; significant among these early partners were <a href="/wiki/Dilly_Knox" title="Dilly Knox">Dilly Knox</a> and Daniel Macmillan.<a href="#cite_note-Supermac-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994123,_127,_715-165">[165]</a> Keynes was open about his affairs, and from 1901 to 1915 kept separate diaries in which he tabulated his many sexual encounters.<a href="#cite_note-moreintelligentlife.com-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Keynes's relationship and later close friendship with Macmillan was to be fortunate, as <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan's company</a> first published his tract Economic Consequences of the Peace.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Attitudes in the <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group" title="Bloomsbury Group">Bloomsbury Group</a>, in which Keynes was avidly involved, were relaxed about homosexuality. Keynes, together with writer <a href="/wiki/Lytton_Strachey" title="Lytton Strachey">Lytton Strachey</a>, had reshaped the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_morality" title="Victorian morality">Victorian</a> attitudes of the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Apostles" title="Cambridge Apostles">Cambridge Apostles</a>: "since [their] time, homosexual relations among the members were for a time common", wrote <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994103-169">[169]</a> The artist <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Grant" title="Duncan Grant">Duncan Grant</a> has been described as "the supreme male love of Keynes's life", and their sexual relationship lasted from 1908 to 1915.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Keynes was also involved with Lytton Strachey,<a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times-164">[164]</a> though they were, for the most part, love rivals rather than lovers. Keynes had won the affections of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Hobhouse" title="Arthur Hobhouse">Arthur Hobhouse</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994108–110-171">[171]</a> and as with Grant, fell out with a jealous Strachey over it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994181–183-172">[172]</a> Strachey had previously found himself put off by Keynes, not least because of his manner of "treat[ing] his love affairs statistically".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994128-173">[173]</a> Political opponents have used Keynes's sexuality to attack his academic work.<a href="#cite_note-Bartlett-174">[174]</a> One line of attack held that he was uninterested in the long-term ramifications of his theories because he had no children.<a href="#cite_note-Bartlett-174">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Kagan" title="Donald Kagan">Donald Kagan</a>, in On the Origins of War, quotes <a href="/wiki/Sally_Marks" title="Sally Marks">Sally Marks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Schuker" title="Stephen A. Schuker">Stephen A. Schuker</a> to suggest that "[Keynes's] passion for <a href="/wiki/Carl_Melchior" title="Carl Melchior">Carl Melchior</a>" distorted his position in favor of Germany.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Keynes's friends in the Bloomsbury Group were initially surprised when, in his later years, he began pursuing affairs with women,<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> demonstrating himself to be <a href="/wiki/Bisexuality" title="Bisexuality">bisexual</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ray_Strachey" title="Ray Strachey">Ray Costelloe</a> (who later married <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Strachey" title="Oliver Strachey">Oliver Strachey</a>) was an early heterosexual interest of Keynes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994129-178">[178]</a> In 1906, Keynes had written of this infatuation that, "I seem to have fallen in love with Ray a little bit, but as she isn't male I haven't [been] able to think of any suitable steps to take."<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage">Marriage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Marriage">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Lopokova_and_Keynes_1920s_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Lopokova" title="Lydia Lopokova">Lydia Lopokova</a> and Keynes in the 1920s</figcaption></figure> In 1921, Keynes wrote that he had fallen "very much in love" with <a href="/wiki/Lydia_Lopokova" title="Lydia Lopokova">Lydia Lopokova</a>, a well-known Russian <a href="/wiki/Ballet_dancer" title="Ballet dancer">ballerina</a> and one of the stars of <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Diaghilev" title="Sergei Diaghilev">Sergei Diaghilev</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ballets_Russes" title="Ballets Russes">Ballets Russes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> In the early years of his courtship, he maintained an affair with a younger man, <a href="/wiki/W._J._H._Sprott" title="W. J. H. Sprott">Sebastian Sprott</a>, in tandem with Lopokova, but eventually chose Lopokova exclusively.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> They were married in 1925, with Keynes's former lover <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Grant" title="Duncan Grant">Duncan Grant</a> as best man.<a href="#cite_note-ES-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times-164">[164]</a> "What a marriage of beauty and brains, the fair Lopokova and John Maynard Keynes" was said at the time. Keynes later commented to Strachey that beauty and intelligence were rarely found in the same person, and that only in Duncan Grant had he found the combination.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> The union was happy, with biographer <a href="/wiki/Peter_Clarke_(historian)" title="Peter Clarke (historian)">Peter Clarke</a> writing that the marriage gave Keynes "a new focus, a new emotional stability and a sheer delight of which he never wearied".<a href="#cite_note-clarke-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> The couple hoped to have children but this did not happen.<a href="#cite_note-clarke-35">[35]</a> Among Keynes's Bloomsbury friends, Lopokova was, at least initially, subjected to criticism for her manners, mode of conversation and supposedly humble social origins – the last of the ostensible causes being particularly noted in the letters of <a href="/wiki/Vanessa_Bell" title="Vanessa Bell">Vanessa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clive_Bell" title="Clive Bell">Clive Bell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> In her novel <a href="/wiki/Mrs_Dalloway" title="Mrs Dalloway">Mrs Dalloway</a> (1925), Woolf bases the character of Rezia Warren Smith on Lopokova.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <a href="/wiki/E._M._Forster" title="E. M. Forster">E. M. Forster</a> later wrote in contrition about "Lydia Keynes, every whose word should be recorded";<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> "How we all used to underestimate her".<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-185">[185]</a> Keynes had no children, and his wife outlived him by 35 years, dying in 1981. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:46_Gordon_Square_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/46_Gordon_Square_London.jpg/170px-46_Gordon_Square_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/46_Gordon_Square_London.jpg/255px-46_Gordon_Square_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/46_Gordon_Square_London.jpg/340px-46_Gordon_Square_London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2219" data-file-height="3155" /></a><figcaption>46 <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Square" title="Gordon Square">Gordon Square</a>, where Keynes often stayed while in London. Following his marriage, Keynes took out an extended lease on Tilton House, a farm in the countryside near <a href="/wiki/Brighton" title="Brighton">Brighton</a>, which became the couple's main home when not in the capital.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Maynard_Keynes_46_Gordon_Square_blue_plaque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/John_Maynard_Keynes_46_Gordon_Square_blue_plaque.jpg/220px-John_Maynard_Keynes_46_Gordon_Square_blue_plaque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/John_Maynard_Keynes_46_Gordon_Square_blue_plaque.jpg/330px-John_Maynard_Keynes_46_Gordon_Square_blue_plaque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/John_Maynard_Keynes_46_Gordon_Square_blue_plaque.jpg/440px-John_Maynard_Keynes_46_Gordon_Square_blue_plaque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2970" data-file-height="2952" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Blue_plaque" title="Blue plaque">Blue plaque</a>, 46 Gordon Square</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Support_for_the_arts">Support for the arts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Support for the arts">edit</a>]</div> Keynes thought that the pursuit of money for its own sake was a pathological condition, and that the proper aim of work is to provide leisure. He wanted shorter working hours and longer holidays for all.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-60">[60]</a> Keynes was interested in literature in general and drama in particular and supported the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Arts_Theatre" title="Cambridge Arts Theatre">Cambridge Arts Theatre</a> financially, which allowed the institution to become one of the major British stages outside London.<a href="#cite_note-ES-147">[147]</a> Keynes's interest in classical opera and dance led him to support the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Opera_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Opera House">Royal Opera House</a> at <a href="/wiki/Covent_Garden" title="Covent Garden">Covent Garden</a> and the Ballet Company at <a href="/wiki/Sadler%27s_Wells_Theatre" title="Sadler's Wells Theatre">Sadler's Wells</a>. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">the war</a>, as a member of CEMA (Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts), Keynes helped secure government funds to maintain both companies while their venues were shut. Following the war, Keynes was instrumental in establishing the <a href="/wiki/Arts_Council_of_Great_Britain" title="Arts Council of Great Britain">Arts Council of Great Britain</a> and was its founding chairman in 1946. From the start, the two organisations that received the largest grants from the new body were the Royal Opera House and Sadler's Wells. Keynes built up a substantial collection of fine art, including works by <a href="/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne" title="Paul Cézanne">Paul Cézanne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Degas" title="Edgar Degas">Edgar Degas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Modigliani" title="Amedeo Modigliani">Amedeo Modigliani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Braque" title="Georges Braque">Georges Braque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Seurat" title="Georges Seurat">Georges Seurat</a> (some of which can now be seen at the <a href="/wiki/Fitzwilliam_Museum" title="Fitzwilliam Museum">Fitzwilliam Museum</a>).<a href="#cite_note-ES-147">[147]</a> He enjoyed collecting books; he collected and protected many of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s papers. In part on the basis of these papers, Keynes wrote of Newton as "the last of the magicians."<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_and_spiritual_views">Philosophical and spiritual views</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Philosophical and spiritual views">edit</a>]</div> Keynes, like other members of the <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group" title="Bloomsbury Group">Bloomsbury Group</a>, was greatly influenced by the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>, which in 1938 he described as "still my religion under the surface".<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> According to Moore, states of mind were the only valuable things in themselves, the most important being "the pleasures of human intercourse and the enjoyment of beautiful objects".<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a>'s biographer tells an anecdote of how Virginia Woolf, Keynes and <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a> discussed religion at a dinner party, in the context of their struggle against <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> morality.<a href="#cite_note-bell177-194">[194]</a> Keynes may have been <a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">confirmed</a>,<a href="#cite_note-skidv1-195">[195]</a> but according to Cambridge University he was clearly an agnostic, which he remained until his death.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> According to one biographer, "he was never able to take religion seriously, regarding it as a strange aberration of the human mind"<a href="#cite_note-skidv1-195">[195]</a> but also added that he came to "value it for social and moral reasons" later in life.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Another biographer writes that he "broke the family faith and became a 'ferocious agnostic'" during his time at Eton.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> One Cambridge acquaintance remembered him as "an <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheist</a> with a devotion to King's chapel".<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> At Cambridge, he was strongly associated with the Cambridge Heretics Society, an avowed atheist group which promoted <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">humanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Investments">Investments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Investments">edit</a>]</div> Keynes was ultimately a successful investor, building up a private fortune. His assets were nearly wiped out following the <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a>, which he did not foresee, but he soon recouped. At Keynes's death, in 1946, his net worth stood just short of £500,000 – equivalent to £23,000,000 in 2023. The sum had been amassed despite lavish support for various charities and philanthropies and despite his ethical reluctance to sell on a falling market in cases where he saw such behaviour as likely to deepen a slump.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Keynes managed the endowment of <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="King's College, Cambridge">King's College, Cambridge</a> starting in the 1920s, initially with an unsuccessful strategy based on <a href="/wiki/Market_timing" title="Market timing">market timing</a> but later shifting to focus in the publicly traded stock of small and medium-sized companies that paid large <a href="/wiki/Dividend" title="Dividend">dividends</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tillinghast2017-202">[202]</a> This was a controversial decision at the time, as stocks were considered high-risk and the centuries-old endowment had traditionally been invested in agricultural land and <a href="/wiki/Fixed_income" title="Fixed income">fixed income</a> assets like bonds.<a href="#cite_note-Chambers2013-203">[203]</a> Keynes was granted permission to invest a small minority of assets in stocks, and his adroit management resulted this portion of the endowment growing to become the majority of the endowment's assets.<a href="#cite_note-Chambers2013-203">[203]</a> The active component of his portfolio outperformed a British equity index by an average of 6%<a href="#cite_note-Tillinghast2017-202">[202]</a> to 8% a year over a quarter century, earning him a favourable mention by later investors such as <a href="/wiki/Warren_Buffett" title="Warren Buffett">Warren Buffett</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Soros" title="George Soros">George Soros</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Joel Tillinghast of <a href="/wiki/Fidelity_Investments" title="Fidelity Investments">Fidelity Investments</a> describes Keynes as an early practitioner of <a href="/wiki/Value_investing" title="Value investing">value investing</a>, a school of thought formalised in the US by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Graham" title="Benjamin Graham">Benjamin Graham</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Dodd" title="David Dodd">David Dodd</a> at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Business_School" title="Columbia Business School">Columbia Business School</a> during the 1920s and 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-Tillinghast2017-202">[202]</a> However, Keynes is believed to have developed his ideas independently.<a href="#cite_note-Chambers2013-203">[203]</a> Keynes is also regarded as a pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Diversification_(finance)" title="Diversification (finance)">financial diversification</a> as he recognised the importance of holding assets with "opposed risks" as he wrote "since they are likely to move in opposite directions when there are general fluctuations";<a href="#cite_note-Fisher2007-205">[205]</a> and also as an early international investor who avoided <a href="/wiki/Equity_home_bias_puzzle" title="Equity home bias puzzle">home country bias</a> by investing substantially in stocks outside the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ken_Fisher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ken Fisher">Ken Fisher</a> characterised Keynes as an exception to the rule that economists usually make horrible investors.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher2007-205">[205]</a> Keynes joined the Board of the <a href="/wiki/National_Mutual_Life_Assurance_Society" title="National Mutual Life Assurance Society">National Mutual Life Assurance Society</a> in 1919 and served as chairman from 1921 to 1938. Keynes introduced a policy of active trading of fixed interest stocks, coupled with investment in equities. “Keynes was the first to give [investment trading] the seal of respectability and to apply it to a life assurance fund.”<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Olivier Accominotti and David Chambers have pointed out that Keynes did not make use of <a href="/wiki/Currency_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Currency trading">currency trading</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Carry_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Carry trade">carry trade</a> in his investments.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> Keynes understood the strategy however, but considered that in his time the separation of the interest rates was not sufficient to pay for the costs of transporting the capital as gold, as he explained to the <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Committee" title="Macmillan Committee">Macmillan Committee</a> of 1930.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_life">Political life</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Political life">edit</a>]</div> Keynes was a lifelong member of the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a>, which until the 1920s had been one of the two main political parties in the United Kingdom, and as late as 1916 had often been the dominant power in government. Keynes had helped campaign for the Liberals at elections from about 1906, yet he always refused to run for office himself, despite being asked to do so on three separate occasions in 1920. From 1926, when Lloyd George became leader of the Liberals, Keynes took a major role in defining the party's economic policy, but by then the Liberals had been displaced into third-party status by the growing workers-oriented <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SkidelP1-21">[21]</a> In 1939 Keynes had the option to enter Parliament as an independent MP with the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Cambridge University (UK Parliament constituency)">University of Cambridge seat</a>. A by-election for the seat was to be held due to the illness of an elderly <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Tory</a>, and the master of <a href="/wiki/Magdalene_College,_Cambridge" title="Magdalene College, Cambridge">Magdalene College</a> had obtained agreement that none of the major parties would field a candidate if Keynes chose to stand. Keynes declined the invitation as he felt he would wield greater influence on events if he remained a free agent.<a href="#cite_note-clarke-35">[35]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #006150; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Eugenics" title="Category:Eugenics">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#006150; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics Movement</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #DEB71E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Historical trajectory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_Survey_of_Vermont" title="Eugenics Survey of Vermont">Eugenics Survey of Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_stirpiculture" title="Oneida stirpiculture">Oneida stirpiculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenic_feminism" title="Eugenic feminism">Eugenic feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Famous_Five_(Canada)" title="The Famous Five (Canada)">The Famous Five</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Nazi eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_Health_Court" title="Hereditary Health Court">Hereditary Health Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Prevention_of_Hereditarily_Diseased_Offspring" title="Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring">Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebensborn" title="Lebensborn">Lebensborn</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Racial_hygiene" title="Racial hygiene">Racial hygiene</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_Holocaust" title="Romani Holocaust">Romani Holocaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_Sterilization_Act" title="Sexual Sterilization Act">Sexual Sterilization Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilization_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sterilization law in the United States">Sterilization law in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" title="Buck v. Bell">Buck v. Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doe_ex._rel._Tarlow_v._District_of_Columbia" title="Doe ex. rel. Tarlow v. District of Columbia">Doe ex. rel. Tarlow v. District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrigal_v._Quilligan" title="Madrigal v. Quilligan">Madrigal v. Quilligan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poe_v._Lynchburg_Training_School_%26_Hospital" title="Poe v. Lynchburg Training School & Hospital">Poe v. Lynchburg Training School & Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skinner_v._Oklahoma" title="Skinner v. Oklahoma">Skinner v. Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stump_v._Sparkman" title="Stump v. Sparkman">Stump v. Sparkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Sterilization_Act_of_1924" title="Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924">Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_movement_in_the_United_States#Eugenics_and_race" title="Birth control movement in the United States">Birth control movement in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-eugenics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-eugenics">Neo-eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/He_Jiankui_affair" title="He Jiankui affair">He Jiankui affair</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #DEB71E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Pre-war academic proponents</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Brigham" title="Carl Brigham">Brigham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Burbank" title="Luther Burbank">Burbank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Carrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Davenport" title="Charles Davenport">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Darwin" title="Leonard Darwin">Darwin (Leonhard)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_DeCourcy_Ward" title="Robert DeCourcy Ward">DeCourcy Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_M._Elderton" title="Ethel M. Elderton">Elderton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Galton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Ruggles_Gates" title="Reginald Ruggles Gates">Gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_von_Gruber" title="Max von Gruber">Gruber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_F._K._G%C3%BCnther" title="Hans F. K. Günther">Günther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_F._Guyer" title="Michael F. Guyer">Guyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._B._S._Haldane#Ectogenesis_and_in_vitro_fertilisation" title="J. B. S. Haldane">Haldane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traian_Herseni" title="Traian Herseni">Herseni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jackson_Holmes#Eugenics" title="Samuel Jackson Holmes">Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ale%C5%A1_Hrdli%C4%8Dka#Controversy_and_criticism" title="Aleš Hrdlička">Hrdlička</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Jennings" title="Herbert Spencer Jennings">Jennings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Starr_Jordan#Eugenics" title="David Starr Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelmine_Key" title="Wilhelmine Key">Key</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Kraepelin" title="Emil Kraepelin">Kraepelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Lenz" title="Fritz Lenz">Lenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivey_Foreman_Lewis" title="Ivey Foreman Lewis">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_London#Eugenics" title="Jack London">London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabin_Manuil%C4%83" title="Sabin Manuilă">Manuilă</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otfrid_Mittmann" title="Otfrid Mittmann">Mittmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Munro" title="William B. Munro">Munro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Nordau" title="Max Nordau">Nordau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fairfield_Osborn" title="Henry Fairfield Osborn">Osborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Guangdan" title="Pan Guangdan">Pan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson#Political_views_and_eugenics" title="Karl Pearson">Pearson (Karl)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Farnham_Perkins" title="Henry Farnham Perkins">Perkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebio_Hern%C3%A1ndez_P%C3%A9rez" title="Eusebio Hernández Pérez">Pérez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Ploetz" title="Alfred Ploetz">Ploetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet" title="Adolphe Quetelet">Quetelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisc_Rainer#Biological_anthropology" title="Francisc Rainer">Rainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Relgis#Eugenics" title="Eugen Relgis">Relgis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Schallmayer" title="Wilhelm Schallmayer">Schallmayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Scharffenberg" title="Johan Scharffenberg">Scharffenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sergeevich_Serebrovsky" title="Alexander Sergeevich Serebrovsky">Serebrovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Sergi" title="Giuseppe Sergi">Sergi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliot_Slater" title="Eliot Slater">Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmer_Ernest_Southard" title="Elmer Ernest Southard">Southard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothrop_Stoddard" title="Lothrop Stoddard">Stoddard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._W._Taussig#Beliefs" title="F. W. Taussig">Taussig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Terman#Eugenics" title="Lewis Terman">Terman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla#On_society" title="Nikola Tesla">Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike#Eugenics" title="Edward Thorndike">Thorndike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Vacher_de_Lapouge" title="Georges Vacher de Lapouge">Vacher de Lapouge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Yerkes#Intelligence_testing_and_eugenics" title="Robert Yerkes">Yerkes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #DEB71E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Post-war academic remnants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Agar#Work_on_human_enhancement" title="Nicholas Agar">Agar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Bell" title="Julia Bell">Bell (Julia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Blacker" title="Carlos Blacker">Blacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_Carl" title="Noah Carl">Carl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedric_Carter" title="Cedric Carter">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Cattell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Coleman_(demographer)#Career" title="David Coleman (demographer)">Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Darlington#Sociobiology_and_the_Lysenko_Affair" title="C. D. Darlington">Darlington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_Fleischman" title="Diana Fleischman">Fleischman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelio_Jos%C3%A9_Figueredo" title="Aurelio José Figueredo">Figueredo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Garrett_(psychologist)" title="Henry Garrett (psychologist)">Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Glad" title="John Glad">Glad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Hardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._B._S._Haldane#Ectogenesis_and_in_vitro_fertilisation" title="J. B. S. Haldane">Haldane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hanania" title="Richard Hanania">Hanania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Nash_Herndon" title="C. Nash Herndon">Herndon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_Ingle" title="Dwight Ingle">Ingle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Itzkoff" title="Seymour Itzkoff">Itzkoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Josef_Kallmann" title="Franz Josef Kallmann">Kallmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watson_Kirkconnell" title="Watson Kirkconnell">Kirkconnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lene_Koch" title="Lene Koch">Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz#Nazism" title="Konrad Lorenz">Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Lundman" title="Bertil Lundman">Lundman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lynn" title="Richard Lynn">Lynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_M._MacEachran" title="John M. MacEachran">MacEachran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Miller_(psychologist)" title="Geoffrey Miller (psychologist)">Miller (Geoffrey )</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_M._Miller" title="Edward M. Miller">Miller (Edward M.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Shockley#Racist_and_eugenicist_views" title="William Shockley">Shockley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley#Eugenics_and_race" title="Julian Huxley">Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Muller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Murray_(political_scientist)" title="Charles Murray (political scientist)">Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_te_Nijenhuis" title="Jan te Nijenhuis">Nijenhuis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmuth_Nyborg" title="Helmuth Nyborg">Nyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Osborn" title="Frederick Osborn">Osborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Pearson_(anthropologist)" title="Roger Pearson (anthropologist)">Pearson (Roger)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmer_Pendell" title="Elmer Pendell">Pendell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Pitt-Rivers" title="George Pitt-Rivers">Pitt-Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Rostand" title="Jean Rostand">Rostand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Savulescu#Procreative_beneficence" title="Julian Savulescu">Savulescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_L._Shapiro" title="Harry L. Shapiro">Shapiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Vining_Jr." title="Daniel Vining Jr.">Vining Jr.</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #DEB71E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Pamphlets and manifestos</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_Genius" title="Hereditary Genius">Hereditary Genius</a> (1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiries_into_Human_Faculty_and_Its_Development" title="Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development">Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development</a> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degeneration_(Nordau)" title="Degeneration (Nordau)">Degeneration</a> (1892–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_(novel)#Eugenicist_thought_in_Gallia" title="Gallia (novel)">Gallia</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Might_Is_Right" title="Might Is Right">Might Is Right</a> (1896)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Blood_of_the_Nation:_A_Study_in_the_Decay_of_Races_by_the_Survival_of_the_Unfit" class="mw-redirect" title="The Blood of the Nation: A Study in the Decay of Races by the Survival of the Unfit">The Blood of the Nation</a>" (1901/1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Training_of_the_Human_Plant" class="mw-redirect" title="The Training of the Human Plant">The Training of the Human Plant</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity_in_Relation_to_Eugenics" title="Heredity in Relation to Eugenics">Heredity in Relation to Eugenics</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mankind_at_the_Crossroads" class="mw-redirect" title="Mankind at the Crossroads">Mankind at the Crossroads</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daedalus;_or,_Science_and_the_Future" title="Daedalus; or, Science and the Future">Daedalus; or, Science and the Future</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_raza_c%C3%B3smica" title="La raza cósmica">La raza cósmica</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_and_Morals" title="Marriage and Morals">Marriage and Morals</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Genetical_Theory_of_Natural_Selection#Eugenics" title="The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection">The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man,_the_Unknown" title="Man, the Unknown">Man, the Unknown</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Us,_or_the_World_as_it_Might_Be" title="After Us, or the World as it Might Be">After Us</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_manifesto" title="Eugenics manifesto">Eugenics manifesto</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Bottles_for_New_Wine" class="mw-redirect" title="New Bottles for New Wine">New Bottles for New Wine</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Marching_Morons" title="The Marching Morons">The Marching Morons</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilized_Man%27s_Eight_Deadly_Sins" title="Civilized Man's Eight Deadly Sins">Civilized Man's Eight Deadly Sins</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beyondism" class="mw-redirect" title="Beyondism">Beyondism</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bell_Curve" title="The Bell Curve">The Bell Curve</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics:_Genetic_Deterioration_in_Modern_Populations" class="mw-redirect" title="Dysgenics: Genetic Deterioration in Modern Populations">Dysgenics</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics:_A_Reassessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugenics: A Reassessment">Eugenics: A Reassessment</a> (2001)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #DEB71E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">Without significant post-war activity <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Birth_Control_League#History" title="American Birth Control League">ABCL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberta_Eugenics_Board" title="Alberta Eugenics Board">Alberta Eugenics Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Study_and_Prevention_of_Infant_Mortality" title="American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality">AASPIM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Eugenics_Society" title="American Eugenics Society">AES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Institution_for_Science#Departments_on_life_studies" title="Carnegie Institution for Science">Carnegie Institution for Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory#History" title="Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">CSHL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_Board_of_North_Carolina" title="Eugenics Board of North Carolina">EBNC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_Record_Office" title="Eugenics Record Office">ERO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Foundation_for_the_Study_of_Human_Problems" title="French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems">Carrel Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galton_Laboratory" title="Galton Laboratory">Galton Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Society_for_Racial_Hygiene" title="German Society for Racial Hygiene">German Society for Racial Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity_Commission" title="Heredity Commission">Heredity Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Betterment_Foundation" title="Human Betterment Foundation">HBF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Betterment_League" title="Human Betterment League">Human Betterment League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Restriction_League" title="Immigration Restriction League">Immigration Restriction League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institut_national_d%27%C3%A9tudes_d%C3%A9mographiques#history" title="Institut national d'études démographiques">INED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Ethnology_and_Eugenics" title="International Association for the Advancement of Ethnology and Eugenics">IAAEE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Eugenics_Conference" title="International Eugenics Conference">International Eugenics Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Eugenics_Organizations" title="International Federation of Eugenics Organizations">IFEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Institute_of_Anthropology,_Human_Heredity,_and_Eugenics" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics">Kaiser Wilhelm Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_of_Psychiatry#History" title="Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry">Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Association_of_America" title="Population Association of America">PAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_Betterment_Foundation" title="Race Betterment Foundation">Race Betterment Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Hygiene_Association_of_New_South_Wales" title="Racial Hygiene Association of New South Wales">RHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Institute_for_Racial_Biology" title="State Institute for Racial Biology">State Institute for Racial Biology</a></li></ul> With significant post-war activity <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Human_Genetics#Annals_of_Eugenics" title="Annals of Human Genetics">Annals of Eugenics</a> (Renamed "Annals of Human Genetics" only 1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eugenics_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="The Eugenics Review">The Eugenics Review</a> (Renamed "Journal of Biosocial Science" only 1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Research_and_Education_on_Eugenics_and_Dysgenics" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundation for Research and Education on Eugenics and Dysgenics">Foundation for Research and Education on Eugenics and Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Diversity_Foundation" title="Human Diversity Foundation">Human Diversity Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Social,_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies">Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Conference_on_Intelligence" title="London Conference on Intelligence">London Conference on Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mankind_Quarterly" title="Mankind Quarterly">Mankind Quarterly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenPsych" title="OpenPsych">OpenPsych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repository_for_Germinal_Choice" title="Repository for Germinal Choice">Repository for Germinal Choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_Institute_for_Social_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulster Institute for Social Research">Ulster Institute for Social Research</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #DEB71E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_engineering" title="Demographic engineering">Demographic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_Japan" title="Eugenics in Japan">Eugenics in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_eugenics" title="Hispanic eugenics">Hispanic eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_Mexico" title="Eugenics in Mexico">Eugenics in Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_the_United_States" title="Eugenics in the United States">Eugenics in the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiocracy" title="Idiocracy">Idiocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_League" title="Malthusian League">Malthusian League</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_stirpiculture" title="Oneida stirpiculture">Oneida stirpiculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedigree_chart" title="Pedigree chart">Pedigree chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Cattell_bibliography" title="Raymond Cattell bibliography">Raymond Cattell bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_response_to_assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Religious response to assisted reproductive technology">Religious response to assisted reproductive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher_bibliography" title="Ronald Fisher bibliography">Ronald Fisher bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_Breeding_and_the_Birth_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective Breeding and the Birth of Philosophy">Selective Breeding and the Birth of Philosophy</a> (2023)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/14px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/21px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/29px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:History of Science">History of Science portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Eugenics_Movement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:Eugenics Movement (page does not exist)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Eugenics_Movement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Eugenics Movement (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eugenics_Movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eugenics Movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Keynes was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> He served as director of the <a href="/wiki/Galton_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Galton Institute">British Eugenics Society</a> from 1937 to 1944. As late as 1946, shortly before his death, Keynes declared eugenics to be "the most important, significant and, I would add, genuine branch of sociology which exists."<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> Keynes once remarked that "the youth had no religion save <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> and this was worse than nothing."<a href="#cite_note-bell177-194">[194]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> "was founded upon nothing better than a misunderstanding of <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a>", and, given time, he (Keynes) "would deal thoroughly with the Marxists" and other economists to solve the economic problems their theories "threaten to cause".<a href="#cite_note-bell177-194">[194]</a> In 1925, Keynes said "the class war will find me on the side of the educated bourgeoisie."<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> In 1931 Keynes had the following to say on Leninism:<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">How can I accept a doctrine, which sets up as its bible, above and beyond criticism, an <a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">obsolete textbook</a> which I know not only to be scientifically erroneous but without interest or application to the modern world? How can I adopt a creed which, preferring the mud to the fish, exalts the boorish <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> above the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>, who with all their faults, are the quality of life and surely carry the seeds of all human achievement? Even if we need a religion, how can we find it in the turbid rubbish of the red bookshop? It is hard for an educated, decent, intelligent son of Western Europe to find his ideals here, unless he has first suffered some strange and horrid process of conversion which has changed all his values.</blockquote> Keynes was a firm supporter of <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a> and in 1932 became vice-chairman of the <a href="/wiki/MSI_Reproductive_Choices" title="MSI Reproductive Choices">Marie Stopes Society</a> which provided <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a> education. He also campaigned against job discrimination against women and unequal pay. He was an outspoken campaigner for reform of the <a href="/wiki/LGBT_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT movements">laws against homosexuality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heraldic_arms">Heraldic arms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Heraldic arms">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="max-width: 100%"> <caption class="nowrap">Coat of arms of John Maynard Keynes </caption> <tbody><tr> <td style="width: 220px;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg/100px-Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg/150px-Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg/200px-Coronet_of_a_British_Baron.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="179" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Keynes_Escutcheon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Keynes_Escutcheon.png/120px-Keynes_Escutcheon.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Keynes_Escutcheon.png/180px-Keynes_Escutcheon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Keynes_Escutcheon.png/240px-Keynes_Escutcheon.png 2x" data-file-width="406" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td style="min-width:175px;"> <dl><dt>Notes</dt> <dd>Granted 16 May 1944<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a></dd> <dt>Motto</dt> <dd>Me Tutore Tutus Eris ("With me as leader you will be safe")<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a></dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death">Death</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Death">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tilton_House.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tilton_House.jpg/220px-Tilton_House.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tilton_House.jpg/330px-Tilton_House.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tilton_House.jpg/440px-Tilton_House.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Tilton House, 2021</figcaption></figure> Throughout his life, Keynes worked energetically for the benefit both of the public and his friends; even when his health was poor, he laboured to sort out the finances of his old college.<a href="#cite_note-JMK_Ind08Nov08-219">[219]</a> Helping to set up the <a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system" title="Bretton Woods system">Bretton Woods system</a>, he worked to institute an <a href="/wiki/International_monetary_system" title="International monetary system">international monetary system</a> that would be beneficial for the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a>. In 1946, Keynes suffered a series of heart attacks, which ultimately proved fatal. They began during negotiations for the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-American_loan" title="Anglo-American loan">Anglo-American loan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah, Georgia</a>, where he was trying to secure favourable terms for the United Kingdom from the United States, a process he described as "absolute hell".<a href="#cite_note-50_greats-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> A few weeks after returning from the United States, Keynes died of a heart attack at Tilton, his farmhouse home near <a href="/wiki/Firle" title="Firle">Firle</a>, East Sussex, England, on 21 April 1946, at the age of 62.<a href="#cite_note-SkidelP1-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> Against his wishes (he wanted his ashes to be deposited in the crypt at King's), his ashes were scattered on the Downs above Tilton.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> Both of Keynes's parents outlived him: his father <a href="/wiki/John_Neville_Keynes" title="John Neville Keynes">John Neville Keynes</a> (1852–1949) by three years, and his mother <a href="/wiki/Florence_Ada_Keynes" title="Florence Ada Keynes">Florence Ada Keynes</a> (1861–1958) by twelve. Keynes's brother Sir <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Keynes" title="Geoffrey Keynes">Geoffrey Keynes</a> (1887–1982) was a distinguished surgeon, scholar and bibliophile. Keynes's sister, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Hill_(social_reformer)" title="Margaret Hill (social reformer)">Margaret Hill</a> (1885–1970) was a prominent social reformer. His nephews include <a href="/wiki/Richard_Keynes" title="Richard Keynes">Richard Keynes</a> (1919–2010), a physiologist, and <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Keynes" title="Quentin Keynes">Quentin Keynes</a> (1921–2003), an adventurer and bibliophile. His niece, <a href="/wiki/Polly_Hill_(economist)" title="Polly Hill (economist)">Polly Hill</a> (1914–2005), was an economic anthropologist and Emeritus Fellow of <a href="/wiki/Clare_Hall,_Cambridge" title="Clare Hall, Cambridge">Clare Hall, Cambridge</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_representations">Cultural representations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Cultural representations">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/John_Buchan" title="John Buchan">John Buchan</a>'s novel <a href="/wiki/The_Island_of_Sheep" title="The Island of Sheep">Island of Sheep</a> (1936) the character of the financier Barralty is based on Keynes.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> In the film <a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_(film)" title="Wittgenstein (film)">Wittgenstein</a> (1993), directed by <a href="/wiki/Derek_Jarman" title="Derek Jarman">Derek Jarman</a>, Keynes was played by John Quentin.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> The docudrama Paris 1919, based around <a href="/wiki/Peacemakers_(book)" title="Peacemakers (book)">Margaret MacMillan's book</a>, featured Paul Bandey as Keynes.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> In the BBC series about the Bloomsbury Group, <a href="/wiki/Life_in_Squares" title="Life in Squares">Life in Squares</a>, Keynes was portrayed by Edmund Kingsley.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> The novel Mr Keynes' Revolution (2020) by E. J. Barnes is about Keynes's life in the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Love Letters, based on the correspondence of Keynes and Lydia Lopokova, was performed by <a href="/wiki/Tobias_Menzies" title="Tobias Menzies">Tobias Menzies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Helena_Bonham_Carter" title="Helena Bonham Carter">Helena Bonham-Carter</a> at <a href="/wiki/Charleston_Farmhouse" title="Charleston Farmhouse">Charleston</a> in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Publications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>1913 Indian Currency and Finance</li> <li>1919 <a href="/wiki/The_Economic_Consequences_of_the_Peace" title="The Economic Consequences of the Peace">The Economic Consequences of the Peace</a></li> <li>1921 <a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Probability" title="A Treatise on Probability">A Treatise on Probability</a></li> <li>1922 Revision of the Treaty</li> <li>1923 A Tract on Monetary Reform</li> <li>1926 The End of Laissez-Faire</li> <li>1930 <a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Money" title="A Treatise on Money">A Treatise on Money</a></li> <li>1931 Essays in Persuasion</li> <li>1933 Essays in Biography</li> <li>1936 <a href="/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" title="The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</a></li> <li>1940 <a href="/wiki/How_to_Pay_for_the_War" title="How to Pay for the War">How to Pay for the War: A radical plan for the Chancellor of the Exchequer</a></li> <li>1949 Two Memoirs. Ed. by David Garnett (consists of two autobiographical essays: "<a href="/wiki/Carl_Melchior" title="Carl Melchior">Dr. Melchior</a>: A Defeated Enemy" and "My Early Beliefs")</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles_and_pamphlets">Articles and pamphlets</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Articles and pamphlets">edit</a>]</div> (A partial list.) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>1915 The Economics of War in Germany (The Economic Journal)</li> <li>1922 Inflation as a Method of Taxation (Manchester Guardian Commercial Reconstruction Supplement)</li> <li>1925 Am I a Liberal? (Nation & Athenaeum)</li> <li>1926 Laissez-Faire and Communism (New Republic)</li> <li>1929 Can Lloyd George Do It? (Nation and Athenaeum)</li> <li>1930 Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren (Nation and Athenaeum)</li> <li>1930 The Great Slump of 1930 (Nation and Athenæum)</li> <li>1931 The End of the Gold Standard (Sunday Express)</li> <li>1933 The Means to Prosperity (Macmillan and Co.)</li> <li>1933 An Open Letter to President Roosevelt (New York Times)</li> <li>1937 The General Theory of Employment (The Quarterly Journal of Economics)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_spirits_(Keynes)" title="Animal spirits (Keynes)">Animal spirits (Keynes)</a> – Factors that influence human behaviour</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_demand" title="Effective demand">Effective demand</a> – Demand in a constrained marketplace</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_liberalism" title="Embedded liberalism">Embedded liberalism</a> – Global economic system, 1945 to 1970s</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_system" title="Global financial system">Global financial system</a> – Global framework for capital flows</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">Liberalism in the United Kingdom</a> – Overview of liberalism in the United Kingdom</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynes_family" title="Keynes family">Keynes family</a> – Noted English family</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_Mazzucato" title="Mariana Mazzucato">Mariana Mazzucato</a> – Italian-American economist and professor (born 1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-war_consensus" title="Post-war consensus">Post-war consensus</a> – Period in British political history, 1945 to 1970s</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_School_(economics)" title="Stockholm School (economics)">Stockholm School (economics)</a> – School of economic thought (1930s)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes_and_citations">Notes and citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Notes and citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBradley_W._BatemanToshiaki_HiraiMaria_Cristina_Marcuzzo2010" class="citation book cs1">Bradley W. Bateman; Toshiaki Hirai; Maria Cristina Marcuzzo, eds. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8ggUJJqiDa4C&pg=PA146">The Return to Keynes</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05354-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05354-0"><bdi>978-0-674-05354-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170422142606/https://books.google.com/books?id=8ggUJJqiDa4C&pg=PA146">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2017. Retrieved 21 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Return+to+Keynes&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05354-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8ggUJJqiDa4C%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cht-2"><a href="#cite_ref-cht_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsons2006" class="citation book cs1">Parsons, Wayne (4 December 2006). The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought. Cambridge University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139053600" title="Special:BookSources/9781139053600"><bdi>9781139053600</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Twentieth-Century+Political+Thought&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006-12-04&rft.isbn=9781139053600&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCairncross" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cairncross, Alec. "Keynes, John Maynard, Baron Keynes (1883–1946)". <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F34310">10.1093/ref:odnb/34310</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Keynes%2C+John+Maynard%2C+Baron+Keynes+%281883%E2%80%931946%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F34310&rft.aulast=Cairncross&rft.aufirst=Alec&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYerginStanislaw200239–42-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYerginStanislaw200239–42_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYerginStanislaw2002">Yergin & Stanislaw 2002</a>, pp. 39–42. </li> <li id="cite_note-JMK-5"><a href="#cite_ref-JMK_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSloman2008" class="citation news cs1">Sloman, John (22 October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7682887.stm">"How to kick-start a faltering economy the Keynes way"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090404181606/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7682887.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+to+kick-start+a+faltering+economy+the+Keynes+way&rft.date=2008-10-22&rft.aulast=Sloman&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fmagazine%2F7682887.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohn2015" class="citation book cs1">Cohn, Steven Mark (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bZ5sBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">Reintroducing Macroeconomics: A Critical Approach</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-46120-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-46120-3"><bdi>978-1-317-46120-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170422212842/https://books.google.com/books?id=bZ5sBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2017. Retrieved 21 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reintroducing+Macroeconomics%3A+A+Critical+Approach&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-46120-3&rft.aulast=Cohn&rft.aufirst=Steven+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbZ5sBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisFigginsHedengrenKlein2011" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, William L.; Figgins, Bob; Hedengren, David; Klein, Daniel B. (May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://econjwatch.org/file_download/487/DavisMay2011.pdf?mimetype=pdf">"Economic Professors' Favorite Economic Thinkers, Journals, and Blogs"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Econ_Journal_Watch" title="Econ Journal Watch">Econ Journal Watch</a>. 8 (2): 126–46. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417174721/https://econjwatch.org/file_download/487/DavisMay2011.pdf?mimetype=pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Econ+Journal+Watch&rft.atitle=Economic+Professors%27+Favorite+Economic+Thinkers%2C+Journals%2C+and+Blogs&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=126-46&rft.date=2011-05&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft.au=Figgins%2C+Bob&rft.au=Hedengren%2C+David&rft.au=Klein%2C+Daniel+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feconjwatch.org%2Ffile_download%2F487%2FDavisMay2011.pdf%3Fmimetype%3Dpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky2010" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (26 October 2010). Keynes: The Return of the Master. Cambridge: Public affairs. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-897-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-897-0"><bdi>978-1-58648-897-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keynes%3A+The+Return+of+the+Master&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Public+affairs&rft.date=2010-10-26&rft.isbn=978-1-58648-897-0&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolf2008" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Wolf" title="Martin Wolf">Wolf, Martin</a> (23 December 2008). "Keynes offers us the best way to think about the financial crisis". Financial Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Keynes+offers+us+the+best+way+to+think+about+the+financial+crisis&rft.date=2008-12-23&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> (Columnist opinion) </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191126172202/http://cas2.umkc.edu/economics/people/facultypages/kregel/courses/econ645/winter2011/generaltheory.pdf">"The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 7 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+General+Theory+of+Employment%2C+Interest%2C+and+Money&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcas2.umkc.edu%2Feconomics%2Fpeople%2Ffacultypages%2Fkregel%2Fcourses%2Fecon645%2Fwinter2011%2Fgeneraltheory.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.M._Keynes,_free_trade_and_protectionism_11-12">m</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaurin2011" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maurin, Max (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ae/2010-v86-n1-ae3990/045556ar/">"J.M. Keynes, le libre-échange et le protectionnisme"</a> [J.M. Keynes, Free Trade and Protectionism]. L'Actualité Économique (in French). 86: 109–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7202%2F045556ar">10.7202/045556ar</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210506024936/https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ae/2010-v86-n1-ae3990/045556ar/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=L%27Actualit%C3%A9+%C3%89conomique&rft.atitle=J.M.+Keynes%2C+le+libre-%C3%A9change+et+le+protectionnisme&rft.volume=86&rft.pages=109-129&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7202%2F045556ar&rft.aulast=Maurin&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.erudit.org%2Ffr%2Frevues%2Fae%2F2010-v86-n1-ae3990%2F045556ar%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism_12-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_non-neoclassical_foundations_of_protectionism_12-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaurin2013" class="citation thesis cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maurin, Max (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sudoc.abes.fr/cbs/xslt/DB=2.1//SRCH?IKT=12&TRM=170778401">Les fondements non neoclassiques du protectionnisme</a> (Thesis) (in French). Université Bordeaux-IV.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Les+fondements+non+neoclassiques+du+protectionnisme&rft.inst=Universit%C3%A9+Bordeaux-IV&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Maurin&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sudoc.abes.fr%2Fcbs%2Fxslt%2FDB%3D2.1%2F%2FSRCH%3FIKT%3D12%26TRM%3D170778401&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-National_Self-Sufficiency-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-National_Self-Sufficiency_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Self-Sufficiency_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Self-Sufficiency_13-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Maynard_Keynes1933" class="citation journal cs1">John Maynard Keynes (June 1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/interwar/keynes.htm">"National Self-Sufficiency"</a>. The Yale Review. 22 (4): 755–769. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110515044928/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/interwar/keynes.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Yale+Review&rft.atitle=National+Self-Sufficiency&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=755-769&rft.date=1933-06&rft.au=John+Maynard+Keynes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtholyoke.edu%2Facad%2Fintrel%2Finterwar%2Fkeynes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrugman1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman, Paul</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GcmvijkDrEcC&pg=PA43">Peddling Prosperity: Economic Sense and Nonsense in the Age of Diminished Expectations</a>. W.W. Norton. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31292-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31292-8"><bdi>978-0-393-31292-8</bdi></a>. <q>In 1968 in one of the decisive intellectual achievements of postwar economics, Friedman not only showed why the apparent tradeoff embodied in the idea of the Phillips curve was wrong; he also predicted the emergence of combined inflation and high unemployment ... dubbed 'stagflation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peddling+Prosperity%3A+Economic+Sense+and+Nonsense+in+the+Age+of+Diminished+Expectations&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31292-8&rft.aulast=Krugman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGcmvijkDrEcC%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090404035920/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920558,00.html">"To Set the Economy Right"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. 27 August 1979. 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Financial Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201020111353/https://www.ft.com/content/8a3d8122-d5da-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2020. 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Retrieved 18 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Time+100%3A+John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.date=1999-03-29&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C990614%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/britain/21577382-chancellor-likely-ignore-imfs-advice-toothless-truth-tellers">"The IMF in Britain: Toothless truth tellers"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. 11 May 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418160633/https://www.economist.com/britain/2013/05/11/toothless-truth-tellers">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2021. 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Retrieved 25 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.place=School+of+Mathematics+and+Statistics%2C+University+of+St+Andrews%2C+Scotland&rft.pub=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics&rft.date=2003-10&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=J.J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+E.F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FKeynes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html">"John Maynard Keynes – Timeline"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210702141901/http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes+%E2%80%93+Timeline&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maynardkeynes.org%2Fkeynes-career-timeline.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGümüş2003" class="citation journal cs1">Gümüş, Erdal (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/eprint/42373">"J. M. Keynes; Liberalism and Keynes; Keynes's Personal Life; Keynes's School Years"</a>. Dumlupinar University Journal of Social Sciences. 5 (9). Eskisehir Osmangazi University: 81–100. MPRA Paper No. 42373. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214204220/https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/42373/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dumlupinar+University+Journal+of+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=J.+M.+Keynes%3B+Liberalism+and+Keynes%3B+Keynes%27s+Personal+Life%3B+Keynes%27s+School+Years&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=81-100&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=G%C3%BCm%C3%BC%C5%9F&rft.aufirst=Erdal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de%2Fid%2Feprint%2F42373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> (cites Skidelsky)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150822072052/http://www.stephenperse.com/resource.aspx?id=1666">130 years of Perse Girls – Stephen Perse Foundation</a>, 2011, p. 8, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stephenperse.com/resource.aspx?id=1666">the original</a> on 22 August 2015, retrieved 25 January 2014</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=130+years+of+Perse+Girls+%E2%80%93+Stephen+Perse+Foundation&rft.pages=8&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stephenperse.com%2Fresource.aspx%3Fid%3D1666&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> includes a photograph that is said to show Keynes as a child at the Perse School Kindergarten</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Supermac-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Supermac_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Supermac_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorpe2010" class="citation book cs1">Thorpe, D.R. (2010). Supermac: The Life of Harold Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/Chatto_%26_Windus" title="Chatto & Windus">Chatto & Windus</a>. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supermac%3A+The+Life+of+Harold+Macmillan&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Chatto+%26+Windus&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Thorpe&rft.aufirst=D.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGee2005" class="citation book cs1">McGee, Matt (2005). Economics – In terms of The Good, The Bad and The Economist. S.l.: IBID Press. p. 354. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-876659-10-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-876659-10-6"><bdi>1-876659-10-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/163584293">163584293</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics+%E2%80%93+In+terms+of+The+Good%2C+The+Bad+and+The+Economist&rft.place=S.l.&rft.pages=354&rft.pub=IBID+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F163584293&rft.isbn=1-876659-10-6&rft.aulast=McGee&rft.aufirst=Matt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoggridge1992" class="citation book cs1">Moggridge, Donald Edward (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/maynardkeyneseco0047mogg">Maynard Keynes: An Economist's Biography</a>. Oxford: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/maynardkeyneseco0047mogg/page/52">52–81</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134798667" title="Special:BookSources/9781134798667"><bdi>9781134798667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maynard+Keynes%3A+An+Economist%27s+Biography&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=52-81&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9781134798667&rft.aulast=Moggridge&rft.aufirst=Donald+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmaynardkeyneseco0047mogg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1979" class="citation book cs1">Keynes, Milo (29 November 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s3qqM3B_920C&q=John+Maynard+Keynes+atheist&pg=PA11">Essays on John Maynard Keynes</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29696-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29696-0"><bdi>978-0-521-29696-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417191342/https://books.google.com/books?id=s3qqM3B_920C&q=John+Maynard+Keynes+atheist&pg=PA11">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+on+John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979-11-29&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29696-0&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=Milo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds3qqM3B_920C%26q%3DJohn%2BMaynard%2BKeynes%2Batheist%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCave2009" class="citation book cs1">Cave, Peter (1 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sgpb7PBClmUC&q=John+Maynard+Keynes+atheist&pg=PT24">Humanism: A Beginner's Guide</a>. Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-029-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-029-4"><bdi>978-1-78074-029-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417191419/https://books.google.com/books?id=sgpb7PBClmUC&q=John+Maynard+Keynes+atheist&pg=PT24">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Humanism%3A+A+Beginner%27s+Guide&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2009-03-01&rft.isbn=978-1-78074-029-4&rft.aulast=Cave&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dsgpb7PBClmUC%26q%3DJohn%2BMaynard%2BKeynes%2Batheist%26pg%3DPT24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Gowland" class="citation web cs1">David Gowland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110616040146/http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/item_single.php?item_id=31&item=biography">"Biography of Baron John Maynard Keynes"</a>. LiberalHistory.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/item_single.php?item_id=31&item=biography">the original</a> on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 29 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biography+of+Baron+John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.pub=LiberalHistory.org&rft.au=David+Gowland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.liberalhistory.org.uk%2Fitem_single.php%3Fitem_id%3D31%26item%3Dbiography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cunningham-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cunningham_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunningham_29-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunningham_29-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAschheimTavlasHeinsohnSteiger1994" class="citation book cs1">Aschheim, J.; Tavlas, G. S.; Heinsohn, G.; Steiger, O. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EYbno7vSEbQC&pg=PA103">"The Monetary Thought-Ideology Nexus: Simons verses Keynes; Marx and Keynes – Private Property and Money"</a>. In Wood, John Cunningham (ed.). John Maynard Keynes: Critical Assessments. Second. pp. 101–120, 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11415-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11415-8"><bdi>978-0-415-11415-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417191421/https://books.google.com/books?id=EYbno7vSEbQC&pg=PA103">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Monetary+Thought-Ideology+Nexus%3A+Simons+verses+Keynes%3B+Marx+and+Keynes+%E2%80%93+Private+Property+and+Money&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+Critical+Assessments&rft.series=Second&rft.pages=101-120%2C+135&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-415-11415-8&rft.aulast=Aschheim&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Tavlas%2C+G.+S.&rft.au=Heinsohn%2C+G.&rft.au=Steiger%2C+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEYbno7vSEbQC%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette11879" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/11879/page/1124">"No. 11879"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a>. 6 November 1906. p. 1124.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+11879&rft.pages=1124&rft.date=1906-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F11879%2Fpage%2F1124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky1983" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (1983). John Maynard Keynes vol 1: Hopes Betrayed. Macmillan. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-11599-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-11599-6"><bdi>0-333-11599-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes+vol+1%3A+Hopes+Betrayed&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-333-11599-6&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Minksky-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Minksky_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Minksky_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Minksky_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Minksky_32-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Minksky_32-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Minksky_32-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Minksky_32-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Minksky_32-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyman_Minsky2008" class="citation book cs1">Hyman Minsky (16 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9eSu2F4CKNkC&q=john+maynard+keynes+minsky">John Maynard Keynes, chapter 1</a>. and McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-159301-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-159301-4"><bdi>978-0-07-159301-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417181334/https://books.google.com/books?id=9eSu2F4CKNkC&q=john+maynard+keynes+minsky">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%2C+chapter+1&rft.pub=and+McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2008-04-16&rft.isbn=978-0-07-159301-4&rft.au=Hyman+Minsky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9eSu2F4CKNkC%26q%3Djohn%2Bmaynard%2Bkeynes%2Bminsky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1913" class="citation book cs1">Keynes, John Maynard (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/indiancurrencyan014875mbp#page/n3/mode/2up">Indian Currency and Finance</a>. London: Macmillan & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Currency+and+Finance&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan+%26+Co.&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=John+Maynard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Findiancurrencyan014875mbp%23page%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette28711" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/28711/page/2809">"No. 28711"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a>. 18 April 1913. p. 2809.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+28711&rft.pages=2809&rft.date=1913-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F28711%2Fpage%2F2809&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-clarke-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-clarke_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-clarke_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-clarke_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-clarke_35-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackrell2013" class="citation news cs1">Mackrell, Judith (6 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2013/may/06/niall-ferguson-keynes-marriage-sex">"Niall Ferguson is wrong: writing on Lopokova, Keynes' wife, I found evidence of a warm and loving relationship in which both wanted children"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210428150842/https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2013/may/06/niall-ferguson-keynes-marriage-sex">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 28 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Niall+Ferguson+is+wrong%3A+writing+on+Lopokova%2C+Keynes%27+wife%2C+I+found+evidence+of+a+warm+and+loving+relationship+in+which+both+wanted+children&rft.date=2013-05-06&rft.aulast=Mackrell&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fstage%2F2013%2Fmay%2F06%2Fniall-ferguson-keynes-marriage-sex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpiegel1991" class="citation book cs1">Spiegel, Henry William (1991). The Growth of Economic Thought. Durham, UK: Duke University Press. p. 602. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-0973-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-0973-4"><bdi>0-8223-0973-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Economic+Thought&rft.place=Durham%2C+UK&rft.pages=602&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-8223-0973-4&rft.aulast=Spiegel&rft.aufirst=Henry+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette30111" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/30111/supplement/5456">"No. 30111"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a> (Supplement). 1 June 1917. p. 5456.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+30111&rft.pages=5456&rft.date=1917-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F30111%2Fsupplement%2F5456&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette31928" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/31928/supplement/6175">"No. 31928"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a> (Supplement). 1 June 1920. p. 6175.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+31928&rft.pages=6175&rft.date=1920-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F31928%2Fsupplement%2F6175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-origins-39"><a href="#cite_ref-origins_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonough1997" class="citation book cs1">McDonough, Frank (1997). The Origins of the First and Second World Wars. Cambridge University Press. pp. 43–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-0664-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-0664-6"><bdi>1-4051-0664-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+First+and+Second+World+Wars&rft.pages=43-46&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-4051-0664-6&rft.aulast=McDonough&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> In 'Essays in Persuasion', Keynes estimates that cancellation of all inter-ally debts after the First World War would have resulted in a net cost to the US of £2.0 billion and of £0.9 billion to the UK (figures not adjusted for subsequent cumulative inflation). See section 'Paris (1919)' within chapter 'The treaty of peace'. </li> <li id="cite_note-Skidel20s-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skidel20s_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skidel20s_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skidel20s_41-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skidel20s_41-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skidel20s_41-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skidel20s_41-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skidel20s_41-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skidel20s_41-7">h</a> Skidelsky (2003) pp 217–220, 245, 260–265, 283, 342–355 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.policonomics.com/keynes/">"John Maynard Keynes"</a>. Policonomics. 29 March 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210515225045/https://policonomics.com/keynes/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.pub=Policonomics&rft.date=2012-03-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.policonomics.com%2Fkeynes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenig1995" class="citation book cs1">Henig, Ruth (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lqInX6qQPyUC&pg=PA65">Versailles and After, 1919–1933</a> (second ed.). Routledge. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-79873-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-79873-5"><bdi>978-1-134-79873-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615023209/https://books.google.com/books?id=lqInX6qQPyUC&pg=PA65">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Versailles+and+After%2C+1919%E2%80%931933&rft.pages=65&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-134-79873-5&rft.aulast=Henig&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlqInX6qQPyUC%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarks2013" class="citation journal cs1">Marks, Sally (September 2013). "Mistakes and Myths: The Allies, Germany, and the Versailles Treaty, 1918–1921". <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a>. 85 (3): 632–659. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F670825">10.1086/670825</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/670825">10.1086/670825</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154166326">154166326</a>. <q>For nearly forty years, historians of twentieth-century diplomacy have argued that the Versailles treaty was more reasonable than its reputation suggests and that it did not of itself cause the Depression, the rise of Hitler, or World War II" (p. 632). Marks also claims that the book is a "brilliant but warped polemic" (p. 636) that is "long-discredited by scholars" and which Keynes regretted writing (p. 656).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Mistakes+and+Myths%3A+The+Allies%2C+Germany%2C+and+the+Versailles+Treaty%2C+1918%E2%80%931921&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=632-659&rft.date=2013-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154166326%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1086%2F670825%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F670825&rft.aulast=Marks&rft.aufirst=Sally&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuker1988" class="citation book cs1">Schuker, Stephen A. (July 1988). American "Reparations" to Germany, 1919-33: Implications for the Third-World Debt Crisis. Princeton Studies in International Finance. International Finance Section, Department of Economics, Princeton University. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0881652334" title="Special:BookSources/0881652334"><bdi>0881652334</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+%22Reparations%22+to+Germany%2C+1919-33%3A+Implications+for+the+Third-World+Debt+Crisis.&rft.series=Princeton+Studies+in+International+Finance&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=International+Finance+Section%2C+Department+of+Economics%2C+Princeton+University&rft.date=1988-07&rft.isbn=0881652334&rft.aulast=Schuker&rft.aufirst=Stephen+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchumpeter2003" class="citation book cs1">Schumpeter, Joseph (2003). Ten Great Economists. Simon Publications. p. 271. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-932512-09-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-932512-09-8"><bdi>1-932512-09-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ten+Great+Economists&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=Simon+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-932512-09-8&rft.aulast=Schumpeter&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50_greats-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-50_greats_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-50_greats_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-50_greats_47-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPressman1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pressman_(economist)" title="Steven Pressman (economist)">Pressman, Steven</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8_mEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99">Fifty Major Economists</a>. Routledge. pp. 99–104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-78082-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-78082-2"><bdi>978-1-134-78082-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615010012/https://books.google.com/books?id=8_mEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fifty+Major+Economists&rft.pages=99-104&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-134-78082-2&rft.aulast=Pressman&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8_mEAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cassidy2011-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cassidy2011_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cassidy2011_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cassidy2011_48-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassidy2011" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Cassidy_(journalist)" title="John Cassidy (journalist)">Cassidy, John</a> (10 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/10/10/the-demand-doctor">"The Demand Doctor"</a>. The New Yorker. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181117025238/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/10/10/the-demand-doctor">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2018. Retrieved 16 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Demand+Doctor&rft.date=2011-10-10&rft.aulast=Cassidy&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2011%2F10%2F10%2Fthe-demand-doctor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skid30s-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skid30s_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skid30s_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skid30s_49-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skid30s_49-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skid30s_49-4">e</a> Skidelsky (2003) pp 494–500, 504, 509–510 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTribe1997" class="citation book cs1">Tribe, Keith (1997). Economic Careers: Economics and Economists in Britain, 1930–1970. London: Routledge. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-14708-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-14708-5"><bdi>0-415-14708-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Careers%3A+Economics+and+Economists+in+Britain%2C+1930%E2%80%931970&rft.place=London&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-415-14708-5&rft.aulast=Tribe&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangkuhl2015" class="citation journal cs1">Sangkuhl, Elfriede (January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30958%2Fajl.1.1.3">"How the Macroeconomic Theories of Keynes influenced the Development of Government Economic Finance Policy after the Great Depression of the 1930's: Using Australia as the Εxample"</a>. Athens Journal of Law. 1 (1): 34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30958%2Fajl.1.1.3">10.30958/ajl.1.1.3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Athens+Journal+of+Law&rft.atitle=How+the+Macroeconomic+Theories+of+Keynes+influenced+the+Development+of+Government+Economic+Finance+Policy+after+the+Great+Depression+of+the+1930%27s%3A+Using+Australia+as+the+%CE%95xample&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=34&rft.date=2015-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30958%2Fajl.1.1.3&rft.aulast=Sangkuhl&rft.aufirst=Elfriede&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.30958%252Fajl.1.1.3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarida1999" class="citation journal cs1">Clarida, Richard (1999). "The Science of Monetary Policy: a New Keynesian Perspective". Journal of Economic Literature. 37 (4): 1661–1707. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjel.37.4.1661">10.1257/jel.37.4.1661</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10230%2F360">10230/360</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55045787">55045787</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Literature&rft.atitle=The+Science+of+Monetary+Policy%3A+a+New+Keynesian+Perspective&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1661-1707&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10230%2F360&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55045787%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjel.37.4.1661&rft.aulast=Clarida&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kishtainy-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kishtainy_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kishtainy_53-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKishtainy2017" class="citation book cs1">Kishtainy, Niall (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/980872123">A little history of economics</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-20636-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-20636-4"><bdi>978-0-300-20636-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/980872123">980872123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+little+history+of+economics&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F980872123&rft.isbn=978-0-300-20636-4&rft.aulast=Kishtainy&rft.aufirst=Niall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F980872123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SkidelP2-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SkidelP2_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SkidelP2_54-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SkidelP2_54-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SkidelP2_54-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SkidelP2_54-4">e</a> Skidelsky (2003) pp pp 530, 572, 586, 750, 789, 833 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Hazlit-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Hazlit_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHazlitt1995" class="citation book cs1">Hazlitt, Henry (1995) [1960]. The critics of Keynesian Economics. Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y.: <a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Economic_Education" title="Foundation for Economic Education">Foundation for Economic Education</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57246-013-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57246-013-3"><bdi>978-1-57246-013-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+critics+of+Keynesian+Economics&rft.place=Irvington-on-Hudson%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=Foundation+for+Economic+Education&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-57246-013-3&rft.aulast=Hazlitt&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-new_economics-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-new_economics_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-new_economics_56-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2005" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Seymour E. (2005). The New Economics: Keynes's Influence on Theory and Public Policy. Kessinger Publishing. p. xxii, 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4191-4534-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4191-4534-7"><bdi>1-4191-4534-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Economics%3A+Keynes%27s+Influence+on+Theory+and+Public+Policy&rft.pages=xxii%2C+46&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4191-4534-7&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Seymour+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1940" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, Kingsley (16 March 1940). "Mr Keynes Has A Plan". <a href="/wiki/Picture_Post" title="Picture Post">Picture Post</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Picture+Post&rft.atitle=Mr+Keynes+Has+A+Plan&rft.date=1940-03-16&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Kingsley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-K_rev._and_critics-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-K_rev._and_critics_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-K_rev._and_critics_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-K_rev._and_critics_58-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-K_rev._and_critics_58-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-K_rev._and_critics_58-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-K_rev._and_critics_58-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-K_rev._and_critics_58-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-K_rev._and_critics_58-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcher1989" class="citation book cs1">Fletcher, Gordon A. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKawCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA88">Keynesian Revolution and Its Critics: Issues of Theory and Policy for the Monetary Production Economy</a> (second ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. xix–xxi, 88, 189–191, 234–238, 256–261. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-20108-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-20108-2"><bdi>978-1-349-20108-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615091912/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKawCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA88">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keynesian+Revolution+and+Its+Critics%3A+Issues+of+Theory+and+Policy+for+the+Monetary+Production+Economy&rft.pages=xix-xxi%2C+88%2C+189-191%2C+234-238%2C+256-261&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-1-349-20108-2&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=Gordon+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZKawCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Donald_Markwell" title="Donald Markwell">Donald Markwell</a>, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace, Oxford University Press, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_60-2">c</a> Universal Man Richard Davenport-Hines Collins 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette35279" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/35279/page/5489">"No. 35279"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a>. 19 September 1941. p. 5489.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+35279&rft.pages=5489&rft.date=1941-09-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F35279%2Fpage%2F5489&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette35511" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/35511/page/1540">"No. 35511"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a>. 3 April 1942. p. 1540.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+35511&rft.pages=1540&rft.date=1942-04-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F35511%2Fpage%2F1540&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TheLondon-62"><a href="#cite_ref-TheLondon_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette35586" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/35586/page/2475">"No. 35586"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a>. 5 June 1942. p. 2475.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+35586&rft.pages=2475&rft.date=1942-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F35586%2Fpage%2F2475&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette35623" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/35623/page/2987">"No. 35623"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a>. 7 July 1942. p. 2987.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+35623&rft.pages=2987&rft.date=1942-07-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F35623%2Fpage%2F2987&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuggan" class="citation journal cs1">Duggan, M. C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/21885358">"Taking Back Globalization: A China-United States Counterfactual Using Keynes's 1941 International Clearing Union"</a>. Review of Radical Political Economics. 45 (4): 508–516. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0486613412475191">10.1177/0486613412475191</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0486-6134">0486-6134</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154224790">154224790</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210510133835/https://www.academia.edu/21885358/Taking_Back_Globalization_A_China_United_States_Counterfactual_Using_Keyness_1941_International_Clearing_Union">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Radical+Political+Economics&rft.atitle=Taking+Back+Globalization%3A+A+China-United+States+Counterfactual+Using+Keynes%27s+1941+International+Clearing+Union&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=508-516&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154224790%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0486-6134&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0486613412475191&rft.aulast=Duggan&rft.aufirst=M.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F21885358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econ161.berkeley.edu/Econ_Articles/reviews/skidelsky3.html">"Review of Robert Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes: Fighting for Britain 1937–1946"</a>. Brad Delong, Berkeley university. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091014073814/http://econ161.berkeley.edu/Econ_Articles/reviews/skidelsky3.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2009. Retrieved 14 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Review+of+Robert+Skidelsky%2C+John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+Fighting+for+Britain+1937%E2%80%931946&rft.pub=Brad+Delong%2C+Berkeley+university&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fecon161.berkeley.edu%2FEcon_Articles%2Freviews%2Fskidelsky3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1980" class="citation book cs1">Keynes, J.M. (1980). Moggridge, Donald (ed.). Activities 1941-1946: Shaping the post war world. The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes. Vol. 26. London: Macmillan. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-10736-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-10736-5"><bdi>0-333-10736-5</bdi></a>. <q>Speech by Lord Keynes in Moving to Accept the Final Act at the Closing Plenary Session, Bretton Woods, 22 July 1944,</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Activities+1941-1946%3A+Shaping+the+post+war+world&rft.series=The+Collected+Writings+of+John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=London%3A+Macmillan&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-333-10736-5&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=J.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin2004" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, G. Edward (2004). The Creature from Jekyll Island: A Second Look at the Federal Reserve. American Media. pp. 85–106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912986-40-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-912986-40-9"><bdi>0-912986-40-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creature+from+Jekyll+Island%3A+A+Second+Look+at+the+Federal+Reserve&rft.pages=85-106&rft.pub=American+Media&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-912986-40-9&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=G.+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html">"John Maynard Keynes: Career Timeline"</a>. Maynardkeynes.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210702141901/http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+Career+Timeline&rft.pub=Maynardkeynes.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maynardkeynes.org%2Fkeynes-career-timeline.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayers1976" class="citation book cs1">Sayers, Richard (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8hY9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325">The Bank of England, 1891–1944, Volume 1</a>. CUP Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21067-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21067-6"><bdi>978-0-521-21067-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417174517/https://books.google.com/books?id=8hY9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA325">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bank+of+England%2C+1891%E2%80%931944%2C+Volume+1&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-521-21067-6&rft.aulast=Sayers&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8hY9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maynardkeynes.org/john-maynard-keynes-world-bank-imf.html">"After the War, The World Bank, the IMF, and the End, 1945 to 1946"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150206052256/http://www.maynardkeynes.org/john-maynard-keynes-world-bank-imf.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=After+the+War%2C+The+World+Bank%2C+the+IMF%2C+and+the+End%2C+1945+to+1946&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maynardkeynes.org%2Fjohn-maynard-keynes-world-bank-imf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Stiglitz2010" class="citation web cs1">Joseph Stiglitz (5 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/may/05/reform-euro-or-bin-it-greece-germany">"Reform the euro or bin it"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170830234718/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/may/05/reform-euro-or-bin-it-greece-germany">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 30 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Reform+the+euro+or+bin+it&rft.date=2010-05-05&rft.au=Joseph+Stiglitz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2010%2Fmay%2F05%2Freform-euro-or-bin-it-greece-germany&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowther,_Geoffrey1948" class="citation book cs1">Crowther, Geoffrey (1948). An Outline of Money. Second Edition. Thomas Nelson and Sons. pp. 326–29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Outline+of+Money&rft.series=Second+Edition&rft.pages=326-29&rft.pub=Thomas+Nelson+and+Sons&rft.date=1948&rft.au=Crowther%2C+Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-inve_Dere-73"><a href="#cite_ref-inve_Dere_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/deregulate.asp">"What Is Deregulation?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Investopedia" title="Investopedia">Investopedia</a>. 25 June 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190608083418/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/deregulate.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2019. <q>Deregulation is the reduction or elimination of government power in a particular industry, usually enacted to create more competition within the industry.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Investopedia&rft.atitle=What+Is+Deregulation%3F&rft.date=2019-06-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.investopedia.com%2Fterms%2Fd%2Fderegulate.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-inve_Trad-74"><a href="#cite_ref-inve_Trad_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/trade-liberalization.asp">"What Is Trade Liberalization"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Investopedia" title="Investopedia">Investopedia</a>. 18 April 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190721162849/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/trade-liberalization.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2019. <q>Trade liberalization is the removal or reduction of restrictions or barriers on the free exchange of goods between nations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Investopedia&rft.atitle=What+Is+Trade+Liberalization&rft.date=2019-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.investopedia.com%2Fterms%2Ft%2Ftrade-liberalization.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-scho_-75"><a href="#cite_ref-scho_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCostabile,_Lilia2007" class="citation web cs1">Costabile, Lilia (December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190228191918/https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1101&context=peri_workingpapers">"Current Global Imbalances and the Keynes Plan (PDF)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Political_Economy_Research_Institute" title="Political Economy Research Institute">Political Economy Research Institute</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi">the original</a> on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Political+Economy+Research+Institute&rft.atitle=Current+Global+Imbalances+and+the+Keynes+Plan+%28PDF%29&rft.date=2007-12&rft.au=Costabile%2C+Lilia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.umass.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStiglitz2010" class="citation news cs1">Stiglitz, Joseph (5 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/may/05/reform-euro-or-bin-it-greece-germany">"Reform the euro or bin it"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170830234718/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/may/05/reform-euro-or-bin-it-greece-germany">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 30 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Reform+the+euro+or+bin+it&rft.date=2010-05-05&rft.aulast=Stiglitz&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2010%2Fmay%2F05%2Freform-euro-or-bin-it-greece-germany&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1933" class="citation web cs1">Keynes, John Maynard (June 1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/interwar/keynes.htm">"National Self-Sufficiency"</a>. Mount Holyoke College. The Yale Review Vol. 22, no. 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191002224223/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/interwar/keynes.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mount+Holyoke+College&rft.atitle=National+Self-Sufficiency&rft.date=1933-06&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=John+Maynard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtholyoke.edu%2Facad%2Fintrel%2Finterwar%2Fkeynes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrewal2009" class="citation web cs1">Grewal, David Singh (September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.india-seminar.com/2009/601/601_david_singh_grewali.htm">"What Keynes warned about globalization"</a>. Seminar Magazine. New Delhi, India. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0971-6742">0971-6742</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200721043539/http://www.india-seminar.com/2009/601/601_david_singh_grewali.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Seminar+Magazine&rft.atitle=What+Keynes+warned+about+globalization&rft.date=2009-09&rft.issn=0971-6742&rft.aulast=Grewal&rft.aufirst=David+Singh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.india-seminar.com%2F2009%2F601%2F601_david_singh_grewali.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowther,_Geoffrey1948" class="citation book cs1">Crowther, Geoffrey (1948). An Outline of Money. Second Edition. Thomas Nelson and Sons. p. 336.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Outline+of+Money&rft.series=Second+Edition&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Thomas+Nelson+and+Sons&rft.date=1948&rft.au=Crowther%2C+Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowther,_Geoffrey1948" class="citation book cs1">Crowther, Geoffrey (1948). An Outline of Money. Second Edition. Thomas Nelson and Sons. pp. 368–72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Outline+of+Money&rft.series=Second+Edition&rft.pages=368-72&rft.pub=Thomas+Nelson+and+Sons&rft.date=1948&rft.au=Crowther%2C+Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowther,_Geoffrey1948" class="citation book cs1">Crowther, Geoffrey (1948). An Outline of Money. Second Edition. Thomas Nelson and Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Outline+of+Money&rft.series=Second+Edition&rft.pub=Thomas+Nelson+and+Sons&rft.date=1948&rft.au=Crowther%2C+Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrugman,_PWells,_R2006" class="citation book cs1">Krugman, P; Wells, R (2006). Economics. Worth Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics&rft.pub=Worth+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Krugman%2C+P&rft.au=Wells%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuncan,_R2005" class="citation book cs1">Duncan, R (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dollarcrisiscaus00dunc_0">The Dollar Crisis: Causes, Consequences, Cures</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470821701" title="Special:BookSources/9780470821701"><bdi>9780470821701</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dollar+Crisis%3A+Causes%2C+Consequences%2C+Cures&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780470821701&rft.au=Duncan%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdollarcrisiscaus00dunc_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-monb_Clea-84"><a href="#cite_ref-monb_Clea_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonbiot,_George2008" class="citation web cs1">Monbiot, George (18 November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.monbiot.com/2008/11/18/clearing-up-this-mess">"Clearing Up This Mess"</a>. George Monbiot Website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090123161345/http://www.monbiot.com/archives/2008/11/18/clearing-up-this-mess/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=George+Monbiot+Website&rft.atitle=Clearing+Up+This+Mess&rft.date=2008-11-18&rft.au=Monbiot%2C+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.monbiot.com%2F2008%2F11%2F18%2Fclearing-up-this-mess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_85-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_YerginJoseph_Stanislaw" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Yergin" title="Daniel Yergin">Daniel Yergin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stanislaw" title="Joseph Stanislaw">Joseph Stanislaw</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitext/ess_inflation.html">"Keynes on Inflation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090806025849/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitext/ess_inflation.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2009. Retrieved 30 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Keynes+on+Inflation&rft.pub=PBS&rft.au=Daniel+Yergin&rft.au=Joseph+Stanislaw&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fcommandingheights%2Fshared%2Fminitext%2Fess_inflation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTabb2002" class="citation book cs1">Tabb, William K. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vj3ovRJfufQC&pg=PA151">Reconstructing Political Economy: The Great Divide in Economic Thought</a>. Routledge. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203049310" title="Special:BookSources/9780203049310"><bdi>9780203049310</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150315051114/http://books.google.com/books?id=Vj3ovRJfufQC&pg=PA151">Archived</a> from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructing+Political+Economy%3A+The+Great+Divide+in+Economic+Thought&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780203049310&rft.aulast=Tabb&rft.aufirst=William+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVj3ovRJfufQC%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heights1-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heights1_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heights1_87-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Yergin" title="Daniel Yergin">Daniel Yergin</a>, William Cran (writers / producer) (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/story/ch_menu.html">Commanding Heights, see chapter 6 video or transcript</a> (TV documentary). US: <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Commanding+Heights%2C+see+chapter+6+video+or+transcript&rft.place=US&rft.pub=PBS&rft.date=2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fcommandingheights%2Flo%2Fstory%2Fch_menu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1998" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Barry Stewart (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3wpiDzS45PsC&pg=PA101">Political Economy: A Comparative Approach</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95869-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95869-5"><bdi>978-0-275-95869-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615062112/https://books.google.com/books?id=3wpiDzS45PsC&pg=PA101">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017. <q>Modern liberalism was the dominant ideology in Western nations from the end of World War II until the early 1970s. Its appeal stemmed from not only the success of Keynesian economics in maintaining prosperity during that period, but also from the postwar revulsion towards any pure form of ideology.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Economy%3A+A+Comparative+Approach&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-275-95869-5&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Barry+Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3wpiDzS45PsC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Wolfe" title="Alan Wolfe">Wolfe, Alan</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhqiXF0PsA8C&pg=PP1">The Future of Liberalism</a>. Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-26677-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-26677-4"><bdi>978-0-307-26677-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615041432/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhqiXF0PsA8C&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017. <q>If Adam Smith is the quintessential classical liberal, the twentieth-century British economist John Maynard Keynes, whose ideas paved the way for massive public works projects and countercyclical economic policies meant to soften the ups and downs of the business cycle, best represents the modern version.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Liberalism&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-307-26677-4&rft.aulast=Wolfe&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZhqiXF0PsA8C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Davidson" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Davidson_(economist)" title="Paul Davidson (economist)">Paul Davidson</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paecon.net/CRASH-1.pdf">"Crash: Reforming the world's international money"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_New_School" title="The New School">The New School</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417183357/http://www.paecon.net/CRASH-1.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Crash%3A+Reforming+the+world%27s+international+money&rft.pub=The+New+School&rft.au=Paul+Davidson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paecon.net%2FCRASH-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-solution-91"><a href="#cite_ref-solution_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Davidson_(economist)" title="Paul Davidson (economist)">Davidson, Paul</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E_abJgpEwJYC&pg=PP1">The Keynes Solution: The Path to Global Economic Prosperity</a>. St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10101-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10101-2"><bdi>978-0-230-10101-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615082436/https://books.google.com/books?id=E_abJgpEwJYC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Keynes+Solution%3A+The+Path+to+Global+Economic+Prosperity&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-10101-2&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE_abJgpEwJYC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325215049/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,842353-5,00.htm">"We Are All Keynesians Now"</a>. Time. 31 December 1965. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,842353-5,00.htm">the original</a> on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=We+Are+All+Keynesians+Now&rft.date=1965-12-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C842353-5%2C00.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1956" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, A. Ll. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2661731">"The Genesis of the Multiplier Theory"</a>. Oxford Economic Papers. 8 (2): 181–193. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.oep.a042261">10.1093/oxfordjournals.oep.a042261</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0030-7653">0030-7653</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2661731">2661731</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210906075746/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2661731">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Economic+Papers&rft.atitle=The+Genesis+of+the+Multiplier+Theory&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=181-193&rft.date=1956&rft.issn=0030-7653&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2661731%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.oep.a042261&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=A.+Ll.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2661731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahn1931" class="citation journal cs1">Kahn, R. F. (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2223697">"The Relation of Home Investment to Unemployment"</a>. The Economic Journal. 41 (162): 173–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2223697">10.2307/2223697</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0133">0013-0133</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2223697">2223697</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210906075924/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2223697">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Relation+of+Home+Investment+to+Unemployment&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=162&rft.pages=173-198&rft.date=1931&rft.issn=0013-0133&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2223697%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2223697&rft.aulast=Kahn&rft.aufirst=R.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2223697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernandoBoyle" class="citation web cs1">Fernando; Boyle, Michael J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/investment-multiplier.asp">"What Does "Investment Multiplier" Mean?"</a>. Investopedia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210906080544/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/investment-multiplier.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Investopedia&rft.atitle=What+Does+%22Investment+Multiplier%22+Mean%3F&rft.au=Fernando&rft.au=Boyle%2C+Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.investopedia.com%2Fterms%2Fi%2Finvestment-multiplier.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_YerginJoseph_Stanislaw" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Yergin" title="Daniel Yergin">Daniel Yergin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stanislaw" title="Joseph Stanislaw">Joseph Stanislaw</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitextlo/tr_show01.html#6">"transcript of Commanding Heights documentary, episode 1"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110516015358/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitextlo/tr_show01.html#6">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=transcript+of+Commanding+Heights+documentary%2C+episode+1&rft.pub=PBS&rft.au=Daniel+Yergin&rft.au=Joseph+Stanislaw&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fcommandingheights%2Fshared%2Fminitextlo%2Ftr_show01.html%236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedrich_Hayek" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hayekcenter.org/?p=849">"interview: Friedrich Hayek on John Maynard Keynes – Part II"</a>. hayekcenter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200331235533/http://hayekcenter.org/?p=849">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2020. Retrieved 3 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=interview%3A+Friedrich+Hayek+on+John+Maynard+Keynes+%E2%80%93+Part+II&rft.pub=hayekcenter&rft.au=Friedrich+Hayek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhayekcenter.org%2F%3Fp%3D849&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-failedgods-98"><a href="#cite_ref-failedgods_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarry_ElliottDan_Atkinson2008" class="citation book cs1">Larry Elliott; Dan Atkinson (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsthatfailedho0000elli_s7v0/page/78">The Gods That Failed: How Blind Faith in Markets Has Cost Us Our Future</a>. The Bodley Head Ltd. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsthatfailedho0000elli_s7v0/page/78">78</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84792-030-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84792-030-0"><bdi>978-1-84792-030-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gods+That+Failed%3A+How+Blind+Faith+in+Markets+Has+Cost+Us+Our+Future&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=The+Bodley+Head+Ltd.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84792-030-0&rft.au=Larry+Elliott&rft.au=Dan+Atkinson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodsthatfailedho0000elli_s7v0%2Fpage%2F78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman1968" class="citation journal cs1">Friedman, Milton (March 1968). "The Role of Monetary Policy". <a href="/wiki/American_Economic_Review" title="American Economic Review">American Economic Review</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Monetary+Policy&rft.date=1968-03&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Milton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blinder-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Blinder_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Blinder2001" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Blinder" title="Alan Blinder">Alan Blinder</a> (June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~blinder/papers/01WE.pdf">"Keeping the Keynesian Faith"</a> (PDF). Princeton University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101226101426/http://www.princeton.edu/~blinder/papers/01WE.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 27 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Keeping+the+Keynesian+Faith&rft.pub=Princeton+University&rft.date=2001-06&rft.au=Alan+Blinder&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~blinder%2Fpapers%2F01WE.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadrick2008" class="citation news cs1">Madrick, Jeff (8 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/jeff-madrick/the-end-of-the-age-of-mil_b_94228.html">"The End of the Age of Milton Friedman"</a>. HuffPost. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081028172824/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jeff-madrick/the-end-of-the-age-of-mil_b_94228.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2008. Retrieved 13 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=HuffPost&rft.atitle=The+End+of+the+Age+of+Milton+Friedman&rft.date=2008-04-08&rft.aulast=Madrick&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fjeff-madrick%2Fthe-end-of-the-age-of-mil_b_94228.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Kuttner2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kuttner" title="Robert Kuttner">Robert Kuttner</a> (23 October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://prospect.org/article/capital-rues">"Capital Rues"</a>. The American Prospect. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120113040136/http://prospect.org/article/capital-rues">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Prospect&rft.atitle=Capital+Rues&rft.date=2008-10-23&rft.au=Robert+Kuttner&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprospect.org%2Farticle%2Fcapital-rues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> Reviewing Capital Rules: The Construction of Global Finance, by <a href="/wiki/Rawi_Abdelal" title="Rawi Abdelal">Rawi Abdelal</a>, Harvard University Press, and The Bridge at the Edge of the World: Capitalism, the Environment, and Crossing From Crisis to Sustainability, by <a href="/wiki/James_Gustave_Speth" title="James Gustave Speth">James Gustave Speth</a>, Yale University Press </li> <li id="cite_note-forBeginners-103"><a href="#cite_ref-forBeginners_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_PughChris_Garratt1993" class="citation book cs1">Peter Pugh & Chris Garratt (1993). Keynes for Beginners. Icon. p. 155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-874166-13-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-874166-13-7"><bdi>1-874166-13-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keynes+for+Beginners&rft.pages=155&rft.pub=Icon&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=1-874166-13-7&rft.au=Peter+Pugh&rft.au=Chris+Garratt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter-Wade2005" class="citation book cs1">Hunter-Wade, Robert (2005). "11". In John Ravenhill (ed.). 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London. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article4974689.ece">the original</a> on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Spend%2C+spend%2C+spend%3A+Alistair+Darling+adopts+John+Maynard+Keynes+doctrine&rft.date=2008-10-20&rft.au=Sam+Coates&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2Fnews%2Fpolitics%2Farticle4974689.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988">(subscription required) </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Maidment2008" class="citation news cs1">Paul Maidment (9 November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081112053515/http://www.forbes.com/business/2008/11/09/china-stimulus-economy-biz-cx_pm_1109notes.html">"China Announces Massive Stimulus Package"</a>. Forbes. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/business/2008/11/09/china-stimulus-economy-biz-cx_pm_1109notes.html">the original</a> on 12 November 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=China+Announces+Massive+Stimulus+Package&rft.date=2008-11-09&rft.au=Paul+Maidment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fbusiness%2F2008%2F11%2F09%2Fchina-stimulus-economy-biz-cx_pm_1109notes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voxeu.org/index.php?q=node/3156">"A global survey of stimulus plans"</a>. Vox EU. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090617205258/http://www.voxeu.org/index.php?q=node%2F3156">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 14 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+global+survey+of+stimulus+plans&rft.pub=Vox+EU&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.voxeu.org%2Findex.php%3Fq%3Dnode%2F3156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang2008" class="citation news cs1">Chang, Ha-Joon (20 October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2008/oct/20/economic-policy-us-bailout">"The economics of hypocrisy"</a>. The Guardian. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130903075232/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2008/oct/20/economic-policy-us-bailout">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2013. Retrieved 27 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+economics+of+hypocrisy&rft.date=2008-10-20&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Ha-Joon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2Fcifamerica%2F2008%2Foct%2F20%2Feconomic-policy-us-bailout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MarkwellPeace-125"><a href="#cite_ref-MarkwellPeace_125-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkwell2006" class="citation book cs1">Markwell, Donald (2006). John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace. 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Financial Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090527144547/https://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/c4cf37f4-d611-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2009. Retrieved 23 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=The+undeniable+shift+to+Keynes&rft.au=Chris+Giles&rft.au=Ralph+Atkins&rft.au=Krishna+Guha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2Fc4cf37f4-d611-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Access_to_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">registration required</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamil_Anderlini2009" class="citation news cs1">Jamil Anderlini (23 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7851925a-17a2-11de-8c9d-0000779fd2ac.html">"China calls for new reserve currency"</a>. Financial Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090415132431/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7851925a-17a2-11de-8c9d-0000779fd2ac.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2009. Retrieved 13 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=China+calls+for+new+reserve+currency&rft.date=2009-03-23&rft.au=Jamil+Anderlini&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F7851925a-17a2-11de-8c9d-0000779fd2ac.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Access_to_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">registration required</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhou_Xiaochuan2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Xiaochuan" title="Zhou Xiaochuan">Zhou Xiaochuan</a> (23 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924065557/http://www.pbc.gov.cn/english/detail.asp?col=6500&ID=178">"Reform the International Monetary System"</a>. <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">People's Bank of China</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbc.gov.cn/english/detail.asp?col=6500&id=178">the original</a> on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reform+the+International+Monetary+System&rft.pub=People%27s+Bank+of+China&rft.date=2009-03-23&rft.au=Zhou+Xiaochuan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbc.gov.cn%2Fenglish%2Fdetail.asp%3Fcol%3D6500%26id%3D178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorma_Cohen2009" class="citation news cs1">Norma Cohen (24 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/115a3408-602c-11de-a09b-00144feabdc0.html">"OECD foresees end to global slide"</a>. Financial Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090626224909/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/115a3408-602c-11de-a09b-00144feabdc0.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=OECD+foresees+end+to+global+slide&rft.date=2009-06-24&rft.au=Norma+Cohen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F115a3408-602c-11de-a09b-00144feabdc0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Access_to_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">registration required</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrishna_GuhaSarah_O'ConnorMichael_Mackenzie2009" class="citation news cs1">Krishna Guha; Sarah O'Connor; Michael Mackenzie (8 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/4e8677f0-6bc2-11de-9320-00144feabdc0.html">"IMF says world is pulling out of recession"</a>. Financial Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090814012809/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/4e8677f0-6bc2-11de-9320-00144feabdc0.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=IMF+says+world+is+pulling+out+of+recession&rft.date=2009-07-08&rft.au=Krishna+Guha&rft.au=Sarah+O%27Connor&rft.au=Michael+Mackenzie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F4e8677f0-6bc2-11de-9320-00144feabdc0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Access_to_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">registration required</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2009/RES070809A.htm">"Recession Loosens Grip But Weak Recovery Ahead"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a>. 8 July 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090711115334/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2009/RES070809A.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Recession+Loosens+Grip+But+Weak+Recovery+Ahead&rft.pub=International+Monetary+Fund&rft.date=2009-07-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imf.org%2Fexternal%2Fpubs%2Fft%2Fsurvey%2Fso%2F2009%2FRES070809A.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_BenoitQuentin_PeelChris_Bryant2009" class="citation news cs1">Bertrand Benoit; Quentin Peel & Chris Bryant (28 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ce8aa61c-1b39-11de-8aa3-0000779fd2ac.html">"Merkel warns on stimulus"</a>. Financial Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ce8aa61c-1b39-11de-8aa3-0000779fd2ac.html">the original</a> on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Merkel+warns+on+stimulus&rft.date=2009-03-28&rft.au=Bertrand+Benoit&rft.au=Quentin+Peel&rft.au=Chris+Bryant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2Fce8aa61c-1b39-11de-8aa3-0000779fd2ac.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> (<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Access_to_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">registration required</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Gilbert2009" class="citation news cs1">Mark Gilbert (17 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601039&sid=aJ0m8YLAGiBY">"Keynes Arouses Fed as ECB Looks for Monetary Exit"</a>. Bloomberg L.P. 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Retrieved 20 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+other-worldly+philosophers&rft.date=2009-07-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fprintedition%2Fdisplaystory.cfm%3Fstory_id%3D14030288&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Robert J. Barro, Gary Becker, Wall Street Journal editorials, 24 August 2011, and 2 September 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomer2011" class="citation web cs1">Romer, Christina D. (7 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hamilton.edu/documents/Romer%20lecture%20notes.pdf">"What do we know about the effects of fiscal policy? Separating evidence from ideology"</a> (PDF). Lecture at Hamilton College. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308045415/https://www.hamilton.edu/documents/Romer%20lecture%20notes.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. 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Retrieved 18 January 2012. <q>Using this new dataset, our estimates suggest fiscal consolidation has contractionary effects on private domestic demand and GDP.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IMF+Working+Paper%2C+WP%2F11%2F158&rft.atitle=Expansionary+Austerity%3A+New+International+Evidence&rft.date=2011-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1886910%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Guajardo&rft.aufirst=Jaime&rft.au=Leigh%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Pescatori%2C+Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imf.org%2Fexternal%2Fpubs%2Fft%2Fwp%2F2011%2Fwp11158.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodford2008" class="citation web cs1">Woodford, Michael (January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~mw2230/Convergence_AEJ.pdf">"Convergence in Macroeconomics: Elements of the New Synthesis"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Columbia+University&rft.atitle=Convergence+in+Macroeconomics%3A+Elements+of+the+New+Synthesis&rft.date=2008-01&rft.aulast=Woodford&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2F~mw2230%2FConvergence_AEJ.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMankiw2006" class="citation web cs1">Mankiw, N. 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Economic Quarterly. 83/2. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Richmond" title="Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond">Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160918012521/https://www.richmondfed.org/publications/research/economic_quarterly/1997/spring/friedman">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+Quarterly&rft.atitle=John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=83%2F2&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Friedman%2C+Milton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.richmondfed.org%2Fpublications%2Fresearch%2Feconomic_quarterly%2F1997%2Fspring%2Ffriedman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HarvardPeter-155"><a href="#cite_ref-HarvardPeter_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_K._McCraw2009" class="citation web cs1">Thomas K. McCraw (7 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/5626.html">"Dividends from Schumpeter's Noble Failure"</a>. Harvard Business School. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090602023622/http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/5626.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dividends+from+Schumpeter%27s+Noble+Failure&rft.pub=Harvard+Business+School&rft.date=2009-02-07&rft.au=Thomas+K.+McCraw&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhbswk.hbs.edu%2Fitem%2F5626.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schumpeter-156"><a href="#cite_ref-Schumpeter_156-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSymour_E_HarrisJoseph_Schumpter2005" class="citation book cs1">Symour E Harris; Joseph Schumpter (1 March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jTDo58DZi1cC&q=The+New+Economics:+Keynes'+Influence+on+Theory+and+Public+Policy">The New Economics: Keynes's Influence on Theory and Public Policy</a> [Keynes the Economist by Schumpter]. and Kessinger Publishing. pp. 73–101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-4534-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-4534-6"><bdi>978-1-4191-4534-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210824182049/https://books.google.com/books?id=jTDo58DZi1cC&q=The+New+Economics%3A+Keynes%27+Influence+on+Theory+and+Public+Policy">Archived</a> from the original on 24 August 2021. Retrieved 14 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Economics%3A+Keynes%27s+Influence+on+Theory+and+Public+Policy&rft.pages=73-101&rft.pub=and+Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2005-03-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4191-4534-6&rft.au=Symour+E+Harris&rft.au=Joseph+Schumpter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjTDo58DZi1cC%26q%3DThe%2BNew%2BEconomics%3A%2BKeynes%27%2BInfluence%2Bon%2BTheory%2Band%2BPublic%2BPolicy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Prophet of innovation: Joseph Schumpeter and creative destruction. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHazlittVon_Mises1995" class="citation book cs1">Hazlitt, Henry; Von Mises, Ludwig (1995). The Critics of Keynesian Economics. Foundation for Economic Education. pp. 305–306, 314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57246-013-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-57246-013-X"><bdi>1-57246-013-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Critics+of+Keynesian+Economics&rft.pages=305-306%2C+314&rft.pub=Foundation+for+Economic+Education&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-57246-013-X&rft.aulast=Hazlitt&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft.au=Von+Mises%2C+Ludwig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240307141212/https://mises.org/book/export/html/64045">"The Mystery of Banking"</a>. 7 March 2024. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/book/export/html/64045">the original</a> on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 10 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mystery+of+Banking&rft.date=2024-03-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmises.org%2Fbook%2Fexport%2Fhtml%2F64045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240307141218/https://mises.org/austrian-economics-newsletter/interview-murray-rothbard-man-economy-and-state-mises-and-future-austrian-school">"Interview with Murray Rothbard on Man, Economy, and State, Mises, and the Future of the Austrian School | Mises Institute"</a>. 7 March 2024. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/austrian-economics-newsletter/interview-murray-rothbard-man-economy-and-state-mises-and-future-austrian-school">the original</a> on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 10 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interview+with+Murray+Rothbard+on+Man%2C+Economy%2C+and+State%2C+Mises%2C+and+the+Future+of+the+Austrian+School+%7C+Mises+Institute&rft.date=2024-03-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmises.org%2Faustrian-economics-newsletter%2Finterview-murray-rothbard-man-economy-and-state-mises-and-future-austrian-school&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReder2000" class="citation journal cs1">Reder, Melvin W. (2000). "The Anti-Semitism of Some Eminent Economists". History of Political Economy. 32 (4): 833–856. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182702-32-4-833">10.1215/00182702-32-4-833</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153960185">153960185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=The+Anti-Semitism+of+Some+Eminent+Economists&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=833-856&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00182702-32-4-833&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153960185%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Reder&rft.aufirst=Melvin+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandavarkar2000" class="citation journal cs1">Chandavarkar, A. (2000). "Was Keynes Anti-Semitic?". <a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Political_Weekly" title="Economic and Political Weekly">Economic and Political Weekly</a>. 35 (6 May 2000): 1619–1624. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4409262">4409262</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+and+Political+Weekly&rft.atitle=Was+Keynes+Anti-Semitic%3F&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=6+May+2000&rft.pages=1619-1624&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4409262%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Chandavarkar&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nina_Paulovicova-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nina_Paulovicova_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nina_Paulovicova_163-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNina_Paulovicova" class="citation web cs1">Nina Paulovicova. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/pi/article/viewFile/1591/1117">"The Immoral Moral Scientist. John Maynard Keynes"</a>. University of Alberta. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100502234852/http://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/pi/article/viewFile/1591/1117">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Immoral+Moral+Scientist.+John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.pub=University+of+Alberta&rft.au=Nina+Paulovicova&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fejournals.library.ualberta.ca%2Findex.php%2Fpi%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F1591%2F1117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-New_York_Times-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-New_York_Times_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_York_Times_164-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_York_Times_164-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_L._Heilbroner1986" class="citation news cs1">Robert L. Heilbroner (11 May 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/12/06/specials/skidelsky-keynes.html">"The man who made us all Keynesians"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210406010809/https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/98/12/06/specials/skidelsky-keynes.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2008. <q>[...] the private Keynes, emerging in the passionate homosexual involvements that would rule his emotional life until his marriage to the famous Russian ballerina Lydia Lopokova in 1925.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+man+who+made+us+all+Keynesians&rft.date=1986-05-11&rft.au=Robert+L.+Heilbroner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F98%2F12%2F06%2Fspecials%2Fskidelsky-keynes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994123,_127,_715-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994123,_127,_715_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrachey1994">Strachey 1994</a>, pp. 123, 127, 715. </li> <li id="cite_note-moreintelligentlife.com-166"><a href="#cite_ref-moreintelligentlife.com_166-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.moreintelligentlife.com/node/824">The Sex Diaries of John Maynard Keynes</a> The Economist, 28 January 2008, Evan Zimroth (Clare Hall, Cambridge) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091124021328/http://www.moreintelligentlife.com/node/824">Archived</a> 24 November 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> O'Grady, Sean. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/analysis-and-features/john-maynard-keynes-new-biography-reveals-shocking-details-about-the-economists-sex-life-10101971.html">John Maynard Keynes: New biography reveals shocking details about the economist's sex life</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715065218/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/analysis-and-features/john-maynard-keynes-new-biography-reveals-shocking-details-about-the-economists-sex-life-10101971.html">Archived</a> 15 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", The Independent. 12 March 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Thorpe, p.18 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994103-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994103_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrachey1994">Strachey 1994</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Davenport-Hines, Richard. Universal Man: The Seven Lives of John Maynard Keynes, 2015. p.219 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994108–110-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994108–110_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrachey1994">Strachey 1994</a>, pp. 108–110. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994181–183-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994181–183_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrachey1994">Strachey 1994</a>, pp. 181–183. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994128-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994128_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrachey1994">Strachey 1994</a>, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bartlett-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartlett_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartlett_174-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartlett2013" class="citation news cs1">Bartlett, Bruce (7 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/05/07/keyness-biggest-mistake/">"Keynes's Biggest Mistake"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210728084338/https://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/05/07/keyness-biggest-mistake/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Keynes%27s+Biggest+Mistake&rft.date=2013-05-07&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feconomix.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F05%2F07%2Fkeyness-biggest-mistake%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Donald Kagan, On the Origins of War and the Preservation of Peace, New york, Anchor Books, 1996, p. 290, n. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Adam Trimingham, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theargus.co.uk/news/nostalgia/past_present/10030998.print/">"A man of numbers"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130707060933/http://www.theargus.co.uk/news/nostalgia/past_present/10030998.print/">Archived</a> 7 July 2013 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Argus_(Brighton)" title="The Argus (Brighton)">The Argus</a>, 12 November 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Sources describing Keynes as bisexual include: <ul><li>John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, Indo-European Publishing, 2011, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WoPURzI_6eMC&pg=PA139">see back book cover notes</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101230121/https://books.google.com/books?id=WoPURzI_6eMC&pg=PA139">Archived</a> 1 January 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/160444116X" title="Special:BookSources/160444116X">160444116X</a>, 9781604441161</li> <li>Paul Levy, "The Bloomsbury Group", Essays on John Maynard Keynes, ed. Milo Keynes, Cambridge University Press, 1979, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s3qqM3B_920C&pg=PA65">p. 65</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211101074757/https://books.google.com/books?id=s3qqM3B_920C&pg=PA65">Archived</a> 1 November 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29696-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29696-X">0-521-29696-X</a>, 9780521296960</li> <li>David Warsh, Economic Principles: The Masters and Mavericks of Modern Economics, <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>, 2010, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a2X71cAvnYoC&pg=PA3">p. 3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211101074802/https://books.google.com/books?id=a2X71cAvnYoC&pg=PA3">Archived</a> 1 November 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781451602562" title="Special:BookSources/9781451602562">9781451602562</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994129-178"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrachey1994129_178-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrachey1994">Strachey 1994</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoggridge1995" class="citation book cs1">Moggridge, Donald Edward (1995). Maynard Keynes: an economist's biography. Routledge. p. 104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maynard+Keynes%3A+an+economist%27s+biography&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Moggridge&rft.aufirst=Donald+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._E._Moggridge1992" class="citation book cs1">D. E. Moggridge (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/maynardkeyneseco0047mogg">Maynard Keynes: an economist's biography</a>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/maynardkeyneseco0047mogg/page/395">395</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415051415" title="Special:BookSources/9780415051415"><bdi>9780415051415</bdi></a>. <q>I again fell very much in love with her. She seemed to me perfect in every way.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maynard+Keynes%3A+an+economist%27s+biography&rft.pages=395&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780415051415&rft.au=D.+E.+Moggridge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmaynardkeyneseco0047mogg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/non_fictionreviews/3672942/The-unlikely-Lydia-Lopokova.html">The unlikely Lydia Lopokova</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210729091452/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/non_fictionreviews/3672942/The-unlikely-Lydia-Lopokova.html">Archived</a> 29 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>The Telegraph, 25 April 2008, Rupert Christiansen </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Hughes" title="Kathryn Hughes">Kathryn Hughes</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/apr/19/featuresreviews.guardianreview3">"The firebird of Gordon Square"</a>, The Guardian, 19 April 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210729082250/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/apr/19/featuresreviews.guardianreview3">Archived</a> 29 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustin_Wintle2002" class="citation book cs1">Justin Wintle (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=991tT3wSot0C&pg=PA270">"Keynes, John Maynard"</a>. Makers of Modern Culture. Vol. 1. Psychology Press. p. 270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26583-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26583-6"><bdi>978-0-415-26583-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615024053/https://books.google.com/books?id=991tT3wSot0C&pg=PA270">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 18 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Keynes%2C+John+Maynard&rft.btitle=Makers+of+Modern+Culture&rft.pages=270&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26583-6&rft.au=Justin+Wintle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D991tT3wSot0C%26pg%3DPA270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121002144221/http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/keynes_jm,2.html">"Keynes, John Maynard (1883–1946)"</a>. glbtq. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/keynes_jm,2.html">the original</a> on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Keynes%2C+John+Maynard+%281883%E2%80%931946%29&rft.pub=glbtq&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glbtq.com%2Fsocial-sciences%2Fkeynes_jm%2C2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-185">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_185-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_185-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLight2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alison_Light" title="Alison Light">Light, Alison</a> (18 December 2008). "Lady Talky". London Review of Books. 30 (24).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=London+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=Lady+Talky&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=24&rft.date=2008-12-18&rft.aulast=Light&rft.aufirst=Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> "Review: Keynes and the Celestial Dancer", by Anand Chandavarkar, Reviewed work(s): Lydia and Maynard: Letters between Lydia Lopokova and Maynard Keynes by Polly Hill; Richard Keynes, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 25, No. 34 (25 August 1990), p. 1896 </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolly_HillRichard_Keynes1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Polly_Hill_(economist)" title="Polly Hill (economist)">Polly Hill</a>; <a href="/wiki/Richard_Keynes" title="Richard Keynes">Richard Keynes</a>, eds. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lydiamaynard00lydi">Lydia and Maynard: letters between Lydia Lopokova and John Maynard Keynes</a>. André Deutsch. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lydiamaynard00lydi/page/97">97</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-233-98283-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-233-98283-0"><bdi>978-0-233-98283-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lydia+and+Maynard%3A+letters+between+Lydia+Lopokova+and+John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Andr%C3%A9+Deutsch&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-233-98283-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flydiamaynard00lydi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE.M._Forster1987" class="citation book cs1">E.M. Forster (1987). Commonplace Book. p. 195. <q>Lydia Keynes, every whose word should be recorded, said to me as I was leaving her flat the other night: "You know I once tumbled from the stairs and believe me I paid the price." I took the sentence down before I forgot it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commonplace+Book&rft.pages=195&rft.date=1987&rft.au=E.M.+Forster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tiltonhouse.co.uk/">"Tilton House homepage"</a>. Tiltonhouse.co.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130530201803/http://www.tiltonhouse.co.uk/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 2 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tilton+House+homepage&rft.pub=Tiltonhouse.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tiltonhouse.co.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1956" class="citation book cs1">Keynes, John Maynard (1956). James R. Newman (ed.). The World of Mathematics (2000 ed.). Dover. p. 277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-41153-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-41153-2"><bdi>0-486-41153-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Mathematics&rft.pages=277&rft.edition=2000&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=1956&rft.isbn=0-486-41153-2&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=John+Maynard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky1992" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/796052814">John Maynard Keynes : the economist as saviour 1920–1937 : a biography</a>. Macmillan. p. 408. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-37138-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-37138-0"><bdi>0-333-37138-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/796052814">796052814</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214204154/https://www.worldcat.org/title/john-maynard-keynes-the-economist-as-saviour-1920-1937-a-biography-vol-2/oclc/796052814">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes+%3A+the+economist+as+saviour+1920%E2%80%931937+%3A+a+biography.&rft.pages=408&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F796052814&rft.isbn=0-333-37138-0&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F796052814&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2019" class="citation book cs1">Moore, George Edward (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1147825165">Principia Ethica</a>. Forgotten Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-243-65975-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-243-65975-3"><bdi>978-0-243-65975-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1147825165">1147825165</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214204233/https://www.worldcat.org/title/principia-ethica/oclc/1147825165">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principia+Ethica&rft.pub=Forgotten+Books&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1147825165&rft.isbn=978-0-243-65975-3&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=George+Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1147825165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky1983" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (1983). John Maynard Keynes: Hopes Betrayed. London: Macmillan. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-57379-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-57379-X"><bdi>0-333-57379-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+Hopes+Betrayed&rft.place=London&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-333-57379-X&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bell177-194">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bell177_194-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bell177_194-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bell177_194-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuentin_Bell" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Quentin_Bell" title="Quentin Bell">Quentin Bell</a>. Virginia Woolf, A Biography. Vol. 2 (revised 1996 ed.). The Hogarth Press. 1972. p. 177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virginia+Woolf%2C+A+Biography.&rft.pages=177&rft.edition=revised+1996&rft.pub=The+Hogarth+Press.+1972&rft.au=Quentin+Bell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-skidv1-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-skidv1_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-skidv1_195-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Skidelsky" title="Robert Skidelsky">Skidelsky, Robert</a> (1 January 1994). John Maynard Keynes: Volume 1: Hopes Betrayed 1883–1920. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/014023554X" title="Special:BookSources/014023554X"><bdi>014023554X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+Volume+1%3A+Hopes+Betrayed+1883%E2%80%931920&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1994-01-01&rft.isbn=014023554X&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLubenow1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._C._Lubenow" class="mw-redirect" title="W. C. Lubenow">Lubenow, William C</a> (1998). The Cambridge Apostles, 1820–1914. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-57213-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-57213-4"><bdi>0-521-57213-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Apostles%2C+1820%E2%80%931914&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-57213-4&rft.aulast=Lubenow&rft.aufirst=William+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky2000" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (2000). John Maynard Keynes: Volume 3: Fighting for Freedom 1937–46. Macmillan. p. 475. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-200167-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-200167-8"><bdi>0-14-200167-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+Volume+3%3A+Fighting+for+Freedom+1937%E2%80%9346&rft.pages=475&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-14-200167-8&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHession1984" class="citation book cs1">Hession, Charles Henry (1984). John Maynard Keynes: A Personal Biography of the Man who Revolutionized Capitalism and the Way We Live. Macmillan. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-551310-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-551310-5"><bdi>978-0-02-551310-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+A+Personal+Biography+of+the+Man+who+Revolutionized+Capitalism+and+the+Way+We+Live&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-02-551310-5&rft.aulast=Hession&rft.aufirst=Charles+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilo_Keynes" class="citation book cs1">Milo Keynes (ed.). "A Personal View". Essays on John Maynard Keynes. Cambridge University Press. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Personal+View&rft.btitle=Essays+on+John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heritage.humanists.uk/the-cambridge-heretics/">"The Cambridge Heretics"</a>. Humanist Heritage. <a href="/wiki/Humanists_UK" title="Humanists UK">Humanists UK</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210802111101/https://heritage.humanists.uk/the-cambridge-heretics/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Humanist+Heritage&rft.atitle=The+Cambridge+Heretics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheritage.humanists.uk%2Fthe-cambridge-heretics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> See John Maynard Keynes by Skidelsky (2003), pp. 520–21, p. 563 and especially p. 565 where Keynes is quoted as "It is the duty of a serious investor to accept the depreciation of his holding with equanimity ... any other policy is anti-social, destructive of confidence and incompatible with the working of the economic system." </li> <li id="cite_note-Tillinghast2017-202">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tillinghast2017_202-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tillinghast2017_202-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tillinghast2017_202-2">c</a> Joel Tillinghast (2017). Big Money Thinks Small: Biases, Blind Spots and Smarter Investing. Columbia University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54469-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54469-6">978-0-231-54469-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chambers2013-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chambers2013_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chambers2013_203-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chambers2013_203-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambersDimson2013" class="citation journal cs1">Chambers, David; Dimson, Elroy (30 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.27.3.213">"John Maynard Keynes, Investment Innovator"</a>. Journal of Economic Perspectives. 27 (30). Rochester, NY: University of Cambridge: 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.27.3.213">10.1257/jep.27.3.213</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2287262">2287262</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%2C+Investment+Innovator&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=30&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2013-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2287262%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjep.27.3.213&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Dimson%2C+Elroy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1257%252Fjep.27.3.213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambersDimson2013" class="citation journal cs1">Chambers, David; Dimson, Elroy (Summer 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.27.3.213">"Retrospectives: John Maynard Keynes, Investment Innovator"</a>. Journal of Economic Perspectives. 27 (3). American Economic Association: 213–228. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.27.3.213">10.1257/jep.27.3.213</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Retrospectives%3A+John+Maynard+Keynes%2C+Investment+Innovator&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=213-228&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjep.27.3.213&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Dimson%2C+Elroy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1257%252Fjep.27.3.213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fisher2007-205">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fisher2007_205-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fisher2007_205-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_L._Fisher" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth L. Fisher">Kenneth L. Fisher</a> (2007). 100 Minds That Made the Market. Wiley, ISBN 9780470139516 </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> David Chambers, Elroy Dimson, Justin Foo (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nber.org/chapters/c12860">Keynes, King's, and Endowment Asset Management</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180924163137/http://www.nber.org/chapters/c12860">Archived</a> 24 September 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in How the Financial Crisis and Great Recession Affected Higher Education (2015), Jeffrey R. Brown and Caroline M. Hoxby, editors (p. 127 – 150). Conference held 27–28 September 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Nicolas Davenport, Memoirs of a City Radical, London 1974 </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Street and Glenn, The National Mutual Life Assurance Society 1830-1980, London, 1980 </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAccominottiChambers2016" class="citation journal cs1">Accominotti, Olivier; Chambers, David (June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/if-youre-so-smart-john-maynard-keynes-and-currency-speculation-in-the-interwar-years/EDE2AA44C9394C69B54283D052B96B1E">"If You're So Smart: John Maynard Keynes and Currency Speculation in the Interwar Years"</a>. The Journal of Economic History. 76 (2): 342–386. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050716000589">10.1017/S0022050716000589</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0507">0022-0507</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155280429">155280429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=If+You%27re+So+Smart%3A+John+Maynard+Keynes+and+Currency+Speculation+in+the+Interwar+Years&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=342-386&rft.date=2016-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155280429%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-0507&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050716000589&rft.aulast=Accominotti&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft.au=Chambers%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-economic-history%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fif-youre-so-smart-john-maynard-keynes-and-currency-speculation-in-the-interwar-years%2FEDE2AA44C9394C69B54283D052B96B1E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes2013" class="citation book cs1">Keynes, John Maynard (2013). The Collected Writings vol.XX. pp. 181–184.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collected+Writings+vol.XX&rft.pages=181-184&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=John+Maynard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRead2023" class="citation cs2">Read, Charles (2023), "Calming the Storms", Palgrave Studies in Economic History, Cham: Springer International Publishing, p. 289, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-11913-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-11913-2"><bdi>978-3-031-11913-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palgrave+Studies+in+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Calming+the+Storms&rft.pages=289&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-3-031-11913-2&rft.aulast=Read&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreedland2012" class="citation news cs1">Freedland, Jonathan (17 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/feb/17/eugenics-skeleton-rattles-loudest-closet-left">"Eugenics: the skeleton that rattles loudest in the left's closet | Jonathan Freedland"</a>. The Guardian. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210716080945/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/feb/17/eugenics-skeleton-rattles-loudest-closet-left">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Eugenics%3A+the+skeleton+that+rattles+loudest+in+the+left%27s+closet+%7C+Jonathan+Freedland&rft.date=2012-02-17&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Freedland&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2012%2Ffeb%2F17%2Feugenics-skeleton-rattles-loudest-closet-left&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes,_John_Maynard1946" class="citation journal cs1">Keynes, John Maynard (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2986310">"The Galton lecture, 1946: Presentation of the society's gold medal"</a>. Eugenics Review. 38 (1): 39–40. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2986310">2986310</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21260495">21260495</a>. <q>On February I4th, I946, before a large gathering of Fellows, Members and guests at Manson house, London, Lord Keynes, On behalf of the Eugenics Society, presented the first Galton Medal... Opening the proceedings, Lord Keynes said: It is a satisfaction to take part in the presentation of the first Galton Gold Medal, both in piety to the memory of the great Galton and in recognition of a worthy and appropriate recipient of a medal established in his name.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eugenics+Review&rft.atitle=The+Galton+lecture%2C+1946%3A+Presentation+of+the+society%27s+gold+medal&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-40&rft.date=1946&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2986310%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21260495&rft.au=Keynes%2C+John+Maynard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2986310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/schools-brief/2018/08/18/was-john-maynard-keynes-a-liberal">"Was John Maynard Keynes a liberal?"</a>. The Economist. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a>. Retrieved 25 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Was+John+Maynard+Keynes+a+liberal%3F&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fschools-brief%2F2018%2F08%2F18%2Fwas-john-maynard-keynes-a-liberal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann2024" class="citation web cs1">Mann, Geoff (29 January 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/12/05/keynes-keynesian-socialism-biggest-hero-bourgeois-british-capitalist/">"Socialism's Biggest Hero Is a Bourgeois British Capitalist"</a>. Foreign Policy. Retrieved 25 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=Socialism%27s+Biggest+Hero+Is+a+Bourgeois+British+Capitalist&rft.date=2024-01-29&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2F2019%2F12%2F05%2Fkeynes-keynesian-socialism-biggest-hero-bourgeois-british-capitalist%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes,_John_Maynard1931" class="citation book cs1">Keynes, John Maynard (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essaysinpersuasi00john_1">Essays in Persuasion</a>. New York, W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-00190-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-00190-3"><bdi>0-393-00190-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+in+Persuasion&rft.pub=New+York%2C+W.W.+Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1931&rft.isbn=0-393-00190-3&rft.au=Keynes%2C+John+Maynard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessaysinpersuasi00john_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theheraldrysociety.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/CoA-226-ODonoghue-paper.pdf">"The Coat of Arms No. 226"</a> (PDF). The Heraldry Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210111041707/https://www.theheraldrysociety.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/CoA-226-ODonoghue-paper.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Coat+of+Arms+No.+226&rft.pub=The+Heraldry+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theheraldrysociety.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F10%2FCoA-226-ODonoghue-paper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVelupillai2016" class="citation journal cs1">Velupillai, K. Vela (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.assru.org/files/DP_2_2016_I.pdf">"Universal Man: A Review Article"</a> (PDF). Algorithmic Social Sciences Research Unit: Discussion Paper Series. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122163516/http://www.assru.org/files/DP_2_2016_I.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Algorithmic+Social+Sciences+Research+Unit%3A+Discussion+Paper+Series&rft.atitle=Universal+Man%3A+A+Review+Article&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Velupillai&rft.aufirst=K.+Vela&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.assru.org%2Ffiles%2FDP_2_2016_I.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JMK_Ind08Nov08-219"><a href="#cite_ref-JMK_Ind08Nov08_219-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraser2008" class="citation news cs1">Fraser, Nick (8 November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/analysis-and-features/john-maynard-keynes-can-the-great-economist-save-the-world-994416.html">"John Maynard Keynes: Can the great economist save the world?"</a>. The Independent. United Kingdom. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728201442/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/analysis-and-features/john-maynard-keynes-can-the-great-economist-save-the-world-994416.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 20 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+Can+the+great+economist+save+the+world%3F&rft.date=2008-11-08&rft.aulast=Fraser&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fbusiness%2Fanalysis-and-features%2Fjohn-maynard-keynes-can-the-great-economist-save-the-world-994416.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarr2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Marr" title="Andrew Marr">Marr, Andrew</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CF9nAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1">A history of modern Britain</a>. London: Macmillan. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4050-0538-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4050-0538-8"><bdi>978-1-4050-0538-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615001313/https://books.google.com/books?id=CF9nAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+modern+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4050-0538-8&rft.aulast=Marr&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCF9nAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1946/04/22/archives/lord-keynes-dies-of-heart-attack-noted-economist-exhausted-by.html">"Lord Keynes Dies of Heart Attack. Noted Economist Exhausted by Strain of Recent Savannah Monetary Conference"</a>. The New York Times. 22 April 1946. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417195235/https://www.nytimes.com/1946/04/22/archives/lord-keynes-dies-of-heart-attack-noted-economist-exhausted-by.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Lord+Keynes+Dies+of+Heart+Attack.+Noted+Economist+Exhausted+by+Strain+of+Recent+Savannah+Monetary+Conference&rft.date=1946-04-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1946%2F04%2F22%2Farchives%2Flord-keynes-dies-of-heart-attack-noted-economist-exhausted-by.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> Wilson, Scott. Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Location 25430). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition. </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky,_Robert2001" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/49730825">Fighting for freedom, 1937–1946</a>. Viking. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-03022-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-03022-8"><bdi>0-670-03022-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49730825">49730825</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214204156/https://www.worldcat.org/title/fighting-for-freedom-1937-1946/oclc/49730825">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+for+freedom%2C+1937%E2%80%931946&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49730825&rft.isbn=0-670-03022-8&rft.au=Skidelsky%2C+Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F49730825&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElley1993" class="citation web cs1">Elley, Derek (24 February 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://variety.com/1993/film/reviews/wittgenstein-1200431414/">"Wittgenstein"</a>. Variety. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210927114022/https://variety.com/1993/film/reviews/wittgenstein-1200431414/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Variety&rft.atitle=Wittgenstein&rft.date=1993-02-24&rft.aulast=Elley&rft.aufirst=Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvariety.com%2F1993%2Ffilm%2Freviews%2Fwittgenstein-1200431414%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon2009" class="citation news cs1">Dixon, Guy (5 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/paris-1919-years-in-the-making-10-days-to-film/article20439644/">"Paris 1919: Years in the making, 10 days to film"</a>. The Globe and Mail. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174822/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/paris-1919-years-in-the-making-10-days-to-film/article20439644/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=Paris+1919%3A+Years+in+the+making%2C+10+days+to+film&rft.date=2009-01-05&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Farts%2Fparis-1919-years-in-the-making-10-days-to-film%2Farticle20439644%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMangan2015" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Mangan" title="Lucy Mangan">Mangan, Lucy</a> (28 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2015/jul/28/life-in-squares-review-absurd-beautiful-characters-in-golden-world">"Life in Squares review: 'absurd, beautiful characters in a ridiculously golden world'"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211026221652/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2015/jul/28/life-in-squares-review-absurd-beautiful-characters-in-golden-world">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Life+in+Squares+review%3A+%27absurd%2C+beautiful+characters+in+a+ridiculously+golden+world%27&rft.date=2015-07-28&rft.aulast=Mangan&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftv-and-radio%2F2015%2Fjul%2F28%2Flife-in-squares-review-absurd-beautiful-characters-in-golden-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTily2021" class="citation web cs1">Tily, Geoff (5 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.primeeconomics.org/articles/mr-keynes-revolution/">"Mr Keynes' Revolution"</a>. Prime. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211029173732/https://www.primeeconomics.org/articles/mr-keynes-revolution/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Prime&rft.atitle=Mr+Keynes%27+Revolution&rft.date=2021-07-05&rft.aulast=Tily&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.primeeconomics.org%2Farticles%2Fmr-keynes-revolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2021/07/17/the-love-song-of-j-maynard-keynes">"The love song of J. Maynard Keynes"</a>. The Economist. 17 July 2021. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214204212/https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2021/07/17/the-love-song-of-j-maynard-keynes">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+love+song+of+J.+Maynard+Keynes&rft.date=2021-07-17&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fbooks-and-arts%2F2021%2F07%2F17%2Fthe-love-song-of-j-maynard-keynes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about John Maynard Keynes <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=John+Maynard+Keynes">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=John+Maynard+Keynes&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Backhouse_(economist)" title="Roger Backhouse (economist)">Backhouse, Roger E.</a> and Bateman, Bradley W.. Capitalist Revolutionary: John Maynard Keynes. 2011</li> <li>Barnett, Vincent. John Maynard Keynes. London: Routledge, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-56769-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-56769-5">978-0-415-56769-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBateman,_Bradley2010" class="citation book cs1">Bateman, Bradley (2010). The Return to Keynes. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674035386" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674035386"><bdi>978-0674035386</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Return+to+Keynes&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0674035386&rft.au=Bateman%2C+Bradley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Beaudreau, Bernard C.. The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes: How the Second Industrial Revolution Passed Great Britain By. iUniverse, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-595-41661-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-595-41661-6">0-595-41661-6</a></li> <li>Blaug, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2728608">"Recent Biographies of Keynes."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308175156/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2728608">Archived</a> 8 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_Literature" title="Journal of Economic Literature">Journal of Economic Literature</a>, vol. 32, no. 3, September 1994, pp. 1204–1215. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2728608">2728608</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan, James M.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Wagner" title="Richard E. Wagner">Richard E. Wagner</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oll-resources.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/titles/1097/0102.08_LFeBk.pdf">Democracy in Deficit: The Political Legacy of Lord Keynes. The Collected Works of James M. Buchanan, Vol. 8.</a> Indianapolis: <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</a>, 2008.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Clarke_(historian)" title="Peter Clarke (historian)">Clarke, Peter</a>. Keynes: The Twentieth Century's Most Influential Economist. Bloomsbury, 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-0385-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-0385-1">978-1-4088-0385-1</a></li> <li>Clarke, Peter. Keynes: The Rise, Fall and Return of the 20th Century's Most Influential Economist, Bloomsbury Press, 2009</li> <li>Davenport-Hines, Richard. Universal Man: The Seven Lives of John Maynard Keynes, William Collins, 2015. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-751980-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-751980-4">978-0-00-751980-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Davidson_(economist)" title="Paul Davidson (economist)">Davidson, Paul</a>. John Maynard Keynes (Great Thinkers in Economics). New York: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-9623-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-9623-7">1-4039-9623-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Davidson_(economist)" title="Paul Davidson (economist)">Davidson, Paul</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160819092531/http://library.fa.ru/files/Davidson.pdf">John Maynard Keynes</a> (PDF). Great Thinkers in Economics Series. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230229204" title="Special:BookSources/9780230229204"><bdi>9780230229204</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.fa.ru/files/Davidson.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.place=Basingstoke%2C+England&rft.series=Great+Thinkers+in+Economics+Series&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780230229204&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.fa.ru%2Ffiles%2FDavidson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillard1948" class="citation book cs1">Dillard, Dudley (1948). <a href="/wiki/The_Economics_of_John_Maynard_Keynes:_The_Theory_of_Monetary_Economy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Economics of John Maynard Keynes: The Theory of Monetary Economy">The Economics of John Maynard Keynes: The Theory of Monetary Economy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Prentice-Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Prentice-Hall">Prentice-Hall</a>. p. 384. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-2894-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-2894-3"><bdi>978-1-4191-2894-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economics+of+John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+The+Theory+of+Monetary+Economy&rft.pages=384&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1948&rft.isbn=978-1-4191-2894-3&rft.aulast=Dillard&rft.aufirst=Dudley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dimand, Robert W. and Harald Hagemann, eds. The Elgar Companion to John Maynard Keynes (Edward Elgar, 20190 + 670 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eh.net/?s=dimand">online review</a></li> <li>Harrod, R. F.. <a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_John_Maynard_Keynes" title="The Life of John Maynard Keynes">The Life of John Maynard Keynes</a>. Macmillan, 1951. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-125-39598-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-125-39598-2">1-125-39598-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo_Keynes" title="Milo Keynes">Keynes, Milo</a> (ed). Essays on John Maynard Keynes. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1975. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521205344" title="Special:BookSources/0521205344">0521205344</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Markwell" title="Donald Markwell">Markwell, Donald</a>. John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-829236-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-829236-8">0-19-829236-8</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829236-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829236-4">978-0-19-829236-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Markwell" title="Donald Markwell">Markwell, Donald</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/rdp/2000/pdf/rdp2000-04.pdf">Keynes and Australia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110318193831/http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/rdp/2000/pdf/rdp2000-04.pdf">Archived</a> 18 March 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_Australia" title="Reserve Bank of Australia">Reserve Bank of Australia</a>, 2000.</li> <li>Moggridge, Donald Edward. Keynes. Macmillan, 1980. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-29524-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-29524-2">0-333-29524-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Patinkin" title="Don Patinkin">Patinkin, Don</a> & J. Clark Leith (eds.) Keynes, Cambridge and The General Theory: The Process of Criticism and Discussion Connected with the Development of The General Theory. London: Macmillan, 1977. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-22772-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-22772-7">0-333-22772-7</a>.</li> <li>Patinkin, Don. "Keynes, John Maynard." In: <a href="/wiki/New_Palgrave:_A_Dictionary_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, Vol. 2.</a> Macmillan, 1987, pp. 19–41. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0333372352" title="Special:BookSources/0333372352">0333372352</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0935859101" title="Special:BookSources/0935859101">0935859101</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPecchi,_LorenzoGustavo_Piga2010" class="citation book cs1">Pecchi, Lorenzo & Gustavo Piga (2010). Revisiting Keynes. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51511-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51511-5"><bdi>978-0-262-51511-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revisiting+Keynes&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-262-51511-5&rft.au=Pecchi%2C+Lorenzo&rft.au=Gustavo+Piga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Schuker, Stephen A. "American 'Reparations' to Germany, 1919–33." Princeton Studies in International Finance, No. 61, 1988.</li> <li>Schuker, Stephen A. "J.M. Keynes and the Personal Politics of Reparations." Diplomacy & Statecraft, Vol. 25, Nos. 3/4, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592296.2014.936197">10.1080/09592296.2014.936197</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Skidelsky,_Baron_Skidelsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Skidelsky, Baron Skidelsky">Skidelsky, Robert Jacob Alexander</a> (1994) [1983]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CnXWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1">John Maynard Keynes: Hopes Betrayed, 1883–1920</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140235548" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140235548"><bdi>978-0140235548</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615013405/https://books.google.com/books?id=CnXWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+Hopes+Betrayed%2C+1883%E2%80%931920&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0140235548&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert+Jacob+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCnXWAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky1995" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert Jacob Alexander (1995) [1992]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O8UUAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP1">John Maynard Keynes: the Economist as Saviour 1920–1937</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-023806-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-023806-8"><bdi>978-0-14-023806-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200614224143/https://books.google.com/books?id=O8UUAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+the+Economist+as+Saviour+1920%E2%80%931937&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-14-023806-8&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert+Jacob+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO8UUAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky2002" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J9qXmQEACAAJ&pg=PP1">John Maynard Keynes: Fighting for Britain, 1937–1946</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200167-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200167-7"><bdi>978-0-14-200167-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615044141/https://books.google.com/books?id=J9qXmQEACAAJ&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+Fighting+for+Britain%2C+1937%E2%80%931946&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-14-200167-7&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ9qXmQEACAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky2010" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (2010) [2009]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AoL3mdHGXz4C&pg=PP1">Keynes: The Return of the Master</a>. <a href="/wiki/PublicAffairs" title="PublicAffairs">PublicAffairs</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61039-003-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61039-003-3"><bdi>978-1-61039-003-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615071819/https://books.google.com/books?id=AoL3mdHGXz4C&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keynes%3A+The+Return+of+the+Master&rft.pub=PublicAffairs&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-61039-003-3&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAoL3mdHGXz4C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky2003" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (2003). John Maynard Keynes: 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman (Abridged ed.). Pan MacMillan Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-330-48867-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-330-48867-8"><bdi>0-330-48867-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+1883%E2%80%931946%3A+Economist%2C+Philosopher%2C+Statesman&rft.edition=Abridged&rft.pub=Pan+MacMillan+Ltd.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-330-48867-8&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky2010" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (2010). Keynes: A Very Short Introduction. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-959164-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-959164-0"><bdi>978-0-19-959164-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keynes%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-959164-0&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrachey1994" class="citation book cs1">Strachey, Lytton (1994). Michael Holroyd (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ngwwvgAACAAJ&pg=PP1">Lytton Strachey by Himself: A Self-portrait</a>. Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-945941-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-945941-5"><bdi>978-0-09-945941-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615085050/https://books.google.com/books?id=ngwwvgAACAAJ&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lytton+Strachey+by+Himself%3A+A+Self-portrait&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-09-945941-5&rft.aulast=Strachey&rft.aufirst=Lytton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DngwwvgAACAAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSyll,_Lars_Pålsson2007" class="citation book cs1">Syll, Lars Pålsson (2007). John Maynard Keynes. SNS Förlag. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789185695270" title="Special:BookSources/9789185695270"><bdi>9789185695270</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=SNS+F%C3%B6rlag&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789185695270&rft.au=Syll%2C+Lars+P%C3%A5lsson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Temin" title="Peter Temin">Temin, Peter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Vines" title="David Vines">David Vines</a>. Keynes: Useful Economics for the World Economy. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>, 2014.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wapshott" title="Nicholas Wapshott">Wapshott, Nicholas</a>. Keynes Hayek: The Clash That Defined Modern Economics (2011)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYerginStanislaw2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Yergin" title="Daniel Yergin">Yergin, Daniel</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stanislaw" title="Joseph Stanislaw">Stanislaw, Joseph</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uNYzPUhXhJYC&pg=PP1">The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_and_Schuster" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon and Schuster">Simon and Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2963-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2963-0"><bdi>978-0-7432-2963-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170422131246/https://books.google.com/books?id=uNYzPUhXhJYC&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2017. Retrieved 21 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Commanding+Heights%3A+The+Battle+for+the+World+Economy&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-2963-0&rft.aulast=Yergin&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Stanislaw%2C+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuNYzPUhXhJYC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Maynard_Keynes&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1998" class="citation book cs1">Keynes, John Maynard (1998). The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes (30 Volume Hardback ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30766-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30766-6"><bdi>978-0-521-30766-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collected+Writings+of+John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=30+Volume+Hardback&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-30766-6&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=John+Maynard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a 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class="external text" href="https://fadedpage.com/csearch.php?author=Keynes%2C%20John%20Maynard">Works by John Maynard Keynes</a> at <a href="/wiki/Distributed_Proofreaders_Canada" title="Distributed Proofreaders Canada">Faded Page</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Keynes%2C%20John%20Maynard%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Keynes%2C%20John%20M%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Keynes%2C%20J%2E%20M%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22John%20Maynard%20Keynes%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22John%20M%2E%20Keynes%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22J%2E%20M%2E%20Keynes%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Keynes%2C%20John%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22John%20Keynes%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22John%20Maynard%20Keynes%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22John%20M%2E%20Keynes%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22J%2E%20M%2E%20Keynes%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22J%2E%20Maynard%20Keynes%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Keynes%2C%20John%20Maynard%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Keynes%2C%20John%20M%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Keynes%2C%20J%2E%20M%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Keynes%2C%20J%2E%20Maynard%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22John%20Keynes%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Keynes%2C%20John%22%20OR%20title%3A%22John%20Maynard%20Keynes%22%20OR%20title%3A%22John%20M%2E%20Keynes%22%20OR%20title%3A%22J%2E%20M%2E%20Keynes%22%20OR%20title%3A%22John%20Keynes%22%20OR%20description%3A%22John%20Maynard%20Keynes%22%20OR%20description%3A%22John%20M%2E%20Keynes%22%20OR%20description%3A%22J%2E%20M%2E%20Keynes%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Keynes%2C%20John%20Maynard%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Keynes%2C%20John%20M%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22John%20Keynes%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Keynes%2C%20John%22%29%20OR%20%28%221883-1946%22%20AND%20Keynes%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about John Maynard Keynes</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/9726">Works by John Maynard Keynes</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/c/F256804">"Archival material relating to John Maynard Keynes"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)" title="The National Archives (United Kingdom)">UK National Archives</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archival+material+relating+to+John+Maynard+Keynes&rft.pub=UK+National+Archives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fdetails%2Fc%2FF256804&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9317#P3029" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=viLe5BEAAAAJ">John Maynard Keynes</a> on <a href="/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar">Google Scholar</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/yourcountry/collections/churchillexhibition/churchill-the-orator/gold-standard/">Churchill, Keynes & The Gold Standard – UK Parliament Living Heritage</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://searcharchives.bl.uk/IAMS_VU2:IAMS037-001960873">Correspondence with John Maynard, Baron Keynes, four volumes held at The British Library</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/yourcountry/collections/paris-1919-vers/tre-of-vers/">Treaty of Versailles & Keynes – UK Parliament Living Heritage</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Keynes.html">"John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics">The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Economics_and_Liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Library of Economics and Liberty">Library of Economics and Liberty</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</a>. 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Maynard+Keynes+%281883%E2%80%931946%29&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Economics&rft.series=Library+of+Economics+and+Liberty&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.econlib.org%2Flibrary%2FEnc%2Fbios%2FKeynes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Maynard+Keynes" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ACE777;"><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Peerage of the United Kingdom">Peerage of the United Kingdom</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">New creation </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Baron Keynes 1942–1946 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Extinct </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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M. Forster">E. M. Forster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fry" title="Roger Fry">Roger Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Grant" title="Duncan Grant">Duncan Grant</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Maynard Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_MacCarthy" title="Desmond MacCarthy">Desmond MacCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lytton_Strachey" title="Lytton Strachey">Lytton Strachey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Woolf" title="Leonard Woolf">Leonard Woolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old Bloomsbury</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Apostles" title="Cambridge Apostles">Cambridge Apostles</a> and <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. 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Morrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Partridge" title="Frances Partridge">Frances Partridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Partridge" title="Ralph Partridge">Ralph Partridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vita_Sackville-West" title="Vita Sackville-West">Vita Sackville-West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoby_Stephen" title="Thoby Stephen">Thoby Stephen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dreadnought_hoax" title="Dreadnought hoax">Dreadnought hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hogarth_Press" title="Hogarth Press">Hogarth Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_Workshops" title="Omega Workshops">Omega Workshops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group#Memoir_Club" title="Bloomsbury Group">Memoir Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable Addresses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/33_Fitzroy_Square" title="33 Fitzroy Square">33 Fitzroy Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Square" title="Gordon Square">46 Gordon Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_Farmhouse" title="Charleston Farmhouse">Charleston Farmhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monk%27s_House" title="Monk's House">Monk's House</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bloomsbury_Group_people" title="List of Bloomsbury Group people">List of Bloomsbury Group people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group_in_LGBT_history" title="Bloomsbury Group in LGBT history">Bloomsbury Group in LGBT history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="John_Maynard_Keynes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:John_Maynard_Keynes" title="Template:John Maynard Keynes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:John_Maynard_Keynes" title="Template talk:John Maynard Keynes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:John_Maynard_Keynes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:John Maynard Keynes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="John_Maynard_Keynes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Maynard Keynes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Economic_Consequences_of_the_Peace" title="The Economic Consequences of the Peace">The Economic Consequences of the Peace</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Probability" title="A Treatise on Probability">A Treatise on Probability</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Tract_on_Monetary_Reform" title="A Tract on Monetary Reform">A Tract on Monetary Reform</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Money" title="A Treatise on Money">A Treatise on Money</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" title="The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/How_to_Pay_for_the_War" title="How to Pay for the War">How to Pay for the War</a> (1940)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Neville_Keynes" title="John Neville Keynes">John Neville Keynes</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Ada_Keynes" title="Florence Ada Keynes">Florence Ada Keynes</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Keynes" title="Geoffrey Keynes">Geoffrey Keynes</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Lopokova" title="Lydia Lopokova">Lydia Lopokova</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Keynes" title="Richard Keynes">Richard Keynes</a> (nephew)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quentin_Keynes" title="Quentin Keynes">Quentin Keynes</a> (nephew)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo_Keynes" title="Milo Keynes">Milo Keynes</a> (nephew)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Keynes" title="Stephen Keynes">Stephen Keynes</a> (nephew)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynes_family" title="Keynes family">Keynes family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group" title="Bloomsbury Group">Bloomsbury Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":20,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="John_Maynard_Keynes" aria-expanded="false"></a> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:John_Maynard_Keynes" title="Category:John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Keynesians" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Keynesians" title="Template:Keynesians"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Keynesians" title="Template talk:Keynesians"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Keynesians" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Keynesians"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Keynesians" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesians</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Founder</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Maynard Keynes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">Neo-Keynesians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gardner_Ackley" title="Gardner Ackley">Gardner Ackley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">William Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Duesenberry" title="James Duesenberry">James Duesenberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Eisner" title="Robert Eisner">Robert Eisner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trygve_Haavelmo" title="Trygve Haavelmo">Trygve Haavelmo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Hansen" title="Alvin Hansen">Alvin Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Harrod" title="Roy Harrod">Roy Harrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Heller" title="Walter Heller">Walter Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">John Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Klein" title="Lawrence Klein">Lawrence Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meade" title="James Meade">James Meade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Metzler" title="Lloyd Metzler">Lloyd Metzler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Modigliani" title="Franco Modigliani">Franco Modigliani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mundell" title="Robert Mundell">Robert Mundell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Melvin_Okun" title="Arthur Melvin Okun">Arthur Melvin Okun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Patinkin" title="Don Patinkin">Don Patinkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Phillips_(economist)" title="Bill Phillips (economist)">Bill Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Poole_(economist)" title="William Poole (economist)">William Poole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Robert Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Tobin" title="James Tobin">James Tobin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-Keynesians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Chick" title="Victoria Chick">Victoria Chick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Davidson_(economist)" title="Paul Davidson (economist)">Paul Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evsey_Domar" title="Evsey Domar">Evsey Domar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Galbraith" title="James K. Galbraith">James K. Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">John Kenneth Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wynne_Godley" title="Wynne Godley">Wynne Godley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myron_J._Gordon" title="Myron J. Gordon">Myron J. Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Harcourt" title="Geoffrey Harcourt">Geoff Harcourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hudson_(economist)" title="Michael Hudson (economist)">Michael Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kahn,_Baron_Kahn" title="Richard Kahn, Baron Kahn">Richard Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Kaldor" title="Nicholas Kaldor">Nicholas Kaldor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Michał Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Keen" title="Steve Keen">Steve Keen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Kregel" title="Jan Kregel">Jan Kregel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Lavoie" title="Marc Lavoie">Marc Lavoie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abba_P._Lerner" title="Abba P. Lerner">Abba P. Lerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyman_Minsky" title="Hyman Minsky">Hyman Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Mitchell_(economist)" title="Bill Mitchell (economist)">Bill Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_Moore" title="Basil Moore">Basil Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pressman_(economist)" title="Steven Pressman (economist)">Steven Pressman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Joan Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._L._S._Shackle" title="G. L. S. Shackle">G. L. S. Shackle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavlina_R._Tcherneva" title="Pavlina R. Tcherneva">Pavlina R. Tcherneva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Thirlwall" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Thirlwall">Anthony Thirlwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Vickrey" title="William Vickrey">William Vickrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Weintraub_(economist_born_1914)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidney Weintraub (economist born 1914)">Sidney Weintraub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Randall_Wray" title="L. Randall Wray">L. Randall Wray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New Keynesians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Akerlof" title="George Akerlof">George Akerlof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivier_Blanchard" title="Olivier Blanchard">Olivier Blanchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Blinder" title="Alan Blinder">Alan Blinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Calvo" title="Guillermo Calvo">Guillermo Calvo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Clarida" title="Richard Clarida">Richard Clarida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Bradford_DeLong" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Bradford DeLong">Brad DeLong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huw_Dixon" title="Huw Dixon">Huw Dixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Fischer" title="Stanley Fischer">Stanley Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordi_Gal%C3%AD" title="Jordi Galí">Jordi Galí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Gertler_(economist)" title="Mark Gertler (economist)">Mark Gertler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Gordon" title="Robert J. Gordon">Robert J. Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephany_Griffith-Jones" title="Stephany Griffith-Jones">Stephany Griffith-Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobuhiro_Kiyotaki" title="Nobuhiro Kiyotaki">Nobuhiro Kiyotaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Mankiw" title="Greg Mankiw">Greg Mankiw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Melitz" title="Marc Melitz">Marc Melitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Obstfeld" title="Maurice Obstfeld">Maurice Obstfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Phelps" title="Edmund Phelps">Edmund Phelps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Reis" title="Ricardo Reis">Ricardo Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Rogoff" title="Kenneth Rogoff">Kenneth Rogoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Romer" title="David Romer">David Romer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julio_Rotemberg" title="Julio Rotemberg">Julio Rotemberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Shiller" title="Robert J. Shiller">Robert Shiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Shleifer" title="Andrei Shleifer">Andrei Shleifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers">Lawrence Summers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Taylor" title="John B. Taylor">John B. Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Woodford_(economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Woodford (economist)">Michael Woodford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_Yellen" title="Janet Yellen">Janet Yellen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":20,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="Keynesian_economics" aria-expanded="false"></a> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:Keynesian_economics" title="Category:Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth" title="Democracy and economic growth">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_digitization" title="Economics of digitization">Digitization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_economics" title="Expeditionary economics">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Geographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Sociological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">history</a>) </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American (National)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_economic_thought" title="Ancient economic thought">Ancient thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist economics">Anarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_monetary_theory" title="Modern monetary theory">Modern monetary theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disequilibrium_macroeconomics" title="Disequilibrium macroeconomics">Disequilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_circuit_theory" title="Monetary circuit theory">Circuitism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxian economics">Neo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lausanne_School" title="Lausanne School">Lausanne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_business-cycle_theory" title="Real business-cycle theory">Real business-cycle theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_School_(economics)" title="Stockholm School (economics)">Stockholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">Thermo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">Economists</a> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Piketty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economists" title="Category:Economists">more</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economists" title="List of economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_journals" title="List of economics journals">journals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics" title="Category:Economics">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_Econometric_Society" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_Econometric_Society" title="Template:Presidents of the Econometric Society"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Presidents_of_the_Econometric_Society" title="Template talk:Presidents of the Econometric Society"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents_of_the_Econometric_Society" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents of the Econometric Society"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_Econometric_Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_Econometric_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of the Econometric Society">Presidents</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Econometric_Society" title="Econometric Society">Econometric Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1931–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Irving Fisher</a> (1931–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Divisia" title="François Divisia">François Divisia</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hotelling" title="Harold Hotelling">Harold Hotelling</a> (1936–1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lyon_Bowley" title="Arthur Lyon Bowley">Arthur Bowley</a> (1938–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> (1940–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_Clair_Mitchell" title="Wesley Clair Mitchell">Wesley Mitchell</a> (1942–1943)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Maynard Keynes</a> (1944–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Marschak" title="Jacob Marschak">Jacob Marschak</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Jan Tinbergen</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Roos" title="Charles F. Roos">Charles Roos</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Ragnar Frisch</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Tjalling Koopmans</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R._G._D._Allen" title="R. G. D. Allen">R. G. D. Allen</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Roy_(economist)" title="René Roy (economist)">René Roy</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Wassily Leontief</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stone" title="Richard Stone">Richard Stone</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth Arrow</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trygve_Haavelmo" title="Trygve Haavelmo">Trygve Haavelmo</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Tobin" title="James Tobin">James Tobin</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Boiteux" title="Marcel Boiteux">Marcel Boiteux</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Klein" title="Lawrence Klein">Lawrence Klein</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Theil" title="Henri Theil">Henri Theil</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Modigliani" title="Franco Modigliani">Franco Modigliani</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Malinvaud" title="Edmond Malinvaud">Edmond Malinvaud</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Robert Solow</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michio_Morishima" title="Michio Morishima">Michio Morishima</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Wold" title="Herman Wold">Herman Wold</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_S._Houthakker" title="Hendrik S. Houthakker">Hendrik Houthakker</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Hahn" title="Frank Hahn">Frank Hahn</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Hurwicz" title="Leonid Hurwicz">Leonid Hurwicz</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Dr%C3%A8ze" title="Jacques Drèze">Jacques Drèze</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Debreu" title="Gérard Debreu">Gérard Debreu</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._M._Gorman" title="W. M. Gorman">W. M. Gorman</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Radner" title="Roy Radner">Roy Radner</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Patinkin" title="Don Patinkin">Don Patinkin</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zvi_Griliches" title="Zvi Griliches">Zvi Griliches</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hirofumi_Uzawa" title="Hirofumi Uzawa">Hirofumi Uzawa</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_W._McKenzie" title="Lionel W. McKenzie">Lionel McKenzie</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Kornai" title="János Kornai">János Kornai</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_M._Fisher" title="Franklin M. Fisher">Franklin M. Fisher</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sargan" title="Denis Sargan">J. Denis Sargan</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Nerlove" title="Marc Nerlove">Marc Nerlove</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mirrlees" title="James Mirrlees">James A. Mirrlees</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Scarf" title="Herbert Scarf">Herbert Scarf</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya K. Sen</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_McFadden" title="Daniel McFadden">Daniel McFadden</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Bruno_(economist)" title="Michael Bruno (economist)">Michael Bruno</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dale_W._Jorgenson" title="Dale W. Jorgenson">Dale Jorgenson</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Atkinson" title="Tony Atkinson">Anthony B. Atkinson</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_F._Sonnenschein" title="Hugo F. Sonnenschein">Hugo Sonnenschein</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Michel_Grandmont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Michel Grandmont (page does not exist)">Jean-Michel Grandmont</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Michel_Grandmont" class="extiw" title="de:Jean-Michel Grandmont">de</a>] (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Diamond" title="Peter Diamond">Peter Diamond</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Laffont" title="Jean-Jacques Laffont">Jean-Jacques Laffont</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreu_Mas-Colell" title="Andreu Mas-Colell">Andreu Mas-Colell</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takashi_Negishi" title="Takashi Negishi">Takashi Negishi</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_A._Sims" title="Christopher A. Sims">Christopher Sims</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Guesnerie" title="Roger Guesnerie">Roger Guesnerie</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Robert E. Lucas, Jr.</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Tirole" title="Jean Tirole">Jean Tirole</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Wilson" title="Robert B. Wilson">Robert B. Wilson</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elhanan_Helpman" title="Elhanan Helpman">Elhanan Helpman</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avinash_Dixit" title="Avinash Dixit">Avinash Dixit</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guy_Laroque&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guy Laroque (page does not exist)">Guy Laroque</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Laroque" class="extiw" title="fr:Guy Laroque">fr</a>] (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Maskin" title="Eric Maskin">Eric Maskin</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariel_Rubinstein" title="Ariel Rubinstein">Ariel Rubinstein</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Sargent" title="Thomas J. Sargent">Thomas J. Sargent</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Blundell" title="Richard Blundell">Richard Blundell</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Peter_Hansen" title="Lars Peter Hansen">Lars Peter Hansen</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsten_Persson" title="Torsten Persson">Torsten Persson</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Myerson" title="Roger Myerson">Roger B. Myerson</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hardman_Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="John Hardman Moore">John H. Moore</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengt_Holmstr%C3%B6m" title="Bengt Holmström">Bengt Holmström</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Charles_Rochet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Charles Rochet (page does not exist)">Jean-Charles Rochet</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5,_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%A8%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8C" class="extiw" title="ru:Роше, Жан-Шарль">ru</a>] (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Heckman" title="James Heckman">James J. Heckman</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Arellano" title="Manuel Arellano">Manuel Arellano</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Porter_(economist)" title="Robert Porter (economist)">Robert Porter</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddie_Dekel" title="Eddie Dekel">Eddie Dekel</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drew_Fudenberg" title="Drew Fudenberg">Drew Fudenberg</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Besley" title="Tim Besley">Tim Besley</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Morris_(economist)" title="Stephen Morris (economist)">Stephen Morris</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orazio_Attanasio" title="Orazio Attanasio">Orazio Attanasio</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinelopi_Koujianou_Goldberg" title="Pinelopi Koujianou Goldberg">Pinelopi Koujianou Goldberg</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_Tabellini" title="Guido Tabellini">Guido Tabellini</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Matzkin" title="Rosa Matzkin">Rosa Matzkin</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliana_La_Ferrara" title="Eliana La Ferrara">Eliana La Ferrara</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template talk:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century">Time 100: The Most Important People of the 20th Century</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders & revolutionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Unknown Tiananmen Square rebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & entertainers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucille_Ball" title="Lucille Ball">Lucille Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marlon_Brando" title="Marlon Brando">Marlon Brando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coco_Chanel" title="Coco Chanel">Coco Chanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin" title="Charlie Chaplin">Charlie Chaplin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aretha_Franklin" title="Aretha Franklin">Aretha Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Graham" title="Martha Graham">Martha Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Henson" title="Jim Henson">Jim Henson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rodgers_and_Oscar_Hammerstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein">Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bart_Simpson" title="Bart Simpson">Bart Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Sinatra" title="Frank Sinatra">Frank Sinatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg" title="Steven Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Builders & titans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bechtel_Sr." title="Stephen Bechtel Sr.">Stephen Bechtel Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Burnett" title="Leo Burnett">Leo Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Carrier" title="Willis Carrier">Willis Carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Giannini" title="Amadeo Giannini">Amadeo Giannini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Kroc" title="Ray Kroc">Ray Kroc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Est%C3%A9e_Lauder_(businesswoman)" title="Estée Lauder (businesswoman)">Estée Lauder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Levitt" title="William Levitt">William Levitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucky_Luciano" title="Lucky Luciano">Lucky Luciano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_B._Mayer" title="Louis B. Mayer">Louis B. Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Merrill" title="Charles E. Merrill">Charles E. Merrill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akio_Morita" title="Akio Morita">Akio Morita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Rozelle" title="Pete Rozelle">Pete Rozelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sarnoff" title="David Sarnoff">David Sarnoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Trippe" title="Juan Trippe">Juan Trippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Walton" title="Sam Walton">Sam Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Jr." title="Thomas J. Watson Jr.">Thomas J. Watson Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists & thinkers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo Baekeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard" title="Robert H. Goddard">Robert H. Goddard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Maynard Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leakey_family" title="Leakey family">Leakey family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> & <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heroes & icons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G.I." title="G.I.">The American G.I.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana,_Princess_of_Wales" title="Diana, Princess of Wales">Lady Diana Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Edmund Hillary</a> & <a href="/wiki/Tenzing_Norgay" title="Tenzing Norgay">Tenzing Norgay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_family" title="Kennedy family">Kennedy family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lee" title="Bruce Lee">Bruce Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Milk" title="Harvey Milk">Harvey Milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Monroe" title="Marilyn Monroe">Marilyn Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmeline_Pankhurst" title="Emmeline Pankhurst">Emmeline Pankhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pel%C3%A9" title="Pelé">Pelé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_W." title="Bill W.">Bill W.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9317#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9317#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9317#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" 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[\"CITEREFChambersDimson2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFChandavarkar2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChang2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChris_GilesRalph_AtkinsKrishna_Guha\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFClarida1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohn2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCostabile,_Lilia2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrowther,_Geoffrey1948\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFD._E._Moggridge1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniel_YerginJoseph_Stanislaw\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Gowland\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavisFigginsHedengrenKlein2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDillard1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixon2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonald_Markwell\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDostaler2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDransfieldDransfield2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuggan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuncan,_R2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFE.M._Forster1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElley1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernandoBoyle\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFletcher1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFraser2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreedland2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedman,_Milton1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedman1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedrich_Hayek\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalí2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodfriendKing\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrewal2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffin2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuajardoLeighPescatori2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGümüş2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayek,_Friedrick_August_von1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHazlett1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHazlitt1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHazlittVon_Mises1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeilbroner,_Robert2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenig1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHession1984\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHoggard2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoover2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunter-Wade2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyman_Minsky2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_K._Galbraith\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamil_Anderlini2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Maynard_Keynes1933\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph_Stiglitz2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJustin_Wintle2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahn1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes,_John_Maynard1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes,_John_Maynard1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKishtainy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrishna_GuhaSarah_O\u0026#039;ConnorMichael_Mackenzie2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman,_PWells,_R2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman2009\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLarry_ElliottDan_Atkinson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeijonhufvud1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLight2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLubenow1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackrell2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadrick2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMangan2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMankiw2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMann2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_Gilbert2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarks2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkwell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarr2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaurin2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMaurin2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMcCann1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonough1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGee2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilo_Keynes\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoggridge1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoggridge1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonbiot,_George2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholas.1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNina_Paulovicova\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorma_Cohen2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;ConnorRobertson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParsons2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Davidson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Maidment2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPecchi,_LorenzoGustavo_Piga2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_PughChris_Garratt1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolly_HillRichard_Keynes1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPressman1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuentin_Bell\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRam2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRead2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReder2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReich1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Kuttner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_L._Heilbroner1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSam_Coates2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSangkuhl2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSayers1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuker1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchumpeter2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShiller2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkidelsky,_Robert2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkidelsky1983\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSkidelsky1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkidelsky1994\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSkidelsky1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkidelsky2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkidelsky2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkidelsky2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSkidelsky2010\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFSloman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpiegel1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStiglitz2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrachey1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStratton2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSyll,_Lars_Pålsson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSymour_E_HarrisJoseph_Schumpter2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTabb2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_K._McCraw2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThorpe2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTily2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTribe1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVelupillai2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWapshott2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolf2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWolfe2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodford2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYerginStanislaw2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhou_Xiaochuan2009\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 9,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 11,\n [\"Bloomsbury Group\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 89,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 27,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 39,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite video\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 47,\n [\"Cquote\"] = 2,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Keynes, John Maynard\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 3,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 3,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Economics\"] = 1,\n [\"Eugenics sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"External media\"] = 1,\n [\"FadedPage\"] = 1,\n [\"Flatlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Gutenberg author\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 17,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox COA wide\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox economist\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox person\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"JSTOR\"] = 1,\n [\"John Maynard Keynes\"] = 1,\n [\"Keynesians\"] = 1,\n [\"Liberalism UK\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox author\"] = 1,\n [\"London Gazette\"] = 8,\n [\"Macroeconomics sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Page range too broad\"] = 3,\n [\"Post-nominals\"] = 1,\n [\"Postnominals\"] = 1,\n [\"Presidents of the Econometric Society\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect2\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Registration required\"] = 6,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-new\"] = 1,\n [\"S-non\"] = 1,\n [\"S-reg\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 7,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 43,\n [\"StandardEbooks\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century\"] = 1,\n [\"UK National Archives ID\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 11,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"nowrap\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = 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