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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>General pathology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-General_pathology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle General pathology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-General_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anatomical_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatomical_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Anatomical pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatomical_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cytopathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cytopathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Cytopathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cytopathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dermatopathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dermatopathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Dermatopathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dermatopathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forensic_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forensic_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Forensic pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forensic_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Histopathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Histopathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Histopathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Histopathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuropathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuropathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.5</span> <span>Neuropathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuropathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pulmonary_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pulmonary_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.6</span> <span>Pulmonary pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pulmonary_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renal_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renal_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.7</span> <span>Renal pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renal_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surgical_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surgical_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.8</span> <span>Surgical pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surgical_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Clinical pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hematopathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hematopathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Hematopathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hematopathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecular_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Molecular pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oral_and_maxillofacial_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oral_and_maxillofacial_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Oral and maxillofacial pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oral_and_maxillofacial_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_training_and_accreditation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_training_and_accreditation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Medical training and accreditation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_training_and_accreditation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overlap_with_other_diagnostic_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overlap_with_other_diagnostic_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Overlap with other diagnostic medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overlap_with_other_diagnostic_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathology_informatics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathology_informatics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Pathology informatics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathology_informatics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychopathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychopathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Psychopathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychopathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Non-humans</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Non-humans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Non-humans subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Non-humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Veterinary_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Veterinary_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Veterinary pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Veterinary_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Plant pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pathology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 93 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-93" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">93 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologie" title="Patologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Patologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B6" title="علم الأمراض – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الأمراض" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patoloch%C3%ADa" title="Patolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Patolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patolox%C3%ADa" title="Patoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Patoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologiya" title="Patologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Patologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="রোগবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রোগবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%93%E2%81%BF-l%C3%AD-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Pēⁿ-lí-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pēⁿ-lí-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Паталогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Паталогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Паталёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Паталёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Патология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Патология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologija" title="Patologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Patologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologiezh" title="Patologiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Patologiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologia" title="Patologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Patologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologie" title="Patologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Patologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruambadenda" title="Ruambadenda – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruambadenda" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patholeg" title="Patholeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Patholeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologi" title="Patologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Patologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathologie" title="Pathologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pathologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patoloogia" title="Patoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Patoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patolog%C3%ADa" title="Patología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Patología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologio" title="Patologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Patologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologia" title="Patologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Patologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="آسیب‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آسیب‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathologie" title="Pathologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pathologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paiteola%C3%ADocht" title="Paiteolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Paiteolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patolox%C3%ADa" title="Patoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Patoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%91%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="병리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="병리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ախտաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ախտաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विकृतिविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विकृतिविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologija" title="Patologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Patologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologio" title="Patologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Patologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologi" title="Patologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Patologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathologia" title="Pathologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Pathologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meinafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Meinafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Meinafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologia" title="Patologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Patologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="פתולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פתולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologi" title="Patologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Patologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ರೋಗವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರೋಗವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="პათოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პათოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Патология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Патология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patoloj%C3%AE" title="Patolojî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Patolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Патология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Патология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathologia" title="Pathologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Pathologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patolo%C4%A3ija" title="Patoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Patoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologija" title="Patologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Patologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathologie" title="Pathologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Pathologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patol%C3%B3gia" title="Patológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Patológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Патологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Патологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="രോഗനിദാനശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="രോഗനിദാനശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विकृतिविज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विकृतिविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="პათოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პათოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%89" title="باثولوجى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="باثولوجى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologi" title="Patologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Patologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ရောဂါဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရောဂါဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathologie" title="Pathologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Pathologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="रोगविज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रोगविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF" title="प्याथलजि – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्याथलजि" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%97%85%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="病理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="病理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologi" title="Patologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Patologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologi" title="Patologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Patologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="रोगशास्त्र – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="रोगशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>पालि</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%81%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="رنځپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="رنځپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologia" title="Patologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Patologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologia" title="Patologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Patologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologie" title="Patologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Patologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Патология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Патология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Pathology" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologjia" title="Patologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Patologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patulugg%C3%ACa" title="Patuluggìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Patuluggìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%92_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ව්‍යාධි විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ව්‍යාධි විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pathology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patol%C3%B3gia" title="Patológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Patológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologija" title="Patologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Patologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D9%84%DB%86%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="پاتۆلۆجی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پاتۆلۆجی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Патологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Патологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologija" title="Patologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Patologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologi" title="Patologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Patologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologia" title="Patologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Patologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologi" title="Patologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Patologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patolohiya" title="Patolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Patolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="நோயியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நோயியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Патология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Патология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%97_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A3%E0%B0%AF_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="రోగ నిర్ణయ శాస్త్రము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రోగ నిర్ణయ శాస్త్రము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patolohiya" title="Patolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Patolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%97%85%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="病理学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="病理学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%97%85%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="病理學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="病理學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Pathobiology" redirects here. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Karger_Publishers" title="Karger Publishers">Karger Publishers</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Pathology_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Pathology (disambiguation)">Pathology (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Pathological case" redirects here. For the corresponding case in engineering, see <a href="/wiki/Corner_case" title="Corner case">Corner case</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical specialty</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title" style="padding-bottom:0.25em;">Pathology</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pathologists_looking_into_microscopes_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Pathologists_looking_into_microscopes_%281%29.jpg/275px-Pathologists_looking_into_microscopes_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Pathologists_looking_into_microscopes_%281%29.jpg/413px-Pathologists_looking_into_microscopes_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Pathologists_looking_into_microscopes_%281%29.jpg/550px-Pathologists_looking_into_microscopes_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding-top:0.25em;padding-bottom:0.4em;">A pathologist examines a tissue section for evidence of cancerous cells while a surgeon observes.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Focus</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><b><a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">Disease</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical pathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">clinical pathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dermatopathology" title="Dermatopathology">dermatopathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">forensic pathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hematopathology" title="Hematopathology">hematopathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">histopathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathology" title="Molecular pathology">molecular pathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgical_pathology" title="Surgical pathology">surgical pathology</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Significant <span style="padding-left:1px;">diseases</span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">All <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic disease">organic</a> <a href="/wiki/Diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Diseases">diseases</a> and physiological disorders</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Significant <span style="padding-left:1px;">tests</span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">All medical diagnostic tests, particular <a href="/wiki/Biopsy" title="Biopsy">biopsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood analysis">blood analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a>, and other applications of medical <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Specialist</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Pathologist</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Glossary</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Glossary of medicine</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Pathologist</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Names</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li>Physician</li> <li>Surgeon</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Occupation type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Education required</div></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a> (M.D.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Osteopathic medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic medicine</a> (D.O.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Veterinary_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Veterinary Medicine">Doctor of Veterinary Medicine</a> (D.V.M)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a> (M.B.B.S./M.B.Ch.B.)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of<br />employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospitals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinic" title="Clinic">Clinics</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Pathology</b> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>pathology</i> also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> research fields and medical practices. However, when used in the context of modern medical treatment, the term is often used in a narrower fashion to refer to processes and tests that fall within the contemporary medical field of "general pathology", an area that includes a number of distinct but inter-related <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialties" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical specialties">medical specialties</a> that diagnose disease, mostly through analysis of <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Human cell">human cell</a> samples. Idiomatically, "a pathology" may also refer to the predicted or actual progression of particular diseases (as in the statement "the many different forms of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> have diverse pathologies", in which case a more proper choice of word would be "<a href="/wiki/Pathophysiology" title="Pathophysiology">pathophysiologies</a>"). The <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> <i>pathy</i> is sometimes used to indicate a state of disease in cases of both physical ailment (as in <a href="/wiki/Cardiomyopathy" title="Cardiomyopathy">cardiomyopathy</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Psychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological">psychological</a> conditions (such as <a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">psychopathy</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a> practicing pathology is called a <i>pathologist</i>. </p><p>As a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses components of disease: cause, mechanisms of development (<a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">pathogenesis</a>), structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes), and the consequences of changes (clinical manifestations).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In common medical practice, general pathology is mostly concerned with analyzing known clinical abnormalities that are markers or precursors for both <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_disease" title="Non-communicable disease">non-infectious</a> disease, and is conducted by experts in one of two major specialties, <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">anatomical pathology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">clinical pathology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-october_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-october-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types (comparing, for example, <a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">cytopathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hematopathology" title="Hematopathology">hematopathology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">histopathology</a>), organs (as in <a href="/wiki/Renal_pathology" title="Renal pathology">renal pathology</a>), and physiological systems (<a href="/wiki/Oral_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral pathology">oral pathology</a>), as well as on the basis of the focus of the examination (as with <a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">forensic pathology</a>). </p><p>Pathology is a significant field in modern <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">medical diagnosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">medical research</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> term <i>pathology</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">roots</a> <i>pathos</i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πάθος</span></span>), meaning "experience" or "suffering", and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logia" class="extiw" title="wikt:-logia">-logia</a></i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:-λογία">-λογία</a></span></span>), meaning "study of". The term is of early 16th-century origin, and became increasingly popularized after the 1530s.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorman_and_Feeley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Gorman_and_Feeley.jpg/260px-Gorman_and_Feeley.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Gorman_and_Feeley.jpg/390px-Gorman_and_Feeley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Gorman_and_Feeley.jpg/520px-Gorman_and_Feeley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="548" /></a><figcaption>The advent of the microscope was one of the major developments in the history of pathology. Here researchers at the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Centers for Disease Control">Centers for Disease Control</a> in 1978 examine cultures containing <i>Legionella pneumophila</i>, the pathogen responsible for <a href="/wiki/Legionnaire%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Legionnaire's disease">Legionnaire's disease</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The study of pathology, including the detailed examination of the body, including dissection and inquiry into specific maladies, dates back to antiquity. Rudimentary understanding of many conditions was present in most early societies and is attested to in the records of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Historical_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical era">historical societies</a>, including those of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Long1965_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Long1965-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenic period">Hellenic period</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, a concerted causal study of disease was underway (see <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in ancient Greece">Medicine in ancient Greece</a>), with many notable early physicians (such as <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, for whom the modern <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath" title="Hippocratic Oath">Hippocratic Oath</a> is named) having developed methods of <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">prognosis</a> for a number of diseases. <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Rome" title="Medicine in ancient Rome">The medical practices of the Romans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_medicine" title="Byzantine medicine">those of the Byzantines</a> continued from these Greek roots, but, as with many areas of scientific inquiry, growth in understanding of medicine stagnated somewhat after the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Era</a>, but continued to slowly develop throughout numerous cultures. Notably, many advances were made in the medieval era of Islam (see <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in medieval Islam">Medicine in medieval Islam</a>), during which numerous texts of complex pathologies were developed, also based on the Greek tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even so, growth in complex understanding of disease mostly languished until knowledge and experimentation again began to proliferate in the <a href="/wiki/The_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="The Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baroque_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Baroque Era">Baroque</a> eras, following the resurgence of the empirical method at new centers of scholarship. By the 17th century, the study of rudimentary <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a> was underway and examination of tissues had led <a href="/wiki/British_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="British Royal Society">British Royal Society</a> member <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> to coin the word "<a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>", setting the stage for later <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ theory">germ theory</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Modern pathology began to develop as a distinct field of inquiry during the 19th Century through <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural philosophers">natural philosophers</a> and physicians that studied disease and the informal study of what they termed "pathological anatomy" or "morbid anatomy". However, pathology as a formal area of specialty was not fully developed until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the advent of detailed study of <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a>. In the 19th century, physicians had begun to understand that disease-causing pathogens, or "germs" (a catch-all for disease-causing, or pathogenic, microbes, such as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amoebae" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebae">amoebae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">molds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prions</a>) existed and were capable of reproduction and multiplication, replacing earlier beliefs in <a href="/wiki/Humors" class="mw-redirect" title="Humors">humors</a> or even spiritual agents, that had dominated for much of the previous 1,500 years in European medicine. With the new understanding of causative agents, physicians began to compare the characteristics of one germ's symptoms as they developed within an affected individual to another germ's characteristics and symptoms. This approach led to the foundational understanding that diseases are able to replicate themselves, and that they can have many profound and varied effects on the human host. To determine causes of diseases, medical experts used the most common and widely accepted assumptions or symptoms of their times, a general principle of approach that persists in modern medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern medicine was particularly advanced by further developments of the microscope to analyze tissues, to which <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow" title="Rudolf Virchow">Rudolf Virchow</a> gave a significant contribution, leading to a slew of research developments. By the late 1920s to early 1930s pathology was deemed a medical specialty.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Combined with developments in the understanding of general <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, by the beginning of the 20th century, the study of pathology had begun to split into a number of distinct fields, resulting in the development of a large number of modern specialties within pathology and related disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostic medicine">diagnostic medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_pathology">General pathology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: General pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pathology_Lab.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pathology_Lab.png/220px-Pathology_Lab.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pathology_Lab.png/330px-Pathology_Lab.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pathology_Lab.png/440px-Pathology_Lab.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>A modern pathology lab at the <a href="/wiki/Services_Institute_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Services Institute of Medical Sciences">Services Institute of Medical Sciences</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The modern practice of pathology is divided into a number of subdisciplines within the distinct but deeply interconnected aims of biological research and <a href="/wiki/Medical_practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical practice">medical practice</a>. <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical research">Biomedical research</a> into disease incorporates the work of a vast variety of life science specialists, whereas, in most parts of the world, to be <a href="/wiki/Medical_license" title="Medical license">licensed</a> to practice pathology as a medical specialty, one has to complete <a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">medical school</a> and secure a license to practice medicine. Structurally, the study of disease is divided into many different fields that study or diagnose markers for disease using methods and technologies particular to specific scales, <a href="/wiki/Organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Organs">organs</a>, and tissue types. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anatomical_pathology">Anatomical pathology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Anatomical pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical pathology</a></div> <p>Anatomical pathology (<i>Commonwealth</i>) or anatomic pathology (<i>United States</i>) is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the <a href="/wiki/Gross_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross examination">gross</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">microscopic</a>, chemical, immunologic and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathology" title="Molecular pathology">molecular</a> examination of organs, tissues, and whole bodies (as in a general examination or an <a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">autopsy</a>). Anatomical pathology is itself divided into subfields, the main divisions being <a href="/wiki/Surgical_pathology" title="Surgical pathology">surgical pathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">cytopathology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">forensic pathology</a>. Anatomical pathology is one of two main divisions of the medical practice of pathology, the other being clinical pathology, the diagnosis of disease through the <a href="/wiki/Medical_laboratory" title="Medical laboratory">laboratory</a> analysis of bodily fluids and tissues. Sometimes, pathologists practice both anatomical and clinical pathology, a combination known as general pathology.<sup id="cite_ref-october_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-october-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cytopathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AML-M6,_multinucleated_erythroblast.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/AML-M6%2C_multinucleated_erythroblast.jpg/220px-AML-M6%2C_multinucleated_erythroblast.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/AML-M6%2C_multinucleated_erythroblast.jpg/330px-AML-M6%2C_multinucleated_erythroblast.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/AML-M6%2C_multinucleated_erythroblast.jpg/440px-AML-M6%2C_multinucleated_erythroblast.jpg 2x" data-file-width="725" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> <a href="/wiki/Smear_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Smear test">smear</a> from a case of <a href="/wiki/Erythroleukemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Erythroleukemia">erythroleukemia</a>. The large cell in the top center is an abnormal <a href="/wiki/Erythroblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Erythroblast">erythroblast</a>: it is <a href="/wiki/Multinucleated" class="mw-redirect" title="Multinucleated">multinucleated</a>, with megaloblastoid <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(cell)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus (cell)">nuclear</a> <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a>. This is diagnostic of erythroleukemia.</figcaption></figure> <p>Cytopathology (sometimes referred to as "cytology") is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. It is usually used to aid in the diagnosis of cancer, but also helps in the diagnosis of certain infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions as well as thyroid lesions, diseases involving sterile body cavities (peritoneal, pleural, and cerebrospinal), and a wide range of other body sites. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments (in contrast to histopathology, which studies whole tissues) and cytopathologic tests are sometimes called smear tests because the samples may be smeared across a glass microscope slide for subsequent staining and microscopic examination. However, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including <a href="/wiki/Cytocentrifugation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytocentrifugation">cytocentrifugation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dermatopathology">Dermatopathology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dermatopathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dermatopathology" title="Dermatopathology">Dermatopathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melanoma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Melanoma.jpg/220px-Melanoma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Melanoma.jpg/330px-Melanoma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Melanoma.jpg/440px-Melanoma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2450" data-file-height="1705" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Malignant_melanoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Malignant melanoma">malignant melanoma</a> can often be suspected from sight, but confirmation of the diagnosis or outright removal requires a biopsy.</figcaption></figure> <p>Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that focuses on the skin and the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">integumentary system</a> as an organ. It is unique, in that there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. All general pathologists and general dermatologists train in the pathology of the skin, so the term <a href="/wiki/Dermatopathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermatopathologist">dermatopathologist</a> denotes either of these who has reached a certain level of accreditation and experience; in the US, either a general pathologist or a <a href="/wiki/Dermatologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermatologist">dermatologist</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can undergo a 1 to 2 year fellowship in the field of dermatopathology. The completion of this fellowship allows one to take a subspecialty board examination, and becomes a board certified dermatopathologist. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, and behavior. Sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a <a href="/wiki/Skin_biopsy" title="Skin biopsy">skin biopsy</a> is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. In some cases, additional specialized testing needs to be performed on biopsies, including <a href="/wiki/Immunofluorescence" title="Immunofluorescence">immunofluorescence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">immunohistochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">flow cytometry</a>, and molecular-pathologic analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope. More than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions ("<a href="/wiki/Rashes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashes">rashes</a>") and <a href="/wiki/Neoplasms" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplasms">neoplasms</a>. Therefore, dermatopathologists must maintain a broad base of knowledge in clinical dermatology, and be familiar with several other specialty areas in Medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forensic_pathology">Forensic pathology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Forensic pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Forensic pathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_dissection_of_the_abdominal_and_toraxic_organs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Human_dissection_of_the_abdominal_and_toraxic_organs.jpg/220px-Human_dissection_of_the_abdominal_and_toraxic_organs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Human_dissection_of_the_abdominal_and_toraxic_organs.jpg/330px-Human_dissection_of_the_abdominal_and_toraxic_organs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Human_dissection_of_the_abdominal_and_toraxic_organs.jpg/440px-Human_dissection_of_the_abdominal_and_toraxic_organs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Pathologist performing a human dissection of the abdominal and thoracic organs in an autopsy room</figcaption></figure> <p>Forensic pathology focuses on determining the cause of death by <a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-mortem examination">post-mortem examination</a> of a corpse or partial remains. An autopsy is typically performed by a coroner or medical examiner, often during criminal investigations; in this role, <a href="/wiki/Coroner" title="Coroner">coroners</a> and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm the identity of a corpse. The requirements for becoming a licensed practitioner of forensic pathology varies from country to country (and even within a given nation<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) but typically a minimal requirement is a <a href="/wiki/Medical_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical doctorate">medical doctorate</a> with a specialty in general or anatomical pathology with subsequent study in forensic medicine. The methods forensic scientists use to determine death include examination of tissue specimens to identify the presence or absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings, interpretations of <a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">toxicology</a> on body tissues and fluids to determine the chemical cause of overdoses, poisonings or other cases involving toxic agents, and examinations of <a href="/wiki/Physical_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical trauma">physical trauma</a>. Forensic pathology is a major component in the trans-disciplinary field of <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Histopathology">Histopathology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Histopathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">Histopathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cardiac_amyloidosis_very_high_mag_movat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Cardiac_amyloidosis_very_high_mag_movat.jpg/220px-Cardiac_amyloidosis_very_high_mag_movat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Cardiac_amyloidosis_very_high_mag_movat.jpg/330px-Cardiac_amyloidosis_very_high_mag_movat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Cardiac_amyloidosis_very_high_mag_movat.jpg/440px-Cardiac_amyloidosis_very_high_mag_movat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>An instance of diagnosis via <a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">histopathology</a>, this high-magnification <a href="/wiki/Micrograph" title="Micrograph">micrograph</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Histological_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Histological section">section</a> of cardiac tissue reveals advanced <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_amyloidosis" title="Cardiac amyloidosis">cardiac amyloidosis</a>. This sample was attained through an <a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">autopsy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of various forms of <a href="/wiki/Human_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Human tissue">human tissue</a>. Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to the examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This contrasts with the methods of cytopathology, which uses free cells or tissue fragments. Histopathological examination of tissues starts with <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biopsy" title="Biopsy">biopsy</a>, or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body of an organism and then placed in a fixative that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is <a href="/wiki/Formalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Formalin">formalin</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Frozen_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Frozen section">frozen section</a> fixing is also common.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. The histological slides are then interpreted diagnostically and the resulting pathology report describes the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Neuropathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AVM_grossly.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/AVM_grossly.jpg/220px-AVM_grossly.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/AVM_grossly.jpg/330px-AVM_grossly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/AVM_grossly.jpg/440px-AVM_grossly.jpg 2x" data-file-width="767" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Coronal_plane" title="Coronal plane">coronal</a> <a href="/wiki/Microtome" title="Microtome">cross-section</a> of a brain reveals a significant <a href="/wiki/Arteriovenous_malformation" title="Arteriovenous malformation">arteriovenous malformation</a> that occupies much of the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either surgical biopsies or sometimes whole brains in the case of autopsy. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">neurosurgery</a>. In many English-speaking countries, neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist generates diagnoses for patients. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken from the brain or spinal cord to aid in diagnosis. Biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a>. With autopsies, the principal work of the neuropathologist is to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various conditions that affect the central nervous system. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD) is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a <a href="/wiki/Skin_biopsy#Punch_biopsy" title="Skin biopsy">punch skin biopsy</a> is taken to identify small fiber <a href="/wiki/Neuropathies" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropathies">neuropathies</a> by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional nerve biopsy test as less <a href="/wiki/Invasive_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasive surgery">invasive</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pulmonary_pathology">Pulmonary pathology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pulmonary pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_pathology" title="Pulmonary pathology">Pulmonary pathology</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gross_pathology_of_miliary_tuberculosis_of_the_lung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Gross_pathology_of_miliary_tuberculosis_of_the_lung.jpg/131px-Gross_pathology_of_miliary_tuberculosis_of_the_lung.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Gross_pathology_of_miliary_tuberculosis_of_the_lung.jpg/197px-Gross_pathology_of_miliary_tuberculosis_of_the_lung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Gross_pathology_of_miliary_tuberculosis_of_the_lung.jpg/262px-Gross_pathology_of_miliary_tuberculosis_of_the_lung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="408" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption>Gross pathology of miliary tuberculosis of the lung</figcaption></figure> <p>Pulmonary pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic (and especially surgical) pathology that deals with diagnosis and characterization of <a href="/wiki/Neoplasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplasia">neoplastic</a> and non-neoplastic diseases of the <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">thoracic</a> <a href="/wiki/Pleura" title="Pleura">pleura</a>. Diagnostic specimens are often obtained via <a href="/wiki/Bronchoscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronchoscope">bronchoscopic</a> transbronchial biopsy, <a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">CT</a>-guided percutaneous biopsy, or <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoracic surgery">video-assisted thoracic surgery</a>. These tests can be necessary to diagnose between infection, <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Fibrosis" title="Fibrosis">fibrotic</a> conditions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Renal_pathology">Renal pathology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Renal pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Renal_pathology" title="Renal pathology">Renal pathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polycystic_kidneys,_gross_pathology_CDC_PHIL.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Polycystic_kidneys%2C_gross_pathology_CDC_PHIL.png/220px-Polycystic_kidneys%2C_gross_pathology_CDC_PHIL.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Polycystic_kidneys%2C_gross_pathology_CDC_PHIL.png/330px-Polycystic_kidneys%2C_gross_pathology_CDC_PHIL.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Polycystic_kidneys%2C_gross_pathology_CDC_PHIL.png/440px-Polycystic_kidneys%2C_gross_pathology_CDC_PHIL.png 2x" data-file-width="2958" data-file-height="2006" /></a><figcaption>This tissue cross-section demonstrates the gross pathology of <a href="/wiki/Polycystic_kidneys" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycystic kidneys">polycystic kidneys</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of the <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidneys</a>. In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with <a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">nephrologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">transplant surgeons</a>, who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Immunofluorescence" title="Immunofluorescence">immunofluorescence</a> to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the <a href="/wiki/Glomerulus_(kidney)" title="Glomerulus (kidney)">glomerulus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tubules" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubules">tubules</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interstitium" title="Interstitium">interstitium</a>, the vessels, or a combination of these compartments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Surgical_pathology">Surgical pathology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Surgical pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Surgical_pathology" title="Surgical pathology">Surgical pathology</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_biopsy_under_stereotaxy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Brain_biopsy_under_stereotaxy.jpg/230px-Brain_biopsy_under_stereotaxy.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Brain_biopsy_under_stereotaxy.jpg/345px-Brain_biopsy_under_stereotaxy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Brain_biopsy_under_stereotaxy.jpg/460px-Brain_biopsy_under_stereotaxy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Brain_biopsy" title="Brain biopsy">Brain biopsy</a> under <a href="/wiki/Stereotaxy" title="Stereotaxy">stereotaxy</a>. A small part of the tumor is taken via a needle with a vacuum system.</figcaption></figure> <p>Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the <a href="/wiki/Gross_pathology" title="Gross pathology">gross</a> and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as <a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">general internists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialties" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical specialties">medical subspecialists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dermatologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermatologists">dermatologists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">interventional radiologists</a>. Often an <a href="/wiki/Surgery#Types_of_surgery" title="Surgery">excised</a> <a href="/wiki/Tissue_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Tissue sample">tissue sample</a> is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a>, <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>. Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of a suspicious <a href="/wiki/Lesion" title="Lesion">lesion</a>, whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of <a href="/wiki/Skin_lesions" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin lesions">skin lesions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal">gastrointestinal</a> <a href="/wiki/Polyps" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyps">polyps</a> are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining the activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming the previous diagnosis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clinical_pathology">Clinical pathology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Clinical pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></div> <p>Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the <a href="/wiki/Medical_laboratory" title="Medical laboratory">laboratory</a> analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>, as well as tissues, using the tools of <a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_microbiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical microbiology">clinical microbiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">hematology</a> and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Medical_technologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical technologist">medical technologists</a>, hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer a number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the <a href="/wiki/Biophysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical">biophysical</a> properties of tissue samples involving <a href="/wiki/Automated_analyser" title="Automated analyser">automated analysers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">cultures</a>. Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Immunopathology" title="Immunopathology">Immunopathology</a>, the study of an organism's immune response to infection, is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology.<sup id="cite_ref-bulletin_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bulletin-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hematopathology">Hematopathology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Hematopathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hematopathology" title="Hematopathology">Hematopathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Konelab60i.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Konelab60i.png/225px-Konelab60i.png" decoding="async" width="225" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Konelab60i.png/338px-Konelab60i.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Konelab60i.png/450px-Konelab60i.png 2x" data-file-width="1468" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a>: an <a href="/wiki/Automated_analyzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated analyzer">automated blood chemistry analyzer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="White blood cells">white blood cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Red blood cells">red blood cells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Platelets" class="mw-redirect" title="Platelets">platelets</a>) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lymph_nodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymph nodes">lymph nodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">thymus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a>, and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(medical)" title="Infiltration (medical)">infiltrate</a> of cells of the hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_pathology">Molecular pathology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Molecular pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathology" title="Molecular pathology">Molecular pathology</a></div> <p>Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or <a href="/wiki/Bodily_fluids" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodily fluids">bodily fluids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>. It is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a> is represented by a related field "<a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathological_epidemiology" title="Molecular pathological epidemiology">molecular pathological epidemiology</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Techniques are numerous but include <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_polymerase_chain_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative polymerase chain reaction">quantitative polymerase chain reaction</a> (qPCR), <a href="/wiki/Multiplex_polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Multiplex polymerase chain reaction">multiplex PCR</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a>, <a href="/wiki/In_situ_hybridization" title="In situ hybridization">in situ hybridization</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a>, antibody-based <a href="/wiki/Immunofluorescence" title="Immunofluorescence">immunofluorescence</a> tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">antimicrobial resistance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cai2014_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cai2014-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oral_and_maxillofacial_pathology">Oral and maxillofacial pathology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Oral and maxillofacial pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_pathology" title="Oral and maxillofacial pathology">Oral and maxillofacial pathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geographic_tongue_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Geographic_tongue_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Geographic_tongue_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Geographic_tongue_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Geographic_tongue_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Geographic_tongue_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Geographic_tongue_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2152" /></a><figcaption>Many conditions, such as this case of <a href="/wiki/Geographic_tongue" title="Geographic tongue">geographic tongue</a>, can be diagnosed partly on gross examination, but may be confirmed with tissue pathology.</figcaption></figure> <p>Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the <a href="/wiki/American_Dental_Association" title="American Dental Association">American Dental Association</a>, and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology.<sup id="cite_ref-Neville_2001_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neville_2001-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on the diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to <a href="/wiki/Human_tooth_development" title="Human tooth development">odontogenic</a>, infectious, <a href="/wiki/Epithelial" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial">epithelial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">salivary gland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soft_tissue" title="Soft tissue">soft tissue</a> pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of <a href="/wiki/Dental_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental pathology">dental pathology</a>. Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from <a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">otorhinolaryngologists</a> ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and <a href="/wiki/Speech_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech pathology">speech pathologists</a>, the latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or <a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromuscular">neuromuscular</a> conditions relevant to <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">speech phonology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Swallowing" title="Swallowing">swallowing</a>. Owing to the availability of the <a href="/wiki/Oral_cavity" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral cavity">oral cavity</a> to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_training_and_accreditation">Medical training and accreditation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Medical training and accreditation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UNDmicroscope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/UNDmicroscope.jpg/220px-UNDmicroscope.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/UNDmicroscope.jpg/330px-UNDmicroscope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/UNDmicroscope.jpg/440px-UNDmicroscope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>An anatomical pathology instructor uses a microscope with multiple eyepieces to instruct students in diagnostic microscopy.</figcaption></figure> <p>Becoming a pathologist generally requires <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">specialty</a>-training after <a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">medical school</a>, but individual nations vary some in the <a href="/wiki/Medical_licensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical licensing">medical licensing</a> required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians (<a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">D.O.</a> or <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">M.D.</a>) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology <a href="/wiki/Medical_residency" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical residency">residency</a>. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology: [anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The <a href="/wiki/American_Osteopathic_Board_of_Pathology" title="American Osteopathic Board of Pathology">American Osteopathic Board of Pathology</a> also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory medicine">laboratory medicine</a>. Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK <a href="/wiki/General_Medical_Council" title="General Medical Council">General Medical Council</a>. The training to become a pathologist is under the oversight of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Pathologists" title="Royal College of Pathologists">Royal College of Pathologists</a>. After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years and includes specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It is also possible to take a <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Pathologists" title="Royal College of Pathologists">Royal College of Pathologists</a> diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, <a href="/wiki/Pediatric_pathology" title="Pediatric pathology">pediatric pathology</a>, and neuropathology. All postgraduate medical training and education in the UK is overseen by the General Medical Council. </p><p>In France, pathology is separated into two distinct specialties, anatomical pathology, and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">pharmacists</a>. At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of the disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology.<sup id="cite_ref-bulletin_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bulletin-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overlap_with_other_diagnostic_medicine">Overlap with other diagnostic medicine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Overlap with other diagnostic medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostic medicine">Diagnostic medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">Infectious disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></div> <p>Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, the practice of <a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">oncology</a> makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Cancer.Net_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cancer.Net-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, biopsy, <a href="/wiki/Segmental_resection" title="Segmental resection">resection</a>, and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the <a href="/wiki/Cancer_staging" title="Cancer staging">staging</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cancerous_tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancerous tumor">cancerous masses</a>. In a similar fashion, the tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">infectious disease</a> and as such inform significantly upon the fields of <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etiology_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Etiology (medicine)">etiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">parasitology</a>. General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Experimental_pathology" title="Experimental pathology">"experimental" or "investigative" pathology</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a> is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of <a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">internal</a> physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the <a href="/wiki/Biometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Biometric">biometric</a> data necessary to establish baseline features of <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> so as to increase the accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">pathogenesis</a> of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include <a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">radiology</a> (which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a>) <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_ultrasonography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical ultrasonography">medical ultrasonography</a> (or ultrasound), <a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">endoscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elastography" title="Elastography">elastography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tactile_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Tactile imaging">tactile imaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermography" title="Thermography">thermography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_photography" title="Medical photography">medical photography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Functional_imaging" title="Functional imaging">functional imaging</a> techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">positron emission tomography</a>. Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">magnetoencephalography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrocardiography" title="Electrocardiography">electrocardiography</a> often give hints as to the state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathology_informatics">Pathology informatics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Pathology informatics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Digital_pathology" title="Digital pathology">Digital pathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Major_topics_of_pathology_informatics.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Major_topics_of_pathology_informatics.png/220px-Major_topics_of_pathology_informatics.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="412" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Major_topics_of_pathology_informatics.png/330px-Major_topics_of_pathology_informatics.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Major_topics_of_pathology_informatics.png/440px-Major_topics_of_pathology_informatics.png 2x" data-file-width="1905" data-file-height="3570" /></a><figcaption>Major topics and processes of pathology informatics: Data management from molecular testing, <a href="/wiki/Digital_pathology" title="Digital pathology">slide scanning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_pathology" title="Digital pathology">digital imaging and image analysis</a>, networks, databases and <a href="/wiki/Telepathology" title="Telepathology">telepathology</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Pathology informatics is a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">health informatics</a>. It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. </p><p>Key aspects of pathology informatics include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_information_management_system" title="Laboratory information management system">Laboratory information management systems</a> (LIMS): Implementing and managing computer systems specifically designed for pathology departments. These systems help in tracking and managing patient specimens, results, and other pathology data.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_pathology" title="Digital pathology">Digital pathology</a>: Involves the use of digital technology to create, manage, and analyze pathology images. This includes side scanning and automated image analysis.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telepathology" title="Telepathology">Telepathology</a>: Using technology to enable remote pathology consultation and collaboration.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_assurance" title="Quality assurance">Quality assurance</a> and reporting: Implementing informatics solutions to ensure the quality and accuracy of pathology processes.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychopathology">Psychopathology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Psychopathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychopathology" title="Psychopathology">Psychopathology</a></div> <p>Psychopathology is the study of <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a>, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric">psychiatric</a> treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders" title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a>, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy<sup id="cite_ref-frana_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frana-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-concept&evolution_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-concept&evolution-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> and other of the biological <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive sciences</a>. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Pathological_gambling" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathological gambling">pathological gambling</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pathological_liar" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathological liar">pathological liar</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-humans">Non-humans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Non-humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enzootic_pneumonia_ewe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Enzootic_pneumonia_ewe.jpg/185px-Enzootic_pneumonia_ewe.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Enzootic_pneumonia_ewe.jpg/278px-Enzootic_pneumonia_ewe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Enzootic_pneumonia_ewe.jpg/370px-Enzootic_pneumonia_ewe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>This field <a href="/wiki/Post-mortem" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-mortem">post-mortem</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">ewe</a> has revealed <a href="/wiki/Lesions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesions">lesions</a> consistent with acute <a href="/wiki/Haemolytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemolytic">haemolytic</a> <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, possibly due to <i>Pasteurella haemolytica</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a> of <a href="/wiki/Animalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Animalia">Animalia</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Phytopathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytopathology">phytopathology</a>, which studies disease in plants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Veterinary_pathology">Veterinary pathology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Veterinary pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Veterinary_pathology" title="Veterinary pathology">Veterinary pathology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></div> <p>Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards <a href="/wiki/Veterinarian" title="Veterinarian">veterinary practice</a>, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically <a href="/wiki/Zoonotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoonotic">zoonotic</a> in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a> and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Companion_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Companion animals">companion animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a> generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tobacco_mosaic_virus_symptoms_tobacco.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tobacco_mosaic_virus_symptoms_tobacco.jpg/195px-Tobacco_mosaic_virus_symptoms_tobacco.jpg" decoding="async" width="195" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tobacco_mosaic_virus_symptoms_tobacco.jpg/293px-Tobacco_mosaic_virus_symptoms_tobacco.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tobacco_mosaic_virus_symptoms_tobacco.jpg/390px-Tobacco_mosaic_virus_symptoms_tobacco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="485" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobacco plant">tobacco plant</a> infected with the <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" title="Tobacco mosaic virus">tobacco mosaic virus</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant_pathology">Plant pathology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Plant pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></div> <p>Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oomycete" title="Oomycete">oomycetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viroid" title="Viroid">viroids</a>, virus-like organisms, <a href="/wiki/Phytoplasma" title="Phytoplasma">phytoplasmas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_plant" title="Parasitic plant">parasitic plants</a>. Damage caused by <a href="/wiki/Insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Insects">insects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mite" title="Mite">mites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a>, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to <a href="/wiki/Plant_disease_epidemiology" title="Plant disease epidemiology">plant disease epidemiology</a> and especially concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a> of species that are of high importance to the <a href="/wiki/Human_diet" class="mw-redirect" title="Human diet">human diet</a> or other human utility. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimally-invasive_procedures" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimally-invasive procedures">Minimally-invasive procedures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">Pathogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">Pathogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathophysiology" title="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Precision medicine">Precision medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech%E2%80%93language_pathology" title="Speech–language pathology">Speech–language pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telepathology" title="Telepathology">Telepathology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHerausgeber.2018" class="citation book cs1">Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1043350646"><i>Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach</i></a>. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-7212-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-7212-3"><bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1043350646">1043350646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Underwood%27s+pathology+%3A+a+clinical+approach&rft.pub=Elsevier+%E2%80%93+Health+Sciences+Division&rft.date=2018-04-30&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1043350646&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-7212-3&rft.aulast=Herausgeber.&rft.aufirst=Cross%2C+Simon+S.%2C+Herausgeber.+Underwood%2C+James+C.+E.+1942-&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1043350646&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APathology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oed.com/view/Entry/138811">"-pathy, comb. form"</a>. OED Online. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=-pathy%2C+comb.+form&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F138811&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APathology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumarAbbasFaustoAster2010" class="citation book cs1">Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). <i>Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease</i> (8th ed.). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://org.uib.no/dyreavd/handouts/Rollin__B._2006._Animal_Research_Regulation_in_Theoret._Medicin_....PDF">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-10-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pathology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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title="Cause (medicine)">Cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">Pathogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">Hemodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ischemia" title="Ischemia">Ischemia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">Inflammation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_damage" title="Cell damage">Cell damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wound_healing" title="Wound healing">Wound healing</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Cellular_adaptation" title="Cellular adaptation">Cellular adaptation</a></dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Atrophy" title="Atrophy">Atrophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hypertrophy" title="Hypertrophy">Hypertrophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">Hyperplasia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dysplasia" title="Dysplasia">Dysplasia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Metaplasia" title="Metaplasia">Metaplasia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Squamous_metaplasia" title="Squamous metaplasia">Squamous</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glandular_metaplasia" title="Glandular metaplasia">Glandular</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">Cell death</a></dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">Necrosis</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Coagulative_necrosis" title="Coagulative necrosis">Coagulative necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Liquefactive_necrosis" title="Liquefactive necrosis">Liquefactive necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">Gangrenous necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Caseous_necrosis" title="Caseous necrosis">Caseous necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fat_necrosis" title="Fat necrosis">Fat necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fibrinoid_necrosis" title="Fibrinoid necrosis">Fibrinoid necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Myocytolysis" title="Myocytolysis">Myocytolysis</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">Apoptosis</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pyknosis" title="Pyknosis">Pyknosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karyorrhexis" title="Karyorrhexis">Karyorrhexis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karyolysis" title="Karyolysis">Karyolysis</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><i>Accumulations</i></dt> <dd><i><a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a></i> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Hemosiderin" title="Hemosiderin">Hemosiderin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lipochrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipochrome">Lipochrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lipofuscin" title="Lipofuscin">Lipofuscin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">Melanin</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Steatosis" title="Steatosis">Steatosis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical pathology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_pathology" title="Surgical pathology">Surgical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">Autopsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathology" title="Molecular pathology">Molecular pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Forensic pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_pathology" title="Oral and maxillofacial pathology">Oral and maxillofacial pathology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gross_processing" title="Gross processing">Gross processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">Histopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">Immunohistochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">Electron microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunofluorescence" title="Immunofluorescence">Immunofluorescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_in_situ_hybridization" title="Fluorescence in situ hybridization">Fluorescence in situ hybridization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematopathology" title="Hematopathology">Hematopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunoassay" title="Immunoassay">Diagnostic immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunopathology" title="Immunopathology">Immunopathology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_bank" title="Blood bank">Blood bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">Microbiological culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serology" title="Serology">Serology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medicine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medicine" title="Template:Medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medicine" title="Template talk:Medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialties</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a> <ul><li><small>ENT</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal<br />medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and<br />gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pathology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="/wiki/General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlebologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebologist">Phlebology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical<br />education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD%E2%80%93PhD" title="MD–PhD">MD–PhD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology_nav" title="Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br /> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br />and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br /> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br /> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li>Pathology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecological terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Plant morphology terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biology">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Biology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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