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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_or_dialect_distinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Language or dialect distinction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_or_dialect_distinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mutual_intelligibility_with_modern_South_Korean_Korean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutual_intelligibility_with_modern_South_Korean_Korean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 Mutual intelligibility with modern South Korean Korean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutual_intelligibility_with_modern_South_Korean_Korean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Geographic distribution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Pre-modern history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese_colonial_period_(1910–1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_colonial_period_(1910–1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Japanese colonial period (1910–1945) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_colonial_period_(1910–1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_period_and_decline_(1945–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_period_and_decline_(1945–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Modern period and decline (1945–present) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_period_and_decline_(1945–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_status_and_ongoing_endangerment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_status_and_ongoing_endangerment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Current status and ongoing endangerment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Current_status_and_ongoing_endangerment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Current status and ongoing endangerment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Current_status_and_ongoing_endangerment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Local_attitudes_towards_Jeju" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_attitudes_towards_Jeju"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Local attitudes towards Jeju </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_attitudes_towards_Jeju-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Improving_sentiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Improving_sentiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Improving sentiment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Improving_sentiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revitalization_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revitalization_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Revitalization efforts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revitalization_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Government_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Government efforts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popular_media_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popular_media_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Popular media efforts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popular_media_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Cultural differences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Orthography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Orthography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transliteration_or_romanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transliteration_or_romanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Transliteration or romanization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transliteration_or_romanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonantal_phonological_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonantal_phonological_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Consonantal phonological processes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonantal_phonological_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Underlying_consonant_clusters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Underlying_consonant_clusters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Underlying consonant clusters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underlying_consonant_clusters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowel_phonological_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowel_phonological_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Vowel phonological processes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowel_phonological_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonotactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonotactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Phonotactics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prosody" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosody"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Prosody </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prosody-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noun_particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 Noun particles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-final_suffixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-final_suffixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Pre-final suffixes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-final_suffixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Segmenting_verb-final_suffixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Segmenting_verb-final_suffixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.2 Segmenting verb-final suffixes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Segmenting_verb-final_suffixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sentence_enders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sentence_enders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.3 Sentence enders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sentence_enders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Connectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.4 Connectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Auxiliary_and_light_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auxiliary_and_light_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.5 Auxiliary and light verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auxiliary_and_light_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-phrasal_particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-phrasal_particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Post-phrasal particles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-phrasal_particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns_and_deixis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns_and_deixis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Pronouns and deixis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns_and_deixis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Vocabulary </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vocabulary subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sound_symbolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_symbolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Sound symbolism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_symbolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kinship_terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinship_terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Kinship terminology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinship_terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Sample text </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2.1 English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2.2 Korean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Jeju language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" > 25 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%88" title="لغة جيجو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة جيجو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_jeju" title="Idioma jeju – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma jeju" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_jeju" title="Idioma jeju – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Idioma jeju" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Ced%C5%BEu%C5%A1tina" title="Čedžuština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čedžuština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%AD%CF%84%CE%B6%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Γλώσσα Τζέτζου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλώσσα Τζέτζου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_jeju" title="Idioma jeju – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma jeju" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeju_hizkuntza" title="Jeju hizkuntza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Jeju hizkuntza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AC%D8%AC%D9%88%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زبان ججویی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان ججویی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeju_(langue)" title="Jeju (langue) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Jeju (langue)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_jeju" title="Lingua jeju – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua jeju" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4" title="제주어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제주어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeju_(jezik)" title="Jeju (jezik) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jeju (jezik)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Jeju" title="Bahasa Jeju – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Jeju" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%88%E5%B7%9E%E8%AA%9E" title="済州語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="済州語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_jeju" title="Língua jeju – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua jeju" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%83_(%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Чеджу (диалект корейского языка) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Чеджу (диалект корейского языка)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeju_language" title="Jeju language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jeju language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikaing_Jeju" title="Wikaing Jeju – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikaing Jeju" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B9" title="ภาษาเชจู – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาเชจู" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeju_dili" title="Jeju dili – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Jeju dili" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Koreanic language of Jeju Island, South Korea</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Jju_language" title="Jju language">Jju language</a>.</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: yellowgreen;">Jeju</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: yellowgreen;">Jejueo, Jejuan</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: yellowgreen;">제줏말 / 제주말 Jejun-mal / Jeju-mal</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeju-language_Greeting_%22Welcome%22.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Jeju-language_Greeting_%22Welcome%22.png/200px-Jeju-language_Greeting_%22Welcome%22.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Jeju-language_Greeting_%22Welcome%22.png/300px-Jeju-language_Greeting_%22Welcome%22.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Jeju-language_Greeting_%22Welcome%22.png/400px-Jeju-language_Greeting_%22Welcome%22.png 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="226" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Jeju_Province" title="Jeju Province">Jeju Province</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Jeju_people" title="Jeju people">Jejuans</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">5,000 (2014)<a href="#cite_note-e18-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> Jeju</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages#Proto-Koreanic" title="Koreanic languages">Proto-Koreanic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Korean" title="Old Korean">Old Korean</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: yellowgreen;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/jje" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:jje">jje</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/jeju1234">jeju1234</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">ELP</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/8409">Jejueo</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeju_Province_in_South_Korea.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Jeju_Province_in_South_Korea.svg/320px-Jeju_Province_in_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Jeju_Province_in_South_Korea.svg/480px-Jeju_Province_in_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Jeju_Province_in_South_Korea.svg/640px-Jeju_Province_in_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1672" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lang_Status_20-CR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lang_Status_20-CR.svg/320px-Lang_Status_20-CR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lang_Status_20-CR.svg/480px-Lang_Status_20-CR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lang_Status_20-CR.svg/640px-Lang_Status_20-CR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="153" /></a><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Jeju is classified as Critically Endangered by the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlas_of_the_World%27s_Languages_in_Danger" title="Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger">Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger</a></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Jeju (Jeju: 제줏말; <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Transliteration_or_romanization">Jeju RR</a>: Jejun-mal, or <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>: 제주어; <a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">RR</a>: Jeju-eo, or 제주말; Jeju-mal), often called Jejueo or Jejuan in English-language scholarship, is a <a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic language</a> originally from <a href="/wiki/Jeju_Island" title="Jeju Island">Jeju Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> It is not <a href="/wiki/Mutually_intelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually intelligible">mutually intelligible</a> with mainland Korean dialects. While it was historically considered a divergent Jeju dialect of the Korean language, it is increasingly referred to as a separate language in its own right. It is declining in usage and was classified by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> in 2010 as <a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">critically endangered</a>, the highest level of language endangerment possible. <a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Revitalization</a> efforts are ongoing. The consonants of Jeju are similar to those of Seoul Korean, but Jeju has a larger and more conservative vowel inventory. Jeju is a <a href="/wiki/Head-final" class="mw-redirect" title="Head-final">head-final</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinative">agglutinative</a>, suffixing language like Korean. Nouns are followed by <a href="/wiki/Particle_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle (linguistics)">particles</a> that may function as <a href="/wiki/Case_marker" class="mw-redirect" title="Case marker">case markers</a>. Verbs <a href="/wiki/Inflect" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflect">inflect</a> for <a href="/wiki/Tense-aspect-mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense-aspect-mood">tense, aspect, mood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">evidentiality</a>, relative social status, formality, and other grammatical information. Korean and Jeju differ significantly in their verbal paradigms. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Continuative_aspect" title="Continuative aspect">continuative aspect</a> marker of Jeju and the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a> or <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> distinction of many Jeju connective suffixes are absent in Korean. Most of the Jeju lexicon is Koreanic, and the language preserves many <a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a> words now lost in Standard Korean. Jeju may also have a <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Japonic" title="Peninsular Japonic">Peninsular Japonic</a> substratum, but this argument has been disputed.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Jeju was already divergent from the <a href="/wiki/Gyeonggi_dialect" title="Gyeonggi dialect">Seoul dialect</a> of Korean by the fifteenth century and unintelligible to mainland Korean visitors by the sixteenth century. The language was severely undermined by the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Jeju_uprising" title="Jeju uprising">Jeju uprising</a> of 1948, the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Miracle_on_the_Han_River" title="Miracle on the Han River">modernization of South Korea</a>. Many fluent speakers remaining in Jeju Island are now over seventy years old. Most people in Jeju Island now speak a variety of Korean with a Jeju <a href="/wiki/Substratum_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substratum (linguistics)">substratum</a>. The language may be somewhat more vigorous in a diaspora community in <a href="/wiki/Osaka" title="Osaka">Osaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, as many Jeju people migrated to Osaka in the 1920s, but even there, younger members of the community tend to speak <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature_and_relationship_to_Korean">Nomenclature and relationship to Korean</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nomenclature and relationship to Korean">edit</a>]</div> <div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; width:300px; margin:0.5em;"> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 85%; border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; margin: 0.3em;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table align="none" cellspacing="8" cellpadding="0" class="plainlinks"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellspacing="8" style="text-align:center;border-collapse:collapse;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center;"> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <th style="text-align:right;vertical-align:bottom;padding-right:4px;">1995-1999 </th> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table title="46" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;float:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div align="center"> </div> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-top:1px solid #888;border-bottom:1px solid #888;border-left:1px solid #888;border-right:1px solid #888;background:blue;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <td width="46px" height="20px"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table title="2" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;float:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div align="center"> </div> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-top:1px solid #888;border-bottom:1px solid #888;border-left:1px solid #888;border-right:1px solid #888;background:green;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <td width="2px" height="20px"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:bottom;padding-left:2px;padding-bottom:2px;">48 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right;vertical-align:bottom;padding-right:4px;">2000-2004 </th> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table title="44" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;float:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div align="center"> </div> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-top:1px solid #888;border-bottom:1px solid #888;border-left:1px solid #888;border-right:1px solid #888;background:blue;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <td width="44px" height="20px"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table title="7" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;float:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div align="center"> </div> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-top:1px solid #888;border-bottom:1px solid #888;border-left:1px solid #888;border-right:1px solid #888;background:green;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <td width="7px" height="20px"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:bottom;padding-left:2px;padding-bottom:2px;">51 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right;vertical-align:bottom;padding-right:4px;">2005-2009 </th> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table title="44" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;float:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div align="center"> </div> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-top:1px solid #888;border-bottom:1px solid #888;border-left:1px solid #888;border-right:1px solid #888;background:blue;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <td width="44px" height="20px"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table title="7" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;float:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div align="center"> </div> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-top:1px solid #888;border-bottom:1px solid #888;border-left:1px solid #888;border-right:1px solid #888;background:green;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <td width="7px" height="20px"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:bottom;padding-left:2px;padding-bottom:2px;">51 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right;vertical-align:bottom;padding-right:4px;">2010-2014 </th> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table title="24" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;float:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div align="center"> </div> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-top:1px solid #888;border-bottom:1px solid #888;border-left:1px solid #888;border-right:1px solid #888;background:blue;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <td width="24px" height="20px"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table title="31" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;float:left;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div align="center"> </div> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-top:1px solid #888;border-bottom:1px solid #888;border-left:1px solid #888;border-right:1px solid #888;background:green;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <td width="31px" height="20px"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:bottom;padding-left:2px;padding-bottom:2px;">55 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top;"> Total: 205 <table title="47" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div></div> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-top:1px solid #888;border-bottom:1px solid #888;border-left:1px solid #888;border-right:1px solid #888;background:green;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <td width="16px" height="16px"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="padding-left:2px;">Jeju language </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table title="158" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div></div> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-top:1px solid #888;border-bottom:1px solid #888;border-left:1px solid #888;border-right:1px solid #888;background:blue;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <td width="16px" height="16px"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="padding-left:2px;">Jeju dialect </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:right;font-style:italic;">Source: <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECho_T.-r.2014124-4">[4]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="border: none;"><div class="thumbcaption">Nomenclature of Jeju in the titles of South Korean academic publications</div></div></div> Various terms in both Korean and English exist for the Jeju language, which also vary depending on whether it is considered a separate language or a dialect of Korean by the speaker. Among native speakers, the term "Jeju speech" (제주말; Jeju-mal) is most commonly used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady20194-5">[5]</a> In English-language scholarship, it is often called Jejueo or Jejuan.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_or_dialect_distinction">Language or dialect distinction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Language or dialect distinction">edit</a>]</div> Jeju is closely related to Korean. It was traditionally considered an especially divergent <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a> of Korean, and as of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit">[update]</a> is still referred to as such by the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_the_Korean_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute of the Korean Language">National Institute of the Korean Language</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(South_Korea)" title="Ministry of Education (South Korea)">South Korean Ministry of Education</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady20195-8">[8]</a> Until the 2000s, South Korean academia preferred the term "Jeju dialect" (제주방언; Jeju bang-eon). While the term "Jeju language" (제주어; Jeju-eo) was first used in 1947, it was not until the mid-1990s that the term gained traction. The majority of South Korean academic publications switched to using "Jeju language" by the early 2010s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECho_T.-r.2014123–126-9">[9]</a> Since somewhat earlier, "Jeju language" has also been the term preferred in local law, such as the 2007 Language Act for the Preservation and Promotion of the Jeju Language,<a href="#cite_note-10">[a]</a> and by non-governmental organizations working to preserve the language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECho_T.-r.2014129–130-11">[10]</a> The only English-language <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monograph</a> on Jeju, published in 2019, consistently refers to it as a language as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019-12">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mutual_intelligibility_with_modern_South_Korean_Korean">Mutual intelligibility with modern South Korean Korean</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mutual intelligibility with modern South Korean Korean">edit</a>]</div> Jeju is not <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually intelligible</a> with even the southernmost dialects of South Korea. In a 2014 survey measuring intelligibility, Korean speakers from three different dialect zones (Seoul, <a href="/wiki/Busan" title="Busan">Busan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yeosu" title="Yeosu">Yeosu</a>) were exposed to one minute of spoken Jeju, with a <a href="/wiki/Control_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Control group">control group</a> of native Jeju speakers. On average, South Korean native speakers from all three dialect zones answered less than 10% of the basic comprehension questions correctly, while native Jeju speakers answered over 89% of the questions correctly. These results are comparable to the results of an intelligibility test of <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> for native <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.O'GradyYang_S.Hilton2019-13">[12]</a> Diaspora Jeju speakers living in Japan have also reported that they find it difficult to understand South Korean news media, and resort to Japanese subtitles when watching South Korean TV shows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_B.2014120-14">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution">edit</a>]</div> Jeju was traditionally spoken throughout <a href="/wiki/Jeju_Province" title="Jeju Province">Jeju Province</a> except in the <a href="/wiki/Chuja_Islands" title="Chuja Islands">Chuja Islands</a>, halfway between Jeju Island and mainland Korea, where a variety of <a href="/wiki/Jeolla_dialect" title="Jeolla dialect">Southwestern Korean</a> is found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoi_M.199816-15">[14]</a> The language is also used by some of the <a href="/wiki/Immigrant_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigrant generation">first- and second-generation</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[b]</a> members of the <a href="/wiki/Zainichi_Korean" class="mw-redirect" title="Zainichi Korean">Zainichi Korean</a> community in <a href="/wiki/Ikuno-ku,_Osaka" title="Ikuno-ku, Osaka">Ikuno-ku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osaka" title="Osaka">Osaka</a>, Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_B.2014-17">[15]</a> Compared to mainland Korean dialect groups, there is little internal variation within Jeju. A distinction between a northern and southern dialect with a geographic divide at <a href="/wiki/Hallasan" title="Hallasan">Hallasan</a> is sometimes posited, but an eastern-western dialectal divide cutting through <a href="/wiki/Jeju_City" title="Jeju City">Jeju City</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seogwipo" title="Seogwipo">Seogwipo</a> may better explain the few dialectal differences that do exist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoi_M.199825-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.Song_S.Kim_Jee-h.Oh_C.2014214-19">[17]</a> A 2010 survey of regional variation in 305 word sets suggests that the north–south divide and the east–west divide coexist, resulting in four distinct dialect groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_S.2010-20">[18]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 555.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 553.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dialectal_diversity_in_Jeju_%22lizard%22.png" class="mw-file-description" title="An east–west divide is salient in the Jeju words for "lizard". Eastern Seogwipo uses 장쿨레비 jangkullebi while western Seogwipo uses 독다구리 dokdaguri.[19]"><img alt="An east–west divide is salient in the Jeju words for "lizard". Eastern Seogwipo uses 장쿨레비 jangkullebi while western Seogwipo uses 독다구리 dokdaguri.[19]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Dialectal_diversity_in_Jeju_%22lizard%22.png/830px-Dialectal_diversity_in_Jeju_%22lizard%22.png" decoding="async" width="554" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Dialectal_diversity_in_Jeju_%22lizard%22.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1085" data-file-height="451" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">An east–west divide is salient in the Jeju words for "lizard". Eastern Seogwipo uses 장쿨레비 jangkullebi while western Seogwipo uses 독다구리 dokdaguri.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_S.2010271-21">[19]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 532px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 530px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dialectal_diversity_in_Jeju_%22crab%22.png" class="mw-file-description" title="A north–south divide is more noticeable in the Jeju words for "crab"."><img alt="A north–south divide is more noticeable in the Jeju words for "crab"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Dialectal_diversity_in_Jeju_%22crab%22.png/795px-Dialectal_diversity_in_Jeju_%22crab%22.png" decoding="async" width="530" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Dialectal_diversity_in_Jeju_%22crab%22.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1041" data-file-height="452" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A north–south divide is more noticeable in the Jeju words for "crab".</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-modern_history">Pre-modern history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pre-modern history">edit</a>]</div> The Koreanic languages are likely not native to Jeju Island; it has been proposed that the family has its roots in <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, a historical region in northeastern Asia. It is thought that Koreanic speakers migrated from southern Manchuria between the third and eighth centuries CE. Linguist <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vovin" title="Alexander Vovin">Alexander Vovin</a> suggests that the ancient kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a>, which ruled the island until the twelfth century, may have spoken a <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Japonic" title="Peninsular Japonic">Japonic</a> language that left a <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">substrate</a> influence on Jeju. When exactly this putative Japonic language may have been replaced by the Koreanic ancestor of Jeju remains unclear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2013236–237-22">[20]</a> During the late thirteenth century, Jeju Island came under direct Yuan administration, which lead to significant migration of Mongol soldiers to the island. Acting as a superstratum, their language contributed to the change of the local language. Yang Changyong, a linguist, speculates that Mongol influence played a significant role in the formation of Jejueo as a distinct language independent<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> from standard Korean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.20141–2-24">[22]</a> By the fifteenth century, when the invention of <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a> greatly improved the understanding of Korean phonology, Seoul Korean and Jeju were already divergent; the Seoul <a href="/wiki/Prestige_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Prestige dialect">prestige dialect</a> of fifteenth-century Middle Korean disallowed the diphthong /jʌ/, which Jeju allows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee_K.Ramsey2011159–160-25">[23]</a> Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century references to the language of Jeju by mainland Korean literati state that it was already unintelligible to mainland Koreans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady20196-26">[24]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kim_Sang-heon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kim Sang-heon (page does not exist)">Kim Sang-heon</a> (1570―1652), who from 1601 to 1602 served as the island's pacification commissioner,<a href="#cite_note-27">[c]</a> gives six words in the "provincial language" with clear cognates in modern Jeju and also writes:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.20142–4-28">[25]</a> <blockquote> 謫人申長齡乃譯官也嘗曰「比島語音酷以中華如驅牛馬之聲尤不可分辯云云盖風氣與華不隔而然耶曾爲元朝所據置官於此故與華相雜而然耶」... 所謂俚語者但高細不可曉 "The exiled man Shin Jangnyeong was originally a <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Interpreters#Interpreters" title="Bureau of Interpreters">government interpreter</a>. He said, 'The language of this island is most like Chinese, and the sounds they make while driving cattle and horses are yet more impossible to tell apart. Is this because the climate is not far from that of China, or because the Yuan dynasty once ruled and appointed officials here and the Chinese mingled with them?'... What is called the provincial language is but high and thin and cannot be understood." </blockquote> In 1629, the Korean government banned the emigration of Jeju Islanders to the mainland, further restricting linguistic contacts between Jeju and Korean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady20193-29">[26]</a> At the same time, the island was also used throughout the <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon</a> era (1392―1910) as a place of exile for disgraced <a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">scholar-officials</a>. These highly educated speakers of Seoul Korean often tutored the children of their Jeju neighbors during their exile and established a continuous and significant Seoul Korean superstratum in Jeju.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.20142–4-28">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_colonial_period_(1910–1945)">Japanese colonial period (1910–1945)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Japanese colonial period (1910–1945)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Korea under Japanese rule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_influence_on_Korean_culture" title="Japanese influence on Korean culture">Japanese influence on Korean culture</a></div> Under the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_rule_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese colonial rule of Korea">Japanese colonial rule</a>, Jejueo remained the dominating language in both public and private spheres on Jeju Island. However, with the entrance of Japanese loanwords to the lexicon, some speakers became <a href="/wiki/Monolingualism" title="Monolingualism">monolingual</a> Japanese speakers. Migration of Jeju Islanders to Japan began to skyrocket in 1911, with significant communities established, more so in cities like Osaka, becoming home to 38,000 Jeju Islanders by 1911. Despite gaining independence, citizens of Jeju and Korea still migrated to Japan, continuing to impact the linguistic landscape of Jeju Island as the younger generations within the <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diaspora</a> communities only spoke Japanese, leading the decline in fluency in Jejueo. <a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_period_and_decline_(1945–present)">Modern period and decline (1945–present)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modern period and decline (1945–present)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeju_Massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Jeju_Massacre.jpg/220px-Jeju_Massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Jeju_Massacre.jpg/330px-Jeju_Massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Jeju_Massacre.jpg/440px-Jeju_Massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="494" data-file-height="332" /></a><figcaption>Jeju inhabitants awaiting execution in late 1948</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jeju_uprising" title="Jeju uprising">Jeju uprising</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></div> Severe disruption to the Jeju language community began after the end of Japanese rule and World War II in 1945. <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea was divided</a> between an <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Military_Government_in_Korea" title="United States Army Military Government in Korea">American government in the South</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Civil_Administration" title="Soviet Civil Administration">Soviet government in the north</a>,<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> which were succeeded by South Korea and North Korea correspondingly in 1948. Popular opposition to the division and many other issues led to a rebellion on Jeju island on 3 April 1948. The <a href="/wiki/Syngman_Rhee" title="Syngman Rhee">Syngman Rhee</a> regime suppressed the rebellion with mass killings of civilians. As many as 60,000 Jeju Islanders, or a full fifth of the pre-rebellion population, were killed. 40,000 more fled to Japan. Out of the 400 villages of the island, only 170 remained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECummings2005219–221-32">[29]</a> The devastating impact of the massacres on the Jeju language community was exacerbated by the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. While Jeju was never occupied by the North Korean army, nearly 150,000 Korean-speaking refugees from the mainland fleeing North Korean invasion arrived in Jeju in the first year of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201912-33">[30]</a> The above events shattered the Jeju language's former dominance on the island,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201912-33">[30]</a> and Standard Korean began to displace Jeju in the public sphere by the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.20145–7-34">[31]</a> The 1970s <a href="/wiki/Saemaul_Undong" title="Saemaul Undong">Saemaeul Undong</a>, an ambitious rural modernization program launched by <a href="/wiki/Park_Chung_Hee" title="Park Chung Hee">Park Chung Hee</a>, disrupted the traditional village community where Jeju had thrived. The language came to be perceived as an incorrect dialect of Korean; students were even subject to corporal punishment if they used it in school.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrenzingerYang_C.2017-35">[32]</a> Standard Korean became more commonplace in private settings even outside of <a href="/wiki/Jeju_City" title="Jeju City">Jeju City</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.20147–8-36">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">language attitude</a> of native Jeju speakers in this period was self-disparaging, and even Jeju people regarded the use of Jeju "with contempt."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrenzingerYang_C.2017-35">[32]</a> A 1981 survey of language attitudes among high school and university students natively speaking Seoul Korean, <a href="/wiki/Chungcheong_dialect" title="Chungcheong dialect">Chungcheong Korean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeolla_dialect" title="Jeolla dialect">Southwestern Korean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gyeongsang_dialect" title="Gyeongsang dialect">Southeastern Korean</a>, and Jeju showed that Jeju speakers were the most likely among the five groups to ascribe negative traits to their native variety.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee_J.1981569–573-37">[34]</a> A 1992 study of <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a> by native Jeju speakers shows that Jeju was by then in an unfavorable <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossic</a> relationship with Korean, and was largely restricted to informal contexts even between Jeju natives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_Y.-h.199490–117-38">[35]</a> Within a primarily Jeju conversation, Standard Korean was used to emphasize the rationality or truth value of statements. Switching to Jeju in a primarily Standard Korean conversation signified that the speaker was making a subjective statement or being less serious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_Y.-h.1994117–139-39">[36]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Code-switching rules in early 1990s Jeju<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_Y.-h.1994115-40">[37]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Participants</th> <th>Formality</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Intimacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Intimacy">Intimacy</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Social status</a></th> <th>Preferred variety </th></tr> <tr> <td>Includes mainlander</td> <td colspan="3"></td> <td rowspan="3">Standard Korean </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">Only Jeju natives</td> <td>Formal</td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Informal</td> <td rowspan="2">Participants are not emotionally intimate</td> <td>Speaker is socially inferior to addressee </td></tr> <tr> <td>Speaker is socially superior to addressee</td> <td rowspan="2">Jeju / Jeju Korean </td></tr> <tr> <td>Participants are emotionally intimate</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> The same study notes that by 1992, even this variety restricted to the informal domain was usually a Korean dialect with a Jeju substratum, rather than the traditional Jeju language: <blockquote> 현재 상용되는 제주말의 경우, 표준말과의 차이가 과거에 비해 크게 줄어들고 있는 상황으로써 특히 어미활용에서 표준말과의 차이가 극대화되며, 다른 부분에서는 상대적으로 표준말과의 차이가 극소화된다는 점이다. 따라서 제주사람들은 과거 사용되던 토박이 말에 가까운 것은 '진한 (심한) 제주말'로, 현재 사용되는 제주말은 '옅은 제주말' 또는 '(표준어와) 섞어진 말'로 표현하는 등, 제주말과 표준말이 일종의 방언 연속체를 형성하는 것으로 인식하고 있다.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_Y.-h.199487–88-41">[38]</a> "As for the Jeju language [<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Jeju speech'] in general use nowadays [as of 1992], the situation is that its differences from Standard Korean are greatly diminishing compared to the past. Its greatest differences with Standard Korean [now] lie especially in the suffix paradigm, and in other areas the differences are being minimized. The Jeju people accordingly understand that Jeju and Standard Korean are in a form of <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>, and refer to the native language formerly in use as "thick (or intense) Jeju language" and the Jeju language currently in use as "light Jeju language" or "mixed (with Korean) language." </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_status_and_ongoing_endangerment">Current status and ongoing endangerment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Current status and ongoing endangerment">edit</a>]</div> Since 2010,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2010-42">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> has classified Jeju as a critically <a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">endangered language</a>, defined as one whose "youngest speakers are grandparents and older... [who] speak the language partially and infrequently."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2017-43">[40]</a> In 2018, the <a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Archive" title="Endangered Languages Archive">Endangered Languages Archive</a> at <a href="/wiki/SOAS_University_of_London" title="SOAS University of London">SOAS University of London</a> collected audio and video recordings of native Jeju speakers having everyday conversations, singing traditional songs, and performing rituals.<a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[7]</a> The official language of South Korea is Standard Korean. Nearly all residents of Jeju Island are bilingual in Standard Korean and Jeju, while many younger individuals are even more fluent in English than in Jeju. Standard Korean is most commonly used in the majority of public areas, while Jeju tends to be reserved for use at home and a few local markets.<a href="#cite_note-:2-44">[41]</a> All schools located on Jeju Island are required to teach Standard Korean and only offer Jeju as an <a href="/wiki/Course_(education)#Elective_and_required_courses" title="Course (education)">elective course</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-45">[42]</a> In addition, many Jeju Islander migrate to mainland Korea for a number of various reasons such as education, employment, and marriage contributing to decline of the Jejueo language.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> As a result, there are currently no monolingual speakers of Jeju.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The distinctive phonological, syntactic, and lexical features of the Jeju Island language, known as Jejueo or Jeju dialect, compared to Standard Korean, pose obstacles to effective communication. Phonological differences, such as variations in pitch accent and vowel distinctions, may lead to misunderstandings or difficulties in comprehension between Jeju natives and speakers of Standard Korean. Communication can also be made more difficult by syntactic variances, word order flexibility, and particle usage inconsistencies between Standard Korean and Jejueo. In contrast to the mainstream linguistic rules observed in mainland Korean, Jejueo maintains earlier grammatical structures and syntactic patterns that may lead to misunderstandings or confusion during conversations. As of 2018, fluent speakers in Jeju Island were all over seventy years of age, while <a href="/wiki/Passive_speaker_(language)" title="Passive speaker (language)">passive competence</a> was found in some people in their forties and fifties. Younger Islanders speak Korean with Jeju substrate influence<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrenzingerYang_C.2017-35">[32]</a> found in residual elements of the Jeju verbal paradigm and in select vocabulary such as kinship terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaltzman201425–26-47">[44]</a> The language is more vigorous in Osaka, where there may be fluent speakers born as late as the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> A 2008 survey of adult residents' knowledge of ninety Jeju cultural words showed that only twenty-one were understood by the majority of those surveyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_Y.-b.200816–18-49">[46]</a> Lack of <a href="/wiki/Heritage_language" title="Heritage language">heritage knowledge</a> of Jeju is even more severe among younger people. In 2010, 400 Jeju teenagers were surveyed for their knowledge of 120 basic Jeju vocabulary items, but only 19 words were recognized by the majority while 45 words were understood by less than 10%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_Y.-b.2010-50">[47]</a> A 2018 study suggests that even the verbal paradigm, among the more resilient parts of the substratum, may be in danger; the average middle schooler was more competent in the verb system of English, a language "taught only a few hours a week in school and in private tutoring institutions," than of Jeju.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_S.2018111–113-51">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_attitudes_towards_Jeju">Local attitudes towards Jeju</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Local attitudes towards Jeju">edit</a>]</div> Historically, the Jeju language was seen as impolite or uncultured. Jeju uses fewer honorifics and has four levels of politeness, in comparison to the seven levels in Standard Korean.<a href="#cite_note-:2-44">[41]</a> Because of the linguistic differences and cultural differences, Jeju Islanders were marginalized and excluded among mainland Koreans.<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> In a 2011 <a href="/wiki/The_Korea_Times" title="The Korea Times">Korea Times</a> article, a student said they believed the language was not respectful enough to use with professors, and that the Seoul dialect was more sophisticated. In addition, Jeju is often associated with the countryside, as the majority of speakers tend to have traditional occupations, including farming, fishing, and diving. As a result, many younger children express a disinterest in learning the language.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Improving_sentiment">Improving sentiment</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Improving sentiment">edit</a>]</div> However, recent surveys show improved sentiment towards the Jeju language. In a <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_the_Korean_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute of the Korean Language">National Institute of the Korean Language</a> survey in 2005, only 9.4% of Jeju Islanders were very proud of the regional variety. When the same survey was readministered in 2015, 36.8% were very proud of the language,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwakYou201944-54">[51]</a> and Jeju Islanders had become the most likely among South Korean dialect groups to have "very positive" opinions of the regional variety.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENIKL201598-55">[52]</a> In a 2017 study of 240 Jeju Islanders, 82.8% of those sampled considered Jeju to be "nice to listen to,"<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> and 74.9% hoped that their children would learn the language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_S.201923-57">[54]</a> But significant generational differences in attitudes were also observed. For instance, only 13.8% of Jeju Islanders between 20 and 40 much preferred Jeju over Standard Korean, while 49.1% of those above 80 did.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_S.201921–22-58">[55]</a> In a 2013 survey of Jeju natives, 77.9% agreed with the statement that "[the Jeju language] has to be passed down as part of Jeju culture."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019278–289-59">[56]</a> But a 2015 study of approximately 1,000 Jeju Islanders suggests that even though most Jeju Islanders believe the language to be an important part of the island's culture, the vast majority are skeptical of the language's long-term viability, and more people are unwilling than willing to actively participate in language preservation efforts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.2016152–154-60">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revitalization_efforts">Revitalization efforts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Revitalization efforts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeju_Language_Preservation_Society_Textbook_%22Hawndi_baeu-neun_Jeju-eo%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Jeju_Language_Preservation_Society_Textbook_%22Hawndi_baeu-neun_Jeju-eo%22.jpg/220px-Jeju_Language_Preservation_Society_Textbook_%22Hawndi_baeu-neun_Jeju-eo%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/be/Jeju_Language_Preservation_Society_Textbook_%22Hawndi_baeu-neun_Jeju-eo%22.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="266" data-file-height="373" /></a><figcaption>ᄒᆞᆫ디 배우는 제주어 Hawndi Baeu-neun Jeju-eo, an introductory textbook published by the Jeju Language Preservation Society<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_J.-e.2019-61">[58]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Revitalization efforts</a> have been ongoing. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Government_efforts">Government efforts</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Government efforts">edit</a>]</div> On 27 September 2007, the <a href="/wiki/Jeju_Province" title="Jeju Province">Jeju provincial</a> government promulgated the Language Act for the Preservation and Promotion of the Jeju Language,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019278-62">[59]</a> which established five-year plans for state-backed language preservation. The Act encouraged public schools on Jeju Island to offer Jeju as an extracurricular activity, as well as to incorporate the language as a part of regular classes if relevant and feasible.<a href="#cite_note-:3-45">[42]</a> In addition, multiple programs were provided for adults. For example, adult language programs are offered every year at the Jeju National University and are free of charge. There are also several local centres on Jeju Island that offer classes in Jeju Language specifically to marriage-based immigrants.<a href="#cite_note-:3-45">[42]</a> However, it was not until UNESCO's 2010 designation of Jeju as critically endangered that the provincial government became proactive in Jeju preservation efforts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeju_Province2019a492–493-63">[60]</a> In 2016, the provincial government allotted <a href="/wiki/South_Korean_won" title="South Korean won">₩</a>685,000,000 (US$565,592 in 2016) to revitalization programs,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeju_Province2019b312–313-64">[61]</a> and the government-funded <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_Research_Institute&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jeju Research Institute (page does not exist)">Jeju Research Institute</a> has compiled phrasebooks of the language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeju_Province2019a504–505-65">[62]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] The provincial Ministry of Education has also published Jeju textbooks for elementary and secondary schools, although some textbooks really teach Standard Korean interspersed with Jeju lexical items. Some public schools offer after-school programs for Jeju, but the short duration of these classes may be insufficient to promote more than "symbolic" use by students.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrenzingerYang_C.2017192-66">[63]</a> The linguistic competence of many teachers has also been challenged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_S.20147–8-67">[64]</a> On 12 August 2011, the Research Centre for Jeju Studies was opened with the purpose of implementing projects for the revitalization and safeguarding of Jeju Language.<a href="#cite_note-:4-68">[65]</a> The project encouraged the promotion of Jeju Language in schools by tasking the Education Bureau with several initiatives, including a training program for teachers. The project also started a radio broadcast in Jeju Language, as well as a radio campaign for Jeju slang and an annual Jeju Language festival.<a href="#cite_note-:4-68">[65]</a> An iPhone application was developed, including a glossary, as well as a collection of proverbs, poems, and quizzes in Jeju Language. Finally, an introductory conversation brochure was distributed to both citizens and visitors of Jeju Island.<a href="#cite_note-:4-68">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Popular_media_efforts">Popular media efforts</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Popular media efforts">edit</a>]</div> The Jeju Language Preservation Society,<a href="#cite_note-69">[d]</a> founded in December 2008, publishes a bimonthly Jeju-language magazine Deongdeureong-makke (덩드렁마께) and holds Jeju teaching programs and speaking contests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeju_Province2019a505–506-70">[66]</a> Children's books and a 2014 poetry anthology have also been published. Local bands and theater troupes have made Jeju-language performances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeju_Province2019a508–510-71">[67]</a> Regional newspapers such as the Jemin Ilbo and the Halla Ilbo include Jeju-language sections. Local branches of <a href="/wiki/Korean_Broadcasting_System" title="Korean Broadcasting System">KBS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Munhwa_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation">MBC</a> have launched Jeju radio programs and a television series.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeju_Province2019b507–508-72">[68]</a> Recent South Korean media with nationwide appeal, including the 2010 television series <a href="/wiki/Life_Is_Beautiful_(2010_TV_series)" title="Life Is Beautiful (2010 TV series)">Life is Beautiful</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Merchant" title="The Great Merchant">The Great Merchant</a>, the 2012 drama film <a href="/wiki/Jiseul" title="Jiseul">Jiseul</a>, and the 2015 television series <a href="/wiki/Warm_and_Cozy" title="Warm and Cozy">Warm and Cozy</a>, have also featured spoken Jeju.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeju_Province2019a508–510-71">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_differences">Cultural differences</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cultural differences">edit</a>]</div> In addition to the difference in language and dialect, Jeju Islanders and mainland Koreans share a number of cultural differences. The historical isolation and unique identity of Jeju Island, which have nourished a strong sense of regional pride and unity among Jeju inhabitants, are two significant cultural differences. Jeju Island's distinct cultural traditions, folk beliefs, and practices set it apart from the Korean mainland are a result of the island's geographic isolation. For example, Jeju's traditional women divers, or <a href="/wiki/Haenyeo" title="Haenyeo">haenyeo</a>, represent the ideals of resiliency, collaboration, and environmental care and represent the island's matriarchal legacy and collective spirit. Moreover, Jeju Island's tumultuous history, including the Jeju rebellion and subsequent mass killings, has left a profound impact on the collective memory and social identity of Jeju Islanders. The trauma and scars of historical events continue to resonate in the cultural consciousness, shaping perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors among Jeju natives. These experiences have contributed to a distinct sense of identity and solidarity among Jeju Islanders, often manifesting in cultural expressions, artistic forms, and community rituals that reflect resilience and resistance against oppression. Religious practices on Jeju Island encompass a diverse range of beliefs, including <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, each contributing to the island's rich religious heritage and spiritual landscape. These religious traditions intersect with cultural rituals and festivals, such as the annual Jeju Fire Festival and Seongsan Sunrise Festival, which celebrate Jeju's natural beauty, cultural heritage, and community solidarity.<a href="#cite_note-73">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Orthography">edit</a>]</div> Jeju has historically had no <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201922–23-74">[70]</a> Two recently devised standard <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthographies</a> are currently in use: a system created in 1991 by scholars of the Jeju Dialect Research Society,<a href="#cite_note-75">[e]</a> and a system promulgated by the provincial government in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_Y.-b.201812–14-76">[71]</a> Both systems use the Korean alphabet <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a> with one additional letter ㆍ, which was used in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Korean" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Korean">Early Modern Korean</a> scripts but is now defunct in written Korean. Similar to the modern Korean script, Jeju orthographies have <a href="/wiki/Morphophonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphophonemic">morphophonemic</a> tendencies, meaning that transcribing the underlying <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> generally takes precedence over the <a href="/wiki/Surface_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface form">surface form</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201922–23-74">[70]</a> The two orthographies differ largely because they are based on different morphological analyses of the language, especially of the verbal paradigm, as seen in the example below.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_Y.-b.201819–27-77">[72]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Orthography </th> <th colspan="3">Underlying morphemes </th> <th>Jeju word </th> <th>Necessary analysis </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#F2F2F2">Research Society orthography </td> <td width="10%"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">나끄-nakkeu-</div>나끄-nakkeu-"to fish"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td width="10%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">-엄시-eomsi<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr></div>-엄시-eomsiCONT<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td width="10%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">-민-min<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="conditional mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COND</abbr></div>-민-minCOND<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">나껌시민nakkeomsimin</div>나껌시민nakkeomsimin"if [he] is fishing"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Stem-final vowel -eu is lost before vowel-initial suffix </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#F2F2F2">Government orthography </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낚-nakk-</div>낚-nakk-"to fish"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">-어ᇝ-eoms<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr></div>-어ᇝ-eomsCONT<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">-민-min<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="conditional mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COND</abbr></div>-민-minCOND<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낚어ᇝ이민nakkeomsimin</div>낚어ᇝ이민nakkeomsimin"if [he] is fishing"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Conditional suffix -min requires <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthetical</a> vowel -i- after consonant </td></tr></tbody></table> This article will use the government's orthography where the two differ. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transliteration_or_romanization">Transliteration or romanization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Transliteration or romanization">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliteration</a> scheme generally used in Korean linguistics, including when transcribing Jeju, is the <a href="/wiki/Yale_Romanization_of_Korean" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale Romanization of Korean">Yale Romanization system</a>. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 instead uses a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised Romanization</a> system with the addition of the sequence aw for ㆍ /ɒ/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201915,_18-78">[73]</a> This article also uses Revised Romanization with the addition of aw, but without Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's one-to-one correspondence between Hangul glyphs and the Latin alphabet. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> The non-approximant consonants of Jeju correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology#Consonants" title="Korean phonology">nineteen non-approximant consonants of Standard Korean</a>, and Jeju displays the three-way contrast between <a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">stops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricates" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricates">affricates</a> characteristic of Modern Korean. Whether the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">voiced glottal fricative</a> /ɦ/, absent in Standard Korean, exists as a <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> in Jeju or merely as an allophone of /h/ remains disputed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201916–18-79">[74]</a> A 2000 acoustic and aerodynamic study of eight native Jeju speakers concludes that "the consonants of the two languages seem to be the same in every respect... the phonetic realization of all [Jeju] consonants are the same as those found in [Seoul] Korean."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECho_T.-h.JunLadefoged2000137-80">[75]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Consonant phonemes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant" title="Alveolo-palatal consonant">(Alveolo-)</a> <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> ㅁ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> ㄴ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> ㅇ<a href="#cite_note-81">[f]</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricate</a> </th> <th>lax </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> ㅂ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> ㄷ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a> ㅈ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> ㄱ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">tense</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">p͈</a> ㅃ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">t͈</a> ㄸ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">t͈ɕ</a> ㅉ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">k͈</a> ㄲ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>aspirated </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a> ㅍ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a> ㅌ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tɕʰ</a> ㅊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a> ㅋ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th>lax/aspirated </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> ㅅ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> ㅎ (<a href="/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">ɦ</a> ㅇ) </td></tr> <tr> <th>tense </th> <td> </td> <td>s͈ ㅆ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>~<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a> ㄹ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_approximant" title="Voiced velar approximant">ɰ</a>) </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consonantal_phonological_processes">Consonantal phonological processes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Consonantal phonological processes">edit</a>]</div> Jeju <a href="/wiki/Allophony" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophony">allophony</a> involves a number of <a href="/wiki/Phonological_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological process">phonological processes</a> also found in Seoul Korean. As in Korean, /l/ surfaces as [ɾ] intervocally. Also as in Korean, lax stops and affricates have fully voiced allophones in medial position, all <a href="/wiki/Obstruents" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstruents">obstruents</a> have <a href="/wiki/No_audible_release" title="No audible release">unreleased</a> allophones in final position, and syllable-final sibilants surface as [t̚].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201917,_24–25-82">[76]</a> Whether non-lax stops and affricates<a href="#cite_note-84">[g]</a> can appear in final position is controversial. The morphological analysis necessary for the government's orthography permits them, while the analysis behind the Jeju Language Research Society's orthography forbids them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a23-83">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_Y.-b.201823–25-85">[78]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="text-align: center;"> <th>Lax obstruent </th> <th>ㄱ g </th> <th>ㄷ d </th> <th>ㅅ s </th> <th>ㅈ j </th> <th>ㅂ b </th></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th>Initial allophone </th> <td>k~kʰ </td> <td>t~tʰ </td> <td>s </td> <td>tɕ~tɕʰ </td> <td>p~pʰ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th>Medial allophone </th> <td>ɡ </td> <td>d </td> <td>s~z </td> <td>dʑ </td> <td>b </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <th>Final allophone </th> <td>k̚ </td> <td colspan="3">t̚ </td> <td>p̚ </td></tr></tbody></table> Most <a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology#Consonant_assimilation" title="Korean phonology">non-morphophonological consonant assimilation rules of Standard Korean</a> are also found in Jeju. /s/ and /s͈/ are regularly <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalized</a> to [ʃ] before /i/ or /j/. Lax obstruents are tensed following another obstruent. /h/ aspirates both the preceding and the subsequent lax obstruent. A nasal consonant nasalizes a preceding obstruent<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201925–27-86">[79]</a> or /h/. /l/ becomes [n] following all consonants except itself or /n/, and this [n] can itself nasalize the preceding obstruent so that the underlying sequence /pl/ is realized as [mn]. On the other hand, underlying /ln/ and /nl/ both produce [ll].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a62–66-87">[80]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Non-morphophonological consonant allophony<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201925–27-86">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a62–75-88">[81]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Jeju word</th> <th>Underlying phonemes</th> <th>Realization</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td>심 "strength"</td> <td>/sim/</td> <td>[ʃim]</td> <td>Palatalization before high vowel /i/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>역불 "on purpose"</td> <td>/jəkpul/</td> <td>[jək̚p͈ul]</td> <td rowspan="2">Lax obstruent tensed after another obstruent </td></tr> <tr> <td>밧갈쉐 "ox"</td> <td>/paskalswe/</td> <td>[pat̚k͈alswe] </td></tr> <tr> <td>흡헬귀 "bloodsucker"</td> <td>/hɨphelkwi/</td> <td>[hɨpʰelɡwi]</td> <td>/h/ aspirates surrounding obstruents </td></tr> <tr> <td>돗늬 "pig's tooth"</td> <td>/tosn(ɰ)i/</td> <td>[tonni]</td> <td rowspan="3">Nasals nasalize preceding obstruent </td></tr> <tr> <td>녹낭 "camphor tree"</td> <td>/noknaŋ/</td> <td>[noŋnaŋ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>섭낭 "firewood"</td> <td>/səpnaŋ/</td> <td>[səmnaŋ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>멩랑 "cleverness"</td> <td>/meŋlaŋ/</td> <td>[meŋnaŋ]</td> <td rowspan="2">/l/ is realized as [n] after most consonants; underlying /l/ will nasalize preceding obstruent </td></tr> <tr> <td>섭력 "cooperation"</td> <td>/səpljək/</td> <td>[səmnjək̚] </td></tr> <tr> <td>칼ᄂᆞᆯ "blade"</td> <td>/kʰalnɒl/</td> <td>[kʰallɒl]</td> <td rowspan="2">/l/ assimilates both preceding and subsequent /n/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>곤란 "difficulty"</td> <td>/konlan/</td> <td>[kollan] </td></tr> </tbody></table> Jeju also has consonant allophones that appear only at <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> boundaries. Some of these are found in Standard Korean, such as the insertion of [n] before i- or j- at most word-internal morpheme boundaries; the palatalization of /t/ to [dʑ] before an affixal -i; and the tensing of obstruents following certain morpheme-final nasals. Other rules are absent in Standard Korean. For instance, a <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a>-final word or morpheme can trigger aspiration (for older speakers) or tensing (for younger speakers) in a subsequent lax consonant. In some cases this is due to <a href="#Underlying_consonant_clusters">an underlying consonant cluster</a>, but not all cases can be explained in this way. Other Jeju-specific processes include the doubling of a word-final consonant when followed by a vowel, glide, or /h/, and the <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenition</a> of /p/ to [w] at some word boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201927–31,_36-89">[82]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Consonant allophony at morpheme boundaries<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201927–36-90">[83]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Jeju word (morphemes hyphenated)</th> <th>Underlying phonemes</th> <th>Realization</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td>쏙입 ssog-ip "inner leaf"</td> <td>/s͈okip/</td> <td>[s͈oŋnip̚]</td> <td>n-insertion before /i/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ᄆᆞᆮ이 mawd-i "eldest child"</td> <td>/mɒti/</td> <td>[mɒdʑi]</td> <td>/t/ palatalized before /i/, voiced in medial position </td></tr> <tr> <td>검수다 keom-su-da "to be black" [honoring addressee]</td> <td>/kəmsuta/</td> <td>[kəms͈uda]</td> <td>Obstruent tensed after verb stem-final nasal </td></tr> <tr> <td>술벵 sul-beng "alcohol bottle"</td> <td>/sulpeŋ/</td> <td>[sulpʰeŋ]</td> <td rowspan="2">Aspiration after sonorant (for older speakers) </td></tr> <tr> <td>빵집 ppang-jip "bakery"</td> <td>/p͈aŋtɕip/</td> <td>[p͈aŋtɕʰip̚] </td></tr> <tr> <td>일월 il-weol "January"</td> <td>/ilwəl/</td> <td>[illwəl]</td> <td rowspan="2">Consonant doubling </td></tr> <tr> <td>지집아이 jijib-ai "girl"</td> <td>/tɕitɕipai/</td> <td>[tɕidʑip̚p͈ai] </td></tr> <tr> <td>대왓 (from 대+밧 dae-bat) "bamboo field"</td> <td>/tæpat/</td> <td>[tæwat̚]</td> <td>Lenition of /p/ </td></tr> </tbody></table> Verbal conjugation can also lead to consonantal changes. Verb stem-final /l/ and /h/ are lost before /n/. In the case of verb stems ending in -d, -p. -s, and -k, the final consonants are always preserved in so-called regular verbs, but in irregular verbs, -d and -p are <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenited</a> to [ɾ] and [u~w] respectively while -s and -k are lost when followed by a vowel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a170–179,_182–189-91">[84]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Final-consonant allomorphy in irregular verbs<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a170–179,_182–189-91">[84]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Underlying morphemes</th> <th>Surface realization</th> <th>Regular verb </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">ᄃᆞᆮ- dawd- "to run"</td> <td>-곡 -gok <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="connective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONN</abbr></td> <td>ᄃᆞᆮ곡 dawt-gok "runs, and"</td> <td>받곡 bat-gok "receives, and" </td></tr> <tr> <td>-아 -a <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></td> <td>ᄃᆞᆯ아 dawr-a "runs"</td> <td>받아 bad-a "receives" </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">빕- bib- "to pour"</td> <td>-곡 -gok <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="connective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONN</abbr></td> <td>빕곡 bip-gok "pours, and"</td> <td>입곡 ip-gok "wears, and" </td></tr> <tr> <td>-어 -eo <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></td> <td>비워 biw-eo "pours"</td> <td>입어 ib-eo "wears" </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">짓- jis- "to compose writing"</td> <td>-곡 -gok <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="connective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONN</abbr></td> <td>짓곡 jit-gok "composes writing, and"</td> <td>짓곡 jit-gok "builds, and" </td></tr> <tr> <td>-어 -eo <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></td> <td>지어 ji-eo "composes writing"</td> <td>짓어 jis-eo "builds" </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">눅- nug- "to lie down"<a href="#cite_note-92">[h]</a></td> <td>-곡 -gok <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="connective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONN</abbr></td> <td>눅곡 nuk-gok "lies down, and"</td> <td>먹곡 meok-gok "eats, and" </td></tr> <tr> <td>-어 -eo <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></td> <td>누어 nu-eo "lies down"</td> <td>먹어 meog-eo "eats" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Underlying_consonant_clusters">Underlying consonant clusters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Underlying consonant clusters">edit</a>]</div> While not permitted in the surface representation of Jeju, morpheme-final <a href="/wiki/Consonant_clusters" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonant clusters">consonant clusters</a> can exist in the underlying form. Many cases of post-sonorant aspiration involve morphemes whose <a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a> cognates feature a final -h, suggesting that an underlying final -h after the sonorant should be posited in Jeju as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201929–30-93">[85]</a> Besides these h-final clusters, Jeju permits a number of other final consonant clusters, including -lk, -lm, -mk~ŋk, -sk,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a23-83">[77]</a> and (in the analysis of the government's orthography) -ms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_Y.-b.201825–27-94">[86]</a> These clusters surface as a single consonant in isolation or before a consonant, but are fully realized when followed by a vowel. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Realization of final consonant clusters<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019122-95">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a41–42,_46–48,_66–68-96">[88]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Underlying form</th> <th>Realization in isolation/before consonant</th> <th>Realization before vowel </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄇᆞᆰ-/pɒlk/</div>ᄇᆞᆰ-/pɒlk/"to be bright"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄇᆞᆰ고[pɒk̚k͈o]</div>ᄇᆞᆰ고[pɒk̚k͈o]<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄇᆞᆰ언[pɒlɡən]</div>ᄇᆞᆰ언[pɒlɡən]<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">삶/salm/</div>삶/salm/"life"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">삶[sam]</div>삶[sam]<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">삶이[salmi]</div>삶이[salmi]<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">나ᇚ/namk</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">~~</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">나ᇬnaŋk</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">~~</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낭naŋ/</div>나ᇚ ~ 나ᇬ ~ 낭/namk ~ naŋk ~ naŋ/"tree"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">남[nam</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">~~</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낭naŋ]</div>남 ~ 낭[nam ~ naŋ]<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">남기[namɡi</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">~~</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낭기naŋɡi</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">~~</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낭이naŋi]</div>남기 ~ 낭기 ~ 낭이[namɡi ~ naŋɡi ~ naŋi]<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">-어ᇝ/əms/<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr></div>-어ᇝ/əms/CONT<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">데껴ᇝ가[tek͈jəmɡa]</div>데껴ᇝ가[tek͈jəmɡa]<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">데꼄서[tek͈jəmsə]</div>데꼄서[tek͈jəmsə]<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">바ᇧ/pask/</div>바ᇧ/pask/"outside"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">바ᇧ[pat̚]</div>바ᇧ[pat̚]<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">밧기[pat̚k͈i]</div>밧기[pat̚k͈i]<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> Jeju traditionally has a nine-vowel system: the <a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology#Vowels" title="Korean phonology">eight vowels of Korean</a> with the addition of ㆍ /ɒ/,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201918–19-97">[89]</a> a Middle Korean phoneme lost in Seoul in the eighteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee_K.Ramsey2011262–264-98">[90]</a> The Jeju-do dialect is known to exhibit more conservative vowel sounds preserving older vowel distinctions, compared to standard Korean. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Vowel phonemes<a href="#cite_note-99">[i]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td style="border-right: 0;">ㅣ i</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">/<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>/ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">ㅡ eu</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">/<a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a>/ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">ㅜ u</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td style="border-right: 0;">ㅔ e</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>/ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">ㅓ eo</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">/<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>/ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">ㅗ o</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td style="border-right: 0;">ㅐ ae</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">/<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a>/ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">ㅏ a</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">/<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>/ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">ㆍ aw</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">/<a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a>/ </td></tr> </tbody></table> The phonemic identity of ㆍ is controversial,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201918–19-97">[89]</a> but native speakers most commonly realize the phoneme as [ɔ].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_W.2004-100">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.Oh_C.Kim_W.Shin_W.201565–66-101">[92]</a> /æ/ and /e/ are only distinguished in the initial syllable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.Oh_C.Kim_W.Shin_W.201566–69-102">[93]</a> Among younger and less fluent speakers, /æ/ and /ɒ/ have both <a href="/wiki/Raising_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Raising (phonetics)">raised</a> to /e/ and /o/ or /ə/<a href="#cite_note-104">[j]</a> respectively, resulting in a seven-vowel system identical to the vowel inventory of Seoul Korean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.2008-103">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201919–20-105">[95]</a> The raising of Jeju /æ/ occurred before the raising of /ɒ/,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.200865-106">[96]</a> and may have predated Standard Korean's ongoing merger of /æ/ and /e/. The subsequent loss of /ɒ/ may have been motivated by a language-internal desire for symmetry in the vowel system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECho_T.-h.JunJungLadefoged200010-107">[97]</a> On the other hand, the vowel mergers are accelerated among Jeju speakers living in coastal communities more exposed to Standard Korean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShin_W.Shin_J.201283–87-108">[98]</a> Jeju has two or three <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">glides</a>: /j/, /w/, and possibly /ɰ/. /j/ can occur with all vowels except /i/ and /ɨ/. /jæ/ and /je/ have merged even among speakers who distinguish the <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.Oh_C.Kim_W.Shin_W.201582–83-109">[99]</a> and many speakers who retain /ɒ/ also merge /jɒ/ with /jə/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.Oh_C.Kim_W.Shin_W.201580,_90-110">[100]</a> /w/ cannot occur with the three back vowels or with /ɨ/. /ɰ/ occurs only with /i/, and the resulting diphthong /ɰi/ is generally realized as [ɨ] word-initially and [i] otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_W.2005-111">[101]</a> Glide-vowel sequences may be analyzed as <a href="/wiki/Diphthongs" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphthongs">diphthongs</a>, with the phonemic identities of [j], [w], and [ɰ] being /i/, /o~u/, and /ɨ/ respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a49-112">[102]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></th> <th colspan="3">Example<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201920–21-113">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a84-114">[104]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>/je/</td> <td>ㅖ, ㅒ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">예숙제낄락 yesukjekkillak</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"quiz; riddle" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ja/</td> <td>ㅑ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">야개기 yagaegi</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"neck" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/jo/</td> <td>ㅛ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">요레 yore</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"here; this place" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ju/</td> <td>ㅠ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">유ᄒᆞᆨ yuhawk</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"Confucianism" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/jə/</td> <td>ㅕ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">역ᄉᆞ yeoksaw</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"history" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/jɒ/</td> <td>ᆢ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">ᄋᆢ라 yawra</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"several" </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td>/wi/</td> <td>ㅟ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">위염 wiyeom</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"danger" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/we/</td> <td>ㅞ, ㅙ, ㅚ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">웬착 wenchak</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"left side" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/wa/</td> <td>ㅘ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">와리다 warida</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"to be in a hurry" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/wə/</td> <td>ㅝ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">월력 weollyeok</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"calendar" </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td>/ɰi/</td> <td>ㅢ </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">의남 uinam~eunam</td> <td style="border-left: 0;">"fog" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowel_phonological_processes">Vowel phonological processes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Vowel phonological processes">edit</a>]</div> Several phonological processes affect the surface realization of Jeju vowels. In one process shared with Standard Korean, a bisyllabic vowel sequence may be contracted to a monosyllabic polyphthong.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201928-115">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a96–97-116">[106]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>English</th> <th>Uncontracted Jeju form</th> <th>Contracted Jeju form </th></tr> <tr> <td>"it was caught"</td> <td>젭히엇저 jepieotjeo</td> <td>젭혓저 jepyeotjeo </td></tr> <tr> <td>"cucumber"</td> <td>오이 oi</td> <td>웨 we </td></tr></tbody></table> Vowel-affecting processes are particularly numerous in the verbal paradigm. Verb stem-final -eu is lost before a vowel-initial suffix.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a106–108-117">[107]</a> Similar to Standard Korean, a stem-final -i diphthongizes a subsequent vowel by inserting the <a href="/wiki/Onglide" title="Onglide">onglide</a> [j]. Unlike in its sister language, Jeju j-insertion may occur even with an intervening consonant,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a94–95-118">[108]</a> and between a verb stem ending in -e, -ae, or -aw and a suffix with initial eo-.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201934-119">[109]</a> Many of Jeju's consonant-initial verbal suffixes take an initial <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthetic</a> vowel if the previous morpheme ends with a consonant.<a href="#cite_note-121">[k]</a> The default epenthetic vowel is -으- -eu- /ɨ/, but the vowel surfaces as -이- -i- [i] following a sibilant and as -우- -u- [u] following an underlying labial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201935–36-122">[111]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Vowel shifts in conjugated verbs<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201934–36-123">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a94–97,_106–108-124">[113]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>English</th> <th colspan="3">Underlying morphemes</th> <th>Surface realization </th></tr> <tr> <td>"is sad, and"</td> <td>슬프- seulpeu- "to be sad"</td> <td colspan="2">-엉 -eong <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="connective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONN</abbr></td> <td>슬펑 seulp-eong </td></tr> <tr> <td>"rests, and"</td> <td>쉬- swi- "to rest"</td> <td colspan="2">-엉 -eong <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="connective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONN</abbr></td> <td>쉬영 swi-yeong </td></tr> <tr> <td>"was fast"</td> <td>제- je- "to be fast"</td> <td>-엇 -eos <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></td> <td>-어 -eo <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></td> <td>제엿어 je-yeos-eo </td></tr> <tr> <td>"mixed with water"</td> <td>개- gae- "to mix with water"</td> <td>-엇 -eos <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></td> <td>-어 -eo <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></td> <td>개엿어 gae-yeos-eo </td></tr> <tr> <td>"did"</td> <td>ᄒᆞ haw- "to do"</td> <td>-엇 -eos <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></td> <td>-어 -eo <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></td> <td>ᄒᆞ엿어 haw-yeos-eo </td></tr> <tr> <td>"if [it] burns"</td> <td>카- ka- "to burn"</td> <td rowspan="4" colspan="2">-민 -min <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="conditional mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COND</abbr></td> <td>카민 ka-min </td></tr> <tr> <td>"if [he] believes"</td> <td>믿- mid- "to believe"</td> <td>믿으민 mid-eumin </td></tr> <tr> <td>"if [it] is bad"</td> <td>줏- jus- "to pick"</td> <td>줏이민 jus-imin </td></tr> <tr> <td>"if [he] puts in the soup"</td> <td>ᄌᆞᆷ- jawm- "to put into soup"</td> <td>ᄌᆞᆷ우민 jawm-umin </td></tr></tbody></table> Like Standard Korean but unlike Middle Korean, <a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology#Vowel_harmony" title="Korean phonology">Koreanic vowel harmony</a> is no longer generally applicable in all native morphemes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.199710–15,_22–27-125">[114]</a> but remains productive in <a href="/wiki/Sound_symbolism" title="Sound symbolism">sound symbolism</a> and certain verbal suffixes. Jeju has two harmonic classes, <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a>. The neutral vowel /i/ can occur with either class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a49-112">[102]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Harmonic class</th> <th colspan="4">Vowel correspondences</th> <th>Sound symbolism </th></tr> <tr> <td>Yin</td> <td>ə</td> <td>u</td> <td>e</td> <td>ɨ</td> <td>Dark; heavy; dull; negative </td></tr> <tr> <td>Yang</td> <td>a</td> <td>o</td> <td>æ</td> <td>ɒ</td> <td>Bright; light; sharp; positive </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neutral</td> <td colspan="4"><div class="center">i</div></td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr></tbody></table> For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a> marker -엇 -eos takes the vowel harmonic <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" title="Allomorph">allomorph</a> -앗 -as after verb stems whose (final) vowel is yang:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201932-126">[115]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Yin-class allomorph</th> <th>Yang-class allomorph </th></tr> <tr> <td>먹엇어 meog-eos-eo "ate"</td> <td>갈앗어 gar-as-eo "plowed" </td></tr> <tr> <td>궂엇어 guj-eos-eo "was bad"</td> <td>곱앗어 gob-as-eo "hid" </td></tr> <tr> <td>긋엇어 geus-eos-eo "drew a line"</td> <td>ᄃᆞᆯ앗어 dawr-as-eo "ran" </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><div class="center"> 싯엇어 sis-eos-eo "washed" </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> In certain cases, suffix allomorphs do not match the harmonic class of the previous vowel. Verb stems with final vowel /u/ or /ɨ/ take the yang allomorph if their Middle Korean forms were /ɒ/, thus conserving their original harmonic class while violating their current one. Disyllabic stems that end in -u also take the yang allomorph, but monosyllabic -u stems or disyllabic -uC stems do not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.199742–43-127">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Phonotactics">edit</a>]</div> Jeju syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C) with G being a glide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201921-128">[117]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Syllable structure</th> <th>Jeju<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDictionary2009-129">[118]</a></th> <th>IPA </th></tr> <tr> <td>V</td> <td>이 i "this"</td> <td>[i] </td></tr> <tr> <td>CV</td> <td>따 tta "earth"</td> <td>[t͈a] </td></tr> <tr> <td>GV (or VV)</td> <td>웨 we "cause; principle"</td> <td>[we] </td></tr> <tr> <td>CGV (or CVV)</td> <td>쉬 swi "filling" [for dumplings, etc.]</td> <td>[swi] </td></tr> <tr> <td>VC</td> <td>알 al "egg"</td> <td>[al] </td></tr> <tr> <td>CVC</td> <td>ᄀᆞᆺ kawt "edge"</td> <td>[kɔt̚] </td></tr> <tr> <td>GVC (or VVC)</td> <td>윳 yut "neighbor"</td> <td>[jut̚] </td></tr> <tr> <td>CGVC (or CVVC)</td> <td>광 kwang "lunatic"</td> <td>[kwaŋ] </td></tr></tbody></table> As in Standard Korean, ng- /ŋ/ cannot occur syllable-initially, and l- /l/ does not occur word-initially in native words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201917–18-130">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosody">Prosody</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Prosody">edit</a>]</div> Jeju does not have phonemic <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel length</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>. Its <a href="/wiki/Phonological_hierarchy" title="Phonological hierarchy">phonological hierarchy</a> is characterized by accentual phrases similar to those of Standard Korean, with a basic Low-High-Low-High tonal pattern varying according to <a href="/wiki/Sentence_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentence type">sentence type</a>, but there are also important differences in the two languages' prosody.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201921–22-131">[120]</a> Jeju has a weaker tonal distinction within the first half of the accentual phrase than Seoul Korean does, while its aspirate consonants do not produce as significant a high pitch as their Seoul equivalents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee_S.2014-132">[121]</a> Jeju uses more <a href="/wiki/Tone_contour" title="Tone contour">contour tones</a>, where the pitch shifts within a single syllable, than Seoul Korean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShin_W.2015-133">[122]</a> Unlike in Seoul Korean, older and fluent speakers of Jeju will also lengthen the final vowel of both clauses in <a href="/wiki/Alternative_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternative question">alternative questions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_M.Kim_W.Byun_G.Kim_Jo.-h.200737–38-134">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> <div style="display:none;"> ORD: ordinal numeral INTR: interrogative MED: medial demonstrative SE: sentence ender CE: canonical ending REP : reportive NPST: nonpast </div> Jeju is <a href="/wiki/Morphological_typology" title="Morphological typology">typologically</a> similar to Korean, both being <a href="/wiki/Head-final" class="mw-redirect" title="Head-final">head-final</a> <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinative">agglutinative</a> languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015345,_''passim''-135">[124]</a> However, the two languages show significant differences in the verbal paradigm, such as Jeju's use of a dedicated conditional suffix.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201911-136">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Nouns">edit</a>]</div> Jeju nouns may be a single <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compound</a> of multiple nouns, or a base noun with a merged attributive verb, or form through <a href="/wiki/Morphological_derivation" title="Morphological derivation">derivational</a> affixes attached to nouns or verb stems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201937,_42–45-137">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.201545–63-138">[127]</a> In compound nouns that include a native morpheme, the phoneme -s- may intervene between the two elements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a87–88,_240–241-139">[128]</a> Because this "in-between s" appears only after a vowel and before a consonant, it is never realized as [s] but almost always surfaces as [t̚].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201948–49-140">[129]</a> <ul><li>Single-morpheme noun: 쉐 swe "cattle"</li> <li>Noun compound:</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">쉐swe"cattle"</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">+  </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">궤기gwegi"meat"</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">→  </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">쉐궤기swe-gwegi"beef"</div>쉐 + 궤기 → 쉐궤기swe {} gwegi {} swe-gwegi"cattle" {} "meat" {} "beef"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>Noun compound with -s-:</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">다리dari"leg"</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">+  </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">빙bing"illness"</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">→  </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">다릿빙dari-t-bing"leg illness"</div>다리 + 빙 → 다릿빙dari {} bing {} dari-t-bing"leg" {} "illness" {} {"leg illness"}<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>Noun with merged attributive verb:</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">앚-aj-"to sit"</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">+  </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">일il"work"</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">→  </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">앚인일aj-in-il"work done while sitting"</div>앚- + 일 → 앚인일aj- {} il {} aj-in-il{"to sit"} {} "work" {} {"work done while sitting"}<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>Noun derived from noun through affix:</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄌᆞᆷjawm"sleep"</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">→  </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄌᆞᆷ주시jawm-jusi"sleepyhead"</div>ᄌᆞᆷ → ᄌᆞᆷ주시jawm {} jawm-jusi"sleep" {} "sleepyhead"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>Noun derived from verb through affix:</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">먹-meog-"to eat"</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">→  </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">먹쉬meog-swi"glutton"</div>먹- → 먹쉬meog- {} meog-swi{"to eat"} {} "glutton"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal noun</a>:</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄃᆞᆺ-daws-"to be warm"</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">→  </div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄃᆞᆺ임daws-im"warmth"</div>ᄃᆞᆺ- → ᄃᆞᆺ임daws- {} daws-im{"to be warm"} {} "warmth"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> (Examples from Yang C., Yang S, and O'Grady 2019 and Ko J. 2011a<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201937,_42–45-137">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.201545–63-138">[127]</a>) Some Jeju nouns are bound nouns, meaning that they cannot appear independently without a noun phrase.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201945–46-141">[130]</a> The example below features the bound noun 침 chim "worth" accompanied by the obligatory attributive verb. <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">볼bo-lsee-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="future tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FUT</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="attributive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ATTR</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">침chimworth</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">읏저eus-jeonot.be-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="declarative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEC</abbr></div>볼 침 읏저bo-l chim eus-jeosee-FUT.ATTR worth not.be-DEC"hardly worth seeing"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201946-142">[131]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </blockquote> Jeju has two suffixing plural markers, which are obligatory for plural nouns accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Determiners" class="mw-redirect" title="Determiners">determiners</a> and optional otherwise. The plural marker -덜 -deol can occur with all nouns and pronouns. The marker -네 -ne is restricted for humans and pronouns, and can also have an associative meaning: e.g. 만수네 Mansu-ne "Mansu and his family" (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Mansu and his associates'). The combined sequence -네덜 -ne-deol is sometimes also used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201946–48-143">[132]</a> Nouns accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">numerals</a> usually take a variety of <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classifiers</a>, such as 재 jae for counting trees and 곡지 gokji for counting songs. Classifiers for <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_numeral" title="Cardinal numeral">cardinals</a> are unmarked, but those for <a href="/wiki/Ordinal_numeral" title="Ordinal numeral">ordinals</a> are followed by the ordinal-marking 체 che.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201974–78-144">[133]</a> <blockquote> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낭nangtree</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄒᆞᆫhawnone</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">재jae<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div>낭 ᄒᆞᆫ 재nang hawn jaetree one CLF"one tree"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낭nangtree</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">두dutwo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">재jae<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CLF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">체che<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ordinal numeral" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ORD</abbr></div>낭 두 재 체nang du jae chetree two CLF ORD"the second tree"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noun_particles">Noun particles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Noun particles">edit</a>]</div> Jeju marks <a href="/wiki/Noun_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun case">noun case</a> and other semantic relations through suffixing <a href="/wiki/Noun_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun particles">noun particles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201950,_57-145">[134]</a> Particles that mark the nominative, accusative, and genitive cases are very frequently omitted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a373-146">[135]</a> The table below is not exhaustive and lists only some of the most significant particles. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Function</th> <th style="width: 10%">Particle<a href="#cite_note-147">[l]</a></th> <th style="width: 20%"><a href="/wiki/Allomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Allomorphy">Allomorphy</a> and variants</th> <th>Example</th> <th style="width: 33%">Usage notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201950–52-148">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.201537–39-149">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[m]</a> </td> <td><div class="center">이 -i</div> </td> <td>After vowel: 가 -ga </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">할망이halmang-i</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞᆯ안야?gawr-an-ya</div>할망이 ᄀᆞᆯ안야?halmang-i gawr-an-ya"Did grandmother say that?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Does not appear in the <a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar#Copulative_and_existential_verbs" title="Korean grammar">complement</a>, unlike in Standard Korean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a142-151">[138]</a> Cannot be topicalized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.201537–39-149">[137]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Accusative</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201953-152">[139]</a> </td> <td><div class="center">을 -(eu)l</div> </td> <td>Rare, formal post-vowel form: 를 -reul </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">시리레siri-re</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞ를gawreu-l</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">담으라.dam-eura</div>시리레 ᄀᆞ를 담으라.siri-re gawreu-l dam-eura"Put the flour into the steamer."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Unlike in Korean, can be followed by other particles, e.g. 늘광 neu-l-gwang <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="comitative case ('together with')" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COM</abbr> "with you".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.201539–42-153">[140]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201949,_53-154">[141]</a> </td> <td><div class="center">이/의 -i</div> </td> <td rowspan="4" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">집이jib-i</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">밧은bas-eun</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">어듸eodui</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">잇어?is-eo</div>집이 밧은 어듸 잇어?jib-i bas-eun eodui is-eo"Where is your family's field?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>-i is rare, but required when the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> begins with an adnominal clause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.201565-155">[142]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">ㅅ -s</div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">산san</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">읫ui-t</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낭nang</div>산 읫 낭san ui-t nang"the trees on the mountain"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Called "pseudo-genitive" in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201948-156">[143]</a> Appears in certain compounds, as mentioned above. May also follow a locative marker to attribute a noun. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201954–55-157">[144]</a> </td> <td><div class="center">ᄀᆞ라 -gawra</div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가의ᄀᆞ라gaui-gawra</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">공븨ᄒᆞ렌gongbui-haw-ren</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄒᆞᆸ서.haw-b-seo</div>가의ᄀᆞ라 공븨ᄒᆞ렌 ᄒᆞᆸ서.gaui-gawra gongbui-haw-ren haw-b-seo"Please tell him to study."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Restricted to human addressees of verbs of speaking. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">신디 -sindi</div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">그geu</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">사름신디sareum-sindi</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞᆯ읍디가?gawr-eup-di-ga</div>그 사름신디 ᄀᆞᆯ읍디가?geu sareum-sindi gawr-eup-di-ga"Did you talk to that person?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td rowspan="3">May be used with the verb 싯다 sitda "to exist" to form possessive constructions, with the dative marking the possessor. May also be suffixed with the <a href="/wiki/Allative" class="mw-redirect" title="Allative">allative</a> particle -re to give further emphasis and a connotation of movement, or with the locative particle -seo to express an <a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a> meaning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201961-158">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.Kim_W.201766–68-159">[146]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">안티 -anti</div> </td> <td>Due to interference from Korean cognate 한테 -hante: 한티 -hanti, 안테 -ante<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaltzman201455–56-160">[147]</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">느안티neu-anti</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">주마.ju-ma</div>느안티 주마.neu-anti ju-ma"I will give [it] to you."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">아피 -api</div> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">누게아피nuge-api</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">줍디가?ju-p-di-ga</div>누게아피 줍디가?nuge-api ju-p-di-ga"To whom did you give [it]?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Topic_marker" title="Topic marker">Topic-marking</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201955–57-161">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.200275–76-162">[149]</a> </td> <td><div class="center">은 -(eu)n</div> </td> <td>Rarely, after vowel: 는 -neun </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">오널은oneor-eun</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">궹일날이우다.gwengilnal-i-u-da</div>오널은 궹일날이우다.oneor-eun gwengilnal-i-u-da"Today is Sunday."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Either introduces a new topic or establishes a contrast. Must have a contrastive meaning sentence-internally. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">(이)랑 -(i)rang<a href="#cite_note-SegmentLoss-163">[n]</a></div> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">하르방이랑hareubang-irang</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">저레jeo-re</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">앚입서.aj-ib-seo</div>하르방이랑 저레 앚입서.hareubang-irang jeo-re aj-ib-seo"Grandfather [and not anyone else], sit there."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2">Contrastive meaning only. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">(이)라근 -(i)rageun<a href="#cite_note-SegmentLoss-163">[n]</a></div> </td> <td>Also used: (이)라근에 -(i)rageune </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">느라근neu-rageun</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">집이jib-i</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가라.ga-ra.</div>느라근 집이 가라.neu-rageun jib-i ga-ra."You [and not anyone else], go home."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Location-related</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201957–60-164">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.201542–47-165">[151]</a> </td> <td><div class="center">이/의 -i</div> </td> <td>After -i and possibly -l: 에 -e Occasionally after any vowel: 예 -ye </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">성seong</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">바당의badang-i</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">셔?sy-eo</div>성 바당의 셔?seong badang-i sy-eo"Is my older sibling at the sea?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Refers to location for <a href="/wiki/Stative_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Stative verbs">stative verbs</a> and direction for <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic verbs">dynamic verbs</a>; may also refer to time. According to Kim Jee-hong 2015, -(y)e is not an allomorph but a different locative morpheme used for clearly <a href="/wiki/Boundedness_(linguistics)" title="Boundedness (linguistics)">bounded</a> spaces, such as tables or containers. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">(이)서/(의)서 -(i)seo</div></td> <td>Post-vowel form -seo sometimes occurs after consonant. </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄒᆞᆨ게서hawkge-seo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">공븨ᄒᆞ게.gongbui-haw-ge</div>ᄒᆞᆨ게서 공븨ᄒᆞ게.hawkge-seo gongbui-haw-ge"Let's study at school."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Refers to location for action verbs. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">디, 디서 -di, -diseo</div> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">밧디bat-di</div>밧디bat-di"In the field"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Variants of -i, -iseo used to emphasize the boundedness of the referent. Analyzed by Yang S., Yang C., and O'Grady 2019 not as a separate morpheme but as a bound noun meaning "place," juxtaposed with the locational noun. </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">(드)레 -(deu)re<a href="#cite_note-SegmentLoss-163">[n]</a></div> </td> <td>After liquid consonant -l and sometimes after vowel: 르레/러레 -leure/leore Initial syllable deu- also found as deo-, teu-, ti-, di-, de-, or ri- </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">이착드레i-chak-deure</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">비와불라.biw-a-bul-la</div>이착드레 비와불라.i-chak-deure biw-a-bul-la"Pour [it] to this side."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Denotes direction of movement, like English "to; into; toward." Moon S. and Kim W. 2017 analyzes 레 -re and 드레 -deure as distinct particles, with -re having a solely directional meaning while -deure simultaneously emphasizes both the direction and the location of the direction's destination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.Kim_W.201764–65-166">[152]</a> Most sources treat the two as allomorphs, especially when appended to nouns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201957-167">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a147-168">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.2015110-169">[155]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Comitative_case" title="Comitative case">Comitative</a> and conjunctive<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201963-170">[156]</a> </td> <td><div class="center">(이)영 -(i)yeong</div> </td> <td rowspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가읜gaui-n</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">어멍이영eomeong-iyeong</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄉᆞ답ᄒᆞ염ㅅ우게.sawdab-haw-yeoms-u-ge</div>가읜 어멍이영 ᄉᆞ답ᄒᆞ염ㅅ우게.gaui-n eomeong-iyeong sawdab-haw-yeoms-u-ge"S/he is doing the laundry with his/her mom."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td rowspan="3">Kim Jee-hong 2015 notes: <blockquote>"These case markers only have differences of connotation, and may be interchangeably used without the least change in meaning."<a href="#cite_note-171">[157]</a> </blockquote> Like in Middle Korean but unlike in Modern Seoul Korean, comitative markers may occur on the final element being linked and also take other case markers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.201562-172">[158]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">책광chaek-gwangbook-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="comitative case ('together with')" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COM</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가방광을gabang-gwang-eulbag-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="comitative case ('together with')" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COM</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">주다ju-dagive-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>책광 가방광을 주다chaek-gwang gabang-gwang-eul ju-dabook-COM bag-COM-ACC give-SE"Give books and bags"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">왕/광 -(g)wang<a href="#cite_note-173">[o]</a></div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">지슬광jiseul-gwang</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄃᆞᆨ세기dawksegi</div>지슬광 ᄃᆞᆨ세기jiseul-gwang dawksegi"potatoes and eggs"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div class="center">ᄒᆞ곡 -hawgok</div> </td> <td>Also used: ᄒᆞ고 -hawgo </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낭ᄒᆞ고nang-hawgok</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">고장gojang</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄒᆞᄊᆞᆯhawsseul</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">싱그라.singgeu-ra</div>낭ᄒᆞ고 고장 ᄒᆞᄊᆞᆯ 싱그라.nang-hawgok gojang hawsseul singgeu-ra"Please plant some trees and flowers."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Verbs">edit</a>]</div> The Jeju verb consists of a root that is followed by suffixes that provide grammatical information such as <a href="/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" title="Voice (grammar)">voice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">tense, aspect, mood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">evidentiality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honorifics_(linguistics)" title="Honorifics (linguistics)">relative social status</a>, and the formality of the utterance. Jeju verbs include not only action verbs familiar to English speakers such as 먹다 meokda "to eat" or 베리다 berida "to see," but also adjectival verbs such as 버치다 beochida "to be heavy" or 훍다 hultta "to be thick."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201993–94-174">[159]</a> Verbs can take <a href="/wiki/Derivation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivation (linguistics)">derivational</a> suffixes to form <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbs</a> and nouns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201944–45,_116-175">[160]</a> <ul><li>ᄇᆞ디- bawdi- "to be close"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDictionary2009475-176">[161]</a> → ᄇᆞ디게 bawdi-ge "closely"</li> <li>궂- guj- "to be bad" → 궂임 guj-im "badness"</li> <li>입- ib- "to wear" → 입기 ip-gi "wearing"</li></ul> Especially for <a href="/wiki/Wh-question" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh-question">wh-questions</a> and exclamations, Jeju speakers commonly use a verbal noun in place of a verb inflected for tense-aspect-mood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019103–104-177">[162]</a> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">날도nal-doday-even</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">영yeonglike.this</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄃᆞᆺ임광!daws-im-gwangwarm-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominalizer/nominalization" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NMLZ</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="comitative case ('together with')" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COM</abbr></div>날도 영 ᄃᆞᆺ임광!nal-do yeong daws-im-gwangday-even like.this warm-NMLZ-COM"What a warm day!" (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'With the warmth of even the day like this!')<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </blockquote> Verbs may also be given an <a href="/wiki/Attributive_verb" title="Attributive verb">attributive</a> meaning through one of four adnominal suffixes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019231-178">[163]</a> <ul><li>Adnominal suffix 은 -(eu)n:<a href="#cite_note-Epenthetical-179">[p]</a> Past event for action verbs, achieved state for adjectival verbs<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019231–232-180">[164]</a></li></ul> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">나가na-ga</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">탄ta-n</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">미깡mikkang</div>나가 탄 미깡na-ga ta-n mikkang"The tangerine that I picked"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄃᆞᆺ인daws-in</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">구들gudeul</div>ᄃᆞᆺ인 구들daws-in gudeul"The [already] warm room"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> <ul><li>Adnominal suffix 단 -dan: Habitual action in the past<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019232-181">[165]</a></li></ul> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">뎅기단denggi-dan</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">웃드르utdeureu</div>뎅기단 웃드르denggi-dan utdeureu"The mountain villages that we used to go to"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄃᆞᆺ단daws-dan</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">구들gudeul</div>ᄃᆞᆺ단 구들daws-dan gudeul"The room that used to be warm"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> <ul><li>Adnominal suffix (으)는 -(eu)neun:<a href="#cite_note-Epenthetical-179">[p]</a> Nonpast/present event or state, commonly <a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual</a>; cannot occur with other suffixes and must combine directly with the bare verb stem;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019233-182">[166]</a> can occur with adjectival verbs, unlike in Korean<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.2015170-183">[167]</a></li></ul> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">아는a-neun</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">예청yecheong</div>아는 예청a-neun yecheong"The woman who I know"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄃᆞᆺ이는daws-ineun</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">구들gudeul</div>ᄃᆞᆺ이는 구들daws-ineun gudeul"The [usually] warm room"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> <ul><li>Adnominal suffix 을 -(eu)l:<a href="#cite_note-Epenthetical-179">[p]</a> Future/conjectural event or state<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019234-184">[168]</a></li></ul> <blockquote><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄐᆞᆮ을tawd-eul</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄉᆞᆼ키sawngki</div>ᄐᆞᆮ을 ᄉᆞᆼ키tawd-eul sawngki"Vegetables that s/he will pluck"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-final_suffixes">Pre-final suffixes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Pre-final suffixes">edit</a>]</div> Jeju has a number of pre-final verbal suffixes: <a href="/wiki/Tense-aspect-mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense-aspect-mood">tense-aspect-mood</a> markers which follow the verb stem but cannot appear at the end of the inflected verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011b9–10-185">[169]</a> The exact number of these suffixes is unclear because scholars disagree on the correct morphological <a href="/wiki/Segment_(linguistics)" title="Segment (linguistics)">segmentation</a>. One analysis of the suffix paradigm, as presented in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, is given below. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Yang_C.,_Yang_S.,_and_O%27Grady_2019%27s_Jeju_verb.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Yang_C.%2C_Yang_S.%2C_and_O%27Grady_2019%27s_Jeju_verb.png/600px-Yang_C.%2C_Yang_S.%2C_and_O%27Grady_2019%27s_Jeju_verb.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="448" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Yang_C.%2C_Yang_S.%2C_and_O%27Grady_2019%27s_Jeju_verb.png/900px-Yang_C.%2C_Yang_S.%2C_and_O%27Grady_2019%27s_Jeju_verb.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Yang_C.%2C_Yang_S.%2C_and_O%27Grady_2019%27s_Jeju_verb.png 2x" data-file-width="1035" data-file-height="772" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> There is relatively widespread agreement on the existence of the following four discrete TAM morphemes, presented in the order they co-occur: the <a href="/wiki/Continuative_aspect" title="Continuative aspect">continuative aspect</a> marker 어ᇝ -eoms, the <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a> marker 엇 -eos, the <a href="/wiki/Irrealis_mood" title="Irrealis mood">prospective mood</a> marker 읔 -(eu)k, and the <a href="/wiki/Realis_mood" title="Realis mood">realis mood</a> marker (으)느 -(eu)neu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019120-186">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.2015128–129-187">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.Song_S.Kim_Jee-h.Oh_C.2014144–147,_164-188">[172]</a> Depending on the analysis of the <a href="#Vowel_phonological_processes">aforementioned</a> epenthetical vowels that precede many verbal suffixes, the base forms of the three morphemes may alternately be analyzed as 엄시 -eomsi, 어시 -eosi, 크 -keu, and 느 -neu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.Song_S.Kim_Jee-h.Oh_C.2014168–176-189">[173]</a> -eoms(i) is an <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a> or <a href="/wiki/Continuative_aspect" title="Continuative aspect">continuative aspect</a> particle, referring to a process perceived as ongoing and similar to the English construction "be VERB-ing."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019120-186">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.2015196–197-190">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_Y.2008125-191">[175]</a> With an adjectival verb, it has an <a href="/wiki/Inchoative_aspect" title="Inchoative aspect">inchoative</a> ("beginning to; become") meaning. A verb with -eoms(i) is interpreted as either present or future by default,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019120-186">[170]</a> and some analyses interpret the particle as also conveying the present tense for specific events and states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.2015184–187-192">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHong_C.2001291–293-193">[177]</a> The suffix has a vowel-harmonic variant -ams(i), as well as allomorphs -yeoms(i), -yams(i), and -ms(i) when following certain vowels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019120-186">[170]</a> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞᆯ개비gawlgaebifrog</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄎᆞᆽ아ᇝ어.chawj-ams-eosearch-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>ᄀᆞᆯ개비 ᄎᆞᆽ아ᇝ어.gawlgaebi chawj-ams-eofrog search-CONT-SE"S/he is looking for the frog."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">짚어ᇝ저.jip-eoms-jeobe.deep-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>짚어ᇝ저.jip-eoms-jeobe.deep-CONT-SE"It is becoming deep."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> Often characterized as a <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a> marker,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_Y.2008107–110-194">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019124–126-195">[179]</a> -eos(i) has also been described as a <a href="/wiki/Present_perfect" title="Present perfect">present perfect</a> marker<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_Y.2008115-196">[180]</a> and as behaving as a perfective marker with some verbs and as a past tense marker with others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.2015175–176,_199–200-197">[181]</a> -eos(i) can express non-past events in certain constructions that call for verbs "conceptualized in their entirety," such as a hypothetical future event. In adjectival verbs, it may also refer to a current state that contrasts with a past situation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019124–126-195">[179]</a> -eos(i) can also be doubled for a <a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Past_perfect" class="mw-redirect" title="Past perfect">past perfect</a> interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019144-198">[182]</a> Also like -eoms, this suffix takes the vowel-harmonic variant -as(i) and has allomorphs -yeos(i), -yas(i), and -s(i) after certain vowels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019124-199">[183]</a> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">지슬jiseulpotato</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">팟저.pa-t-jeodig-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>지슬 팟저.jiseul pa-t-jeopotato dig-PFV-SE"S/he dug potatoes."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">날nalday</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">막makvery</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">얼엇저.eor-eot-jeobe.cold-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>날 막 얼엇저.nal mak eor-eot-jeoday very be.cold-PFV-SE"It is very cold [compared to before]."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> The prospective mood marker 읔/으크 -(eu)k/(eu)keu<a href="#cite_note-Epenthetical-179">[p]</a> marks the subject's <a href="/wiki/Volition_(linguistics)" title="Volition (linguistics)">intention</a> in first-person-subject declarative sentences or second-person-subject interrogative sentences, and the speaker's conjecture otherwise. -(eu)k may also have a future-tense interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoo_C.200871–72-200">[184]</a> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄂᆞᆷ삐nawmppiradish</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">데끼켜.dekki-k-yeothrow-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="prospective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROSP</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>ᄂᆞᆷ삐 데끼켜.nawmppi dekki-k-yeoradish throw-PROSP-SE"I will throw away the radish."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가이gai<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">지레가jire-gaheight-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">크클아.keu-k-eur-a<a href="#cite_note-201">[q]</a>grow-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="prospective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROSP</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="future tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FUT</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>가이 지레가 크클아.gai jire-ga keu-k-eur-a<a href="#cite_note-201">[q]</a>3SG height-NOM grow-PROSP-FUT-SE"It seems that s/he will grow tall."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> -(eu)k can only be followed by a small number of suffixes in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's analysis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019128-202">[185]</a> Some analyses treat the initial vowel of the following suffix as part of an allomorph or nuanced variant of -(eu)k, so that 가커라 gakeora "[I] will go" may be segmented as ga-k-eora or ga-keo-ra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015195–196-203">[186]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Realis_mood" title="Realis mood">realis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Indicative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative mood">indicative mood</a> marker (으)느 -(eu)neu<a href="#cite_note-Epenthetical-179">[p]</a> indicates "a fact or habitual action in the nonpast"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019128-202">[185]</a> which the speaker perceives to be true in general, permanently, or over a longer duration of time, as demonstrated in the contrast below.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoo_C.2005399–400-204">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.Song_S.Kim_Jee-h.Oh_C.2014164-205">[188]</a> The putative non-past-tense marker -(eu)n may also be analyzed as an allomorph of -(eu)neu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoo_C.2005387-206">[189]</a> In this context, the morpheme -(eu)n(eu) has also been interpreted as a <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a> marker (not to be confused with the perfective marker).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_Y.2008123-207">[190]</a> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">이ithis</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">신sinshoe</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">느안티neu-anti<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">크냐?keu-nya<a href="#cite_note-208">[r]</a>be.big-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="interrogative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INTR</abbr></div>이 신 느안티 크냐?i sin neu-anti keu-nya<a href="#cite_note-208">[r]</a>this shoe 2SG-DAT be.big-INTR"Is this shoe [too] big for you [right now]?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">이ithis</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">신sinshoe</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">느안티neu-anti<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">크느냐?keu-neu-nyabe.big-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="indicative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IND</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="interrogative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INTR</abbr></div>이 신 느안티 크느냐?i sin neu-anti keu-neu-nyathis shoe 2SG-DAT be.big-IND-INTR"Has this shoe [always] been [too] big for you?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> The existence of the Korean subject-<a href="/wiki/Honorifics_(linguistics)" title="Honorifics (linguistics)">honorific</a> marker (으)시 -(eu)si is controversial for Jeju, with some scholars arguing that it was entirely absent and others that it was restricted to higher <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.Song_S.Kim_Jee-h.Oh_C.2014154-209">[191]</a> Ko J. 2011b notes that it was used only "by officials while referring to people of very high status and by the <a href="/wiki/Seonbi" title="Seonbi">seonbi</a> of the educated classes."<a href="#cite_note-210">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Segmenting_verb-final_suffixes">Segmenting verb-final suffixes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Segmenting verb-final suffixes">edit</a>]</div> The segmentation of verb-final elements is controversial. The two recent extensive treatments of the topic, Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a> and Kim Jee-hong 2015,<a href="#cite_note-211">[193]</a> give incompatible analyses of the suffix paradigm. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 includes a slot for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> in the Jeju verb, with three dedicated markers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019130–142-212">[194]</a> <ul><li>Non-past tense: 은 -(eu)n<a href="#cite_note-Epenthetical-179">[p]</a></li> <li>Past tense: 언 -eon, with vowel-harmonic allomorph 안 -an</li> <li>Future tense: 을 -(eu)l<a href="#cite_note-Epenthetical-179">[p]</a></li></ul> They further divide verb-final suffixes into three categories: Type 1, which cannot occur with tense markers; Type 2, which must occur with either a tense marker or the aspect marker -eoms, which loses its underlying -s before a Type 2 suffix; and a mixed type, which can occur with the non-past marker but not with the other two tense markers. The vast majority of suffixes are categorized as Tense 1 and thus cannot follow a tense marker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019162–165,_230-213">[195]</a> Uniquely among pre-final suffixes, the past tense marker -eon can also appear without a final suffix.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019138-214">[196]</a> Examples of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's segmentation are given below. <blockquote> <table> <tbody><tr> <th width="50%">Aspect + Type 1 sequence </th> <th> </th> <th width="50%">Tense + Type 2 sequence </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">지슬jiseulpotato</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄆᆞᆫmawnall</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">데꼇어라.dekky-eos-eora<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019170-215">[197]</a>throw-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>지슬 ᄆᆞᆫ 데꼇어라.jiseul mawn dekky-eos-eora<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019170-215">[197]</a>potato all throw-PFV-SE"[I noticed that he/she] had thrown away all the potatoes."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">파치pachifallen.tangerines</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">잘jalwell</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">줏언게.jus-eon-ge<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019188-216">[198]</a>pick-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>파치 잘 줏언게.pachi jal jus-eon-ge<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019188-216">[198]</a>fallen.tangerines well pick-PST-SE"[I saw him/her] pick tangerines well."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </blockquote> In Kim Jee-hong's analysis, verb-final single morphemes are termed "canonical endings." Canonical endings are contrasted with a wide variety of "non-canonical endings," formed by the fusion of various grammatical elements such as multiple canonical endings, truncated conjunctive and embedded sentences, and bound nouns<a href="#cite_note-217">[s]</a> connected to the verb stem or a canonical ending via an attributive or a nominalizer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015106–109-218">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2017237–249-219">[200]</a> The most common canonical component of these non-canonical endings is the suffix 어 -eo (vowel-harmonic allomorph 아 -a), which Kim calls the <a href="/wiki/Unmarked" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmarked">unmarked</a> "default ending."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2017239–240-220">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015128-221">[202]</a> Since Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's tenses align with the aforementioned attributive suffixes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015172–175-222">[203]</a> sentences they analyze as "Tense-Type 2 Suffix" sequences are often analyzed as non-canonical endings with a "Canonical ending-Attributive-Bound noun" composition by Kim Jee-hong. Many of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's Type 1 suffixes are also interpreted as polymorphemic non-canonical endings. Kim Jee-hong also segments some of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's mixed-type suffixes so that the base form of the suffix includes the -n of the latter's non-past tense marker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015223,_349-223">[204]</a> Examples from Kim Jee-hong 2015's analysis, directly corresponding to the examples above of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, are given below. The "default ender" -eo is bolded. <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">그geu<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="medial demonstrative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MED</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">낭nangtree</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">다daall</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">컷어라.k-eos-eo-ra<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015147-224">[205]</a>grow-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="canonical ending" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CE</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="canonical ending" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CE</abbr></div>그 낭 다 컷어라.geu nang da k-eos-eo-ra<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015147-224">[205]</a>MED tree all grow-PFV-CE-CE"[I noticed that] that tree had fully grown."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">지금도jigeum-donow-too</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">고완게.gow-a-n-ge<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015147–148,_193–198-225">[206]</a>be.pretty-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="canonical ending" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CE</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="attributive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ATTR</abbr>-thing</div>지금도 고완게.jigeum-do gow-a-n-ge<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015147–148,_193–198-225">[206]</a>now-too be.pretty-CE-ATTR-thing"[I saw that s/he] was still pretty."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sentence_enders">Sentence enders</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Sentence enders">edit</a>]</div> Jeju has a number of clause-final suffixes, called "sentence enders" in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019161-226">[207]</a> and "terminal suffixes" (종결어미; jonggyeol eomi) in Korean,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.201578-227">[208]</a> that provide information such as degree of formality, social status, evidentality, and modality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019161-226">[207]</a> Sentence enders may consist of one or multiple morphemes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019128-202">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015106–109-218">[199]</a> Kim Jee-hong argues for four <a href="/wiki/Korean_speech_levels" title="Korean speech levels">speech levels</a> in Jeju, defined by the degree of formality and deference their sentence enders connote: informal and plain (non-honorific); formal and plain; informal and honorific, marked by the morpheme 우 -u-, and formal and honorific, featuring the morpheme 읍 -eup.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015233–236-228">[209]</a> An archaic speech level showing extreme deference is attested from shamanic chants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015100–101-229">[210]</a> As different segmentation hypotheses produce different sentence enders. the chart below will list only a small, illustrative sample of the dozens of suffixes that appear in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 and Kim Jee-h. 2015. The classification is based on Kim Jee-hong 2017,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2017239–241,_245,_248-230">[211]</a> which differs from Kim Jee-hong 2015.<a href="#cite_note-231">[t]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Informal and plain </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Morpheme<a href="#cite_note-AlwaysEpenthetical-232">[u]</a></th> <th width="25%">Example<a href="#cite_note-Parenthesis-234">[v]</a></th> <th width="55%">Usage</th> <th>Sources </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">어/아</td> <td style="border-left:0">-eo/a<a href="#cite_note-VowelHarmony-235">[w]</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가이gai</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">고와?gow-a</div>가이 고와?gai gow-a"Is s/he pretty?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Kim Jee-hong considers -eo the <a href="/wiki/Unmarked" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmarked">unmarked</a> sentence ender. Depending on <a href="/wiki/Suprasegmentals" class="mw-redirect" title="Suprasegmentals">suprasegmentals</a>, the suffix may be used in a plain statement, a question, a command, an exclamation, or a construction in which the speaker informs the addressee of information that the latter did not know and expects a confirmatory response. The suffix is also found in Standard Korean with a similar degree of versatility and widespread use. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019167–168-236">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015128–131-237">[214]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">(으)주</td> <td style="border-left:0">-(eu)ju </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">만수Mansu</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">말mal</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">잘jal</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞᆮ주.gawd-ju</div>만수 말 잘 ᄀᆞᆮ주.Mansu mal jal gawd-ju"Mansu talks well."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>According to Kim Jee-hong, -ju conveys a statement of presumption or assumption without direct supporting experience, and invites the addressee to confirm the statement's veracity. Kim also states that -ju may end a confirmatory question with the implication that the addressee should agree with the speaker. According to Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady, -ju expresses a statement of intention or strong assertion with a first-person subject and a statement of judgement or assumption with a third-person subject, and may also convey regret or advice. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019180–182-238">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015143–145-239">[216]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">(은)게</td> <td style="border-left:0">(-eun)-ge </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">날nal</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">우쳣인게.uchy-eos-i(-)n-ge</div>날 우쳣인게.nal uchy-eos-i(-)n-ge"[I see that] the day was cloudy."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>(-eun)-ge generally conveys a statement of fact that the speaker has directly observed, or has inferred from a direct observation. In Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, the suffix is given as -ge, a special Type 2 suffix which can only combine with the two tense markers ending in -n. Kim Jee-hong classifies it as a non-canonical ending composed of a fused attributive -eun and bound noun. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019187–188-240">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015197–198-241">[218]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">(으)멘</td> <td style="border-left:0">(-eu)men </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">느neu</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">무시거musigeo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">시치멘?sichi-men</div>느 무시거 시치멘?neu musigeo sichi-men"What are you washing?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>(-eu)men is used for both statements and questions, but only when the speaker and addressee are emotionally intimate. When the verb is inflected for aspect, (-eu)men is used to refer to a past event that was observed or inferred from observation. If uninflected, the suffix denotes an ongoing event. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019171–172-242">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015219–221-243">[220]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Formal and plain </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Morpheme<a href="#cite_note-AlwaysEpenthetical-232">[u]</a></th> <th width="25%">Example<a href="#cite_note-Parenthesis-234">[v]</a></th> <th width="55%">Usage</th> <th>Sources </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">다</td> <td style="border-left:0">-da </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">도새기dosaegi</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">것geot</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">먹엇다.meog-eot-da</div>도새기 것 먹엇다.dosaegi geot meog-eot-da"The pig ate the fodder."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Unmarked formal statement ender. Dictionary citation form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201994-244">[221]</a> </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019175–177-245">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015113–116-246">[223]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">(으)저</td> <td style="border-left:0">-(eu)jeo </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">하르방hareubang</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">몸mom</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞᆷ앗저.gawm-at-jeo</div>하르방 몸 ᄀᆞᆷ앗저.hareubang mom gawm-at-jeo"Grandfather took a bath."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>-jeo expresses a factual statement with the premise that the addressee is unaware of the fact, and may implicitly either urge the addressee to accept this new information or rebuke the addressee for not having known it. With a first-person subject, -jeo conveys the speaker's intention to do something. Whether these two uses of -jeo are connected uses of the same morpheme, or whether they are two different <a href="/wiki/Homophonous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homophonous">homophonous</a> morphemes, is disputed. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019177–179-247">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015116–121-248">[225]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">나</td> <td style="border-left:0">-na </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">이ithis</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">풀pulplant</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">사름덜이sareum-deor-iperson-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">먹나.meong-naeat-na</div>이 풀 사름덜이 먹나.i pul sareum-deor-i meong-nathis plant person-PL-NOM eat-na"This plant is edible."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Expresses a statement of fact with the implication that it is an intrinsic or permanent quality or state; commonly found with proverbs and aphorisms. -na is also used to ask questions about facts (including non-permanent facts), where it has a "somewhat authoritative tone." As with -jeo, whether these two uses reflect the same morpheme or two homophonous ones is disputed. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019174-249">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.201587–91,_263–264,_375–358-250">[227]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">고나</td> <td style="border-left:0">-gona </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">이디i-di</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">물mul</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">새라낫고나!saer-a-na-t-gona</div>이디 물 새라낫고나!i-di mul saer-a-na-t-gona"The water had leaked here!"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Expresses a statement of surprise or excitement. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 gives the suffix as 구나 -guna instead. Kim Jee-hong reports that the suffix can be shortened to a single syllable 고 -go. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019190-251">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015368–371-252">[229]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">가 은가</td> <td style="border-left:0">-ga (-eu)n-ga </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">그듸geu-di</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">무사musa</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄃᆞᆺ앗인가?daws-as-i(-)n-ga</div>그듸 무사 ᄃᆞᆺ앗인가?geu-di musa daws-as-i(-)n-ga"Why is that place warm?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Conveys a question directed to the addressee. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 analyzes the suffixes as Type 2 ender -ga, with -n-ga not a genuine ending but -ga following a tense marker ending in -n. Kim Jee-hong distinguishes the canonical ending -ga with the non-canonical -eun-ga, which is analyzed as having a fused attributive. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019194–196-253">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015240–244,_275–278-254">[231]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">은고</td> <td style="border-left:0">(-eu)n-go </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">선싕seonsing</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">무시거musigeo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">테왓인고?tew-as-i(-)n-go</div>선싕 무시거 테왓인고?seonsing musigeo tew-as-i(-)n-go"I wonder what the teacher distributed."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Has a conjectural connotation. Often used in questions addressed to oneself, and is less direct than -eun-ga when asked to the addressee. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 analyzes the suffix as mixed type ender -go, with -eun-go being -go preceded by the non-past tense marker (and gaining this conjectural meaning only in the presence of the non-past tense marker). Kim Jee-hong analyzes it as a non-canonical ending with a fused attributive. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019196–197-255">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015275–278-256">[233]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">디아</td> <td style="border-left:0">-dia </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">는neu-n</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">무사musa</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">얼언디아?eor-eo(-)n-dia</div>는 무사 얼언디아?neu-n musa eor-eo(-)n-dia"Why are you cold?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Used to ask a question about which the addressee has direct relevant experience. In most cases the addressee is the subject of the verb, although third-person subjects have been attested. Appears in Kim Jee-hong's work in the contracted form 댜 -dya. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019193–194-257">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015296–301-258">[235]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">(으)게</td> <td style="border-left:0">-(eu)ge </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">먹엇이게!meog-eos-i(-)ge</div>먹엇이게!meog-eos-i(-)ge"Let's get finished eating!"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Used in propositions (not commands as in Standard Korean). </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019205–206-259">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015389–390-260">[237]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">(으)라</td> <td style="border-left:0">-(eu)ra </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">먹으라!meog-eura</div>먹으라!meog-eura"Eat!"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Used to command immediate action. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019206–207-261">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015381-262">[239]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:0">(으)심 (으)순</td> <td style="border-left:0">-(eu)sim -(eu)sun </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄌᆞ미나게jawmi-na-ge</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">놀순!nol-sun</div>ᄌᆞ미나게 놀순!jawmi-na-ge nol-sun"Have fun!"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Used by older women when talking to younger adults not old enough for honorifics and not young or emotionally close enough for informal speech. May convey statements, questions, requests, and proposals. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019207–208-263">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015386–387-264">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011b342–347,_379–385-265">[242]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> The honorific verbs, which show deference to the addressee, are formed by a special suffix that can be followed only by a small number of sentence enders. The informal honorific forms are marked by 우 -u- or (으)우 -(eu)u-.<a href="#cite_note-Epenthetical-179">[p]</a> The former is used with the <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> verb 이다 ida and with all inflected verbs, and the latter is used with uninflected adjectival verbs. -u- and -(eu)u- may take the alternative form 수 -su- after a verb inflected for aspect and a non-liquid consonant, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019218–219-266">[243]</a> The informal honorific form cannot occur with uninflected action verbs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.201597–99-267">[244]</a> The two suffixes may only be followed by the sentence enders in the table below.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019217–226-268">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015228–235-269">[246]</a> Informal honorific requests cannot be formed morphologically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015228–235-269">[246]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Honorific</th> <th>Sentence ender</th> <th>Example</th> <th width="55%">Usage </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">(으)우 -(eu)u-</td> <td>다 -da </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">물mul</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">질엇우다.jil-eos-u-da</div>물 질엇우다.mul jil-eos-u-da"S/he drew water."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Used for statements. </td></tr> <tr> <td>게 -ge 궤 -gwe </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄎᆞᆯ레chawlle</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">멩글앗우게.menggeul-as-u-ge</div>ᄎᆞᆯ레 멩글앗우게.chawlle menggeul-as-u-ge"I have made side dishes."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Used to report new information; restricted to inflected verbs. </td></tr> <tr> <td>꿰 -kkwe </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">짚우우꿰.jip-uu-kkwe</div>짚우우꿰.jip-uu-kkwe"It is deep."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Used to report new information or an opinion; restricted to uninflected verbs. </td></tr> <tr> <td>가/강 -ga(ng)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011b321-270">[247]</a> 과/광 -gwa(ng) 꽈/꽝 -kkwa(ng) </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄃᆞᆨ세기dawk-segi</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">데끼쿠과?dekki-k-u-gwa</div>ᄃᆞᆨ세기 데끼쿠과?dawk-segi dekki-k-u-gwa"Will you throw away the eggs?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Used in questions. -gwa(ng) is generally restricted to inflected verbs. Due to <a href="#Sound_symbolism">sound symbolism</a>, the tense endings are considered emphatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011b321-270">[247]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> The formal honorific forms involve the honorific marker 읍 -(eu)p-<a href="#cite_note-Epenthetical-179">[p]</a> followed by one or two morphemes. Only the six following formal honorific forms are possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019208–217-271">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015100–103-272">[249]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Honorific</th> <th>Evidential</th> <th>Sentence ender</th> <th>Example<a href="#cite_note-Parenthesis-234">[v]</a></th> <th width="50%">Usage </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6">읍 -(eu)p-</td> <td rowspan="2">네/니 -ne/ni</td> <td>다 -da </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">그geu</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">신sin</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">만수신디Mansu-sindi</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">족읍네다.jog-eup-ne-da</div>그 신 만수신디 족읍네다.geu sin Mansu-sindi jog-eup-ne-da"[I know] those shoes must be small for Mansu."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>A formal statement founded on prior knowledge, e.g. of Mansu's foot size. Implies that the rationale for the statement continues in the present and may be shared or experienced by the addressee. </td></tr> <tr> <td>까/깡 -kka(ng) </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">나가na-ga</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄆᆞᆫ처mawncheo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">앚입네까?aj-ip-ne-kka</div>나가 ᄆᆞᆫ처 앚입네까?na-ga mawncheo aj-ip-ne-kka"Should I sit first?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>A formal question that the addressee is expected to be able to answer without direct observation. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">데/디 -de/di</td> <td>다 -da </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">그geu</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">신sin</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">만수신디Mansu-sindi</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">족읍데다.jog-eup-de-da</div>그 신 만수신디 족읍데다.geu sin Mansu-sindi jog-eup-de-da"[I saw] those shoes were small for Mansu."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>A formal statement motivated by a direct, external past observation that cannot be experienced firsthand by the addressee. As the observation must be external, the first-person singular subject is prohibited except in highly atypical situations such as <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)" title="Dissociation (psychology)">dissociation</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>가/강 -ga(ng) </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">날이nal-i</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">얼큽디가?eol-k(-)eu(-)p-di-ga</div>날이 얼큽디가?nal-i eol-k(-)eu(-)p-di-ga"[Based on your observation,] will the day be cold?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>A formal question that the addressee is expected to answer based on a past observation relating to a third party. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>서 -seo </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">이거i-geo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">먹읍서.meog-eup-seo</div>이거 먹읍서.i-geo meog-eup-seo"Please eat this."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>A formal request. </td></tr> <tr> <td>주 -ju </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">지슬jiseul</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">줏입주.jus-ip-ju</div>지슬 줏입주.jiseul jus-ip-ju"Let's gather the potatoes."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td>Expresses speaker's intention with a first-person subject and advice or judgment otherwise; widely used for suggestions and propositions. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Connectives">Connectives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Connectives">edit</a>]</div> Jeju uses an array of verb-final connective suffixes to link clauses within sentences,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019230-273">[250]</a> much as English does with <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">conjunctions</a> such as and, or, that, but, and because. Some Jeju connectives, such as the suffixes 언/엉 -eon/eong "and", occur in pairs with one variant ending in -n and the other in -ng. Hong Chong-rim and Song Sang-jo both note that the choice between -n and -ng is often determined by the inflections of the subsequent clause; certain pre-final suffixes and sentence enders require a n-connective in the previous clause, while others require a ng-connective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHong_C.2001276–286-274">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong_S.201135–49-275">[252]</a> Hong suggests that -n is used for specific and objective events and states, while -ng implies a general and subjective event or state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHong_C.2001295–297-276">[253]</a> Song argues that -n is used for completed or achieved verbs, and -ng for incomplete or unachieved verbs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong_S.201119–30-277">[254]</a> The nuances below are thus possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong_S.20116–9-278">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHong_C.2001299-279">[256]</a> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">먹언meog-eoneat-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="connective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONN</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가민ga-mingo-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="conditional mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COND</abbr></div>먹언 가민meog-eon ga-mineat-CONN go-COND"Having eaten, if [I] go"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">먹엉meog-eongeat-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="connective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONN</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가민ga-mingo-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="conditional mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COND</abbr></div>먹엉 가민meog-eong ga-mineat-CONN go-COND"If [I] eat and [then] go"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">오늘oneultoday</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">비birain</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">오란o-rancome-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="connective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONN</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">일ilwork</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">못motcannot</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄒᆞᆫ다haw-n-dado-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nonpast" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>오늘 비 오란 일 못 ᄒᆞᆫ다oneul bi o-ran il mot haw-n-datoday rain come-CONN work cannot do-NPST-SE"It's raining, so [we] can't work"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">오늘oneultoday</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">비birain</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">오랑o-rangcome-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="connective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONN</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">일ilwork</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">못motcannot</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄒᆞᆫ다haw-n-dado-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nonpast" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>오늘 비 오랑 일 못 ᄒᆞᆫ다oneul bi o-rang il mot haw-n-datoday rain come-CONN work cannot do-NPST-SE"[I presume that] it's raining/going to rain, so [we] can't work"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> The distinction between -n and -ng does not exist in mainland Korean <a href="/wiki/Language_variety" class="mw-redirect" title="Language variety">varieties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHong_C.2001271–272-280">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong_S.2011vi–vii-281">[258]</a> Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 reports that "the contrast between -eong and -eon appears to be disappearing, and the distinctions that remain are subtle and variable."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019120-186">[170]</a> An important class of connectives, used for reporting speech and thoughts, is formed by the suffix 엔/엥 -en/-eng, which fuses with sentence enders as in the example of -da below.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_M.201935–39,_44–49-282">[259]</a> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">"가ᇝ우다."<a href="#cite_note-감-283">[x]</a>ga-ms-su-dago-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>"가ᇝ우다."<a href="#cite_note-감-283">[x]</a>ga-ms-su-dago-CONT-HON-SE"'I am going.'"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가ᇝ덴ga-ms-dengo-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reportive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.<a href="#cite_note-감-283">[x]</a>gawr-at-su-dasay-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>가ᇝ덴 ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.<a href="#cite_note-감-283">[x]</a>ga-ms-den gawr-at-su-dago-CONT-REP say-PFV-HON-SE"[S/he] said that [s/he] was going."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </blockquote> Similarly, informal honorific conjectural k-u-da becomes 켄 -ken; plain forms -ju and -jeo become 젠 -jen; question enders -ga and -go become 겐 -gen and 곤 -gon; honorific imperative -eup-seo becomes 읍센 -eup-sen; and so forth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_M.201935–39,_44–49-282">[259]</a> These fused suffixes may be used for both <a href="/wiki/Quotative" title="Quotative">quotative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indirect_speech" title="Indirect speech">reportive</a> purposes. In Standard Korean, indirect speech is strictly distinguished from the quotative by the removal of addressee honorifics and the switching of pronouns. In Jeju, the lines between direct and indirect speech are more blurred. All four forms below—given in order of increasing indirectness—are in use, and have the same meaning, "He said [to a superior] that he was going home."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_M.201939–43-284">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-감-283">[x]</a> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">"난na-n<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="topic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TOP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">집이jib-ihouse-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가ᇝ우다"엔ga-ms-u-da-engo-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="quotative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">QUOT</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.gawr-at-su-dasay-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> [direct quote] </div>"난 집이 가ᇝ우다"엔 ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.na-n jib-i ga-ms-u-da-en gawr-at-su-da1SG-TOP house-LOC go-CONT-HON-SE-QUOT say-PFV-HON-SE<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">난na-n<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="topic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TOP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">집이jib-ihouse-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가ᇝ우덴ga-ms-u-dengo-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reportive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.gawr-at-su-dasay-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> [quotative fused] </div>난 집이 가ᇝ우덴 ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.na-n jib-i ga-ms-u-den gawr-at-su-da1SG-TOP house-LOC go-CONT-HON-REP say-PFV-HON-SE<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">진ji-n<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="topic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TOP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">집이jib-ihouse-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가ᇝ우덴ga-ms-u-dengo-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reportive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.gawr-at-su-dasay-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> [pronouns changed] </div>진 집이 가ᇝ우덴 ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.ji-n jib-i ga-ms-u-den gawr-at-su-da3SG-TOP house-LOC go-CONT-HON-REP say-PFV-HON-SE<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">진ji-n<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="topic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TOP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">집이jib-ihouse-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">가ᇝ덴ga-ms-dengo-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="continuous aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CONT</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reportive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.gawr-at-su-dasay-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> [honorific neutralized] </div>진 집이 가ᇝ덴 ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.ji-n jib-i ga-ms-den gawr-at-su-da3SG-TOP house-LOC go-CONT-REP say-PFV-HON-SE<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </blockquote> Other connectives include (으)민 -(eu)min "if"; (으)난 -(eu)nan "because"; and 단/당 -dan/dang "after".<a href="#cite_note-AlwaysEpenthetical-232">[u]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019255–256,_262–265-285">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Auxiliary_and_light_verbs">Auxiliary and light verbs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Auxiliary and light verbs">edit</a>]</div> Jeju has many <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliary verbs">auxiliary verbs</a> that are linked to the preceding main verb by the morpheme 어/아 -eo/a.<a href="#cite_note-VowelHarmony-235">[w]</a> These include 안네다 anneda "to give," for an action that benefits a superior; 불다 bulda "to throw away," for an action yielding a complete result; and 지다 jida "to become," for a change of state. Jida is also used to indicate ability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201996–101-286">[262]</a> <blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">일ilwork</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">하영hayeonga.lot</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">헤노난he-nonando-because</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">죽어지켜.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201999-287">[263]</a>jug-eo-ji-k-yeodie-eo-become-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="prospective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROSP</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>일 하영 헤노난 죽어지켜.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201999-287">[263]</a>il hayeong he-nonan jug-eo-ji-k-yeowork a.lot do-because die-eo-become-PROSP-SE"I will become close to dying because I work a lot."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </blockquote> Jeju also uses <a href="/wiki/Light_verb" title="Light verb">light verbs</a>, which have little semantic meaning but combine with nouns to form verbs. The most common light verb is ᄒᆞ다 hawda "to do," e.g. 부름씨 bureumssi "errand" → 부름씨ᄒᆞ다 bureumssi-hawda "to run an errand".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019101–103-288">[264]</a> There is also a large inventory of <a href="/wiki/Periphrastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Periphrastic">periphrastic</a> phrases that convey modality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019153–160-289">[265]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-phrasal_particles">Post-phrasal particles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Post-phrasal particles">edit</a>]</div> Jeju has a small group of particles that commonly occur at the very end of phrases or sentences, many of which play important roles as <a href="/wiki/Discourse_markers" class="mw-redirect" title="Discourse markers">discourse markers</a>. The four principal ones are the formality marker 마씀 -masseum and the emphatic markers 게 -ge, 이 -i, and 양 -yang.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019227–229-290">[266]</a> -masseum (variants 마씸 -massim, 마씨 -massi) may occur after subsentential phrases such as a bare or case-inflected noun, or attach to a small number of mostly plain sentence enders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019227–228-291">[267]</a> The particle shows the speaker's deference towards the addressee, but is considered more emotionally intimate than the verbally inflected honorifics. In certain contexts, -masseum may be used with an intention to snub the addressee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.2005a3–7-292">[268]</a> -ge is a discourse marker that attaches to adverbs, nouns and noun particles, and both sentence enders and connectives. It adds emphasis to the <a href="/wiki/Utterance" title="Utterance">utterance</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.200372–80-293">[269]</a> and is often used to agree with or confirm something the addressee has just said.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Kim_W.2013157–160-294">[270]</a> -i is used similarly to -ge, but is weaker in its emphasis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.200380–82-295">[271]</a> Both cannot be used while addressing a social superior, and -i also cannot appear in formal speech.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady2019228–229-296">[272]</a> Both particles can also appear in isolation: ge as a strong affirmation to a question, i as an indication that the speaker has not heard or does not believe what has been said.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.200372,_80-297">[273]</a> -yang shows deference, but is considered more informal than -masseum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.2005a11-298">[274]</a> At the end of a sentence, it emphasizes the speaker's beliefs or attitudes. For example, a question becomes a rhetorical one when -yang is attached: 이시카 is-ik-a "Could there be?" → 이시카양 is-ik-a-yang "How could there be?"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.200922–24-299">[275]</a> The particle is also commonly used for sarcastic mock deference, such as by parents while scolding children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.2005a9–10-300">[276]</a> Sentence-initially or internally, the suffix may establish the preceding element as the topic of discourse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.2009202–201-301">[277]</a> Yang is also used in isolation as an <a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">interjection</a> to get the attention of unfamiliar individuals, such as a shopkeeper, or to request the addressee to repeat what they have just said.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoon_S.2005b164–171-302">[278]</a> In the example below from Yang C. 2009, three of the four particles discussed above are used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.200921-303">[279]</a> <blockquote> <table> <tbody><tr> <th style="vertical-align:top;">Granddaughter: </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">할마니,halmani,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">이디가idi-ga</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">말로만mal-loman</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">들어난deureo-nan</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">모슬포우꽈?Moseulpo-ukkwa?</div>할마니, 이디가 말로만 들어난 모슬포우꽈?halmani, idi-ga mal-loman deureo-nan Moseulpo-ukkwa?"Grandmother, is this place Moseulpo, which I've only heard of?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="vertical-align:top;">Grandmother: </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄋᆞaw</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">맞다게,matda-ge,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">이디가idi-ga</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">모슬포여.Moseulpo-yeo.</div>ᄋᆞ 맞다게, 이디가 모슬포여.aw matda-ge, idi-ga Moseulpo-yeo."Yes, you're indeed correct, this place is Moseulpo."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="vertical-align:top;">Granddaughter: </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">모슬포양...Moseulpo-yang...</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">게민gemin</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">어떵허연eotteong-heoyeon</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">모슬포옌Moseulpo-yen</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄒᆞ엿인신고마씸?hawyeosinsingo-massim?</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ᄒᆞᆨ교에서hawkgyo-eseo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">숙제sukje</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">내연마씸.naeyeon-massim.</div>모슬포양... 게민 어떵허연 모슬포옌 ᄒᆞ엿인신고마씸? ᄒᆞᆨ교에서 숙제 내연마씸.Moseulpo-yang... gemin eotteong-heoyeon Moseulpo-yen hawyeosinsingo-massim? hawkgyo-eseo sukje naeyeon-massim."Moseulpo, right... So why do they call it Moseulpo, please? They gave us an assignment at school, please."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </blockquote> Note the granddaughter's use of the verbally inflected honorific -u- and the deference-marking massim and yang while addressing the grandmother. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns_and_deixis">Pronouns and deixis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Pronouns and deixis">edit</a>]</div> Jeju has the following basic personal pronouns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201985–89-304">[280]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Usage </th></tr> <tr> <td>1st person</td> <td>나/내   na/nae   "I; me"</td> <td>우리(덜)   uri(-deol)   "we; us"</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2nd person</td> <td>느/니   neu/ni   "you (s.)"</td> <td>느네(덜)   neu-ne-(deol)   "you (pl.)"</td> <td>For younger, emotionally intimate, or socially inferior individuals </td></tr> <tr> <td>지   ji   "you (s.)"</td> <td>지네(덜)   ji-ne(-deol)   "you (pl.)"</td> <td>For younger individuals, but more respectful than neu/ni </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">No overt pronoun</td> <td>For older individuals </td></tr> <tr> <td>3rd person</td> <td colspan="3">None per se. Informally, demonstratives used before 아의 ai: 가이 gai "him/her" (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'that person'), etc. </td></tr></tbody></table> According to Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, there are four basic <a href="/wiki/Deictic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deictic">deictic</a> <a href="/wiki/Demonstratives" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstratives">demonstratives</a> in Jeju.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201983-305">[281]</a> Most other sources mention three, which are identical to those of Standard Korean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015398-306">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a190–191-307">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.2015135–136-308">[284]</a> <ul><li>Proximal: 이 i "this"</li> <li>Medial or absent: 그 geu "that"</li> <li>Distal: 저 jeo "that"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> Most of the Jeju lexicon is <a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</a>, and "a sizeable number" of words are identical with Korean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady20199–10-309">[285]</a> There are <a href="/wiki/False_friends" class="mw-redirect" title="False friends">false friends</a> between the languages, such as Korean 감다 gamda "to wash hair" and Jeju ᄀᆞᆷ다 gawmda "to wash the body."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady20199–10-309">[285]</a> Jeju also preserves many <a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a> terms now lost in Korean, such as 갓 gat "wife; woman" and 어시 eosi "parent."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a259–270-310">[286]</a> Like Korean, Jeju uses many <a href="/wiki/Sino-Korean_vocabulary" title="Sino-Korean vocabulary">Sino-Korean</a> words based on local readings of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.201574–78-311">[287]</a> Jeju Island was ruled by the Mongols in the late thirteenth century and some <a href="/wiki/Middle_Mongol" title="Middle Mongol">Middle Mongol</a> terms still survive in the language, though the extent of Mongol influence is disputed. Popular claims of hundreds of Mongol loans in Jeju are linguistically unsound.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwon_S.201754–55-312">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeju_Province2019a481-313">[289]</a> Uncontroversial Mongol loans are most common in terms relating to animal husbandry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwon_S.201755–62-314">[290]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="33%">English</th> <th width="33%">Jeju</th> <th>Middle Mongol </th></tr> <tr> <td>bridle</td> <td>가달 gadal</td> <td>qada'ar </td></tr> <tr> <td>halter</td> <td>녹대 nokdae</td> <td>noγta </td></tr> <tr> <td>two-year-old cattle</td> <td>다간 dagan</td> <td>daγaγan "two-year-old horse" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classifier</a> for houses</td> <td>거리 geori</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yurt" title="Yurt">ger</a> "house" </td></tr></tbody></table> Jeju may have loans from an ancient Japonic substratum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2013236–237-22">[20]</a> As the last fluent generation of Jeju speakers were born under or shortly after Japanese rule, remaining speakers also use many loans from Modern Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a348–350-315">[291]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="33%">English</th> <th width="33%">Jeju</th> <th width="33%">Japanese </th></tr> <tr> <td>noisy</td> <td>우르사이 ureusai</td> <td>うるさい urusai </td></tr> <tr> <td>chopsticks</td> <td>하시 hasi</td> <td>箸 hashi </td></tr> <tr> <td>habit</td> <td>쿠세 kuse</td> <td>癖 kuse </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sound_symbolism">Sound symbolism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Sound symbolism">edit</a>]</div> Jeju has widespread <a href="/wiki/Sound_symbolism" title="Sound symbolism">sound symbolism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ideophones" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideophones">ideophones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_S.20082-316">[292]</a> The use of sound symbolism to form emphatic variants of words is more common in Jeju than in Seoul Korean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_S.20084-317">[293]</a> Jeju sound symbolism operates with both consonants and vowels. The intensity of a Jeju word may be strengthened by using tense and especially aspirate obstruents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a251–252-318">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_S.200810–12-319">[295]</a> The sound symbolism may also be emphasized through the addition of consonants,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_S.20085–6-320">[296]</a> by adding the sequence -락 -rak to both reduplicated segments, and with <a href="/wiki/Fortition" title="Fortition">fortition</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_S.20085,_7,_9-321">[297]</a> The yang harmonic class of vowels has a bright, small connotation, and the yin vowel class gives a dark, large connotation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a250-322">[298]</a> Ko Jae-hwan also gives examples of three or four layers of vowel sound symbolism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a255–258-323">[299]</a> <ul><li>Consonant sound symbolism: <ul><li>고시롱 gosirong "savory" → 꼬시롱 kkosirong "[very] savory" → 코시롱 kosirong "[extremely] savory"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a252-324">[300]</a></li> <li>을강을강 eulgang-eulgang "[small] sound of rat gnawing teeth" → 글강글강 geulgang-geulgang "[large] sound of rat gnawing teeth"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDictionary2009110-325">[301]</a></li> <li>ᄇᆞᆯ착ᄇᆞᆯ착 bawlchak-bawlchak "easily angered" → ᄇᆞᆯ치락ᄇᆞᆯ치락 bawlchirak-bawlchirak "[very] easily angered" <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDictionary2009478-326">[302]</a></li> <li>크뜽크뜽 keutteung-keutteung "neatly aligned" → 코찡코찡 kojjing-kojjing "[very] neatly aligned"<a href="#cite_note-329">[y]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vowel sound symbolism: <ul><li>동골동골 donggol-donggol "round [of a small object]" → 둥굴둥굴 dunggul-dunggul "round [of a large object]"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a250-322">[298]</a></li> <li>ᄋᆞᆼ당ᄋᆞᆼ당 awngdang-awngdang "[small and light] sound of muttered complaints" → 옹당옹당 ongdang-ongdang "[large and heavy] sound of muttered complaints" → 웅당웅당 ungdang-ungdang "[very large and very heavy] sound of muttered complaints"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a255-330">[305]</a></li> <li>ᄆᆞᆫ들ᄆᆞᆫ들 mawndeul-mawndeul "smooth to the touch [of a very small or dry object]" → 맨들맨들 maendeul-maendeul "smooth to the touch [of a somewhat small or dry object]" → 문들문들 mundeul-mundeul "slippery to the touch [of a somewhat large or wet object]" → 민들민들 mindeul-mindeul "slippery to the touch [of a very large or wet object]"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a258-331">[306]</a></li></ul></li></ul> Multiple sound-symbolic strategies may combine in a single word. Kang S. 2008 gives eight sound symbolic variants of the ideophone ᄆᆞᆯ탁ᄆᆞᆯ탁 mawltak-mawltak "the shape of many objects being blunt," each more intense than the other:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_S.20082-316">[292]</a> <blockquote> ᄆᆞᆯ탁ᄆᆞᆯ탁 mawltak-mawltak → ᄆᆞᆯ트락ᄆᆞᆯ트락 mawlteurak-mawlteurak → ᄆᆞᆯ착ᄆᆞᆯ착 mawlchak-mawlchak → ᄆᆞᆯ치락ᄆᆞᆯ치락 mawlchirak-mawlchirak → 뫁탁몰탁 moltak-moltak → 몰착몰착 molchak-molchak → 몰트락몰트락 molteurak-molteurak → 몰치락몰치락 molchirak-molchirak </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinship_terminology">Kinship terminology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Kinship terminology">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">kinship terminology</a> of Jeju has been the focus of particular attention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeju_Province2019a481-313">[289]</a> Jeju has a complex kinship system that distinguishes the gender of both the speaker and the relative. Gender distinctions are particularly noticeable in sibling terminology. The words 성 seong and 아시 asi refer to "older same-gender sibling" and "younger same-gender sibling" respectively, while 오라방 orabang and 누이 nui refer specifically to "brother of a female" and "sister of a male" respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201938–39-332">[307]</a> Female speakers also tend to refer to relatives with native compounds, whereas male speakers prefer Sino-Korean terms. For instance, the same cousin may be referred to by a man as ᄉᆞ춘 sawchun "cousin" but by a woman as 고모님 ᄄᆞᆯ gomo-nim ttawl "paternal aunt's daughter."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_M.201040,_43-333">[308]</a> A major distinction between Jeju and Korean kinship terms is that women do not use honorifics to refer to their in-laws, reflecting weaker historical influence from <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> patriarchal norms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_M.201034,_40,_43-334">[309]</a> Jeju also uses supplementary prefixes to clarify the type of kinship, equivalent to "step-" or "maternal" in English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201940–42-335">[310]</a> These include 친- chin-, 성- seong-, and 당- dang- for paternal relations, 웨- we- for maternal relations, 다슴- daseum- for step-relations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201940-336">[311]</a> 처- cheo- and 가시- gasi- for a male's in-laws, and 시- si- for a woman's in-laws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a274-337">[312]</a> Five other prefixes, which may be combined, mark relative age: 쳇- chet- or 큰- keun- "eldest," 셋- set- "second eldest of three or more," 말젯- maljet- "third eldest of four or more," and 족은- jogeun- "youngest." These are used to distinguish relatives of the same generation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201941–42-338">[313]</a> <ul><li>하르방 hareubang "grandfather" <ul><li>큰하르방 keun-hareubang "oldest brother of one's grandfather"</li> <li>셋하르방 set-hareubang "second brother of one's grandfather"</li> <li>큰말젯하르방 keun-maljet-hareubang "third brother of one's grandfather"</li> <li>셋말젯하르방 set-maljet-hareubang "fourth brother of one's grandfather"</li> <li>족은말젯하르방 jogeun-maljet-hareubang "fifth brother of one's grandfather"</li> <li>족은하르방 jogeun-hareubang "youngest brother of one's grandfather"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201942-339">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a281–282-340">[315]</a></li></ul></li></ul> Other prefixes include 왕- wang-, used in 왕하르방 wang-hareubang "great-grandfather", and 넛- neot-, used to refer to a sibling of one's grandparent generally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_M.201030–31-341">[316]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_text">Sample text</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Sample text">edit</a>]</div> The following is an excerpt from a version of the <a href="/wiki/Menggam_bon-puri" class="mw-redirect" title="Menggam bon-puri">Menggam bon-puri</a>, one of the epic chants recited by Jeju shamans. In this myth, the poacher Song Saman discovers an abandoned skull in the hills and cares for it <a href="/wiki/Jesa" title="Jesa">as if it were his own ancestor</a>. The skull reciprocates by warning Song Saman of his early death and advising him on how to avoid the <a href="/wiki/Chasa_bon-puri#Etymology" title="Chasa bon-puri">chasa</a>, the three gods of death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin_S.1991169–175-342">[317]</a> This version was transcribed between 1956 and 1963<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin_S.199139-343">[318]</a> from the recitation of the shaman Byeon Sin-saeng, born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1904.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin_S.1991175-344">[319]</a> The transcription predates both standardized orthographies of Jeju. The transcriber openly notes that the orthography is inconsistent.<a href="#cite_note-345">[320]</a> No attempt was made in this article to standardize or update the orthography. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Jeju original<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin_S.1991173–174-346">[321]</a></th> <th>Korean translation<a href="#cite_note-347">[z]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width:49%"><div title="Jejueo-language text"><div lang="jje">“느 송ᄉᆞ만이 전맹이 ᄀᆞᆺ 서른이 매기난, 서른 나는 해에 아무ᄃᆞᆯ 아무날은 맹이 매기니 느가 발 살앙 오몽ᄒᆞ여질 때, 나를 낭곳으로 ᄀᆞ져다 도라... 시 ᄆᆞ슬 강 심방 시 개 걷우우곡 마당이 큰대 세왕 두 일회 열나을 굿을 ᄒᆞ라...”맷딱 ᄎᆞᆯ려놓완 백보 밲겼딜로 간 절을 ᄒᆞ연, ᄀᆞ만이 꿀련 업더져두서 보난 삼체ᄉᆞ가 ᄂᆞ려오멍...“송ᄉᆞ만이네 집이서 정성을 아니드렴신가?”말자이 오는 체ᄉᆞᆫ “송ᄉᆞ만이네 집이 백년대강이를 모삼따. 그 백년대강이가 송ᄉᆞ만이 심으레 오람센 ᄀᆞᆯ아분 생이여... 받음은 받았주마는 심엉 오랜 ᄒᆞᆫ 시간이 시여부난 어떵흘코?”</div></div> </td> <td><div title="Korean-language text"><div lang="ko">“너 송사만이는 겨우 서른이 수명의 끝이니, 서른 되는 해에는 아무 달 아무 날에 명이 끝날 테이므로 너가 발이 살아서 움직일 수 있을 때 나를 나무숲으로 데려다 달라... 마을 세 곳에 가서 무당 세 명을 모으고 마당에 큰 깃대 세워서 두 이레 열나흘 굿[제주 큰굿]을 하라...“다 차려놓은 체 백보 바깥으로 가 절하며 가만히 무릎 꿇고 업드리고 보니까, 삼차사가 내려오면서...“송사만이네 집에서 정성을 드리고 있는 것 아닌가?“나중에 오는 차사는, “송사만이네 집에서 백년 된 해골을 모시고 있다. 그 백년 된 해골이 송사만이 잡으러 오고 있다고 말해버린 모양이야... 준 건 받았지만 잡아 오라고 한 마감이 있는데 어떻게 할까?“</div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Romanization<a href="#cite_note-348">[aa]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">neu Song Sawman-i jeonmaeng-i gawt seoreun-i maeg-inan, seoreun naneun hae-e amu dawl amu nar-eun maeng-i maeg-ini neu-ga bal sarang omong-hawyeo-jil ttae, na-reul nang-gos-euro gawjyeoda dora... si mawseul gang simbang si gae geoduugok madang-i keun dae sewang du ilhwe yeol-naeul gus-eul hawra... maetttak chawllyeo-nowan baekbo baekgyeot-dillo gan jeor-eul hawyeon, gawmani kkulyeon eopdeojyeo-duseo bonan samchesaw-ga nawryeo-omeong... "Song Sawman-i-ne jib-iseo jeongseong-eul ani deuryeomsin'ga?" Maljai oneun chesaw-n "Song Sawman-i-ne jib-i baengnyeon-daegang'i-reul mosamtta. geu baengnyeon-daegang'i-ga Song Sawman-i simeure oramsen gawra-bun saeng-iyeo... badeum-eun badat-jumaneun simeong oraen hawn sigan-i siyeo-bunan eotteong-heulko?" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">English </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">"You, Song Saman, your life will end at only thirty, and the year you turn thirty, your life will end at any day of any month, so take me to the wooded forest while your feet are still alive and you can move... Go to three villages and gather three shamans and raise a great flagstaff in the household hall, and hold the Great <a href="/wiki/Gut_(ritual)" title="Gut (ritual)">Gut</a> [<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'the gut of two weeks and fourteen days']..." Once they laid out everything, [Song Sawman and his wife] went back a hundred steps and prostrated themselves. Quietly kneeling and lying prone, they saw the three chasa descend... "Are they not doing devotional acts at Song Saman's household?" The chasa coming in last [responded], "At Song Saman's household, they are worshipping a hundred-year-old skull. It seems that the hundred-year-old skull told [them] that we were coming to capture Song Sawman... We have partaken of the offerings [<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'received what is received'], but there is a date that they told us to capture him by, so what should we do?" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon-puri" title="Bon-puri">Bon-puri</a>, Jeju-language narrative poems explaining the origins of deities.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> 제주어 보전 및 육성 조례; Jeju-eo bojeon mit yukseong jorye </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> The term "first and second generations" as used here refers to Jeju speakers born in Jeju, though now living in Japan (the first generation), and to their children who were born in Japan (the second generation). </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> 안무어사; anmueosa </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> 제주어보존회; Jeju-eo bojon-hoe </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> 제주방언연구회; Jeju bang'eon yeon'gu-hoe </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> In syllable-final position only </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Other than /p͈/<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_J.2011a23-83">[77]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> The only k-irregular verb </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> As given in Yang C, Yang S., & O'Grady 2019<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang_C.Yang_S.O'Grady201918–19-97">[89]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> /ɒ/ merges with /o/ in the initial syllable and with /ə/ in non-initial ones. An apparent fronting of /ɒ/ to /a/, seen in heritage speakers born in the 1980s, is not a genuine Jeju development but simply interference from Standard Korean, where /a/ is cognate to Jeju /ɒ/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.2008-103">[94]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Excluding the liquid consonant /l/<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.201533-120">[110]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Parts in parentheses are omitted following vowels </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 also classifies -(i)seo and -ra/re as nominative particles, but Kim Jee-hong points out that they are restricted in use and can be topicalized, and should thus be seen as nominative constructions that rely on non-nominative morphemes. </li> <li id="cite_note-SegmentLoss-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SegmentLoss_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SegmentLoss_163-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SegmentLoss_163-2">c</a> Initial segment also lost after <a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">liquid consonant</a> -l </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Some vowel-final stems take -gwang </li> <li id="cite_note-Epenthetical-179">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Epenthetical_179-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epenthetical_179-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epenthetical_179-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epenthetical_179-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epenthetical_179-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epenthetical_179-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epenthetical_179-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epenthetical_179-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epenthetical_179-8">i</a> Initial vowel -eu- has <a href="#Vowel_phonological_processes">epenthetical vowel allomorphs</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> According to the segmentation of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019. May also be segmented as <blockquote><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">gai<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">jire-gaheight-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">keu-keu-ragrow-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="prospective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROSP</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="sentence ender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SE</abbr></div>gai jire-ga keu-keu-ra3SG height-NOM grow-PROSP-SE<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div></blockquote> See section <a href="#Tense-marking">Tense-marking</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> In Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's segmentation, -nya is two morphemes. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Called "formative" by Kim Jee-hong </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> Kim Jee-hong 2015 classifies all endings that can be followed by the deferential marker massim as informal, but Kim Jee-hong 2017 does so only for non-canonical endings. </li> <li id="cite_note-AlwaysEpenthetical-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlwaysEpenthetical_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlwaysEpenthetical_232-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlwaysEpenthetical_232-2">c</a> Initial vowel -eu- is always <a href="#Vowel_phonological_processes">epenthetical</a> in these examples. </li> <li id="cite_note-Parenthesis-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parenthesis_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parenthesis_234-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parenthesis_234-2">c</a> Parentheses mark differences in segmentation between Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 and Kim Jee-hong. Notably, Kim Jee-hong does not analyze the vowel -i- following aspect markers as an epenthetical vowel but as a separate morpheme.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim_Jee-h.2015181–186-233">[212]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-VowelHarmony-235">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VowelHarmony_235-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-VowelHarmony_235-1">b</a> Vowel harmony </li> <li id="cite_note-감-283">^ <a href="#cite_ref-감_283-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-감_283-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-감_283-2">c</a> 감/감수 instead of government-orthography 가ᇝ/가ᇝ우 in original source </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> Given with 크 keu, 코 ko in Kang S. 2008,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKang_S.20087-327">[303]</a> but both forms given with ᄏᆞ kaw in the 2009 Dictionary of the Jeju Language<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDictionary2009840-328">[304]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> Based on glosses and cognates of Jeju provided in Chin S. 1991; Chin gives one-to-one definitions or Standard Korean cognates of most Jeju terms not immediately identifiable by a Korean speaker, but does not actually translate the text into fluent Standard Korean </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> Nouns are hyphenated from their particles, and compounds are hyphenated between their components, but the verbal morphology is not hyphenated. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e18-1"><a href="#cite_ref-e18_1-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/jje/">Jeju</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFOlkoSallabank2021" class="citation book cs1">Olko, Justyna; Sallabank, Julia (29 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=63AjEAAAQBAJ">Revitalizing Endangered Languages: A Practical Guide</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48575-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48575-3"><bdi>978-1-108-48575-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revitalizing+Endangered+Languages%3A+A+Practical+Guide&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021-04-29&rft.isbn=978-1-108-48575-3&rft.aulast=Olko&rft.aufirst=Justyna&rft.au=Sallabank%2C+Julia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D63AjEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lee, Seungjae (2017). The old Korean Language Inscribed on Wooden Tablets (in Korean). 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim_M.201030–31_341-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKim_M.2010">Kim M. 2010</a>, pp. 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin_S.1991169–175-342"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin_S.1991169–175_342-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChin_S.1991">Chin S. 1991</a>, pp. 169–175. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin_S.199139-343"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin_S.199139_343-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChin_S.1991">Chin S. 1991</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin_S.1991175-344"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin_S.1991175_344-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChin_S.1991">Chin S. 1991</a>, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> "제주도의 발음으로서의 일률적인 통일 역시 이루지 않았고... 한 사람의 발음이 같은 뜻을 지니면서 다소 틀림이 있는 경우일지라도 이것 역시 발음 그대로를 표기했다." <a href="#CITEREFChin_S.1991">Chin S. 1991</a>, p. 39 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChin_S.1991173–174-346"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChin_S.1991173–174_346-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChin_S.1991">Chin S. 1991</a>, pp. 173–174. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English">English</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: English">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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Honolulu, Hawaii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Teaching+Jejueo%3A+Present+Problems+and+Future+Plans&rft.place=Honolulu%2C+Hawaii&rft.date=2014-11&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Sejung&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcongress.aks.ac.kr%2Fkorean%2Ffiles%2F2_1413765942.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang_S.2018" class="citation thesis cs1">————— (December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210924102946/http://ling.hawaii.edu/wp-content/uploads/SejungYangFinal.pdf">Assessing Language Knowledge in Jeju: Vocabulary and Verbal Patterns in Jejueo and English</a> (PDF) (PhD). Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʻi Press. 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Retrieved 16 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Assessing+Language+Knowledge+in+Jeju%3A+Vocabulary+and+Verbal+Patterns+in+Jejueo+and+English&rft.inst=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=2018-12&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Sejung&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fling.hawaii.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FSejungYangFinal.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang_S.2020" class="citation journal cs1">————— (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.korling.or.kr/data/thesis/17093453161045.pdf">"Resegmentation of Tense-Aspect Markers in Jejueo, the Traditional Language of Jeju Island"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 17 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unesco.org&rft.atitle=New+interactive+atlas+adds+two+more+endangered+languages&rft.date=2010-12-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unesco.org%2Fnew%2Fen%2Fmedia-services%2Fsingle-view%2Fnews%2Fnew_interactive_atlas_adds_two_more_endangered_languages%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUNESCO2017" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/languages-atlas/en/atlasmap/language-id-2724.html">"Jeju, UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger"</a>. unesco.org. 11 June 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unesco.org&rft.atitle=Jeju%2C+UNESCO+Atlas+of+the+World%27s+Languages+in+Danger&rft.date=2017-06-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unesco.org%2Flanguages-atlas%2Fen%2Fatlasmap%2Flanguage-id-2724.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Korean">Korean</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Korean">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKang_S.2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">강석한 (Kang Seok-han) (November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE01156548">"Jeju Hangug-eo-ui gangjo jungcheob-eo-e natanan jaeum eum-byeonhwa yangsang yeon'gu" <bdi lang="ko">제주 한국어의 강조 중첩어에 나타난 자음 음변화 양상 연구</bdi></a> [The Consonant Change Pattern of Emphatic Reduplication in Cheju Korean]. 언어학 연구. 13: 1–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.atitle=Jeju+Hangug-eo-ui+gangjo+jungcheob-eo-e+natanan+jaeum+eum-byeonhwa+yangsang+yeon%27gu+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4%EC%9D%98+%EA%B0%95%EC%A1%B0+%EC%A4%91%EC%B2%A9%EC%96%B4%EC%97%90+%EB%82%98%ED%83%80%EB%82%9C+%EC%9E%90%EC%9D%8C+%EC%9D%8C%EB%B3%80%ED%99%94+%EC%96%91%EC%83%81+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=2008-11&rft.au=%EA%B0%95%EC%84%9D%ED%95%9C+%28Kang+Seok-han%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2Fjournal%2FarticleDetail%3FnodeId%3DNODE01156548&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKang_Y.-b.2008" class="citation report cs1 cs1-prop-script">강영봉 (Kang Young-bong) (2008). 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Retrieved 11 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon+%27arae-a%27-ui+sidae-byeol+byeonhwa+yangsang+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%27%E3%86%8D%27%EC%9D%98+%EC%84%B8%EB%8C%80%EB%B3%84+%EB%B3%80%ED%99%94+%EC%96%91%EC%83%81&rft.volume=65&rft.pages=55-74&rft.date=2008-06-30&rft.issn=1229-1730&rft.au=%EA%B3%A0%EB%8F%99%ED%98%B8+%28Ko+Dong-ho%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.dkyobobook.co.kr%2FsearchDetail.laf%3Fbarcode%3D4010022020168%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKo_D.Song_S.Oh_C.Moon_S.2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">고동호 (Ko Dong-ho); 송상조 (Song Sang-jo); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myung); 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok); 오승훈 (Oh Seung-hun) (December 2015). Jejut-mar-ui ihae <bdi lang="ko">제줏말의 이해</bdi> [Understanding the Jeju Language]. Jeju City, Jeju: 제주발전연구원. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-6010-440-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-6010-440-2"><bdi>978-89-6010-440-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jejut-mar-ui+ihae+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A4%8F%EB%A7%90%EC%9D%98+%EC%9D%B4%ED%95%B4&rft.place=Jeju+City%2C+Jeju&rft.pub=%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%9C%EC%A0%84%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC%EC%9B%90&rft.date=2015-12&rft.isbn=978-89-6010-440-2&rft.au=%EA%B3%A0%EB%8F%99%ED%98%B8+%28Ko+Dong-ho%29&rft.au=%EC%86%A1%EC%83%81%EC%A1%B0+%28Song+Sang-jo%29&rft.au=%EC%98%A4%EC%B0%BD%EB%AA%85+%28Oh+Chang-myung%29&rft.au=%EB%AC%B8%EC%88%9C%EB%8D%95+%28Moon+Soon-deok%29&rft.au=%EC%98%A4%EC%8A%B9%ED%9B%88+%28Oh+Seung-hun%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKo_M.Kim_W.Byun_G.Kim_Jo.-h.2007" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">고미숙 (Ko Mi-Sook); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo); 변길자 (Byun Giljia); 김종훈 (Kim Jong-hoon); 박순복 (Park Soon-bok); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myung) (September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE06607653">"Jeju bang'eon-ui yeollyeongdae-byeol eogyang-gu gyeonggye-seongjo yeon'gu" <bdi lang="ko">제주방언의 연령대별 억양구 경계성조 연구</bdi></a> [Age-related differences in the boundary tone patterns of intonational phrases in the Jeju dialect]. 언어과학연구. 42: 27–43. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1229-0343">1229-0343</a>. Retrieved 14 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon-ui+yeollyeongdae-byeol+eogyang-gu+gyeonggye-seongjo+yeon%27gu+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%9D%98+%EC%97%B0%EB%A0%B9%EB%8C%80%EB%B3%84+%EC%96%B5%EC%96%91%EA%B5%AC+%EA%B2%BD%EA%B3%84%EC%84%B1%EC%A1%B0+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=27-43&rft.date=2007-09&rft.issn=1229-0343&rft.au=%EA%B3%A0%EB%AF%B8%EC%88%99+%28Ko+Mi-Sook%29&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%9B%90%EB%B3%B4+%28Kim+Won-bo%29&rft.au=%EB%B3%80%EA%B8%B8%EC%9E%90+%28Byun+Giljia%29&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%A2%85%ED%9B%88+%28Kim+Jong-hoon%29&rft.au=%EB%B0%95%EC%88%9C%EB%B3%B5+%28Park+Soon-bok%29&rft.au=%EC%98%A4%EC%B0%BD%EB%AA%85+%28Oh+Chang-myung%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2Fjournal%2FarticleDetail%3FnodeId%3DNODE06607653&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKo_Y.2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">고영진 (Ko Young-jin) (June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE02352776">"Jeju-do bang'eon-ui hyeongtaeron-jeok sang beomju-ui chegye-hwa-reul wihayeo" <bdi lang="ko">제주도 방언의 형태론적 상 범주의 체계화를 위하여</bdi></a> [For the Study of the Morphological Aspect System in Cheju Dialect]. 한글. 280: 101–128. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1225-0449">1225-0449</a>. Retrieved 23 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%ED%95%9C%EA%B8%80&rft.atitle=Jeju-do+bang%27eon-ui+hyeongtaeron-jeok+sang+beomju-ui+chegye-hwa-reul+wihayeo+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%8F%84+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%9D%98+%ED%98%95%ED%83%9C%EB%A1%A0%EC%A0%81+%EC%83%81+%EB%B2%94%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98+%EC%B2%B4%EA%B3%84%ED%99%94%EB%A5%BC+%EC%9C%84%ED%95%98%EC%97%AC&rft.volume=280&rft.pages=101-128&rft.date=2008-06&rft.issn=1225-0449&rft.au=%EA%B3%A0%EC%98%81%EC%A7%84+%28Ko+Young-jin%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2Fjournal%2FarticleDetail%3FnodeId%3DNODE02352776&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKo_J.2011a" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">고재환 (Ko Jae-hwan) (9 September 2011). Jeju-eo gaeron sang <bdi lang="ko">제주어개론 상</bdi> [Introduction to Jeju, Volume I]. Seongbuk-gu, Seoul: 보고사. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-8433-934-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-8433-934-7"><bdi>978-89-8433-934-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jeju-eo+gaeron+sang+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EA%B0%9C%EB%A1%A0+%EC%83%81&rft.place=Seongbuk-gu%2C+Seoul&rft.pub=%EB%B3%B4%EA%B3%A0%EC%82%AC&rft.date=2011-09-09&rft.isbn=978-89-8433-934-7&rft.au=%EA%B3%A0%EC%9E%AC%ED%99%98+%28Ko+Jae-hwan%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKo_J.2011b" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (9 September 2011). Jeju-eo gaeron ha <bdi lang="ko">제주어개론 하</bdi> [Introduction to Jeju, Volume II]. Seongbuk-gu, Seoul: 보고사. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-8433-935-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-8433-935-4"><bdi>978-89-8433-935-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jeju-eo+gaeron+ha+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EA%B0%9C%EB%A1%A0+%ED%95%98&rft.place=Seongbuk-gu%2C+Seoul&rft.pub=%EB%B3%B4%EA%B3%A0%EC%82%AC&rft.date=2011-09-09&rft.isbn=978-89-8433-935-4&rft.au=%EA%B3%A0%EC%9E%AC%ED%99%98+%28Ko+Jae-hwan%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKo_J.Song_S.Kim_Jee-h.Oh_C.2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">고재환 (Ko Jae-hwan); 송상조 (Song Sang-jo); 김지홍 (Kim Jee-hong); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myung); 오승훈 (Oh Seung-hun); 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok) (November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dB6WswEACAAJ">Jeju-eo pyogi-beop haeseol <bdi lang="ko">제주어 표기법 해설</bdi></a> [Exposition of the Orthography of the Jeju Language]. Jeju City, Jeju: 제주발전연구원. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-6010-387-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-6010-387-0"><bdi>978-89-6010-387-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jeju-eo+pyogi-beop+haeseol+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4+%ED%91%9C%EA%B8%B0%EB%B2%95+%ED%95%B4%EC%84%A4&rft.place=Jeju+City%2C+Jeju&rft.pub=%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%9C%EC%A0%84%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC%EC%9B%90&rft.date=2014-11&rft.isbn=978-89-6010-387-0&rft.au=%EA%B3%A0%EC%9E%AC%ED%99%98+%28Ko+Jae-hwan%29&rft.au=%EC%86%A1%EC%83%81%EC%A1%B0+%28Song+Sang-jo%29&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%A7%80%ED%99%8D+%28Kim+Jee-hong%29&rft.au=%EC%98%A4%EC%B0%BD%EB%AA%85+%28Oh+Chang-myung%29&rft.au=%EC%98%A4%EC%8A%B9%ED%9B%88+%28Oh+Seung-hun%29&rft.au=%EB%AC%B8%EC%88%9C%EB%8D%95+%28Moon+Soon-deok%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdB6WswEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwon_S.2017" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">권성훈 (Kwon Seong-hun) (February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE07134996">"Jeju bang'eon sog'eui Mongol-eo chayong-eo" <bdi lang="ko">제주방언 속의 몽골어 차용어</bdi></a> [Mongol Loanwords in Jeju Dialect]. 동악어문학. 70: 53–67. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1229-4306">1229-4306</a>. Retrieved 20 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EB%8F%99%EC%95%85%EC%96%B4%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon+sog%27eui+Mongol-eo+chayong-eo+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EC%86%8D%EC%9D%98+%EB%AA%BD%EA%B3%A8%EC%96%B4+%EC%B0%A8%EC%9A%A9%EC%96%B4&rft.volume=70&rft.pages=53-67&rft.date=2017-02&rft.issn=1229-4306&rft.au=%EA%B6%8C%EC%84%B1%ED%9B%88+%28Kwon+Seong-hun%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2Fjournal%2FarticleDetail%3FnodeId%3DNODE07134996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_M.2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">김미진 (Kim Mi-jin) (August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001469697">"Jeju-do bang'eon-ui chinjog-eo yeon'gu―yeoseong hawaja-reul jungsim-euro" <bdi lang="ko">제주도 방언의 친족어 연구―여성 화자를 중심으로</bdi></a> [Study on the Kinship terms of JeJu dialect― Focused on female speakers]. 영주어문. 20: 27–41. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1598-9011">1598-9011</a>. Retrieved 20 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%98%81%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%AC%B8&rft.atitle=Jeju-do+bang%27eon-ui+chinjog-eo+yeon%27gu%E2%80%95yeoseong+hawaja-reul+jungsim-euro+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%8F%84+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%9D%98+%EC%B9%9C%EC%A1%B1%EC%96%B4+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC%E2%80%95%EC%97%AC%EC%84%B1+%ED%99%94%EC%9E%90%EB%A5%BC+%EC%A4%91%EC%8B%AC%EC%9C%BC%EB%A1%9C&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=27-41&rft.date=2010-08&rft.issn=1598-9011&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EB%AF%B8%EC%A7%84+%28Kim+Mi-jin%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kci.go.kr%2Fkciportal%2Fci%2FsereArticleSearch%2FciSereArtiView.kci%3FsereArticleSearchBean.artiId%3DART001469697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_M.2019" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3660069">"Jeju bang'eon-ui inyong pyoji yeon'gu" <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언의 인용 표지 연구</bdi></a> [A study on quotation marker of Jeju dialect]. 영주어문. 41: 29–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30774%2Fyjll.2019.02.41.29">10.30774/yjll.2019.02.41.29</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1598-9011">1598-9011</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:187483331">187483331</a>. Retrieved 27 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%98%81%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%AC%B8&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon-ui+inyong+pyoji+yeon%27gu+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%9D%98+%EC%9D%B8%EC%9A%A9+%ED%91%9C%EC%A7%80+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=29-55&rft.date=2019-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A187483331%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1598-9011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30774%2Fyjll.2019.02.41.29&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EB%AF%B8%EC%A7%84&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkiss.kstudy.com%2Fthesis%2Fthesis-view.asp%3Fkey%3D3660069&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_B.2014" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">김보향 (Kim Bo-hyang) (August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yeongju.jams.or.kr/jams/download/KCI_FI001900784.pdf">"Osaka Ikuno-ku jiyeok jaeil-Jeju-in-ui Jeju bang'eon sayong siltae-e gwanhan yeon'gu" <bdi lang="ko">오사카 이쿠노쿠 지역 재일제주인의 제주방언 사용 실태에 관한 연구</bdi></a> [A Study on the Jeju Dialect Used by Jeju People Living in Ikuno-ku, Osaka, Japan] (PDF). 영주어문. 28: 111–136. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1598-9011">1598-9011</a>. Retrieved 14 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%98%81%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%AC%B8&rft.atitle=Osaka+Ikuno-ku+jiyeok+jaeil-Jeju-in-ui+Jeju+bang%27eon+sayong+siltae-e+gwanhan+yeon%27gu+%EC%98%A4%EC%82%AC%EC%B9%B4+%EC%9D%B4%EC%BF%A0%EB%85%B8%EC%BF%A0+%EC%A7%80%EC%97%AD+%EC%9E%AC%EC%9D%BC%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%B8%EC%9D%98+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EC%82%AC%EC%9A%A9+%EC%8B%A4%ED%83%9C%EC%97%90+%EA%B4%80%ED%95%9C+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=111-136&rft.date=2014-08&rft.issn=1598-9011&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EB%B3%B4%ED%96%A5+%28Kim+Bo-hyang%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyeongju.jams.or.kr%2Fjams%2Fdownload%2FKCI_FI001900784.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_S.2010" class="citation thesis cs1 cs1-prop-script">김순자 (Kim Sun-ja) (December 2010). Jeju-do bang'eon-ui eoneo-jiri-hak-jeok yeon'gu <bdi lang="ko">제주도방언의 언어지리학적 연구</bdi> [A Geolinguistic Study on the Jeju Dialect] (PhD). Jeju National University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Jeju-do+bang%27eon-ui+eoneo-jiri-hak-jeok+yeon%27gu+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%8F%84%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%9D%98+%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%EC%A7%80%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99%EC%A0%81+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.inst=Jeju+National+University&rft.date=2010-12&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%88%9C%EC%9E%90+%28Kim+Sun-ja%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_S.2019" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE0876988">"Jeju-do bang'eon-e daehan bang'eon taedo chui yeon'gu" <bdi lang="ko">제주도 방언에 대한 방언 태도 추이 연구</bdi></a> [A Study on Changes in Attitude to Jeju Dialect]. 한국어학. 84: 1–34. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1226-9123">1226-9123</a>. Retrieved 17 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Jeju-do+bang%27eon-e+daehan+bang%27eon+taedo+chui+yeon%27gu+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%8F%84+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%97%90+%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%ED%83%9C%EB%8F%84+%EC%B6%94%EC%9D%B4+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.volume=84&rft.pages=1-34&rft.date=2019-08&rft.issn=1226-9123&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%88%9C%EC%9E%90+%28Kim+Sun-ja%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2Fjournal%2FarticleDetail%3FnodeId%3DNODE0876988&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_W.2004" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">김원보 (Kim Won-bo) (May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.earticle.net/Article/A178903">"Jeju bang'eon-eseo arae-a eum-ui eumhyang-bunseok" <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언에서 [ㆍ] 음의 음향분석</bdi></a> [On the Acoustic Analysis of the Vowel [ㆍ] in Jeju Dialect]. 언어학연구. 9 (1): 73–90. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1229-0343">1229-0343</a>. Retrieved 11 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon-eseo+arae-a+eum-ui+eumhyang-bunseok+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%97%90%EC%84%9C+%5B%E3%86%8D%5D+%EC%9D%8C%EC%9D%98+%EC%9D%8C%ED%96%A5%EB%B6%84%EC%84%9D&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=73-90&rft.date=2004-05&rft.issn=1229-0343&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%9B%90%EB%B3%B4+%28Kim+Won-bo%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earticle.net%2FArticle%2FA178903&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_W.2005" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kmbase.medric.or.kr/Main.aspx?menu=01&d=KMBASE&m=VIEW&i=0917520050120020029">"Jeju bang'eon ijung-moeum-ui eumhyang-bunseok" <bdi lang="ko">제주방언 이중모음의 음향분석</bdi></a> [The Acoustic Analysis of the Diphthongs in Jeju Dialect]. 음성과학. 12 (2): 29–41. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1226-5276">1226-5276</a>. Retrieved 11 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%9D%8C%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon+ijung-moeum-ui+eumhyang-bunseok+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EC%9D%B4%EC%A4%91%EB%AA%A8%EC%9D%8C%EC%9D%98+%EC%9D%8C%ED%96%A5%EB%B6%84%EC%84%9D&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=29-41&rft.date=2005-12&rft.issn=1226-5276&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%9B%90%EB%B3%B4+%28Kim+Won-bo%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkmbase.medric.or.kr%2FMain.aspx%3Fmenu%3D01%26d%3DKMBASE%26m%3DVIEW%26i%3D0917520050120020029&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_J.-e.2019" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script">김정은 (Kim Jeong-eun) (24 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jejunews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=2132194">"10년 성과 바탕…제주어 정립"</a>. Jeju Sinbo <bdi lang="ko">제주신보</bdi>. Jeju City, Jeju. Retrieved 17 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jeju+Sinbo&rft.atitle=10%EB%85%84+%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%BC+%EB%B0%94%ED%83%95%E2%80%A6%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4+%EC%A0%95%EB%A6%BD&rft.date=2019-02-24&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%A0%95%EC%9D%80+%28Kim+Jeong-eun%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jejunews.com%2Fnews%2FarticleView.html%3Fidxno%3D2132194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_Jee-h.2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">김지홍 (Kim Jee-hong) (20 July 2015). Jeju bang'eon-ui tongsa gisul-gwa seolmyeong: gibon-gumun-ui gineung-beomju bunseok <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언의 통사 기술과 설명: 기본구문의 기능범주 분석</bdi> [Explanation and Description of the Syntax of the Jeju Dialect: Analysis of the Functional Categories of the Basic Syntax]. Gwangmyeong, Gyeonggi-do: 도서출판 경진. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-5996-474-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-5996-474-1"><bdi>978-89-5996-474-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jeju+bang%27eon-ui+tongsa+gisul-gwa+seolmyeong%3A+gibon-gumun-ui+gineung-beomju+bunseok+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%9D%98+%ED%86%B5%EC%82%AC+%EA%B8%B0%EC%88%A0%EA%B3%BC+%EC%84%A4%EB%AA%85%3A+%EA%B8%B0%EB%B3%B8%EA%B5%AC%EB%AC%B8%EC%9D%98+%EA%B8%B0%EB%8A%A5%EB%B2%94%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B6%84%EC%84%9D&rft.place=Gwangmyeong%2C+Gyeonggi-do&rft.pub=%EB%8F%84%EC%84%9C%EC%B6%9C%ED%8C%90+%EA%B2%BD%EC%A7%84&rft.date=2015-07-20&rft.isbn=978-89-5996-474-1&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%A7%80%ED%99%8D+%28Kim+Jee-hong%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_Jee-h.2016" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE07016483">"Jeju bang'eon-ui seon-eomal-eomi-wa jonggyeol-eomi chegye" <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언의 선어말어미와 종결어미 체계</bdi></a> [On Prefinal and Final Ending Systems in Jeju Korean]. 한글. 313: 109–171. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1225-0449">1225-0449</a>. Retrieved 23 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%ED%95%9C%EA%B8%80&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon-ui+seon-eomal-eomi-wa+jonggyeol-eomi+chegye+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%9D%98+%EC%84%A0%EC%96%B4%EB%A7%90%EC%96%B4%EB%AF%B8%EC%99%80+%EC%A2%85%EA%B2%B0%EC%96%B4%EB%AF%B8+%EC%B2%B4%EA%B3%84&rft.volume=313&rft.pages=109-171&rft.date=2016-09&rft.issn=1225-0449&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%A7%80%ED%99%8D+%28Kim+Jee-hong%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2Fjournal%2FarticleDetail%3FnodeId%3DNODE07016483&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon_S.2002" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok) (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.papersearch.net/thesis/article.asp?KEY=2942169">"Jeju bang'eon-ui bojo-josa-ui damhwa gineung" <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언 보조조사의 담화 기능</bdi></a> [The Discourse Functions of Auxiliary Noun Markers in the Jeju Dialect]. 영주어문. 4: 71–84. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1598-9011">1598-9011</a>. Retrieved 21 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%98%81%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%AC%B8&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon-ui+bojo-josa-ui+damhwa+gineung+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EB%B3%B4%EC%A1%B0%EC%A1%B0%EC%82%AC%EC%9D%98+%EB%8B%B4%ED%99%94+%EA%B8%B0%EB%8A%A5&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=71-84&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=1598-9011&rft.au=%EB%AC%B8%EC%88%9C%EB%8D%95+%28Moon+Soon-deok%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.papersearch.net%2Fthesis%2Farticle.asp%3FKEY%3D2942169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon_S.2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.papersearch.net/thesis/article.asp?KEY=2942180">"Jeju bang'eon banmal-che cheomsa-ui damhwa gineung" <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언 반말체 첨사의 담화 기능</bdi></a> [The Discourse Functions of Informal-style Particles in the Jeju Dialect]. 영주어문. 5: 71–86. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1598-9011">1598-9011</a>. Retrieved 27 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%98%81%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%AC%B8&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon+banmal-che+cheomsa-ui+damhwa+gineung+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EB%B0%98%EB%A7%90%EC%B2%B4+%EC%B2%A8%EC%82%AC%EC%9D%98+%EB%8B%B4%ED%99%94+%EA%B8%B0%EB%8A%A5&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=71-86&rft.date=2003-02&rft.issn=1598-9011&rft.au=%EB%AC%B8%EC%88%9C%EB%8D%95+%28Moon+Soon-deok%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.papersearch.net%2Fthesis%2Farticle.asp%3FKEY%3D2942180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon_S.2005a" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=2425156">"Jeju bang'eon nopim-mal cheomsa-ui damhwa gineung" <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언 높임말 첨사의 담화 기능</bdi></a> [The Discourse Functions of Honorific-style Particles in the Jeju Dialect]. 언어 연구. 20 (3): 1–17. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1225-4770">1225-4770</a>. Retrieved 27 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon+nopim-mal+cheomsa-ui+damhwa+gineung+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EB%86%92%EC%9E%84%EB%A7%90+%EC%B2%A8%EC%82%AC%EC%9D%98+%EB%8B%B4%ED%99%94+%EA%B8%B0%EB%8A%A5&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=2005-02&rft.issn=1225-4770&rft.au=%EB%AC%B8%EC%88%9C%EB%8D%95+%28Moon+Soon-deok%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkiss.kstudy.com%2Fthesis%2Fthesis-view.asp%3Fkey%3D2425156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon_S.2005b" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE02352691">"Jeju bang'eon-ui gantu pyohyeon" <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언의 간투 표현</bdi></a> [Interjectional Expressions in Jeju Dialect]. 한글. 269: 161–188. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22557%2FHG.2005.09.269.161">10.22557/HG.2005.09.269.161</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1225-0449">1225-0449</a>. Retrieved 27 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%ED%95%9C%EA%B8%80&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon-ui+gantu+pyohyeon+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%9D%98+%EA%B0%84%ED%88%AC+%ED%91%9C%ED%98%84&rft.volume=269&rft.pages=161-188&rft.date=2005-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22557%2FHG.2005.09.269.161&rft.issn=1225-0449&rft.au=%EB%AC%B8%EC%88%9C%EB%8D%95+%28Moon+Soon-deok%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2Fjournal%2FarticleDetail%3FnodeId%3DNODE02352691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon_S.Oh_C.Kim_W.Shin_W.2015" class="citation report cs1 cs1-prop-script">문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myeong); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo); 신우봉 (Shin Woo-bong) (2015). Jeju-eo pyogi-beop jamo-ui silje bareum-gwa eumseong bunseok yeon'gu <bdi lang="ko">'제주어 표기법’자모의 실제 발음과 음성 분석 연구</bdi> [The Actual Pronunciations of Vowels and Consonants Acknowledged in the Transcription Regulation for the Jeju Language and their Phonetic Analysis Study] (Report). Center for Jeju Studies, Jeju Development Institute, <a href="/wiki/Jeju_Special_Self-Governing_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeju Special Self-Governing Province">Jeju Special Self-Governing Province</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Jeju-eo+pyogi-beop+jamo-ui+silje+bareum-gwa+eumseong+bunseok+yeon%27gu+%27%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4+%ED%91%9C%EA%B8%B0%EB%B2%95%E2%80%99%EC%9E%90%EB%AA%A8%EC%9D%98+%EC%8B%A4%EC%A0%9C+%EB%B0%9C%EC%9D%8C%EA%B3%BC+%EC%9D%8C%EC%84%B1+%EB%B6%84%EC%84%9D+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.pub=Center+for+Jeju+Studies%2C+Jeju+Development+Institute%2C+Jeju+Special+Self-Governing+Province&rft.date=2015&rft.au=%EB%AC%B8%EC%88%9C%EB%8D%95+%28Moon+Soon-deok%29&rft.au=%EC%98%A4%EC%B0%BD%EB%AA%85+%28Oh+Chang-myeong%29&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%9B%90%EB%B3%B4+%28Kim+Won-bo%29&rft.au=%EC%8B%A0%EC%9A%B0%EB%B4%89+%28Shin+Woo-bong%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoon_S.Kim_W.2017" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo) (August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.earticle.net/Article/A307723">"Jeju bang'eon gyeok-josa-ui damhwa gineung" <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언 격조사의 담화 기능</bdi></a> [The Discourse Functions of Noun Case Markers in the Jeju Dialect]. 언어학연구. 22 (2): 55–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21291%2Fjkals.2017.22.2.4">10.21291/jkals.2017.22.2.4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1226-9859">1226-9859</a>. Retrieved 21 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon+gyeok-josa-ui+damhwa+gineung+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EA%B2%A9%EC%A1%B0%EC%82%AC%EC%9D%98+%EB%8B%B4%ED%99%94+%EA%B8%B0%EB%8A%A5&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=55-70&rft.date=2017-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21291%2Fjkals.2017.22.2.4&rft.issn=1226-9859&rft.au=%EB%AC%B8%EC%88%9C%EB%8D%95+%28Moon+Soon-deok%29&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%9B%90%EB%B3%B4+%28Kim+Won-bo%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earticle.net%2FArticle%2FA307723&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSong_S.2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">송상조 (Song Sang-jo) (30 September 2011). Jeju-mal-eseo ttae-garim-so '-ng, -n'-gwa ssi-kkeut-deul-ui hoeung <bdi lang="ko">제주말에서 때가림소 '-ㅇ, -ㄴ'과 씨끝들의 호응</bdi> [The Interaction between Tense-differentiating Morphemes "-ng, -n" and Enders]. Seongdong-gu, Seoul: 한국문화사. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-5726-906-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-5726-906-0"><bdi>978-89-5726-906-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jeju-mal-eseo+ttae-garim-so+%27-ng%2C+-n%27-gwa+ssi-kkeut-deul-ui+hoeung+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%A7%90%EC%97%90%EC%84%9C+%EB%95%8C%EA%B0%80%EB%A6%BC%EC%86%8C+%27-%E3%85%87%2C+-%E3%84%B4%27%EA%B3%BC+%EC%94%A8%EB%81%9D%EB%93%A4%EC%9D%98+%ED%98%B8%EC%9D%91&rft.place=Seongdong-gu%2C+Seoul&rft.pub=%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94%EC%82%AC&rft.date=2011-09-30&rft.isbn=978-89-5726-906-0&rft.au=%EC%86%A1%EC%83%81%EC%A1%B0+%28Song+Sang-jo%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShin_W.2015" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">신우봉 (Shin Woo-bong) (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002047110">"Jeju-bang'eon pyeongseo-mun-gwa uimun-mun-e natananeun eogyang yeon'gu: eomal-eomi '-an/-eon, -eumen'-eul jungsim-euro" <bdi lang="ko">제주방언 평서문과 의문문에 나타나는 억양 연구: 어말어미 ‘-안/언, -으멘’을 중심으로</bdi></a> [Intonation study of predicate ending and interrogative ending in Jeju dialect: "-ʌn/ɑn, -ɯmɛn"]. 영주어문. 31: 87–109. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1598-9011">1598-9011</a>. Retrieved 14 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%98%81%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%AC%B8&rft.atitle=Jeju-bang%27eon+pyeongseo-mun-gwa+uimun-mun-e+natananeun+eogyang+yeon%27gu%3A+eomal-eomi+%27-an%2F-eon%2C+-eumen%27-eul+jungsim-euro+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%ED%8F%89%EC%84%9C%EB%AC%B8%EA%B3%BC+%EC%9D%98%EB%AC%B8%EB%AC%B8%EC%97%90+%EB%82%98%ED%83%80%EB%82%98%EB%8A%94+%EC%96%B5%EC%96%91+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC%3A+%EC%96%B4%EB%A7%90%EC%96%B4%EB%AF%B8+%E2%80%98-%EC%95%88%2F%EC%96%B8%2C+-%EC%9C%BC%EB%A9%98%E2%80%99%EC%9D%84+%EC%A4%91%EC%8B%AC%EC%9C%BC%EB%A1%9C&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=87-109&rft.date=2015-10&rft.issn=1598-9011&rft.au=%EC%8B%A0%EC%9A%B0%EB%B4%89+%28Shin+Woo-bong%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kci.go.kr%2Fkciportal%2Fci%2FsereArticleSearch%2FciSereArtiView.kci%3FsereArticleSearchBean.artiId%3DART002047110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShin_W.Shin_J.2012" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">신우봉 (Shin Woo-bong); 신지영 (Shin Ji-young) (August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE06568905">"Jeju bang'eon dan-moeum-e daehan eumhyang-eumseong-hak-jeok yeon'gu" <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언 단모음에 대한 음향음성학적 연구</bdi></a> [An Acoustic Phonetic Study on Monophthongs in Jeju Korean]. 한국어학. 56: 63–90. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1226-9123">1226-9123</a>. Retrieved 11 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon+dan-moeum-e+daehan+eumhyang-eumseong-hak-jeok+yeon%27gu+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EB%8B%A8%EB%AA%A8%EC%9D%8C%EC%97%90+%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C+%EC%9D%8C%ED%96%A5%EC%9D%8C%EC%84%B1%ED%95%99%EC%A0%81+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.volume=56&rft.pages=63-90&rft.date=2012-08&rft.issn=1226-9123&rft.au=%EC%8B%A0%EC%9A%B0%EB%B4%89+%28Shin+Woo-bong%29&rft.au=%EC%8B%A0%EC%A7%80%EC%98%81+%28Shin+Ji-young%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2Fjournal%2FarticleDetail%3FnodeId%3DNODE06568905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang_C.2009" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">양창용 (Yang Changyong) (June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholar.dkyobobook.co.kr/searchDetail.laf?barcode=4010022791952">"Jeju-bang'eon yang-e daehan tongsa·damhwa-ron-jeok gochal" <bdi lang="ko">제주방언 ‘양’에 대한 통사·담화론적 고찰</bdi></a> [A study on "yang" in Jeju dialect with a special reference to its distributions and some discourse functions]. 한국언어문학. 69: 5–28. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1229-1730">1229-1730</a>. Retrieved 27 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Jeju-bang%27eon+yang-e+daehan+tongsa%C2%B7damhwa-ron-jeok+gochal+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%E2%80%98%EC%96%91%E2%80%99%EC%97%90+%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C+%ED%86%B5%EC%82%AC%C2%B7%EB%8B%B4%ED%99%94%EB%A1%A0%EC%A0%81+%EA%B3%A0%EC%B0%B0&rft.volume=69&rft.pages=5-28&rft.date=2009-06&rft.issn=1229-1730&rft.au=%EC%96%91%EC%B0%BD%EC%9A%A9+%28Yang+Changyong%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.dkyobobook.co.kr%2FsearchDetail.laf%3Fbarcode%3D4010022791952&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang_C.2014" class="citation conference cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://congress.aks.ac.kr/korean/files/2_1413765319.pdf">Jeju-eo: yeoksa geurigo taedo <bdi lang="ko">제주어: 역사 그리고 태도</bdi></a> [Jejueo: History and Attitudes] (PDF). 7th World Congress of Korean Studies. Honolulu, Hawaii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Jeju-eo%3A+yeoksa+geurigo+taedo+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%3A+%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC+%EA%B7%B8%EB%A6%AC%EA%B3%A0+%ED%83%9C%EB%8F%84&rft.place=Honolulu%2C+Hawaii&rft.date=2014-11&rft.au=%EC%96%91%EC%B0%BD%EC%9A%A9+%28Yang+Changyong%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcongress.aks.ac.kr%2Fkorean%2Ffiles%2F2_1413765319.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang_C.2016" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE06716281">"Jeju-eo-ui yeon'gu hyeonhwang-gwa gwaje" <bdi lang="ko">제주어의 연구 현황과 과제</bdi></a> [Understanding of Status Quo of Jejueo in Language Community of Jeju]. 동서인문학. 51: 131–159. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1738-9615">1738-9615</a>. Retrieved 17 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EB%8F%99%EC%84%9C%EC%9D%B8%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Jeju-eo-ui+yeon%27gu+hyeonhwang-gwa+gwaje+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EC%9D%98+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC+%ED%98%84%ED%99%A9%EA%B3%BC+%EA%B3%BC%EC%A0%9C&rft.volume=51&rft.pages=131-159&rft.date=2016-06&rft.issn=1738-9615&rft.au=%EC%96%91%EC%B0%BD%EC%9A%A9+%28Yang+Changyong%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2Fjournal%2FarticleDetail%3FnodeId%3DNODE06716281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang_C.Kim_W.2013" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">양창용 (Yang Changyong); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo) (May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3348262">"Jeju-eo ge-ui damhwa-jeok gineung-e daehan gochal" <bdi lang="ko">제주어 ‘게’의 담화적 기능에 대한 고찰</bdi></a> [A study on the discourse functions of "key" in the Jeju language]. 언어와 언어학. 59: 143–163.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%EC%99%80+%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Jeju-eo+ge-ui+damhwa-jeok+gineung-e+daehan+gochal+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4+%E2%80%98%EA%B2%8C%E2%80%99%EC%9D%98+%EB%8B%B4%ED%99%94%EC%A0%81+%EA%B8%B0%EB%8A%A5%EC%97%90+%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C+%EA%B3%A0%EC%B0%B0&rft.volume=59&rft.pages=143-163&rft.date=2013-05&rft.au=%EC%96%91%EC%B0%BD%EC%9A%A9+%28Yang+Changyong%29&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%9B%90%EB%B3%B4+%28Kim+Won-bo%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkiss.kstudy.com%2Fthesis%2Fthesis-view.asp%3Fkey%3D3348262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoo_C.2005" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">우창헌 (Woo Chang-hyun) (September 2005). "Jeju bang'eon-ui '-neu-'-e daehayeo" <bdi lang="ko">제주 방언의 '-느-'에 대하여</bdi> [On "-neu-" in the Jeju dialect]. 형태론. 7 (2): 387–402.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%ED%98%95%ED%83%9C%EB%A1%A0&rft.atitle=Jeju+bang%27eon-ui+%27-neu-%27-e+daehayeo+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%EC%9D%98+%27-%EB%8A%90-%27%EC%97%90+%EB%8C%80%ED%95%98%EC%97%AC&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=387-402&rft.date=2005-09&rft.au=%EC%9A%B0%EC%B0%BD%ED%97%8C+%28Woo+Chang-hyun%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoo_C.2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">——— (June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3721775">"Bang'eon munbeop hyengtae yeon'gu bangbeop-Jeju-bang'eon seon-eomal-eomi '-keu-'-reul jungsim-euro" <bdi lang="ko">방언 문법 형태 연구 방법-제주방언 선어말어미 '-크-'를 중심으로-</bdi></a> [On the Study Method of a Dialect Grammar Form]. 방언학. 7: 57–74. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1738-8686">1738-8686</a>. Retrieved 23 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Bang%27eon+munbeop+hyengtae+yeon%27gu+bangbeop-Jeju-bang%27eon+seon-eomal-eomi+%27-keu-%27-reul+jungsim-euro+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EB%AC%B8%EB%B2%95+%ED%98%95%ED%83%9C+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC+%EB%B0%A9%EB%B2%95-%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EC%84%A0%EC%96%B4%EB%A7%90%EC%96%B4%EB%AF%B8+%27-%ED%81%AC-%27%EB%A5%BC+%EC%A4%91%EC%8B%AC%EC%9C%BC%EB%A1%9C-&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=57-74&rft.date=2008-06&rft.issn=1738-8686&rft.au=%EC%9A%B0%EC%B0%BD%ED%97%8C+%28Woo+Chang-hyun%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkiss.kstudy.com%2Fthesis%2Fthesis-view.asp%3Fkey%3D3721775&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee_S.2014" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">이숙향 (Lee Sook-hyang) (December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE06070684">"Jeju-eo gangse-gu-ui eogyang" <bdi lang="ko">제주어 강세구의 억양</bdi></a> [The intonation patterns of accentual phrase in Jeju dialect]. 말소리와 음성과학. 6 (4): 117–123. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2005-8063">2005-8063</a>. 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Retrieved 14 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%96%B4%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Jeju-eo-wa+Jeju-bang%27eon%2C+ireum-ui+jeongchi-eoneo-hak+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EC%99%80+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8%2C+%EC%9D%B4%EB%A6%84%EC%9D%98+%EC%A0%95%EC%B9%98%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99&rft.volume=126&rft.pages=117-135&rft.date=2014-12&rft.issn=1225-3774&rft.au=%EC%A1%B0%ED%83%9C%EB%A6%B0+%28Cho+Tae-rin%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2Fjournal%2FarticleDetail%3FnodeId%3DNODE06073997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChin_S.1991" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">진성기 (Chin Song-gi) (30 October 1991). Jeju-do muga bon-puri sajeon <bdi lang="ko">제주도 무가 본풀이 사전</bdi> [Encyclopedia of Jeju Bonpuri Shamanic Chants]. Guro-gu, Seoul: 민속원. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-5638-041-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-5638-041-4"><bdi>978-89-5638-041-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jeju-do+muga+bon-puri+sajeon+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%8F%84+%EB%AC%B4%EA%B0%80+%EB%B3%B8%ED%92%80%EC%9D%B4+%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%84&rft.place=Guro-gu%2C+Seoul&rft.pub=%EB%AF%BC%EC%86%8D%EC%9B%90&rft.date=1991-10-30&rft.isbn=978-89-5638-041-4&rft.au=%EC%A7%84%EC%84%B1%EA%B8%B0+%28Chin+Song-gi%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoi_M.1998" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">최명옥 (Choi Myung-ok) (April 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.korean.go.kr/nkview/nklife/1998_4/1998_0401.pdf">"Gugeo-ui bang'eon guhoek" <bdi lang="ko">국어의 방언 구획</bdi></a> [Dialectal Divisions of Korean] (PDF). 새국어생활. 8 (4): 5–29. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1225-7168">1225-7168</a>. Retrieved 15 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EC%83%88%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4%EC%83%9D%ED%99%9C&rft.atitle=Gugeo-ui+bang%27eon+guhoek+%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4%EC%9D%98+%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EA%B5%AC%ED%9A%8D&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=5-29&rft.date=1998-04&rft.issn=1225-7168&rft.au=%EC%B5%9C%EB%AA%85%EC%98%A5+%28Choi+Myung-ok%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.korean.go.kr%2Fnkview%2Fnklife%2F1998_4%2F1998_0401.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHong_C.2001" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">홍종림 (Hong Chong-rim) (December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=1828967">"Jeju-bang'eon yeong'gyeol-eomi-ui '-n' '-ŋ'-e daehayeo" <bdi lang="ko">제주방언 연결어미의 "-n" " -ŋ" 에 대하여</bdi></a> [On the Conjunctive Endings -n and -ŋ in the Cheju Dialect]. 국어학. 38: 271–305. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1225-1933">1225-1933</a>. Retrieved 23 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99&rft.atitle=Jeju-bang%27eon+yeong%27gyeol-eomi-ui+%27-n%27+%27-%C5%8B%27-e+daehayeo+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EB%B0%A9%EC%96%B8+%EC%97%B0%EA%B2%B0%EC%96%B4%EB%AF%B8%EC%9D%98+%22-n%22+%22+-%C5%8B%22+%EC%97%90+%EB%8C%80%ED%95%98%EC%97%AC&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=271-305&rft.date=2001-12&rft.issn=1225-1933&rft.au=%ED%99%8D%EC%A2%85%EB%A6%BC+%28Hong+Chong-rim%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkiss.kstudy.com%2Fthesis%2Fthesis-view.asp%3Fkey%3D1828967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNIKL2015" class="citation report cs1 cs1-prop-script">"Pyojun-eo-wa jiyeok-bang'eon" <bdi lang="ko">표준어와 지역방언</bdi> [Standard Korean and Regional Dialects]. 2015-nyeon gukmin-ui eoneo uisik josa <bdi lang="ko">2015년 국민의 언어 의식 조사</bdi> [Study of the Language Perceptions of Koreans, 2015] (Report). <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_the_Korean_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute of the Korean Language">National Institute of the Korean Language</a>. November 2015. pp. 93–116.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=2015-nyeon+gukmin-ui+eoneo+uisik+josa+2015%EB%85%84+%EA%B5%AD%EB%AF%BC%EC%9D%98+%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4+%EC%9D%98%EC%8B%9D+%EC%A1%B0%EC%82%AC&rft.pages=93-116&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+the+Korean+Language&rft.date=2015-11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDictionary2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">제주문화예술재단 (Jeju Foundation for Arts and Culture), ed. (1 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jst.re.kr/upload/board/pdf/103_1531959325851.pdf">Gaejeong·jeungbo Jeju-eo sajeon <bdi lang="ko">개정·증보 제주어사전</bdi></a> [Expanded and Revised Jeju Dictionary] (PDF). Jeju City, Jeju: <a href="/wiki/Jeju_Special_Self-Governing_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeju Special Self-Governing Province">Jeju Special Self-Governing Province</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-9625-725-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-9625-725-7"><bdi>978-89-9625-725-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gaejeong%C2%B7jeungbo+Jeju-eo+sajeon+%EA%B0%9C%EC%A0%95%C2%B7%EC%A6%9D%EB%B3%B4+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%84&rft.place=Jeju+City%2C+Jeju&rft.pub=Jeju+Special+Self-Governing+Province&rft.date=2009-12-01&rft.isbn=978-89-9625-725-7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jst.re.kr%2Fupload%2Fboard%2Fpdf%2F103_1531959325851.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeju_Province2019a" class="citation report cs1 cs1-prop-script">"Jeju-eo bojeon-gwa yukseong hwaldong" <bdi lang="ko">제주어 보전과 육성 활동</bdi> [Jeju Language Preservation and Revitalization Efforts]. Jeju Teukbyeol Jachi-do-ji je-il-gwon <bdi lang="ko">제주특별자치도지 제1권</bdi> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Jeju_Special_Self-Governing_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeju Special Self-Governing Province">Jeju Special Self-Governing Province</a>. 2019. pp. 491–512.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Jeju+Teukbyeol+Jachi-do-ji+je-il-gwon+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%ED%8A%B9%EB%B3%84%EC%9E%90%EC%B9%98%EB%8F%84%EC%A7%80+%EC%A0%9C1%EA%B6%8C&rft.pages=491-512&rft.pub=Jeju+Special+Self-Governing+Province&rft.date=2019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeju_Province2019b" class="citation report cs1 cs1-prop-script">"Jeju eoneo munhwa" <bdi lang="ko">제주 언어 문화</bdi> [Jeju Language Culture]. Jeju Teukbyeol Jachi-do-ji je-sa-gwon <bdi lang="ko">제주특별자치도지 제4권</bdi> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Jeju_Special_Self-Governing_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeju Special Self-Governing Province">Jeju Special Self-Governing Province</a>. 2019. pp. 300–326.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Jeju+Teukbyeol+Jachi-do-ji+je-sa-gwon+%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%ED%8A%B9%EB%B3%84%EC%9E%90%EC%B9%98%EB%8F%84%EC%A7%80+%EC%A0%9C4%EA%B6%8C&rft.pages=300-326&rft.pub=Jeju+Special+Self-Governing+Province&rft.date=2019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJeju+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/jje" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/jje">Jeju language test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Korean <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div lang="ko" style="margin-left: 10px;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ko:%EC%A0%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%96%B4_%ED%91%9C%EA%B8%B0%EB%B2%95" class="extiw" title="s:ko:제주어 표기법">Orthography of the Jeju Language</a> </div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jejueo.com/">jejueo.com</a>: The official Korean-language website of the Jeju Language Preservation Society, the leading language revival organization.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/a/hawaii.edu/jejueo/">Jejueo: The Language of Jeju Island</a>: An English-language website maintained by Yang Changyong, Yang Sejung, and William O'Grady, authors of the only English-language monograph on the language. The site includes an audio sample (found in the section "Jejueo Intelligibility Test") and a short Jeju-English dictionary.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elar.soas.ac.uk/Collection/MPI971100">"A multi-modal documentation of Jejuan conversations"</a>: An annotated audio-video corpus of spoken Jeju, maintained by the <a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Archive" title="Endangered Languages Archive">Endangered Languages Archive</a> at <a href="/wiki/SOAS_University_of_London" title="SOAS University of London">SOAS University of London</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doreco.huma-num.fr/languages/jeju1234">Jejuan DoReCo corpus</a> compiled by Soung-U Kim. Audio recordings of narrative texts with transcriptions time-aligned at the phone level, translations, and time-aligned morphological annotations.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean" title="History of Korean">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages#Proto-Koreanic" title="Koreanic languages">Proto-Koreanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_languages" title="Han languages">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puy%C5%8F_languages" title="Puyŏ languages">Puyŏ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye-Maek_language" title="Ye-Maek language">Ye-Maek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Old_Korean" title="Old Korean">Old Korean</a> (?–10th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baekje_language" title="Baekje language">Baekje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyeo_language" title="Buyeo language">Buyeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaya_language" title="Gaya language">Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_language" title="Goguryeo language">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahan_language" title="Mahan language">Mahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Korean" title="Old Korean">Silla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a> (10–16th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Goryeo</li> <li>Joseon</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern Korean (17–18th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Joseon</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Modern Korean</a> (19th century–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Joseon</li> <li>North Korea</li> <li>South Korea</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Hangugeo-Chosono.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Hangugeo-Chosono.svg/125px-Hangugeo-Chosono.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Hangugeo-Chosono.svg/188px-Hangugeo-Chosono.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Hangugeo-Chosono.svg/250px-Hangugeo-Chosono.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="371" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/South_Korean_standard_language" title="South Korean standard language">Pyojuneo</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/North_Korean_standard_language" title="North Korean standard language">Munhwaŏ</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korean_dialects" title="Korean dialects">Dialects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chungcheong_dialect" title="Chungcheong dialect">Chungcheong dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangwon_dialect" title="Gangwon dialect">Gangwon dialect</a> <ul><li>Yeongdong dialect</li> <li>Yeongseo dialect</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyeonggi_dialect" title="Gyeonggi dialect">Gyeonggi/Seoul dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyeongsang_dialect" title="Gyeongsang dialect">Gyeongsang dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeolla_dialect" title="Jeolla dialect">Jeolla dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamgy%C5%8Fng_dialect" title="Hamgyŏng dialect">Hamgyŏng dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hwanghae_dialect" title="Hwanghae dialect">Hwanghae dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyongan_dialect" title="Pyongan dialect">Pyongan dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukjin_Korean" title="Yukjin Korean">Yukjin dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language_in_China" title="Korean language in China">Chinese Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koryo-mar" title="Koryo-mar">Koryo-mar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zainichi_Korean_language" title="Zainichi Korean language">Zainichi Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jeju language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korean_language#Writing_system" title="Korean language">Writing system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Braille" title="Korean Braille">Korean Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hangul_consonant_and_vowel_tables" title="Hangul consonant and vowel tables">Consonant and vowel tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_punctuation" title="Korean punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gugyeol" title="Gugyeol">Gugyeol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyangchal" title="Hyangchal">Hyangchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_mixed_script" title="Korean mixed script">Mixed script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_into_Korean" title="Transcription into Korean">Transcription into Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Korean" title="Cyrillization of Korean">Cyrillization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Korean" title="Romanization of Korean">Romanization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO/TR_11941" title="ISO/TR 11941">ISO/TR 11941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Korean" title="Cyrillization of Korean">Cyrillization of Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer" title="McCune–Reischauer">McCune-Reischauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Korean" title="Yale romanization of Korean">Yale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar" title="Korean grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology" title="Korean phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_count_word" title="Korean count word">Count word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_honorifics" title="Korean honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_numerals" title="Korean numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_postpositions" title="Korean postpositions">Postpositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_pronouns" title="Korean pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_speech_levels" title="Korean speech levels">Speech levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_verbs" title="Korean verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korean_literature" title="Korean literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gasa_(poetry)" title="Gasa (poetry)">Gasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyangga" title="Hyangga">Hyangga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sijo" title="Sijo">Sijo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongbieocheonga" title="Yongbieocheonga">Yongbieocheonga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Circle_of_Korean_Linguistics" title="International Circle of Korean Linguistics">International Circle of Korean Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konglish" title="Konglish">Konglish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Konglish_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Konglish terms">List of Konglish terms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Korean_origin" title="List of English words of Korean origin">List of English words of Korean origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_the_Korean_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute of the Korean Language">National Institute of the Korean Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_differences_in_the_Korean_language" title="North–South differences in the Korean language">North–South differences in the Korean language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Korean_vocabulary" title="Sino-Korean vocabulary">Sino-Korean vocabulary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dialects_of_the_Korean_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Korean_dialects" title="Template:Korean dialects"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Korean_dialects" title="Template talk:Korean dialects"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Korean_dialects" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Korean dialects"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dialects_of_the_Korean_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Korean_dialects" title="Korean dialects">Dialects of the</a> <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chungcheong_dialect" title="Chungcheong dialect">Chungcheong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangwon_dialect" title="Gangwon dialect">Gangwon dialect</a> <ul><li>Yeongdong</li> <li>Yeongseo</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyeongsang_dialect" title="Gyeongsang dialect">Gyeongsang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyeonggi_dialect" title="Gyeonggi dialect">Gyeonggi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamgy%C5%8Fng_dialect" title="Hamgyŏng dialect">Hamgyŏng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hwanghae_dialect" title="Hwanghae dialect">Hwanghae</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jeju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeolla_dialect" title="Jeolla dialect">Jeolla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyongan_dialect" title="Pyongan dialect">P'yŏng'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukjin_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Yukjin dialect">Yukjin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diaspora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language_in_China" title="Korean language in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koryo-mar" title="Koryo-mar">Koryo-mar</a> (Russia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zainichi_Korean_language" title="Zainichi Korean language">Zainichi</a> (Japan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean language in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jeju_Special_Self-Governing_Province" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jeju" title="Template:Jeju"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jeju" title="Template talk:Jeju"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jeju" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jeju"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jeju_Special_Self-Governing_Province" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jeju_Province" title="Jeju Province">Jeju Special Self-Governing Province</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Jeju_City" title="Jeju City">Jeju City</a> (capital)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_South_Korea" title="List of cities in South Korea">Administrative cities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeju_City" title="Jeju City">Jeju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seogwipo" title="Seogwipo">Seogwipo</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:South_Korea-Jeju.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/South_Korea-Jeju.svg/100px-South_Korea-Jeju.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/South_Korea-Jeju.svg/150px-South_Korea-Jeju.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/South_Korea-Jeju.svg/200px-South_Korea-Jeju.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="509" data-file-height="716" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_South_Korea" title="List of cities in South Korea">Former counties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Bukjeju_County" title="Bukjeju County">Bukjeju</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Namjeju_County" title="Namjeju County">Namjeju</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon-puri" title="Bon-puri">Bon-puri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doldam" title="Doldam">Doldam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dol_hareubang" title="Dol hareubang">Dol hareubang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haenyeo" title="Haenyeo">Haenyeo</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jeju language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a> (?–1404)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeju_uprising" title="Jeju uprising">Jeju uprising</a> (1948–1949)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129648#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129648#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129648#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/2010173/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2019000651">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb179741936">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb179741936">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph1079289&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KSH2004007500">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987012403566005171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&oldid=1255340764">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jeju_language&oldid=1255340764</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agglutinative_languages" title="Category:Agglutinative languages">Agglutinative languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Critically_endangered_languages" title="Category:Critically 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