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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pelvic_girdle_and_synsacrum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Pelvic girdle and synsacrum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pelvic_girdle_and_synsacrum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rigidity_and_reduction_of_mass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rigidity_and_reduction_of_mass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Rigidity and reduction of mass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rigidity_and_reduction_of_mass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plantigrade_locomotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plantigrade_locomotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Plantigrade locomotion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plantigrade_locomotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Functions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toe_arrangements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toe_arrangements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Toe arrangements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toe_arrangements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Claws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Webbing_and_lobation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Webbing_and_lobation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Webbing and lobation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Webbing_and_lobation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Thermal regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Hindlimbs primarily used for the anchoring and locomotion of avians</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African_Jacana_(Actophilornis_africanus).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/African_Jacana_%28Actophilornis_africanus%29.jpg/300px-African_Jacana_%28Actophilornis_africanus%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/African_Jacana_%28Actophilornis_africanus%29.jpg/450px-African_Jacana_%28Actophilornis_africanus%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/African_Jacana_%28Actophilornis_africanus%29.jpg/600px-African_Jacana_%28Actophilornis_africanus%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/African_jacana" title="African jacana">African jacana</a>. Extremely long toes<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Claw" title="Claw">claws</a> help distribute the jacana's weight over a wide area to allow it to walk on floating leaves.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Bird anatomy</a></div> <p>The anatomy of <b>bird legs and feet</b> is diverse, encompassing many accommodations to perform a wide variety of functions.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most birds are classified as <a href="/wiki/Digitigrade" title="Digitigrade">digitigrade</a> animals, meaning they walk on their <a href="/wiki/Toe" title="Toe">toes</a> rather than the entire foot.<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the lower bones of the foot (the <a href="/wiki/Carpus_and_tarsus_of_land_vertebrates" title="Carpus and tarsus of land vertebrates">distals</a> and most of the <a href="/wiki/Metatarsal" class="mw-redirect" title="Metatarsal">metatarsal</a>) are fused to form the <a href="/wiki/Tarsometatarsus" title="Tarsometatarsus">tarsometatarsus</a> – a third segment of the leg, specific to birds.<sup id="cite_ref-proctor-dict-dobrowolski_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-proctor-dict-dobrowolski-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Romer77_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romer77-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The upper bones of the foot (<a href="/wiki/Carpus_and_tarsus_of_land_vertebrates" title="Carpus and tarsus of land vertebrates">proximals</a>), in turn, are fused with the <a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">tibia</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Tibiotarsus" title="Tibiotarsus">tibiotarsus</a>, as over time the <a href="/wiki/Carpus_and_tarsus_of_land_vertebrates" title="Carpus and tarsus of land vertebrates">centralia</a> disappeared.<sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Romer77_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romer77-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobrowolski81-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">fibula</a> also reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-proctor-dict-dobrowolski_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-proctor-dict-dobrowolski-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The legs are attached to a strong assembly consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvic girdle</a> extensively fused with the uniform spinal bone (also specific to birds) called the <i><a href="/wiki/Synsacrum" title="Synsacrum">synsacrum</a></i>, built from some of the fused bones.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobrowolski81-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif/300px-Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="375" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif/450px-Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif/600px-Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Bird left leg and <a href="/wiki/Pelvic_girdle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelvic girdle">pelvic girdle</a> skeleton</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hindlimbs">Hindlimbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Hindlimbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tarsometatarsus" title="Tarsometatarsus">Tarsometatarsus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibiotarsus" title="Tibiotarsus">Tibiotarsus</a></div> <p>Birds are generally <a href="/wiki/Digitigrade" title="Digitigrade">digitigrade</a> animals (<a href="/wiki/Toe" title="Toe">toe</a>-walkers),<sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which affects the structure of their leg skeleton. They use only their <a href="/wiki/Hindlimb" title="Hindlimb">hindlimbs</a> to walk (<a href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">bipedalism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their <a href="/wiki/Forelimb" title="Forelimb">forelimbs</a> evolved to become <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a>. Most bones of the avian foot (excluding toes) are fused together or with other bones, having changed their function over time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tarsometatarsus">Tarsometatarsus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Tarsometatarsus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some lower bones of the foot are fused to form the <a href="/wiki/Tarsometatarsus" title="Tarsometatarsus">tarsometatarsus</a> – a third segment of the leg specific to birds.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobrowolski81-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It consists of merged <a href="/wiki/Carpus_and_tarsus_of_land_vertebrates" title="Carpus and tarsus of land vertebrates">distals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metatarsal" class="mw-redirect" title="Metatarsal">metatarsals</a> II, III and IV.<sup id="cite_ref-Romer77_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romer77-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metatarsus I remains separated as a base of the first toe.<sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tarsometatarsus is the extended foot area, which gives the leg extra lever length.<sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tibiotarsus">Tibiotarsus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Tibiotarsus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The foot's upper bones (<a href="/wiki/Carpus_and_tarsus_of_land_vertebrates" title="Carpus and tarsus of land vertebrates">proximals</a>) are fused with the <a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">tibia</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Tibiotarsus" title="Tibiotarsus">tibiotarsus</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Carpus_and_tarsus_of_land_vertebrates" title="Carpus and tarsus of land vertebrates">centralia</a> are absent.<sup id="cite_ref-proctor-dict-dobrowolski_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-proctor-dict-dobrowolski-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Romer77_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romer77-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anterior (frontal) side of the dorsal end of the tibiotarsus (at the <a href="/wiki/Knee" title="Knee">knee</a>) contains a protruding enlargement called the <a href="/wiki/Cnemial_crest" title="Cnemial crest">cnemial crest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patella">Patella</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Patella"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the knee above the <a href="/wiki/Cnemial_crest" title="Cnemial crest">cnemial crest</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">patella</a> (kneecap).<sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some species do not have patellas, sometimes only a cnemial crest. In <a href="/wiki/Grebes" class="mw-redirect" title="Grebes">grebes</a> both a normal patella and an extension of the cnemial crest are found.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fibula">Fibula</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fibula"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">fibula</a> is reduced and adheres extensively to the tibia, usually reaching two-thirds of its length.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobrowolski81-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only <a href="/wiki/Penguins" class="mw-redirect" title="Penguins">penguins</a> have full-length fibulae.<sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knee_and_ankle_–_confusions"><span id="Knee_and_ankle_.E2.80.93_confusions"></span>Knee and ankle – confusions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Knee and ankle – confusions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pelargopsis_chick.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Pelargopsis_chick.jpg/220px-Pelargopsis_chick.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Pelargopsis_chick.jpg/330px-Pelargopsis_chick.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Pelargopsis_chick.jpg/440px-Pelargopsis_chick.jpg 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="754" /></a><figcaption>Chick of <i><a href="/wiki/Pelargopsis_capensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelargopsis capensis">Pelargopsis capensis</a></i> with heel-pads</figcaption></figure> <p>The bird <a href="/wiki/Knee" title="Knee">knee</a> joint between the <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">tibia</a> (or rather <a href="/wiki/Tibiotarsus" title="Tibiotarsus">tibiotarsus</a>) points forwards, but is hidden within the <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a>. The backward-pointing "<a href="/wiki/Heel" title="Heel">heel</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Ankle" title="Ankle">ankle</a>) that is easily visible is a joint between the <a href="/wiki/Tibiotarsus" title="Tibiotarsus">tibiotarsus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tarsometatarsus" title="Tarsometatarsus">tarsometatarsus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The joint inside the tarsus occurs also in some reptiles. It is worth noting here that the name "thick knee" of the members of the <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a> <a href="/wiki/Stone-curlew" title="Stone-curlew">Burhinidae</a> is a misnomer because their heels are large.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobrowolski81-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chicks in the orders <a href="/wiki/Coraciiformes" title="Coraciiformes">Coraciiformes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piciformes" title="Piciformes">Piciformes</a> have ankles covered by a patch of tough skins with tubercles known as the <i>heel-pad</i>. They use the heel-pad to shuffle inside the nest cavities or holes.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toes_and_unfused_metatarsals">Toes and unfused metatarsals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Toes and unfused metatarsals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strau%C3%9Fenfu%C3%9F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Strau%C3%9Fenfu%C3%9F.jpg/220px-Strau%C3%9Fenfu%C3%9F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Strau%C3%9Fenfu%C3%9F.jpg/330px-Strau%C3%9Fenfu%C3%9F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Strau%C3%9Fenfu%C3%9F.jpg/440px-Strau%C3%9Fenfu%C3%9F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostrich</a> is the only bird that has the didactyl foot.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Most birds have four toes, typically three facing forward and one pointing backward.<sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobrowolski81-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a typical perching bird, they consist respectively of 3, 4, 5 and 2 <a href="/wiki/Phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanges">phalanges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some birds, like the <a href="/wiki/Sanderling" title="Sanderling">sanderling</a>, have only the forward-facing toes; these are called tridactyl feet while the <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostrich</a> have only two toes (didactyl feet).<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first digit, called the <a href="/wiki/Hallux" class="mw-redirect" title="Hallux">hallux</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> to the human <a href="/wiki/Big_toe" class="mw-redirect" title="Big toe">big toe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Claw" title="Claw">claws</a> are located on the extreme phalanx of each toe.<sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They consist of a horny <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">keratinous</a> <a href="/wiki/Podotheca" title="Podotheca">podotheca</a>, or sheath,<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are not part of the skeleton. </p><p>The bird foot also contains one or two metatarsals not fused in the <a href="/wiki/Tarsometatarsus" title="Tarsometatarsus">tarsometatarsus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobrowolski81-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pelvic_girdle_and_synsacrum">Pelvic girdle and synsacrum</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pelvic girdle and synsacrum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Synsacrum" title="Synsacrum">Synsacrum</a></div> <p>The legs are attached to a very strong, lightweight assembly consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvic girdle</a> extensively fused with the uniform spinal bone called the <a href="/wiki/Synsacrum" title="Synsacrum">synsacrum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is specific to birds. The synsacrum is built from the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">lumbar</a> fused with the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">sacral</a>, some of the first sections of the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">caudal</a>, and sometimes the last one or two sections of the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">thoracic</a> <a href="/wiki/Vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrae">vertebrae</a>, depending on species (birds have altogether between 10 and 22 vertebrae).<sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Except for those of <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostriches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhea_(bird)" title="Rhea (bird)">rheas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pubis_(bone)" title="Pubis (bone)">pubic bones</a> do not connect to each other, easing <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">egg</a>-laying.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobrowolski81-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rigidity_and_reduction_of_mass">Rigidity and reduction of mass</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rigidity and reduction of mass"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fusions of individual bones into strong, rigid structures are characteristic.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most major bird bones are extensively <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_pneumaticity" title="Skeletal pneumaticity">pneumatized</a>. They contain many air pockets connected to the pulmonary <a href="/wiki/Lung#Avian_lungs" title="Lung">air sacs</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy#Respiratory_system" title="Bird anatomy">respiratory system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wedel03_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wedel03-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their spongy interior makes them strong relative to their mass.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of pneumatic bones depends on the species; pneumaticity is slight or absent in <a href="/wiki/Diving_bird" title="Diving bird">diving birds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schorger47_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schorger47-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Long-tailed_duck" title="Long-tailed duck">long-tailed duck</a>, the leg and wing bones are not pneumatic, in contrast with some of the other bones, while <a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">loons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puffin" title="Puffin">puffins</a> have even more massive skeletons with no aired bones.<sup id="cite_ref-Fastovsky05_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fastovsky05-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gier52_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gier52-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Flightless_bird" title="Flightless bird">flightless</a> <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostrich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emu" title="Emu">emu</a> have pneumatic <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femurs</a>, and so far this is the only known pneumatic bone in these birds<sup id="cite_ref-Bezuidenhout99_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bezuidenhout99-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> except for the ostrich's cervical vertebrae.<sup id="cite_ref-Wedel03_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wedel03-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fusions (leading to rigidity) and pneumatic bones (leading to reduced mass) are some of the many adaptations of birds for flight.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plantigrade_locomotion">Plantigrade locomotion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Plantigrade locomotion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most birds, except <a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">loons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Digitigrade" title="Digitigrade">digitigrade</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Plantigrade" title="Plantigrade">plantigrade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">chicks</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Bird_nest" title="Bird nest">nest</a> can use the entire <a href="/wiki/Foot" title="Foot">foot</a> (toes and <a href="/wiki/Tarsometatarsus" title="Tarsometatarsus">tarsometatarsus</a>) with the heel on the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Loons tend to walk this way because their legs and <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvis</a> are highly specialized for swimming. They have a narrow pelvis, which moves the attachment point of the <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a> to the rear, and their <a href="/wiki/Tibiotarsus" title="Tibiotarsus">tibiotarsus</a> is much longer than the femur. This shifts the feet (toes) behind the <a href="/wiki/Center_of_mass" title="Center of mass">center of mass</a> of the loon body. They walk usually by pushing themselves on their breasts; larger loons cannot take off from land.<sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This position, however, is highly suitable for swimming because their feet are located at the rear like the <a href="/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller">propeller</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Motorboat" title="Motorboat">motorboat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">Grebes</a> and many other waterfowl have shorter <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a> and a more or less narrow pelvis, too, which gives the impression that their legs are attached to the rear as in <a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">loons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functions">Functions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Psittacus_erithacus_erithacus_-feet_on_perch-8a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Psittacus_erithacus_erithacus_-feet_on_perch-8a.jpg/220px-Psittacus_erithacus_erithacus_-feet_on_perch-8a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Psittacus_erithacus_erithacus_-feet_on_perch-8a.jpg/330px-Psittacus_erithacus_erithacus_-feet_on_perch-8a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Psittacus_erithacus_erithacus_-feet_on_perch-8a.jpg/440px-Psittacus_erithacus_erithacus_-feet_on_perch-8a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Grey_parrot" title="Grey parrot">Grey parrot</a> grips the perch with zygodactyl feet.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F%C3%BC%C3%9Fe_eines_Chile-Flamingo_Zoo_Landau.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/F%C3%BC%C3%9Fe_eines_Chile-Flamingo_Zoo_Landau.JPG/220px-F%C3%BC%C3%9Fe_eines_Chile-Flamingo_Zoo_Landau.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/F%C3%BC%C3%9Fe_eines_Chile-Flamingo_Zoo_Landau.JPG/330px-F%C3%BC%C3%9Fe_eines_Chile-Flamingo_Zoo_Landau.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/F%C3%BC%C3%9Fe_eines_Chile-Flamingo_Zoo_Landau.JPG/440px-F%C3%BC%C3%9Fe_eines_Chile-Flamingo_Zoo_Landau.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Palmate feet – <a href="/wiki/Chilean_flamingo" title="Chilean flamingo">Chilean flamingo</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue-footed_Booby_(Sula_nebouxii)_-feet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Blue-footed_Booby_%28Sula_nebouxii%29_-feet.jpg/220px-Blue-footed_Booby_%28Sula_nebouxii%29_-feet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Blue-footed_Booby_%28Sula_nebouxii%29_-feet.jpg/330px-Blue-footed_Booby_%28Sula_nebouxii%29_-feet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Blue-footed_Booby_%28Sula_nebouxii%29_-feet.jpg/440px-Blue-footed_Booby_%28Sula_nebouxii%29_-feet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3088" data-file-height="2082" /></a><figcaption>Totipalmate feet – <a href="/wiki/Blue-footed_booby" title="Blue-footed booby">blue-footed booby</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aechmophorus_occidentalis_foot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Aechmophorus_occidentalis_foot.jpg/220px-Aechmophorus_occidentalis_foot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Aechmophorus_occidentalis_foot.jpg/330px-Aechmophorus_occidentalis_foot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Aechmophorus_occidentalis_foot.jpg/440px-Aechmophorus_occidentalis_foot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Western_grebe" title="Western grebe">Western grebe</a> presenting a lobate foot.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eurasian-Coot--chick.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eurasian-Coot--chick.jpg/220px-Eurasian-Coot--chick.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eurasian-Coot--chick.jpg/330px-Eurasian-Coot--chick.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eurasian-Coot--chick.jpg/440px-Eurasian-Coot--chick.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>Lobate feet – a chick of the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_coot" title="Eurasian coot">Eurasian coot</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Podiceps_cristatus_-_Holzbr%C3%BCcke_2011-06-14_17-12-54.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Podiceps_cristatus_-_Holzbr%C3%BCcke_2011-06-14_17-12-54.JPG/220px-Podiceps_cristatus_-_Holzbr%C3%BCcke_2011-06-14_17-12-54.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Podiceps_cristatus_-_Holzbr%C3%BCcke_2011-06-14_17-12-54.JPG/330px-Podiceps_cristatus_-_Holzbr%C3%BCcke_2011-06-14_17-12-54.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Podiceps_cristatus_-_Holzbr%C3%BCcke_2011-06-14_17-12-54.JPG/440px-Podiceps_cristatus_-_Holzbr%C3%BCcke_2011-06-14_17-12-54.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_crested_grebe" title="Great crested grebe">great crested grebe</a>. The feet in <a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">loons</a><sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a><sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are placed far at the rear of the body - a powerful accommodation to swimming underwater,<sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but a handicap for walking.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lagopus_lagopus_foot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Lagopus_lagopus_foot.jpg/220px-Lagopus_lagopus_foot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Lagopus_lagopus_foot.jpg/330px-Lagopus_lagopus_foot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Lagopus_lagopus_foot.jpg/440px-Lagopus_lagopus_foot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2323" data-file-height="2694" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Snowshoe" title="Snowshoe">snowshoe</a>-like foot of the <a href="/wiki/Willow_ptarmigan" title="Willow ptarmigan">willow ptarmigan</a> is an adaptation for walking on snow.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Because avian <a href="/wiki/Forelimb" title="Forelimb">forelimbs</a> are <a href="/wiki/Avian_flight#Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Avian flight">wings</a>, many forelimb functions are performed by the <a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">bill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindlimb" title="Hindlimb">hindlimbs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been proposed that the hindlimbs are important in <a href="/wiki/Avian_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Avian flight">flight</a> as accelerators when taking-off.<sup id="cite_ref-Earls00_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earls00-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whitfield00_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitfield00-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some leg and foot functions, including conventional ones and those specific to birds, are: </p> <ul><li>Locomotion <ul><li>Walking, running (<a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostriches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grouse" title="Grouse">grouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wild_turkey" title="Wild turkey">wild turkeys</a>) hopping, climbing (<a href="/wiki/Woodpecker" title="Woodpecker">woodpeckers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuthatch" title="Nuthatch">nuthatches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treecreeper" title="Treecreeper">treecreepers</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Swimming and steering underwater (<a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">loons</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Perching (as on a branch) or clinging<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Carrying (like <a href="/wiki/Osprey" title="Osprey">ospreys</a> holding <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Avian flight">Flight</a>-related <ul><li>Serving probably as the primary take-off accelerator. In the <a href="/wiki/Common_vampire_bat" title="Common vampire bat">common vampire bat</a>, by contrast, the required force is generated by the <a href="/wiki/Bat#Wings_and_flight" title="Bat">wing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Earls00_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earls00-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whitfield00_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitfield00-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Absorbing the shock of landing on a perch and on the water, becoming "<a href="/wiki/Waterskiing" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterskiing">water skis</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Feeding and related <ul><li>Catching and killing prey in <a href="/wiki/Birds_of_prey" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds of prey">raptors</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hawk" title="Hawk">hawks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">owls</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Holding (used like hands in <a href="/wiki/Parrot" title="Parrot">parrots</a>) and pulling apart food (with help from the <a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">bill</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Scratching the ground in search of food<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Double scratch: hopping forward and then backward using both feet to scratch (often <a href="/wiki/Towhee" title="Towhee">towhees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_World_sparrow" title="Old World sparrow">sparrows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Junco" title="Junco">juncos</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>One-footed scratch (<a href="/wiki/Grouse" title="Grouse">grouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quail" title="Quail">quails</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wild_turkey" title="Wild turkey">wild turkeys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">domestic chicken</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Reproduction and related <ul><li>Cradling and turning <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">eggs</a> during incubation.<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birds lacking a <a href="/wiki/Brood_patch" title="Brood patch">brood patch</a> incubate the eggs with their feet – grasping one or even two of them (<a href="/wiki/Gannet" title="Gannet">gannets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Booby" title="Booby">boobies</a>) or keeping them on the top surfaces of their feet (<a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">penguins</a> under a pouch of belly skin, <a href="/wiki/Uria" title="Uria">murres</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Courtship (<a href="/wiki/Sage_grouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Sage grouse">sage grouse</a>), including aerial courtship (<a href="/wiki/Bald_eagle" title="Bald eagle">bald eagles</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Building nests (with help from the <a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">bill</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>Preening and cleaning.<sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes birds use a special <a href="/wiki/Claw" title="Claw">claw</a> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Barn-owl" class="mw-redirect" title="Barn-owl">barn owls</a> have a so-called "feather comb"). Some <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nightjars" class="mw-redirect" title="Nightjars">nightjars</a> use the claw for cleaning the head.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Heat loss regulation (<a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">gulls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giant_petrel" title="Giant petrel">giant petrels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stork" title="Stork">storks</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_World_vulture" title="New World vulture">New World vultures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goose" title="Goose">geese</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Toe_arrangements">Toe arrangements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Toe arrangements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dactyly#In_birds" title="Dactyly">Dactyly</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bird_feet_-_toe_arrangement_(dactyly)_EN.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Bird_feet_-_toe_arrangement_%28dactyly%29_EN.gif" decoding="async" width="420" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="147" /></a><figcaption>Toe arrangement in a bird's right foot</figcaption></figure> <p>Typical toe arrangements in <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> are: </p> <ul><li><b>Anisodactyl</b>: three toes in front (2, 3, 4), and one in back (1); in nearly all <a href="/wiki/Songbird" title="Songbird">songbirds</a> and most other perching birds.<sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Zygodactyl</b>: two toes in front (2, 3) and two in back (1, 4) – the outermost front toe (4) is reversed. The zygodactyl arrangement is a case of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergence</a>, because it evolved in birds in different ways nine times.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>In many perching birds – most <a href="/wiki/Woodpecker" title="Woodpecker">woodpeckers</a> and their allies, <a href="/wiki/Osprey" title="Osprey">ospreys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">owls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuckoo" title="Cuckoo">cuckoos</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Roadrunner" title="Roadrunner">roadrunners</a>), most <a href="/wiki/Parrot" title="Parrot">parrots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mousebird" title="Mousebird">mousebirds</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Swift_(bird)" title="Swift (bird)">swifts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cuckoo_roller" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuckoo roller">cuckoo rollers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Woodpeckers, when climbing, can rotate the outer rear digit (4) to the side in an ectropodactyl arrangement. <a href="/wiki/Black-backed_woodpecker" title="Black-backed woodpecker">Black-backed woodpeckers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_three-toed_woodpecker" title="Eurasian three-toed woodpecker">Eurasian three-toed woodpeckers</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_three-toed_woodpecker" title="American three-toed woodpecker">American three-toed woodpeckers</a> have three toes – the inner rear (1) is missing and the outer rear (4) points always backward and never rotates.<sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">Owls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osprey" title="Osprey">ospreys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turaco" title="Turaco">turacos</a> can rotate the outer toe (4) back and forth.<sup id="cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><b>Heterodactyl</b>: two toes in front (3, 4) and two in back (2, 1) – the inner front toe (2) is reversed; heterodactyl arrangement only exists in <a href="/wiki/Trogon" title="Trogon">trogons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Syndactyl</b>: three toes in front (2, 3, 4), one in back (1); the inner and middle (2, 3) are joined for much of their length.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is often found in <a href="/wiki/Picocoraciae" title="Picocoraciae">Picocoraciae</a>, though <a href="/wiki/Coraciidae" title="Coraciidae">rollers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ground_roller" title="Ground roller">ground rollers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Piciformes" title="Piciformes">Piciformes</a> (who are zygodactyl) are exceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Pamprodactyl</b>: two inner toes in front (2, 3), the two outer (1, 4) can rotate freely forward and backward. In <a href="/wiki/Mousebird" title="Mousebird">mousebirds</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Swift_(bird)" title="Swift (bird)">swifts</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Swift_(bird)" title="Swift (bird)">swifts</a> move all four digits forward to use them as hooks to hang.<sup id="cite_ref-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The most common arrangement is the anisodactyl foot, and second among perching birds is the zygodactyl arrangement.<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Proctor93_7-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kalbe83_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalbe83-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claws">Claws</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Claws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All birds have claws at the end of the toes. The claws are typically curved and the radius of curvature tends to be greater as the bird is larger although they tend to be straighter in large ground dwelling birds such as ratites.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some species (including <a href="/wiki/Nightjar" title="Nightjar">nightjars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frigatebird" title="Frigatebird">frigatebirds</a>, owls and <a href="/wiki/Pratincole" title="Pratincole">pratincoles</a>) have comb-like serrations on the claw of the middle toe that may aid in scratch <a href="/wiki/Preening_(bird)" class="mw-redirect" title="Preening (bird)">preening</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stettenheim_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stettenheim-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Webbing_and_lobation"><span class="anchor" id="lobed_feet"></span> Webbing and lobation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Webbing and lobation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Webbed_foot" title="Webbed foot">Webbed foot</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bird_feet_-_webbing_and_lobation_EN.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Bird_feet_-_webbing_and_lobation_EN.gif" decoding="async" width="420" height="132" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="132" /></a><figcaption>Webbing and lobation in a bird's right foot</figcaption></figure> <p>Palmations and lobes enable swimming or help walking on loose ground such as <a href="/wiki/Mud" title="Mud">mud</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The webbed or palmated feet of birds can be categorized into several types: </p> <ul><li><b>Palmate</b>: only the anterior digits (2–4) are joined by webbing. Found in <a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goose" title="Goose">geese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swan" title="Swan">swans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">gulls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tern" title="Tern">terns</a>, and other aquatic birds (<a href="/wiki/Auk" title="Auk">auks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">flamingos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fulmar" title="Fulmar">fulmars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skua" title="Skua">jaegers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">loons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrel" title="Petrel">petrels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shearwater" title="Shearwater">shearwaters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skimmer_(bird)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skimmer (bird)">skimmers</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kalbe83_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalbe83-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Diving_duck" title="Diving duck">Diving ducks</a> also have a lobed hind toe (1), and gulls, terns and allies have a reduced hind toe.<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-sibleybeh_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-sibleybeh-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Totipalmate</b>: all four digits (1–4) are joined by webbing. Found in <a href="/wiki/Gannet" title="Gannet">gannets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Booby" title="Booby">boobies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pelican" title="Pelican">pelicans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cormorant" title="Cormorant">cormorants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anhinga" title="Anhinga">anhingas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frigatebird" title="Frigatebird">frigatebirds</a>. Some gannets have brightly colored feet used in display.<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kalbe83_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalbe83-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Semipalmate</b>: a small web between the anterior digits (2–4). Found in some <a href="/wiki/Plover" title="Plover">plovers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eurasian_dotterel" title="Eurasian dotterel">Eurasian dotterels</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sandpiper" title="Sandpiper">sandpipers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Semipalmated_sandpiper" title="Semipalmated sandpiper">semipalmated sandpipers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stilt_sandpiper" title="Stilt sandpiper">stilt sandpipers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upland_sandpiper" title="Upland sandpiper">upland sandpipers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_yellowlegs" title="Greater yellowlegs">greater yellowlegs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Willet" title="Willet">willet</a>), <a href="/wiki/Avocet" title="Avocet">avocet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a> (only two toes), all <a href="/wiki/Grouse" title="Grouse">grouse</a>, and some domesticated breeds of <a href="/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">chicken</a>. Plovers and <a href="/wiki/Lapwing" title="Lapwing">lapwings</a> have a vestigial hind toe (1), and sandpipers and their allies have a reduced and raised hind toe barely touching the ground. The <a href="/wiki/Sanderling" title="Sanderling">sanderling</a> is the only sandpiper having 3 toes (tridactyl foot).<sup id="cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Lobate</b>: the anterior digits (2–4) are edged with lobes of skin. Lobes expand or contract when a bird swims. In <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coot" title="Coot">coots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phalarope" title="Phalarope">phalaropes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heliornithidae" title="Heliornithidae">finfoots</a> and some palmate-footed <a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a> on the hallux (1). Grebes have more webbing between the toes than coots and phalaropes.<sup id="cite_ref-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gill-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kalbe83_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalbe83-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The palmate foot is most common. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thermal_regulation">Thermal regulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Thermal regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some birds like <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">gulls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a> or <a href="/wiki/Goose" title="Goose">geese</a> can regulate their temperature through their feet.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kochan94_2-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">arteries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">veins</a> intertwine in the legs, so heat can be transferred from arteries back to veins before reaching the feet. Such a mechanism is called <a href="/wiki/Countercurrent_exchange" title="Countercurrent exchange">countercurrent exchange</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">Gulls</a> can open a shunt between these vessels, turning back the bloodstream above the foot, and constrict the vessels in the foot. This reduces heat loss by more than 90 percent. In gulls, the temperature of the base of the leg is 32 °C (89 °F), while that of the foot may be close to 0 °C (32 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, for cooling, this heat-exchange network can be bypassed and blood-flow through the foot significantly increased (<a href="/wiki/Giant_petrel" title="Giant petrel">giant petrels</a>). Some birds also excrete onto their feet, increasing heat loss via <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stork" title="Stork">storks</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_World_vulture" title="New World vulture">New World vultures</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Gill01_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Bird anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dactyly" title="Dactyly">Dactyly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synsacrum" title="Synsacrum">Synsacrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarsometatarsus" title="Tarsometatarsus">Tarsometatarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibiotarsus" title="Tibiotarsus">Tibiotarsus</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bird_feet" class="extiw" title="commons:Bird feet"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Bird feet</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gill01-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill01_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGill2001" class="citation book cs1">Gill, Frank B. (2001). <i>Ornithology</i> (2md ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-2415-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-2415-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-2415-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ornithology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2md&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-2415-5&rft.aulast=Gill&rft.aufirst=Frank+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+feet+and+legs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochan94-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochan94_2-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKochan1994" class="citation book cs1">Kochan, Jack B. (1994). <i>Feet & Legs</i>. Birds. Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-2515-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-2515-6"><bdi>978-0-8117-2515-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feet+%26+Legs&rft.place=Mechanicsburg&rft.series=Birds&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8117-2515-6&rft.aulast=Kochan&rft.aufirst=Jack+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+feet+and+legs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kochan-proctor-sibleybeh_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKochan1994">Kochan (1994)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFProctorLynch1993">Proctor & Lynch (1993)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFElphick_et_al2001">Elphick et al (2001)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dict90_1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_1_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKowalska-Dyrcz1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kowalska-Dyrcz, Alina (1990). "Entry: noga [leg]". In Busse, Przemysław (ed.). <i>Ptaki</i> [<i>Birds</i>]. Mały słownik zoologiczny [Small zoological dictionary] (in Polish). Vol. I (1st ed.). Warsaw: Wiedza Powszechna. pp. <span class="nowrap">383–</span>385. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-214-0563-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-214-0563-6"><bdi>978-83-214-0563-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Entry%3A+noga+%5Bleg%5D&rft.btitle=Ptaki&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.series=Ma%C5%82y+s%C5%82ownik+zoologiczny+%5BSmall+zoological+dictionary%5D&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E383-%3C%2Fspan%3E385&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Wiedza+Powszechna&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-83-214-0563-6&rft.aulast=Kowalska-Dyrcz&rft.aufirst=Alina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+feet+and+legs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-proctor-dict-dobrowolski-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-proctor-dict-dobrowolski_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-proctor-dict-dobrowolski_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-proctor-dict-dobrowolski_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFProctorLynch1993">Proctor & Lynch (1993)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFKowalska-Dyrcz1990">Kowalska-Dyrcz (1990)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFDobrowolski_et_al1981">Dobrowolski et al (1981)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Romer77-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Romer77_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Romer77_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Romer77_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Romer77_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomerParsons1977" class="citation book cs1">Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). <i>The Vertebrate Body</i>. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. <span class="nowrap">205–</span>208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-910284-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-910284-5"><bdi>978-0-03-910284-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vertebrate+Body&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E205-%3C%2Fspan%3E208&rft.pub=Holt-Saunders+International&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-03-910284-5&rft.aulast=Romer&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Sherwood&rft.au=Parsons%2C+Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+feet+and+legs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Proctor93-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Proctor93_7-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProctorLynch1993" class="citation book cs1">Proctor, Noble S.; Lynch, Patrick J. (1993). "Chapters: 6. Topography of the foot, 11. The pelvic girdle, and 12. The bones of the leg and foot Family". <i>Manual of Ornithology. Avian Structure & Function</i>. New Haven and London: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">70–</span>75, <span class="nowrap">140–</span>141, <span class="nowrap">142–</span>144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07619-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07619-6"><bdi>978-0-300-07619-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapters%3A+6.+Topography+of+the+foot%2C+11.+The+pelvic+girdle%2C+and+12.+The+bones+of+the+leg+and+foot+Family&rft.btitle=Manual+of+Ornithology.+Avian+Structure+%26+Function&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E70-%3C%2Fspan%3E75%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E140-%3C%2Fspan%3E141%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E142-%3C%2Fspan%3E144&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-300-07619-6&rft.aulast=Proctor&rft.aufirst=Noble+S.&rft.au=Lynch%2C+Patrick+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+feet+and+legs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dobrowolski81-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobrowolski81_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobrowolski_et_al1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dobrowolski, Kazimierz A.; Klimaszewski, Sędzimir M.; Szelęgiewicz, Henryk (1981). "Chapters: Gromada: Ptaki - Aves: Układ kostny; Pas miednicowy i kończyna tylna [Class: Birds: The skeletal system; The pelvic girdle and the hindlimb]". <i>Zoologia</i> [<i>Zoology</i>] (in Polish) (4th ed.). Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Szkolne i Pedagogiczne. pp. <span class="nowrap">462–</span>464, 469. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-02-00608-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-02-00608-1"><bdi>978-83-02-00608-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapters%3A+Gromada%3A+Ptaki+-+Aves%3A+Uk%C5%82ad+kostny%3B+Pas+miednicowy+i+ko%C5%84czyna+tylna+%5BClass%3A+Birds%3A+The+skeletal+system%3B+The+pelvic+girdle+and+the+hindlimb%5D&rft.btitle=Zoologia&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E462-%3C%2Fspan%3E464%2C+469&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Szkolne+i+Pedagogiczne&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-83-02-00608-1&rft.aulast=Dobrowolski&rft.aufirst=Kazimierz+A.&rft.au=Klimaszewski%2C+S%C4%99dzimir+M.&rft.au=Szel%C4%99giewicz%2C+Henryk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+feet+and+legs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dict90_2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_2_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dict90_2_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kowalska-Dyrcz, Alina (1990). "Entry: synsakrum [synsacrum]". In Busse, Przemysław (ed.). <i>Ptaki</i> [<i>Birds</i>]. Mały słownik zoologiczny [Small zoological dictionary] (in Polish). Vol. II (1st ed.). Warsaw: Wiedza Powszechna. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-214-0563-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-214-0563-6"><bdi>978-83-214-0563-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Entry%3A+synsakrum+%5Bsynsacrum%5D&rft.btitle=Ptaki&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.series=Ma%C5%82y+s%C5%82ownik+zoologiczny+%5BSmall+zoological+dictionary%5D&rft.pages=245&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Wiedza+Powszechna&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-83-214-0563-6&rft.aulast=Kowalska-Dyrcz&rft.aufirst=Alina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+feet+and+legs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SibleyBeh01-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SibleyBeh01_10-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElphick_et_al2001" class="citation book cs1">Elphick, John B.; Dunning, Jack B. Jr.; Sibley, David Allen (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sibleyguidetobir00sibl_1"><i>National Audubon Society: The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behavior</i></a></span>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45123-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45123-5"><bdi>978-0-679-45123-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=National+Audubon+Society%3A+The+Sibley+Guide+to+Bird+Life+%26+Behavior&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-679-45123-5&rft.aulast=Elphick&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rft.au=Dunning%2C+Jack+B.+Jr.&rft.au=Sibley%2C+David+Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsibleyguidetobir00sibl_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+feet+and+legs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunn1894" class="citation journal cs1">Munn, Philip W. (1 January 1894). 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"The Integumentary Morphology of Modern Birds—An Overview". <i>American Zoologist</i>. <b>40</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">461–</span>477. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.559.1172">10.1.1.559.1172</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1668%2F0003-1569%282000%29040%5B0461%3Atimomb%5D2.0.co%3B2">10.1668/0003-1569(2000)040[0461:timomb]2.0.co;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-1569">0003-1569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Zoologist&rft.atitle=The+Integumentary+Morphology+of+Modern+Birds%E2%80%94An+Overview&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E461-%3C%2Fspan%3E477&rft.date=2000-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.559.1172%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.issn=0003-1569&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1668%2F0003-1569%282000%29040%5B0461%3Atimomb%5D2.0.co%3B2&rft.aulast=Stettenheim&rft.aufirst=Peter+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+feet+and+legs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kochan-sibleybeh-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kochan-sibleybeh_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKochan1994">Kochan (1994)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFElphick_et_al2001">Elphick et al (2001)</a></span> </li> </ol></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&oldid=1263384417">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bird_feet_and_legs&oldid=1263384417</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bird_anatomy" title="Category:Bird anatomy">Bird anatomy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lower_limb_anatomy" title="Category:Lower limb anatomy">Lower limb anatomy</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Polish-language_sources_(pl)" title="Category:CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)">CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons link from Wikidata">Commons link from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 16 December 2024, at 10:22<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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