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</li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preservation_and_rediscovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preservation_and_rediscovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Preservation and rediscovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preservation_and_rediscovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_musical_renditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_musical_renditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Modern musical renditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_musical_renditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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literature</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%BA%D9%85%D9%8A" title="أدب سنغمي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أدب سنغمي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="সঙ্গম সাহিত্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সঙ্গম সাহিত্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_sangam" title="Literatura sangam – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Literatura sangam" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangam-Literatur" title="Sangam-Literatur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sangam-Literatur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_sangam" title="Literatura sangam – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Literatura sangam" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%85" title="ادبیات سنگام – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ادبیات سنگام" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rature_tamoule_classique" title="Littérature tamoule classique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Littérature tamoule classique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%81%EA%B0%90_%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99" title="상감 문학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="상감 문학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="संगम साहित्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संगम साहित्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letteratura_Sangam" title="Letteratura Sangam – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Letteratura Sangam" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%98%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="സംഘസാഹിത്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സംഘസാഹിത്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="संगम साहित्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="संगम साहित्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesusasteraan_Sangam" title="Kesusasteraan Sangam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kesusasteraan Sangam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सङ्गम साहित्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सङ्गम साहित्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="संगम साहित्य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="संगम साहित्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AC%E3%83%A0%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="サンガム文学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="サンガム文学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangamlitteratur" title="Sangamlitteratur – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sangamlitteratur" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A4" title="ਸੰਗਮ ਸਾਹਿਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੰਗਮ ਸਾਹਿਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangam-kirjallisuus" title="Sangam-kirjallisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sangam-kirjallisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="சங்க இலக்கியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சங்க இலக்கியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D2%91%D0%B0%D0%BC_(%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0)" title="Санґам (література) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Санґам (література)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8" title="سنگم ادب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سنگم ادب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3219940#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_period&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Historic period of Tamil literature</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg/220px-WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg/330px-WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg/440px-WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption> Sculpture of the Ancient Tamil Siddhar <a href="/wiki/Agastya" title="Agastya">Agastyar</a> who is traditionally believed to have chaired the first <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Sangam">Tamil Sangam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Sangam literature</b> (<a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>: சங்க இலக்கியம், <i>caṅka ilakkiyam</i>), historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (<a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், <i>Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Kailas_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kailas-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> connotes the early classical <a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil literature</a> and is the earliest known literature of <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>. The Tamil tradition and legends link it to <a href="/wiki/Legendary_Tamil_Sangams" title="Legendary Tamil Sangams">three legendary literary gatherings</a> around <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a> and Kapāṭapuram: the first lasted over 4,440 years, the second over 3,700 years, and the third over 1,850 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh2008p27_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh2008p27-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zvelebil1973p46_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zvelebil1973p46-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars consider this Tamil tradition-based chronology as ahistorical and mythical.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most scholars suggest the historical Sangam literature era, also called the <b>Sangam period</b>, spanned from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BCE</span> to 300 CE,<sup id="cite_ref-Singh2008p27_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh2008p27-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while others variously place this early classical Tamil literature period a bit later and more narrowly but all before 300 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Scharfe1977p178_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scharfe1977p178-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zvelebil1992p12_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zvelebil1992p12-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sastri1958p110_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sastri1958p110-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Kamil_Zvelebil" title="Kamil Zvelebil">Kamil Zvelebil</a>, a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on the linguistic, prosodic and quasi-historic allusions within the texts and the <a href="/wiki/Colophon_(publishing)" title="Colophon (publishing)">colophons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_with_footnotes_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_with_footnotes-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sangam literature had fallen into oblivion for much of the second millennium of the common era, but were preserved by and rediscovered in the <a href="/wiki/Matha" title="Matha">monasteries</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Kumbakonam" title="Kumbakonam">Kumbakonam</a>, by colonial-era scholars in the late nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19747–8_with_footnotes_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19747–8_with_footnotes-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-takahashi1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rediscovered Sangam classical collection is largely a bardic corpus. It comprises an <i>Urtext</i> of oldest surviving Tamil grammar (Tolkappiyam), the Ettuttokai anthology (the "Eight Collections"), the Pathuppaattu anthology (the "Ten Songs").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tamil literature that followed the Sangam period – that is, after <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 CE</span> but before <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 CE</span> – is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Zvelebil1992p12_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zvelebil1992p12-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This collection contains 2381 poems in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these, 16 poets account for about 50% of the known Sangam literature,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/Kapilar" title="Kapilar">Kapilar</a> – the most prolific poet – alone contributing just little less than 10% of the entire corpus.<sup id="cite_ref-Shelby_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shelby-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These poems vary between 3 and 782 lines long.<sup id="cite_ref-takahashi1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bardic poetry of the Sangam era is largely about love (<i>akam</i>) and war (<i>puram</i>), with the exception of the shorter poems such as in <i><a href="/wiki/Paripaatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Paripaatal">Paripaatal</a></i> which is more religious and praise <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh2008p27_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh2008p27-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britsangam_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britsangam-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sangam literature also includes <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jainist" class="mw-redirect" title="Jainist">Jainist</a> epics.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table style="clear:right; float:right; background:#ffffff; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;" class="toccolours" width="220"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#A8BDEC;text-align:center;" colspan="2">Topics in <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sangam literature</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sangam literature</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Agattiyam" title="Agattiyam">Agattiyam</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#A8BDEC;"><b><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Eight_Anthologies" title="Eight Anthologies">Eight Anthologies</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ai%E1%B9%85kurun%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Aiṅkurunūṟu">Aiṅkurunūṟu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Akan%C4%81%E1%B9%89%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Akanāṉūṟu">Akanāṉūṟu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%9Fan%C4%81%E1%B9%89%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Puṟanāṉūṟu">Puṟanāṉūṟu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kalittokai" title="Kalittokai">Kalittokai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ku%E1%B9%9Funtokai" title="Kuṟuntokai">Kuṟuntokai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Na%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fi%E1%B9%87ai" title="Naṟṟiṇai">Natṟiṇai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Parip%C4%81%E1%B9%ADal" title="Paripāṭal">Paripāṭal</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pati%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppattu" title="Patiṟṟuppattu">Patiṟṟuppattu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#efefef"><a href="/wiki/Ten_Idylls" title="Ten Idylls">Ten Idylls</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ku%E1%B9%9Fi%C3%B1cipp%C4%81%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADu" title="Kuṟiñcippāṭṭu">Kuṟiñcippāṭṭu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Malaipa%E1%B9%ADuka%E1%B9%AD%C4%81m" title="Malaipaṭukaṭām">Malaipaṭukaṭām</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Maturaikk%C4%81%C3%B1ci" title="Maturaikkāñci">Maturaikkāñci</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Mullaipp%C4%81%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADu" title="Mullaippāṭṭu">Mullaippāṭṭu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ne%E1%B9%ADunalv%C4%81%E1%B9%ADai" title="Neṭunalvāṭai">Neṭunalvāṭai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Pa%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADi%E1%B9%89app%C4%81lai" title="Paṭṭiṉappālai">Paṭṭiṉappālai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Perump%C4%81%E1%B9%87%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai">Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Poru%E1%B9%87ar%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai">Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ci%E1%B9%9Fup%C4%81%E1%B9%87%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Ciṟupāṇāṟṟuppaṭai">Ciṟupāṇāṟṟuppaṭai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#A8BDEC;"><b>Related topics</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Sangams" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Sangams">Sangam</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sangam_landscape" title="Sangam landscape">Sangam landscape</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_history_from_Sangam_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil history from Sangam literature">Tamil history from Sangam literature</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_music" title="Ancient Tamil music">Ancient Tamil music</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#A8BDEC;"><b><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81la%E1%B9%ADiy%C4%81r" title="Nālaṭiyār">Nālaṭiyār</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81%E1%B9%89ma%E1%B9%87ikka%E1%B9%ADikai" title="Nāṉmaṇikkaṭikai">Nāṉmaṇikkaṭikai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/I%E1%B9%89%E1%B9%89%C4%81_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Iṉṉā Nāṟpatu">Iṉṉā Nāṟpatu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/I%E1%B9%89iyavai_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Iṉiyavai Nāṟpatu">Iṉiyavai Nāṟpatu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81r_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Kār Nāṟpatu">Kār Nāṟpatu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B8%B7ava%E1%B8%BBi_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu">Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ainti%E1%B9%87ai_Aimpatu" title="Aintiṇai Aimpatu">Aintiṇai Aimpatu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ti%E1%B9%89aimo%E1%B8%BBi_Aimpatu" title="Tiṉaimoḻi Aimpatu">Tiṉaimoḻi Aimpatu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Aintinai_E%E1%B8%BBupatu" title="Aintinai Eḻupatu">Aintinai Eḻupatu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ti%E1%B9%87aim%C4%81lai_N%C5%AB%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Faimpatu" title="Tiṇaimālai Nūṟṟaimpatu">Tiṇaimālai Nūṟṟaimpatu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tirika%E1%B9%ADukam" title="Tirikaṭukam">Tirikaṭukam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80c%C4%81rakk%C5%8Dvai" title="Ācārakkōvai">Ācārakkōvai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pa%E1%B8%BBamo%E1%B8%BBi_N%C4%81%E1%B9%89%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" title="Paḻamoḻi Nāṉūṟu">Paḻamoḻi Nāṉūṟu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ci%E1%B9%9Fupa%C3%B1cam%C5%ABlam" title="Ciṟupañcamūlam">Ciṟupañcamūlam</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mutumo%E1%B8%BBikk%C4%81nci" title="Mutumoḻikkānci">Mutumoḻikkānci</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/El%C4%81ti" title="Elāti">Elāti</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kainnilai" title="Kainnilai">Kainnilai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#A8BDEC"><b>Bhakti Literature</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ramavataram" title="Ramavataram">Ramavataram</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tevaram" title="Tevaram">Tevaram</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumuṟai</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:right;padding: 0 5px 0 5px"><small class="editlink noprint plainlinksneverexpand"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Sangam_literature&action=edit">edit </a></small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legendary_Tamil_Sangams">Legendary Tamil Sangams</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Legendary Tamil Sangams"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Sangams" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Sangams">Tamil Sangams</a></div> <p><i>Sangam</i> literally means "gathering, meeting, fraternity, academy". According to David Shulman, a scholar of Tamil language and literature, the Tamil tradition believes that the Sangam literature arose in distant antiquity over three periods, each stretching over many millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201627–28_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman201627–28-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first has roots in the Hindu deity <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a>, his son <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kubera" title="Kubera">Kubera</a> as well as 545 sages including the famed <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigvedic</a> poet <a href="/wiki/Agastya" title="Agastya">Agastya</a>. The first academy, states the legend, extended over four millennia and was located far to the south of modern city of Madurai, a location later "swallowed up by the sea", states Shulman.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201627–28_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman201627–28-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second academy, also chaired by a very long-lived Agastya, was near the eastern seaside Kapāṭapuram and lasted three millennia. This was swallowed by floods. From the second Sangam, states the legend, the <i><a href="/wiki/Akattiyam" class="mw-redirect" title="Akattiyam">Akattiyam</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a></i> survived and guided the third Sangam scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201627–28_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman201627–28-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A prose commentary by Nakkiranar – likely about the eighth century CE – describes this legend.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201625–28_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman201625–28-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest known mention of the Sangam legend, however, appears in <i>Tirupputtur Tantakam</i> by Appar in about the seventh century CE, while an extended version appears in the twelfth-century <i>Tiruvilaiyatal puranam</i> by Perumparrap Nampi.<sup id="cite_ref-Zvelebil1973p46_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zvelebil1973p46-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legend states that the third Sangam of 449 poet scholars worked over 1,850 years in northern Madurai (Pandyan kingdom). He lists six anthologies of Tamil poems (later a part of <i>Ettuttokai</i>):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201625–28_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman201625–28-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Netuntokai nanuru</i> (400 long poems)</li> <li><i>Kuruntokai anuru</i> (400 short poems)</li> <li><i>Narrinai</i> (400 Tinai landscape poems)</li> <li><i>Purananuru</i> (400 Outer poems)</li> <li><i>Ainkurunuru</i> (500 very short poems)</li> <li><i>Patirruppattu</i> (Ten Tens)</li></ul> <p>These claims of the Sangams and the description of sunken land masses <a href="/wiki/Kumari_Kandam" title="Kumari Kandam">Kumari Kandam</a> have been dismissed as frivolous by historiographers. Noted historians like Kamil Zvelebil have stressed that the use of 'Sangam literature' to describe this corpus of literature is a misnomer and <i>Classical</i> literature should be used instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Zvelebil1973p46_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zvelebil1973p46-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Shulman, "there is not the slightest shred of evidence that any such [Sangam] literary academies ever existed", though there are many Pandya inscriptions that mention an academy of scholars. Of particular note, states Shulman, is the tenth-century CE Sinnamanur inscription that mentions a Pandyan king who sponsored the "translation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i> into Tamil" and established a "Madhurapuri (Madurai) Sangam".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201628–29_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman201628–29-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Zvelebil, within the myth there is a kernel of reality, and all literary evidence leads one to conclude that "such an academy did exist in Madurai (Maturai) at the beginning of the Christian era". The homogeneity of the prosody, language and themes in these poems confirms that the Sangam literature was a community effort, a "group poetry".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197410–11_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197410–11-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sangam literature is also referred sometimes with terms such as <i>caṅka ilakkiyam</i> or "Sangam age poetry".<sup id="cite_ref-Zvelebil1973p46_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zvelebil1973p46-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_Sangam_period">Historical Sangam period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical Sangam period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg/220px-South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg/330px-South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg/440px-South_India_in_Sangam_Period.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1419" /></a><figcaption>South India in Sangam Period</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Old_Tamil" title="Old Tamil">Old Tamil language</a>, the term <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> (<i>Tamiḻakam</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Purananuru" title="Purananuru">Purananuru</a></i> 168. 18) referred to the whole of the ancient Tamil-speaking area,<sup id="cite_ref-Saju_2019_ToI_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saju_2019_ToI-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>web 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> corresponding roughly to the area known as <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">southern India</a> today, consisting of the territories of the present-day Indian states of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> is distinguished from it and is known as Ilam or <a href="/wiki/Eelam" title="Eelam">Eelam</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManguinManiWade2011138_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManguinManiWade2011138-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although also influenced by the Sangam Period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson200014_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson200014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShinu2003_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShinu2003-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tamil_Society_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamil_Society-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>web 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Indian history, the Sangam period or age (<a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>: <span title="Tamil-language text"><span lang="ta">சங்ககாலம்</span></span>, <span title="Tamil-language romanization"><i lang="ta-Latn">caṅkakālam</i></span>) is the period of the history of ancient Tamil Nadu and Kerala (then known as <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a>), and parts of Sri Lanka from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BCE</span> to 300 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Jesudasan_2019_The_Hindu_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jesudasan_2019_The_Hindu-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>web 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was named after the literature of poets and scholars of the legendary <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Sangams" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Sangams">Sangam academies</a> centered in the city of <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnjali2017123–136_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnjali2017123–136-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the period between 300 BCE and 300 CE, Tamilakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties of <a href="/wiki/Pandya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandya">Pandya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a>, and a few independent chieftains, the <a href="/wiki/Velirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Velirs">Velir</a>. The evidence on the early history of the Tamil kingdoms consists of the epigraphs of the region, the Sangam literature, and archaeological data.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShinu2003_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShinu2003-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fourfold Vedic system of caste hierarchy did not exist during the Sangam period. The society was organised by occupational groups living apart from each other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENath_sen1999205_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENath_sen1999205-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Corpus">Corpus</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Corpus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puhar-ILango.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Puhar-ILango.jpg/220px-Puhar-ILango.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Puhar-ILango.jpg/330px-Puhar-ILango.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Puhar-ILango.jpg/440px-Puhar-ILango.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ilango_Adigal" title="Ilango Adigal">Ilango Adigal</a> is the author of <i><a href="/wiki/Silappatikaram" class="mw-redirect" title="Silappatikaram">Silappatikaram</a>,</i> one of the <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Great_Epics_of_Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature">five great epics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosen1975_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosen1975-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sources_of_ancient_Tamil_history" title="Sources of ancient Tamil history">Sources of ancient Tamil history</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sangam literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Great_Epics_of_Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature">The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tamil_history_from_Sangam_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil history from Sangam literature">Tamil history from Sangam literature</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Authors">Authors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Authors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Sangam literature was composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Nilakanta Sastri, the poets came from diverse backgrounds: some were from a royal family, some merchants, some farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-sastri43_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sastri43-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least 27 of the poets were women. These poets emerged, states Nilakanta Sastri, in a milieu where the Tamil society had already interacted and inseparably amalgamated with north Indians (Indo-Aryan) and both sides had shared mythology, values and literary conventions.<sup id="cite_ref-sastri43_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sastri43-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compilations">Compilations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Compilations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sangam_landscape" title="Sangam landscape">Sangam landscape</a></div> <p>The available literature from this period was categorised and compiled in the tenth century CE into two categories based roughly on chronology. The categories are the <i><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku</a></i> ("Eighteen Greater Texts") comprising <i><a href="/wiki/Eight_Anthologies" title="Eight Anthologies">Ettuthogai</a></i> (or <i>Ettuttokai</i>, "Eight Anthologies") and the <i><a href="/wiki/Ten_Idylls" title="Ten Idylls">Pattuppāṭṭu</a></i> ("Ten Idylls") and <i><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku</a></i> ("Eighteen Lesser Texts"). According to <a href="/wiki/Takanobu_Takahashi" title="Takanobu Takahashi">Takanobu Takahashi</a>, the compilation of Patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku poems are as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-takahashi1_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" align="center" style="background: transparent;"> <caption><i>Ettuttokai</i><sup id="cite_ref-takahashi1_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px" style="background: #ffad66;">Name </td> <td width="40px">Extant poems </td> <td width="40px">Original poems </td> <td width="50px">Lines in poems </td> <td width="50px">Number of poets </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Natrrinai</i> </td> <td width="40px">400 </td> <td width="40px">400 </td> <td width="50px">9–12 </td> <td width="50px">175 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Kuruntokai</i> </td> <td width="40px">402 </td> <td width="40px">400 </td> <td width="50px">4–8 </td> <td width="50px">205 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Ainkurunuru</i> </td> <td width="40px">499 </td> <td width="40px">500 </td> <td width="50px">3–6 </td> <td width="50px">5 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Patirruppattu</i> </td> <td width="40px">86 </td> <td width="40px">10x10 </td> <td width="50px">varies </td> <td width="50px">8 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Paripatal</i> </td> <td width="40px">33 </td> <td width="40px">70 </td> <td width="50px">varies </td> <td width="50px">13 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Kalittokai</i> </td> <td width="40px">150 </td> <td width="40px">150 </td> <td width="60px">varies </td> <td width="50px">5 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Akananuru</i> </td> <td width="40px">401 </td> <td width="40px">400 </td> <td width="60px">12–31 </td> <td width="50px">145 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Purananuru</i> </td> <td width="40px">398 </td> <td width="40px">400 </td> <td width="60px">varies </td> <td width="50px">157 </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" align="center" style="background: transparent;"> <caption><i>Pattuppattu</i><sup id="cite_ref-takahashi1_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px" style="background: #ffad66;">Name </td> <td width="50px">Lines </td> <td width="50px">Author </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Tirumurukarruppatai</i> </td> <td width="50px">317 </td> <td width="50px">Nakkirar </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Porunararruppatai</i> </td> <td width="50px">234 </td> <td width="50px">Mutattamakkanniyar </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Cirupanarruppatai</i> </td> <td width="50px">296 </td> <td width="50px">Nattattanar </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Perumpanarruppatai</i> </td> <td width="50px">500 </td> <td width="50px">Uruttirankannaiyar </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Mullaippattu</i> </td> <td width="50px">103 </td> <td width="50px">Napputanar </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Maturaikkanci</i> </td> <td width="50px">782 </td> <td width="50px">Mankuti Marutanar </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Netunalvatai</i> </td> <td width="50px">188 </td> <td width="50px">Nakkirar </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Kurincippattu</i> </td> <td width="50px">261 </td> <td width="50px">Kapilar </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Pattinappalai</i> </td> <td width="50px">301 </td> <td width="50px">Uruttirankannanar </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: center;"> <td width="120px"><i>Malaipatukatam</i> </td> <td width="50px">583 </td> <td width="50px">Perunkaucikanar </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The compilation of poems from Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku are as follows: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81la%E1%B9%ADiy%C4%81r" title="Nālaṭiyār">Nālaṭiyār</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81%E1%B9%89ma%E1%B9%87ikka%E1%B9%ADikai" title="Nāṉmaṇikkaṭikai">Nāṉmaṇikkaṭikai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/I%E1%B9%89%E1%B9%89%C4%81_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Iṉṉā Nāṟpatu">Iṉṉā Nāṟpatu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/I%E1%B9%89iyavai_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Iṉiyavai Nāṟpatu">Iṉiyavai Nāṟpatu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81r_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Kār Nāṟpatu">Kār Nāṟpatu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B8%B7ava%E1%B8%BBi_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu">Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ainti%E1%B9%87ai_Aimpatu" title="Aintiṇai Aimpatu">Aintiṇai Aimpatu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ti%E1%B9%89aimo%E1%B8%BBi_Aimpatu" title="Tiṉaimoḻi Aimpatu">Tiṉaimoḻi Aimpatu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aintinai_E%E1%B8%BBupatu" title="Aintinai Eḻupatu">Aintinai Eḻupatu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ti%E1%B9%89aimalai_N%C5%AB%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fu_Aimpatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiṉaimalai Nūṟṟu Aimpatu">Tiṉaimalai Nūṟṟu Aimpatu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Ba%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṛaḷ">Tirukkuṛaḷ</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirika%E1%B9%ADukam" title="Tirikaṭukam">Tirikaṭukam</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C4%80c%C4%81rakk%C5%8Dvai" title="Ācārakkōvai">Ācārakkōvai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pa%E1%B8%BBamo%E1%B8%BBi_N%C4%81%E1%B9%89%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" title="Paḻamoḻi Nāṉūṟu">Paḻamoḻi Nāṉūṟu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ci%E1%B9%9Fupa%C3%B1cam%C5%ABlam" title="Ciṟupañcamūlam">Ciṟupañcamūlam</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mutumo%E1%B8%BBikk%C4%81nci" title="Mutumoḻikkānci">Mutumoḻikkānci</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/El%C4%81ti" title="Elāti">Elāti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kainnilai" title="Kainnilai">Kainnilai</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sangam literature is broadly classified into <b>akam</b> (<span title="Tamil-language text"><span lang="ta">அகம்</span></span>, inner), and <b>puram</b> (<span title="Tamil-language text"><span lang="ta">புறம்</span></span>, outer).<sup id="cite_ref-Manninezhath1993p78_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manninezhath1993p78-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>akam</i> poetry is about emotions and feelings in the context of romantic love, sexual union and eroticism. The <i>puram</i> poetry is about exploits and heroic deeds in the context of war and public life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197410–11_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197410–11-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Manninezhath1993p78_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manninezhath1993p78-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately three-fourths of the Sangam poetry is <i>akam</i> themed, and about one fourth is <i>puram</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-takahashi2_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sangam literature, both <i>akam</i> and <i>puram</i>, can be subclassified into seven minor genre called <i>tiṇai</i> (திணை). This minor genre is based on the location or landscape in which the poetry is set.<sup id="cite_ref-takahashi2_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are: <i>kuṟiñci</i> (குறிஞ்சி), mountainous regions; <i>mullai</i> (முல்லை), pastoral forests; <i>marutam</i> (மருதம்), riverine agricultural land; <i>neytal</i> (நெய்தல்) coastal regions; <i>pālai</i> (பாலை) arid.<sup id="cite_ref-takahashi2_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197350–56_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197350–56-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the landscape based <i>tiṇai</i>s, for <i>akam</i> poetry, <i>ain-tinai</i> (well matched, mutual love), <i>kaikkilai</i> (ill matched, one sided), and <i>perunthinai</i> (unsuited, big genre) categories are used.<sup id="cite_ref-takahashi2_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Ainkurunuru</i> – 500 short poems anthology – is an example of mutual love poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-Shelby_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shelby-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similar <i>tiṇai</i>s pertain to <i>puram</i> poems as well, categories are sometimes based on activity: <i>vetchi</i> (cattle raid), <i>vanchi</i> (invasion, preparation for war), <i>kanchi</i> (tragedy), <i>ulinai</i> (siege), <i>tumpai</i> (battle), <i>vakai</i> (victory), <i>paataan</i> (elegy and praise), <i>karanthai</i> , and <i>pothuviyal</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-takahashi2_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>akam</i> poetry uses metaphors and imagery to set the mood, never uses names of person or places, often leaves the context as well that the community will fill in and understand given their <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a>. The <i>puram</i> poetry is more direct, uses names and places, states Takanobu Takahashi.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Style_and_prosody">Style and prosody</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Style and prosody"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early Sangam poetry diligently follows two meters, while the later Sangam poetry is a bit more diverse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–71_with_footnotes_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–71_with_footnotes-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two meters found in the early poetry are <i>akaval</i> and <i>vanci</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–68_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–68-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fundamental metrical unit in these is the <i>acai</i> (metreme<sup id="cite_ref-Niklas1988p165_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niklas1988p165-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), itself of two types – <i>ner</i> and <i>nirai</i>. The <i>ner</i> is the stressed/long syllable in European prosody tradition, while the <i>nirai</i> is the unstressed/short syllable combination (<a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic" title="Pyrrhic">pyrrhic</a> (dibrach) and <a href="/wiki/Iamb_(poetry)" title="Iamb (poetry)">iambic</a>) metrical feet, with similar equivalents in the Sanskrit prosody tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–68_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–68-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>acai</i> in the Sangam poems are combined to form a <i>cir</i> (foot), while the <i>cir</i> are connected to form a <i>talai</i>, while the line is referred to as the <i>ati</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mariaselvam1988_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mariaselvam1988-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a></i> of the <i>Tolkappiyam</i> – particularly after <i>sutra</i> 315 – state the prosody rules, enumerating the 34 component parts of ancient Tamil poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-Mariaselvam1988_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mariaselvam1988-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The prosody of an example early Sangam poem is illustrated by <i>Kuruntokai</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Hinduism" title="Category:Hinduism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;background:#FFC569;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/1_Om.svg/90px-1_Om.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/1_Om.svg/135px-1_Om.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/1_Om.svg/180px-1_Om.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="padding-bottom:0.35em; border:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Origins</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"><b>Historical</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Hinduism">Vedic Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_religions_in_India" title="Tribal religions in India">Tribal religions in India</a></li></ul> <p><b>Traditional</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasa-Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic-Puranic_royal_genealogies" title="Epic-Puranic royal genealogies">Epic-Puranic royal genealogies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic-Puranic_chronology" title="Epic-Puranic chronology">Epic-Puranic chronology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sampradaya" title="Sampradaya">Sampradaya (Traditions)</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Major Sampradaya (Traditions)</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pancharatra" title="Pancharatra">Pancharatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijña</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><i><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Other Sampradaya (Traditions)</a></i></div></dt></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Deities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Absolute Reality / Unifying Force</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Tridevi" title="Tridevi">Tridevi</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other major <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Devis</a></div></dt></dl> <dl><dd><i>Vedic Deities:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tridasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tridasha">Tridasha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adityas" title="Adityas">Adityas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudras" title="Rudras">Rudras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasus">Vasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashvins" title="Ashvins">Ashvins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahadevi" title="Mahadevi">Mahadevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">Other Vedic Deities</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Post-Vedic:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avatar" title="Avatar">Avatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dashavatara" title="Dashavatara">Dashavatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navadurga" title="Navadurga">Navadurga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavidya" title="Mahavidya">Mahavidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sita</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Devata" title="Devata">Devatas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vishvakarma" title="Vishvakarma">Vishvakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kubera" title="Kubera">Kubera</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Concepts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Worldview</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_cosmology" title="Hindu cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Ontology</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tattva" title="Tattva">Tattvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanmatras" title="Tanmatras">Subtle elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchikarana" title="Panchikarana">Panchikarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancha_Bhuta" title="Pancha Bhuta">Gross elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">Guṇas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Purusha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">Prakṛti</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Para_Brahman" title="Para Brahman">Supreme reality</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirguna_brahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nirguna brahman">Nirguna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saguna_brahman" title="Saguna brahman">Saguna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccid%C4%81nanda" title="Saccidānanda">Saccidānanda</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">God</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Devi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devata" title="Devata">Devatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">God in Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_and_gender_in_Hinduism" title="God and gender in Hinduism">God and gender</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha" title="Puruṣārtha">Puruṣārtha (Meaning of life)</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80%C5%9Brama_(stage)" title="Āśrama (stage)">Āśrama (Stages of life)</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%E1%B9%9Bhastha" title="Gṛhastha">Gṛhastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81naprastha" title="Vānaprastha">Vānaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Three_Yogas" title="Three Yogas">Three paths to liberation</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti_yoga" title="Bhakti yoga">Bhakti yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jnana_yoga" title="Jnana yoga">Jnana yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_yoga" title="Karma yoga">Karma yoga</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Liberation</a></div></dt></dl> <dl><dd><i>Mokṣa-related topics:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramātman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Mind</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman (self)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81tman_(Hinduism)" title="Anātman (Hinduism)">Anātman (non-self)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_bodies_doctrine" title="Three bodies doctrine">Sūkṣma śarīra (subtle body)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antahkarana" title="Antahkarana">Antaḥkaraṇa (mental organs)</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Hinduism)" title="Prajñā (Hinduism)">Prajña (wisdom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda_(Hindu_philosophy)" title="Ānanda (Hindu philosophy)">Ānanda (happiness)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viveka" title="Viveka">Viveka (discernment)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vairagya" title="Vairagya">Vairagya (dispassion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatva" title="Samatva">Sama (equanimity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Dama (temperance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uparati" title="Uparati">Uparati (self-settledness)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titiksha" title="Titiksha">Titiksha (forbearance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Hinduism" title="Faith in Hinduism">Shraddha (faith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dh%C4%81na" title="Samādhāna">Samadhana (concentration)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arishadvargas" title="Arishadvargas">Arishadvargas (six enemies)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahamkara" title="Ahamkara">Ahamkara (attachment)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Ethics</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion#Hindu_ethics" title="Ethics in religion">Niti śastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niyama" title="Niyama">Niyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Achourya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Damah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion#Hinduism" title="Compassion">Dayā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arjava" title="Arjava">Arjava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santosha" title="Santosha">Santosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81dhy%C4%81ya" title="Svādhyāya">Svādhyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaucha" title="Shaucha">Shaucha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitahara" title="Mitahara">Mitahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81stra_pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87am_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism">Sources of dharma</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Epistemology</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pratyaksha" title="Pratyaksha">Pratyakṣa (perception)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Anumāṇa" title="Pramana">Anumāṇa (inference)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upam%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" class="mw-redirect" title="Upamāṇa">Upamāṇa (comparison, analogy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Arthāpatti" title="Pramana">Arthāpatti (postulation, presumption)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Anupalabdi" title="Pramana">Anupalabdi (non-perception, negation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabda" title="Shabda">Śabda (word, testimony)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Worship_in_Hinduism" title="Worship in Hinduism">Worship</a>, sacrifice, and charity</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arti_(Hinduism)" title="Arti (Hinduism)">Ārtī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_in_Hinduism" title="Prayer in Hinduism">Prarthana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhajan" title="Bhajan">Bhajana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirtan" title="Kirtan">Kīrtana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarpana" title="Tarpana">Tarpana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vrata" title="Vrata">Vrata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pr%C4%81ya%C5%9Bcitta" title="Prāyaścitta">Prāyaścitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirtha_(Hinduism)" title="Tirtha (Hinduism)">Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yatra" title="Yatra">Yatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">Tirthadana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matha" title="Matha">Matha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_dance" title="Indian classical dance">Nritta-Nritya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sev%C4%81" title="Sevā">Sevā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Meditation</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Hinduism" title="Dhyana in Hinduism">Dhyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dh%C4%81na" title="Samādhāna">Samādhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nididhy%C4%81sana" title="Nididhyāsana">Nididhyāsana</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sadhu" title="Sadhu">Sadhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogi" title="Yogi">Yogi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogini" title="Yogini">Yogini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asana" title="Asana">Asana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhan%C4%81" title="Sādhanā">Sādhanā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatha_yoga" title="Hatha yoga">Hatha yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jnana_yoga" title="Jnana yoga">Jnana yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti_yoga" title="Bhakti yoga">Bhakti yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_yoga" title="Karma yoga">Karma yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81ja_yoga" title="Rāja yoga">Rāja yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kundalini_yoga" title="Kundalini yoga">Kundalini yoga</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_art" title="Hindu art">Arts</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharatanatyam" title="Bharatanatyam">Bharatanatyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathak" title="Kathak">Kathak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathakali" title="Kathakali">Kathakali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuchipudi" title="Kuchipudi">Kuchipudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipuri_dance" title="Manipuri dance">Manipuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohiniyattam" title="Mohiniyattam">Mohiniyattam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odissi" title="Odissi">Odissi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattriya" title="Sattriya">Sattriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Mela" title="Bhagavata Mela">Bhagavata Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakshagana" title="Yakshagana">Yakshagana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dandiya_Raas" title="Dandiya Raas">Dandiya Raas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnatic_music" title="Carnatic music">Carnatic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandav_Lila" title="Pandav Lila">Pandav Lila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalaripayattu" title="Kalaripayattu">Kalaripayattu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silambam" title="Silambam">Silambam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adimurai" title="Adimurai">Adimurai</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Samskara_(rite_of_passage)" title="Samskara (rite of passage)">Rites of passage</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhana" title="Garbhadhana">Garbhadhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana" title="Pumsavana">Pumsavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana_Simantonayana" title="Pumsavana Simantonayana">Pumsavana Simantonayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simantonnayana" title="Simantonnayana">Simantonnayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatakarma" title="Jatakarma">Jatakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81makara%E1%B9%87a" title="Nāmakaraṇa">Nāmakaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishkramana" title="Nishkramana">Nishkramana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annaprashana" title="Annaprashana">Annaprashana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chudakarana" title="Chudakarana">Chudakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnavedha" title="Karnavedha">Karnavedha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidy%C4%81ra%E1%B9%83bha%E1%B9%83" title="Vidyāraṃbhaṃ">Vidyāraṃbhaṃ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keshanta" title="Keshanta">Keshanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritu_Kala_Samskaram" title="Ritu Kala Samskaram">Ritushuddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samavartanam" title="Samavartanam">Samavartanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_wedding" title="Hindu wedding">Vivaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antyesti" title="Antyesti">Antyesti</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_festivals" title="List of Hindu festivals">Festivals</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holi" title="Holi">Holi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Shivaratri" title="Maha Shivaratri">Maha Shivaratri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navaratri" title="Navaratri">Navaratri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durga_Puja" title="Durga Puja">Durga Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramlila" title="Ramlila">Ramlila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayadashami" title="Vijayadashami">Vijayadashami-Dussehra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raksha_Bandhan" title="Raksha Bandhan">Raksha Bandhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh_Chaturthi" title="Ganesh Chaturthi">Ganesh Chaturthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasant_Panchami" title="Vasant Panchami">Vasant Panchami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Navami" title="Rama Navami">Rama Navami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Janmashtami" title="Krishna Janmashtami">Janmashtami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makar_Sankranti" title="Makar Sankranti">Makar Sankranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbh_Mela" title="Kumbh Mela">Kumbh Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pongal_(festival)" title="Pongal (festival)">Pongal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugadi" title="Ugadi">Ugadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakhi" title="Vaisakhi">Vaisakhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bihu" title="Bihu">Bihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puthandu" title="Puthandu">Puthandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratha_Yatra_(Puri)" title="Ratha Yatra (Puri)">Ratha Yatra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Philosophical schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Astika" class="mw-redirect" title="Astika">Six Astika schools</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Svabhavika_Bhedabheda" title="Svabhavika Bhedabheda">Svabhavika Bhedabheda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Akshar_Purushottam_Darshan" title="Akshar Purushottam Darshan">Akshar Purushottam Darshan</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other schools</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_gurus_and_sants" title="List of Hindu gurus and sants">Gurus, Rishi, Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">Ancient</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saptarshi" title="Saptarshi">Saptarshi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vashistha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vashistha">Vashistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashyapa" title="Kashyapa">Kashyapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atri" title="Atri">Atri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamadagni" title="Jamadagni">Jamadagni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyaya Sutras">Gotama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishvamitra" title="Vishvamitra">Vishvamitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharadwaja" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharadwaja">Bharadwaja</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agastya" title="Agastya">Agastya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiras" title="Angiras">Angiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Aruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashtavakra" title="Ashtavakra">Ashtavakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashastapada" title="Prashastapada">Prashastapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raikva" title="Raikva">Raikva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyakama_Jabala" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyakama Jabala">Satyakama Jabala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valmiki" title="Valmiki">Valmiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yajnavalkya</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akka_Mahadevi" title="Akka Mahadevi">Akka Mahadevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allama_Prabhu" title="Allama Prabhu">Allama Prabhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvars" title="Alvars">Alvars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basava" title="Basava">Basava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_Mahaprabhu" title="Chaitanya Mahaprabhu">Chaitanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramdas_Kathiababa" title="Ramdas Kathiababa">Ramdas Kathiababa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakradhar_Swami" title="Chakradhar Swami">Chakradhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changdev" class="mw-redirect" title="Changdev">Chāngadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadu_Dayal" title="Dadu Dayal">Dadu Dayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eknath" title="Eknath">Eknath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangesha_Upadhyaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangesha Upadhyaya">Gangesha Upadhyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorakshanath" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorakshanath">Gorakshanatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haridasa_Thakur" title="Haridasa Thakur">Haridasa Thakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hith_Harivansh_Mahaprabhu" title="Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu">Harivansh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagannatha_Dasa_(Odia_poet)" title="Jagannatha Dasa (Odia poet)">Jagannatha Dasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayanta_Bhatta" title="Jayanta Bhatta">Jayanta Bhatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayatirtha" title="Jayatirtha">Jayatīrtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiva_Goswami" title="Jiva Goswami">Jiva Goswami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1%C4%81ne%C5%9Bvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jñāneśvar">Jñāneśvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabir" title="Kabir">Kabir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanaka_Dasa" title="Kanaka Dasa">Kanaka Dasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhus%C5%ABdana_Sarasvat%C4%AB" title="Madhusūdana Sarasvatī">Madhusūdana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsyendranath" class="mw-redirect" title="Matsyendranath">Matsyendranatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morya_Gosavi" title="Morya Gosavi">Morya Gosavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukundraj" title="Mukundraj">Mukundarāja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namdev" title="Namdev">Namadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narahari_Tirtha" title="Narahari Tirtha">Narahari Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narasimha_Saraswati" title="Narasimha Saraswati">Narasimha Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nayanars" title="Nayanars">Nayanars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarkacharya" title="Nimbarkacharya">Nimbarkacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srinivasacharya" title="Srinivasacharya">Srinivasacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prabh%C4%81kara" title="Prabhākara">Prabhākara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purandara_Dasa" title="Purandara Dasa">Purandara Dasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghavendra_Swami" class="mw-redirect" title="Raghavendra Swami">Raghavendra Swami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghunatha_Siromani" title="Raghunatha Siromani">Raghunatha Siromani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghuttama_Tirtha" title="Raghuttama Tirtha">Raghuttama Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_Charan_(guru)" title="Ram Charan (guru)">Ram Charan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramananda" title="Ramananda">Ramananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramprasad_Sen" title="Ramprasad Sen">Ramprasad Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidas" title="Ravidas">Ravidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupa_Goswami" title="Rupa Goswami">Rupa Goswami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas" title="Samarth Ramdas">Samarth Ramdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankardev" title="Sankardev">Sankardev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyanatha_Tirtha" title="Satyanatha Tirtha">Satyanatha Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddheshwar" title="Siddheshwar">Siddheshwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sripada_Srivallabha" class="mw-redirect" title="Sripada Srivallabha">Sripada Srivallabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sripadaraja" title="Sripadaraja">Sripadaraja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surdas" title="Surdas">Surdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan" title="Swaminarayan">Swaminarayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syama_Sastri" title="Syama Sastri">Śyāma Śastri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukaram" title="Tukaram">Tukaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsidas" title="Tulsidas">Tulsidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyagaraja" title="Tyagaraja">Tyagaraja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81caspati_Mi%C5%9Bra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vācaspati Miśra">Vācaspati Miśra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vadiraja_Tirtha" title="Vadiraja Tirtha">Vadiraja Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallabha" title="Vallabha">Vallabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasaraja" class="mw-redirect" title="Vyasaraja">Vyasaraja</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Modern</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktisiddhanta_Sarasvati" title="Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati">Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktivinoda_Thakur" title="Bhaktivinoda Thakur">Bhaktivinoda Thakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrashekarendra_Saraswati" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandrashekarendra Saraswati">Chandrashekarendra Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinmayananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinmayananda">Chinmayananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaggi_Vasudev" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaggi Vasudev">Jaggi Vasudev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishnananda_Saraswati" title="Krishnananda Saraswati">Krishnananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavatar_Babaji" title="Mahavatar Babaji">Mahavatar Babaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharishi_Mahesh_Yogi" title="Maharishi Mahesh Yogi">Mahesh Yogi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narayana_Guru" title="Narayana Guru">Narayana Guru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigamananda_Paramahansa" title="Nigamananda Paramahansa">Nigamananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisargadatta_Maharaj" title="Nisargadatta Maharaj">Nisargadatta Maharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._C._Bhaktivedanta_Swami_Prabhupada" title="A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada">Prabhupada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramachandra_Dattatrya_Ranade" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade">R. D. Ranade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramakrishna" title="Ramakrishna">Ramakrishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Rama_Tirtha" class="mw-redirect" title="Swami Rama Tirtha">Rama Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramana_Maharshi" title="Ramana Maharshi">Ramana Maharshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Shankar_(spiritual_leader)" title="Ravi Shankar (spiritual leader)">Ravi Shankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Ramdas" title="Swami Ramdas">Ramdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Samarth" title="Swami Samarth">Samarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathya_Sai_Baba" title="Sathya Sai Baba">Sathya Sai Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sai_Baba_of_Shirdi" title="Sai Baba of Shirdi">Shirdi Sai Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Shraddhanand" title="Swami Shraddhanand">Shraddhanand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyadhyana_Tirtha" title="Satyadhyana Tirtha">Satyadhyana Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddharameshwar_Maharaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddharameshwar Maharaj">Siddharameshwar Maharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sivananda_Saraswati" title="Sivananda Saraswati">Sivananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailanga" title="Trailanga">Trailanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U._G._Krishnamurti" title="U. G. Krishnamurti">U. G. Krishnamurti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upasni_Maharaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Upasni Maharaj">Upasni Maharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vethathiri_Maharishi" title="Vethathiri Maharishi">Vethathiri Maharishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda" title="Paramahansa Yogananda">Yogananda</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81stra_pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87am_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism">Sources and classification of scripture</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80c%C4%81ra" title="Ācāra">Ācāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmatusti" title="Atmatusti">Ātmatuṣṭi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Scriptures</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hindu_texts" title="Timeline of Hindu texts">Timeline of Hindu texts</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Divisions</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhitapatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samhitapatha">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></div></dt></dl> <dl><dd><i>Rigveda:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Yajurveda:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitri</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Samaveda:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Atharvaveda:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedangas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedangas">Vedangas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_metre" title="Vedic metre">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Hindu scriptures">Other scriptures</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)"><i>Agama</i>s (Hinduism)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Purana" title="Vishnu Purana">Vishnu Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Devi_Bhagavata_Purana" title="Devi Bhagavata Purana">Devi Bhagavata Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naradiya_Purana" title="Naradiya Purana">Naradiya Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vamana_Purana" title="Vamana Purana">Vāmana Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Purana" title="Matsya Purana">Matsya Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garuda_Purana" title="Garuda Purana">Garuda Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Purana" title="Brahma Purana">Brahma Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahmanda_Purana" title="Brahmanda Purana">Brahmanda Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Vaivarta_Purana" title="Brahma Vaivarta Purana">Brahma Vaivarta Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhavishya_Purana" title="Bhavishya Purana">Bhavishya Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Padma_Purana" title="Padma Purana">Padma Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Agni_Purana" title="Agni Purana">Agni Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Purana" title="Shiva Purana">Shiva Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Linga_Purana" title="Linga Purana">Linga Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kurma_Purana" title="Kurma Purana">Kūrma Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skanda_Purana" title="Skanda Purana">Skanda Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Varaha_Purana" title="Varaha Purana">Varaha Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Markandeya_Purana" title="Markandeya Purana">Markandeya Purana</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedas#Upaveda" title="Vedas">Upavedas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhanurveda" title="Dhanurveda">Dhanurveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gandharvaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandharvaveda">Gandharvaveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sthapatyaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Sthapatyaveda">Sthapatyaveda</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">Shastras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">samhitas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharma Shastra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Artha Śastra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shilpa_Shastras" title="Shilpa Shastras">Shilpa Shastras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kama_Sutra" title="Kama Sutra">Kama Sutra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samkhya_Pravachana_Sutra" title="Samkhya Pravachana Sutra">Samkhya Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramana Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramcharitmanas" title="Ramcharitmanas">Ramcharitmanas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Swarodaya" title="Shiva Swarodaya">Swara yoga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotras</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_suktas_and_stutis" title="List of suktas and stutis">stutis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bhashya" title="Bhashya">Bhashya</a> </div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kanakadhara_Stotra" title="Kanakadhara Stotra">Kanakadhara Stotra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Stuti" title="Shiva Stuti">Shiva Stuti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vayu_Stuti" title="Vayu Stuti">Vayu Stuti</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil literature</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tiruppukal" title="Tiruppukal">Tiruppukal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kural" title="Kural">Kural</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kamba_Ramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamba Ramayanam">Kamba Ramayanam/Ramavataram</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Athichudi" title="Athichudi">Athichudi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Abirami_Antati" title="Abirami Antati">Abirami Antati</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed; border-bottom:1px dotted"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">Other texts</a></div></dt></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Hindu Culture & Society</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Society</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Dalit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti" title="Jāti">Jāti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotra" title="Gotra">Gotra</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Art</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_art" title="Hindu art">Hindu art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_iconography" title="Hindu iconography">Hindu iconography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shilpa_Shastras" title="Shilpa Shastras">Shilpa Shastras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa (aesthetics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">Indian aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yantra" title="Yantra">Yantra</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Architecture</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_architecture" title="Hindu architecture">Hindu architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Hindu temple architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastu_shastra" title="Vastu shastra">Vastu shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talamana" title="Talamana">Talamana</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Music</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_music" title="Hindu music">Hindu music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shruti_(music)" title="Shruti (music)">Shruti (music)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svara" title="Svara">Svara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alank%C4%81ra" title="Alankāra">Alankāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tala_(music)" title="Tala (music)">Tala (music)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raga" title="Raga">Raga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa (aesthetics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangita" title="Sangita">Sangita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vadya" title="Vadya">Vadya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Food & Diet Customs</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_in_Hinduism" title="Diet in Hinduism">Diet in Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattvic_diet" title="Sattvic diet">Sattvic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitahara" title="Mitahara">Mitahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jhatka" title="Jhatka">Jhatka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vrata" title="Vrata">Vrata</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Time Keeping Practices</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu units of time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchangam" title="Panchangam">Panchangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikram_Samvat" title="Vikram Samvat">Vikram Samvat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaka_era" title="Shaka era">Shaka era</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Pilgrimage</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage sites</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other society-related topics:</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_organisations" title="List of Hindu organisations">Organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Reform movements</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Other topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">Hinduism by country</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Shaktism" title="Caribbean Shaktism">Caribbean Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_scriptures_and_texts" title="Template:Hindu scriptures and texts">Template:Hindu scriptures and texts</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hinduism & Other Religions</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Jainism" title="Hinduism and Jainism">Hinduism and Jainism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">and Buddhism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Sikhism" title="Hinduism and Sikhism">and Sikhism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">and Judaism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism and Christianity">and Christianity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">and Islam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; 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text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background: #F5DEB3">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Jainism" title="Category:Jainism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #F5DEB3"><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg/110px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg/165px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg/220px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1124" data-file-height="1934" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="padding-bottom:0.35em; border:0;"> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jains" title="List of Jains">Jains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jainism" title="Timeline of Jainism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Jainism-related_articles" title="Index of Jainism-related articles">Index</a></li></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_cosmology" title="Jain cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Jainism)" title="Dharma (Jainism)">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha_(Jainism)" title="Moksha (Jainism)">Mokṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevala_Jnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevala Jnana">Kevala Jnana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravya" title="Dravya">Dravya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattva_(Jainism)" title="Tattva (Jainism)">Tattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacarya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunasthana" title="Gunasthana">Gunasthana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Jainism)" title="Saṃsāra (Jainism)">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Ethics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_Jainism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics of Jainism">Ethics of Jainism</a> <dl><dd><b>Mahavratas (major vows)</b></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">Ahiṃsā (non-violence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya#Jainism" title="Satya">Satya (truth)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteya#Jainism" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteya">Asteya (non-stealing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya#In_Jainism" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacarya (chastity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha (non-possession)</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><b>Anuvratas (further vows)</b></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81m%C4%81yika" title="Sāmāyika">Sāmāyika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallekhana" title="Sallekhana">Sallekhana</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Jain prayers</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktamara_Stotra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhaktamara Stotra">Bhaktamara Stotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micchami_Dukkadam" title="Micchami Dukkadam">Micchami Dukkadam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navkar_Mantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Navkar Mantra">Navkar Mantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namokar_Mantra" title="Namokar Mantra">Ṇamōkāra mantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jai_Jinendra" title="Jai Jinendra">Jai Jinendra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Major figures</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">The 24 Tirthankaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rishabhanatha" title="Rishabhanatha">Rishabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parshvanatha" title="Parshvanatha">Pārśva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arihant_(Jainism)" title="Arihant (Jainism)">Arihant</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganadhara" title="Ganadhara">Ganadhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kundakunda" title="Kundakunda">Kundakunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhasena" title="Siddhasena">Siddhasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Jain_monk)" title="Samantabhadra (Jain monk)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haribhadra" class="mw-redirect" title="Haribhadra">Haribhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yashovijaya" title="Yashovijaya">Yashovijaya</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Major sects</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"><a href="/wiki/Jain_schools_and_branches" title="Jain schools and branches">Schools and Branches</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jain_literature" title="Jain literature">Jain literature</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Samayas%C4%81ra" title="Samayasāra">Samayasāra (Digambara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravachanasara" title="Pravachanasara">Pravachanasara (Digambara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jain_Agamas_(%C5%9Av%C4%93t%C4%81mbara)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)">Agama (Śvetāmbara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tattvartha_Sutra" title="Tattvartha Sutra">Tattvartha Sutra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dravyasamgraha" title="Dravyasamgraha">Dravyasamgraha (Digambara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Kalpa Sūtra">Kalpa Sūtra (Śvetāmbara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uttaradhyayana" title="Uttaradhyayana">Uttaradhyayana (Śvetāmbara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/C%C4%ABvaka_Cint%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87i" title="Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi">Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Silappatikaram" class="mw-redirect" title="Silappatikaram">Silappatikaram</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Valayapathi" title="Valayapathi">Valayapathi</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Festivals</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavir_Janma_Kalyanak" title="Mahavir Janma Kalyanak">Mahavir Janma Kalyanak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paryushana" title="Paryushana">Paryushana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samvatsari" title="Samvatsari">Samvatsari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Pilgrimages</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"><a href="/wiki/Tirtha_(Jainism)" title="Tirtha (Jainism)">Tirth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dilwara_Temples" title="Dilwara Temples">Abu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palitana_temples" title="Palitana temples">Palitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girnar_Jain_temples" title="Girnar Jain temples">Girnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikharji" title="Shikharji">Shikharji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shravanabelagola" title="Shravanabelagola">Shravanabelagola</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Other</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ekendriya" title="Ekendriya">Ekendriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_temple" title="Jain temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_flag" title="Jain flag">Jain flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_symbols" title="Jain symbols">Jain symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasparopagraho_Jivanam" title="Parasparopagraho Jivanam">Parasparopagraho Jivanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Jainism-related_articles" title="Index of Jainism-related articles">Topics list</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #F5DEB3;border-bottom:1px solid #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/16px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/24px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/32px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jainism" title="Template:Jainism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jainism" title="Template talk:Jainism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jainism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jainism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> <div class="poem"> <p><i>ciṟuveḷ ḷaravi ṉavvarik kuruḷai<br /></i> <i>kāṉa yāṉai aṇaṅki yāaṅ<br /></i> <i>kiḷaiyaṇ muḷaivā ḷeyiṟṟaḷ <br /></i> <i>vaḷaiyuṭaik kaiyaḷem maṇaṅki yōḷē<br /></i> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 1em;">– <i>Kuruntokai 119</i>, Author: Catti Nataanr</span> </p> </div> </blockquote> <p>The prosodic pattern in this poem follows the 4-4-3-4 feet per line, according to <i>akaval</i>, also called <i>aciriyam</i>, Sangam meter rule:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <div class="poem"> <p> = – / = – / – = / = – <br />  – – / – – / = – / – – <br />  = – / = – / = –<br />  = = / – = / = – / – –<br /><br /> Note: "=" is a <i>ner</i>, while "–" is a <i>nirai</i> in Tamil terminology. </p> </div> </blockquote> <p>A literal translation of <i>Kuruntokai 119</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <div class="poem"> <p><span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 1em;">little-white-snake of lovely-striped young-body </span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 1em;">jungle elephant troubling like</span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 1em;">the young-girl sprouts-brightness toothed-female</span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 1em;">bangle(s) possessing hand(s)-female"</span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 2em;">– Translator: Kamil Zvelebil</span> </p> </div> </blockquote> <p>English interpretation and translation of <i>Kuruntokai 119</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <div class="poem"> <p><span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 1em;">As a little white snake</span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 1em;">with lovely stripes on its young body </span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 1em;">troubles the jungle elephant</span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 2em;">this slip of a girl</span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 2em;">her teeth like sprouts of new rice </span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 2em;">her wrists stacked with bangles </span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 2em;">troubles me.</span><br /> <span class="mw-poem-indented" style="display: inline-block; margin-inline-start: 3em;">– Creative translator: A.K. Ramanujan (1967)</span> </p> </div> </blockquote> <p>This metrical pattern, states Zvelebil, gives the Sangam poetry a "wonderful conciseness, terseness, pithiness", then an inner tension that is resolved at the end of the stanza.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197371–72_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197371–72-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The metrical patterns within the <i>akaval</i> meter in early Sangam poetry has minor variations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197367–72_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197367–72-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later Sangam era poems follow the same general meter rules, but sometimes feature 5 lines (4-4-4-3-4).<sup id="cite_ref-Niklas1988p165_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niklas1988p165-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197383–84_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197383–84-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later Sangam age texts employ other meters as well, such as the Kali meter in <i>Kalittokai</i> and the mixed Paripatal meter in <i>Paripatal</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilden201413–15_with_footnotes_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilden201413–15_with_footnotes-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preservation_and_rediscovery">Preservation and rediscovery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Preservation and rediscovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palm-leaf_manuscript,_ancient_and_medieval_Tamil_literature_(partly_Sangam_era),_Languages_in_the_manuscript_Tamil_Telugu_Sanskrit,_Scripts_Grantha_Telugu_Tamil,_Hindu_Shaivism_monastery,_UVSL_589.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Palm-leaf_manuscript%2C_ancient_and_medieval_Tamil_literature_%28partly_Sangam_era%29%2C_Languages_in_the_manuscript_Tamil_Telugu_Sanskrit%2C_Scripts_Grantha_Telugu_Tamil%2C_Hindu_Shaivism_monastery%2C_UVSL_589.jpg/530px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="530" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Palm-leaf_manuscript%2C_ancient_and_medieval_Tamil_literature_%28partly_Sangam_era%29%2C_Languages_in_the_manuscript_Tamil_Telugu_Sanskrit%2C_Scripts_Grantha_Telugu_Tamil%2C_Hindu_Shaivism_monastery%2C_UVSL_589.jpg/795px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Palm-leaf_manuscript%2C_ancient_and_medieval_Tamil_literature_%28partly_Sangam_era%29%2C_Languages_in_the_manuscript_Tamil_Telugu_Sanskrit%2C_Scripts_Grantha_Telugu_Tamil%2C_Hindu_Shaivism_monastery%2C_UVSL_589.jpg/1060px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1374" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">palm-leaf manuscript</a> (UVSL 589) with 100 folios, handwritten in miniature scripts by Shaiva Hindus. This multi-text manuscript includes many Tamil texts, including the Sangam era <i>Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</i>. The folio languages include mainly Tamil and Sanskrit, with some Telugu; scripts include Tamil, Grantha and Telugu. It is currently preserved in U.V. Swaminatha Aiyar library in Chennai.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The works of Sangam literature were lost and forgotten for most of the 2nd millennium. They were rediscovered by colonial-era scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Arumuka_Navalar" title="Arumuka Navalar">Arumuka Navalar</a> (1822–1879), <a href="/wiki/C._W._Thamotharampillai" title="C. W. Thamotharampillai">C.W. Damodaram Pillai</a> (1832–1901) and <a href="/wiki/U._V._Swaminatha_Iyer" title="U. V. Swaminatha Iyer">U. V. Swaminatha Aiyar</a> (1855–1942).<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arumuka_Navalar" title="Arumuka Navalar">Arumuka Navalar</a> from <a href="/wiki/Jaffna" title="Jaffna">Jaffna</a> first inaugurated the modern editions of Tamil classics, publishing a fine edition of <a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a> by 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Navalar – who translated the Bible into Tamil while working as an assistant to a Methodist Christian missionary, chose to defend and popularize <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaiva Hinduism</a> against missionary polemics, in part by bringing ancient Tamil and <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaiva</a> literature to wider attention.<sup id="cite_ref-Hudson1996_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hudson1996-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He brought the first Sangam text into print in 1851 (<i><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></i>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Idylls" title="Ten Idylls">Ten Idylls</a>). In 1868, Navalar published an early commentary on <i>Tolkappiyam</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman2016301–303_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman2016301–303-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/C._W._Thamotharampillai" title="C. W. Thamotharampillai">C.W. Damodaram Pillai</a>, also from <a href="/wiki/Jaffna" title="Jaffna">Jaffna</a>, was the earliest scholar to systematically hunt for long-lost manuscripts and publish them using modern tools of textual criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These included: </p> <ul><li>Viracoliyam (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkappiyam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolkappiyam">Tolkappiyam</a>-Porulatikaram (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalittokai" title="Kalittokai">Kalittokai</a> (1887) - the first of the Eight Anthologies (<i><a href="/wiki/E%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADuttokai" class="mw-redirect" title="Eṭṭuttokai">Eṭṭuttokai</a></i>).</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/U._V._Swaminatha_Iyer" title="U. V. Swaminatha Iyer">Aiyar</a> – a Tamil scholar and a <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaiva</a> pundit, in particular, is credited with his discovery of major collections of the Sangam literature in 1883. During his personal visit to the Thiruvavaduthurai Adhinam – a Shaiva matha about twenty kilometers northeast of <a href="/wiki/Kumbhakonam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumbhakonam">Kumbhakonam</a>, he reached out to the monastery head Subrahmanya Desikar for access to its large library of preserved manuscripts. Desikar granted Aiyar permission to study and publish any manuscripts he wanted.<sup id="cite_ref-takahashi1_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There, Aiyar discovered a major source of preserved palm-leaf manuscripts of Sangam literature.<sup id="cite_ref-takahashi1_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takahashi1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aiyar published his first print of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Idylls" title="Ten Idylls">Ten Idylls</a> in 1889. </p><p>Together, these scholars printed and published <i><a href="/wiki/Kalittokai" title="Kalittokai">Kalittokai</a></i> (1887), <i><a href="/wiki/Tholkappiyam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tholkappiyam">Tholkappiyam</a></i>, <i>Nachinarkiniyar Urai</i> (1895), <i>Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai</i> (1868), <i><a href="/wiki/Manimekalai" title="Manimekalai">Manimekalai</a></i> (1898), <i><a href="/wiki/Silappatikaram" class="mw-redirect" title="Silappatikaram">Silappatikaram</a></i> (1889), <i><a href="/wiki/Ten_Idylls" title="Ten Idylls">Pattuppāṭṭu</a></i> (1889), <i><a href="/wiki/Pati%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppattu" title="Patiṟṟuppattu">Patiṟṟuppattu</a></i> (1889). <i><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%9Fan%C4%81%E1%B9%89%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Puṟanāṉūṟu">Puṟanāṉūṟu</a></i> (1894), <i><a href="/wiki/Ai%E1%B9%85kurun%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Aiṅkurunūṟu">Aiṅkurunūṟu</a></i> (1903), <i><a href="/wiki/Ku%E1%B9%9Funtokai" title="Kuṟuntokai">Kuṟuntokai</a></i> (1915), <i><a href="/wiki/Na%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fi%E1%B9%87ai" title="Naṟṟiṇai">Naṟṟiṇai</a></i> (1915), <i><a href="/wiki/Parip%C4%81%E1%B9%ADal" title="Paripāṭal">Paripāṭal</a></i> (1918) and <i><a href="/wiki/Akan%C4%81%E1%B9%89%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Akanāṉūṟu">Akanāṉūṟu</a></i> (1923) all with scholarly commentaries. They published more than 100 works in all, including minor poems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Sangam literature is the historic evidence of indigenous literary developments in South India in parallel to <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, and the classical status of the Tamil language. While there is no evidence for the first and second mythical Sangams, the surviving literature attests to a group of scholars centered around the ancient <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a> (Maturai) that shaped the "literary, academic, cultural and linguistic life of ancient Tamil Nadu", states Zvelebil.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197345–46Shulman201628–30_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197345–46Shulman201628–30-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On their significance, Zvelebil quotes <a href="/wiki/A._K._Ramanujan" title="A. K. Ramanujan">A. K. Ramanujan</a>, "In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of the Tamil genius."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197447_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197447-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sangam literature offers a window into some aspects of the ancient Tamil culture, secular and religious beliefs, and the people. For example, in the Sangam era <i>Ainkurunuru</i> poem 202 is one of the earliest mentions of "pigtail of <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a> boys".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197351_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197351-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These poems also allude to historical incidents, ancient Tamil kings, the effect of war on loved ones and households.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197351–56_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197351–56-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Pattinappalai</i> poem in the Ten Idylls group, for example, paints a description of the Chola capital, the king Karikal, the life in a harbor city with ships and merchandise for seafaring trade, the dance troupes, the bards and artists, the worship of the Hindu god <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a> and the monasteries of Buddhism and Jainism. This Sangam era poem remained in the active memory and was significant to the Tamil people centuries later, as evidenced by its mention nearly 1,000 years later in the 11th- and 12th-century inscriptions and literary work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197357–58_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197357–58-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sangam literature embeds evidence of loan words from Sanskrit, suggesting on-going linguistic and literary collaboration between ancient Tamil Nadu and other parts of the Indian subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19735–8,_51–56_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19735–8,_51–56-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the early loan words, for example, is <i>acarya–</i> from Sanskrit for a "spiritual guide or teacher", which in Sangam literature appears as <i>aciriyan</i> (priest, teacher, scholar), <i>aciriyam</i> or <i>akavar</i> or <i>akaval</i> or <i>akavu</i> (a poetic meter).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197313–14_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197313–14-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sangam poetry focuses on the culture and people. It is religious as well as non-religious, as there are several mentions of the Hindu gods and more substantial mentions of various gods in the shorter poems. The 33 surviving poems of <i>Paripaatal</i> in the "Eight Anthologies" group praises <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh2008p27_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh2008p27-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britsangam_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britsangam-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the 150 poems of <i>Kalittokai</i> – also from the Eight Anthologies group – mention Krishna, Shiva, Murugan, various Pandava brothers of the <i>Mahabharata</i>, Kama, goddesses such as Ganga, divine characters from classical love stories of India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the poems also mentions the "merciful men of <a href="/wiki/Varanasi" title="Varanasi">Benares</a>", an evidence of interaction between the northern holy city of the Hindus with the Sangam poets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the <i>Paripaatal</i> love poems are set in the context of bathing festivals (<a href="/wiki/Magh_Mela" title="Magh Mela">Magh Mela</a>) and various Hindu gods. They mention temples and shrines, confirming the significance of such cultural festivals and architectural practices to the Tamil culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Tamilakam" title="Religion in ancient Tamilakam">Religion in the Sangam age</a> was an important reason for the increase in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Literature">Tamil Literature</a>. Ancient <a href="/wiki/Tamils" title="Tamils">Tamils</a> Primarily followed <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> (Who consider Vishnu as the Supreme Deity) and <a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a> (who worship Murugan as the Supreme god). According to <a href="/wiki/Kamil_Zvelebil" title="Kamil Zvelebil">Kamil Zvelebil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> was considered ageless (The god who stays for ever) and the Supreme god of <a href="/wiki/Tamils" title="Tamils">Tamils</a> where as <a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Skanda</a> was considered young and a personal god of <a href="/wiki/Tamils" title="Tamils">Tamils</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Perumal_(deity)" title="Perumal (deity)">Mayon</a> is indicated to be the deity associated with the <i>mullai tiṇai</i> (pastoral landscape) in the <a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkappiyam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hardy_156_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardy_156-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Clothey_34_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clothey_34-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tolkappiyar Mentions <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Mayon</a> first when he made reference to deities in the different land divisions.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>The <i>Paripādal</i> (<a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>: <span lang="ta">பரிபாடல்</span>, meaning <i>the paripadal-metre anthology</i>) is a classical <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Anthologies" title="Eight Anthologies">Eight Anthologies</a> (<i>Ettuthokai</i>) in the Sangam literature.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Tolkappiyam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolkappiyam">Tolkappiyam</a>, Paripadal is a kind of verse dealing only with love (<i>akapporul</i>) and does not fall under the general classification of verses. Sangam literature (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions <i><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Mayon</a></i> or the "dark one," as the Supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the Plains and mountains of <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a>.The Earliest verses of <a href="/wiki/Parip%C4%81%E1%B9%ADal" title="Paripāṭal">Paripadal</a> describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many Poems of the <a href="/wiki/Parip%C4%81%E1%B9%ADal" title="Paripāṭal">Paripadal</a> consider <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Perumal</a> as the Supreme god of <a href="/wiki/Tamils" title="Tamils">Tamils</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of <i>Paramporul</i> (achieving oneness with <a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramatma</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam age</a>. He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in Sangam literature and considered as the most mentioned god in the Sangam literature.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Muruga" class="mw-redirect" title="Muruga">Cēyōṉ</a></i> "the red one", who is identified with <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a>, whose name is literally <i>Murukaṉ</i> "the youth" in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a></i>; Extant Sangam literature works, dated between the third century BCE and the fifth century CE glorified Murugan, "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent," as "the favoured god of the Tamils."<sup id="cite_ref-sangam_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sangam-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are no Mentions of <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkappiyam</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a> are said to be forms Of <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Maha Vishnu</a> and considers Vishnu as The Supreme god in <a href="/wiki/Parip%C4%81%E1%B9%ADal" title="Paripāṭal">Paripāṭal</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two poems depicted as example of <a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a> in Ancient <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, one in the praise of <a href="/wiki/Maha_Vishnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Maha Vishnu">Maha Vishnu</a> and other of <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a> </p><p><br /> To Tirumal (<a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Maha Vishnu</a>): </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157697682">.mw-parser-output .verse_translation .translated{padding-left:2em!important}@media only screen and (max-width:43.75em){.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small td{display:block;padding-left:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small .translated{padding-left:0.5em!important}}</style> <table role="presentation" class="verse_translation" style="margin-left:1em !important"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> <p><span title="Tamil-language text"><span lang="ta">தீயினுள் தெறல் நீ; <br /> பூவினுள் நாற்றம் நீ; <br /> கல்லினுள் மணியும் நீ; <br /> சொல்லினுள் வாய்மை நீ; <br /> அறத்தினுள் அன்பு நீ; <br /> மறத்தினுள் மைந்து நீ; <br /> வேதத்து மறை நீ; <br /> பூதத்து முதலும் நீ; <br /> வெஞ் சுடர் ஒளியும் நீ; <br /> திங்களுள் அளியும் நீ; <br /> அனைத்தும் நீ; <br /> அனைத்தின் உட்பொருளும் நீ;</span></span> </p> </div> </td> <td class="translated"><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> <p>In fire, you are the heat;<br /> in blossoms, the fragrance;<br /> among the stones, you are the diamond;<br /> in speech, truth;<br /> among virtues, you are love;<br /> in valour—strength;<br /> in the Veda, you are the secret;<br /> among elements, the primordial;<br /> in the burning sun, the light;<br /> in moonshine, its sweetness;<br /> you are all,<br /> and you are the substance and meaning of all. </p> </div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;font-size:90%"> <td style="padding-left:1.6em;text-align:left">—<i>Paripadal, iii: 63-68</i> </td> <td style="padding-left:3.6em;text-align:left">—F Gros, K Zvelebil<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197449_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197449-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>To Seyyon (<a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Skandha</a>): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <div class="poem"> <p>We pray you not for wealth,<br /> not for gold, not for pleasure;<br /> But for your grace, for love, for virtue,<br /> these three,<br /> O god with the rich garland of <i>kaṭampu</i> flowers<br /> with rolling clusters! </p> </div> <p>– <i>Pari. v.: 78–81</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197449_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197449-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>The other gods also referred to in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkappiyam</a></i> are <i>Vēntaṉ</i> "the sovereign" (identified with <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Korravai" title="Korravai">Korravai</a></i> "the victorious" (identified with <a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna"><i>Varunan</i></a> "the sea god".<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sangam literature also emphasized on fair governance by Kings, who were often described as Sengol-valavan, the king who established just rule; the king was warned by priests that royal injustice would lead to divine punishment; and handing over of a royal <a href="/wiki/Scepter" class="mw-redirect" title="Scepter">scepter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sengol" class="mw-redirect" title="Sengol">Sengol</a> denoting decree to rule fairly, finds mention in texts such as the Purananooru, Kurunthogai, Perumpaanatrupadai, and Kalithogai.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further, the colophons of the <i>Paripaatal</i> poems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_musical_renditions">Modern musical renditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modern musical renditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first music album on Tamil Sangam poetry titled <a href="/wiki/Sandham:_Symphony_Meets_Classical_Tamil" title="Sandham: Symphony Meets Classical Tamil">Sandham: Symphony Meets Classical Tamil</a> by Composer <a href="/wiki/Rajan_Somasundaram" title="Rajan Somasundaram">Rajan Somasundaram</a> in collaboration with Durham Symphony, featured in Amazon's Top#10 'International Music albums' category in July 2020 and was called "A Major event in the world of Music" by The Hindu Music review.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sangam poems are often quoted and paraphrased in modern Tamil cinema.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output 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Madurai</a>: open access Tamil literature repository</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_Indian_texts" title="List of historic Indian texts">List of historic Indian texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamiḻakam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="First Sangam">First Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Sangam">Second Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Sangams" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Sangams">Tamil Sangams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sangam_poets" title="List of Sangam poets">List of Sangam poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism_in_Ancient_Tamilakam" title="Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam">Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is, however, not the first inscription to support the sangam legend. According to Eva Wilden, the first inscription to hint the existence of a "sangam" legend is found in the Erukkankuti plates of 829 CE. A part of this inscription says, "the lord of excellent Alankuti that is praised in the worlds, on the firm big bench of stone in Kutal [Maturai] with cool Tamil great in words". While the context and the last part about Kutal echoes the existence of a Tamil scholar academy in Madurai, it does not presuppose or confirm the existence of a full-fledged three sangam periods legend by the ninth century CE, states Wilden.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilden201412_with_footnote_25_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilden201412_with_footnote_25-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Zvelebil, the hypothesis proposed by some that the first and second academy may have referred to the Buddhist and Jaina monk assemblies can "hardly" be true. Rather, states Zvelebil, it is more likely that the first academy of poets existed sometime about 400–300 BCE – which he adds, is also a "purely speculative" conjecture. The persistence of three gods – Siva, Murukavel [Murugan] and Kubera – in the legendary account and the classical Tamil literature, states Zvelebil, suggests that the beginnings of Tamil literature and civilization were "closely connected with the cults" of these three gods in ancient Tamil Nadu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197559–61_with_footnotes_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197559–61_with_footnotes-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2000">Wilson 2000</a>, p. 14: "They had earlier felt secure in the concept of the Tamilakam, a vast area of "Tamilness" from the south of Dekhan in India to the north of Sri Lanka..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The private U.V. Swaminatha Aiyar library preserves the largest collection of Sangam era-related manuscripts. Other notable collections of Sangam literature manuscripts are found in the Saraswati Mahal library and the Tamil University manuscript library in <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur" title="Thanjavur">Thanjavur</a> (Tamil Nadu), the Oriental Research Institute and Manuscript library of <a href="/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram" title="Thiruvananthapuram">Thiruvananthapuram</a> (Kerala), as well as the private collections in old Hindu temples and monasteries. Less than 50% of all preserved palm leaf manuscripts, copied over the centuries over nearly 2,000 years, are in the Tamil language; the majority of these manuscripts preserved in Tamil Nadu and Kerala are in Sanskrit and Telugu (some Malayalam). Sangam literature manuscript collections typically include all three languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilden201435–39_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilden201435–39-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few thousand of the Sangam and post-Sangam era manuscripts in Tamil language are now preserved in various European and American collections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilden201435–39_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilden201435–39-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This collaboration was two way, and evidence for this is found in the earliest known Hindu scripture, the <i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i> (1500–1200 BCE). About 300 words in the <i>Rigveda</i> are neither Indo-Aryan nor Indo-European, states the Sanskrit and Vedic literature scholar <a href="/wiki/Frits_Staal" title="Frits Staal">Frits Staal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Staal2008p23_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staal2008p23-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these 300, many – such as <i>kapardin</i>, <i>kumara</i>, <i>kumari</i>, <i>kikata</i> – come from Munda or proto-Munda languages found in the eastern and northeastern (Assamese) region of India, with roots in Austro-Asiatic languages. The others in the list of 300 – such as <i>mleccha</i> and <i>nir</i> – have Dravidian (Tamil, Telugu) roots found in the southern region of India, or are of Tibeto-Burman origins.<sup id="cite_ref-Staal2008p23_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staal2008p23-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HockBashir2016_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HockBashir2016-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The linguistic sharing provide clear indications, states <a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a>, that the people who spoke Rigvedic Sanskrit already knew and interacted with Munda and Dravidian speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-Erdosy2012p98_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erdosy2012p98-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to George Hart, other than loan words, it is obvious to any scholar who has studied both classical Sanskrit and classical Tamil that the mid to late Sangam literature (1st to 3rd century CE) and ancient Sanskrit literature are related. However, adds Hart, the earliest layer of the Sangam literature "does not seem to be much influenced by Sanskrit".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Other Sangam poems mention gods and goddesses. For example, <i>Purananuru 23</i>, <i>Akananuru 22</i>, <i>Tirumurukarruppatai 83–103</i> and others mention god Murugan, his wife Valli, the iconographic peacock, and the Vedas; Murugan's mother – goddess Korravai (Amma, Uma, Parvati, Durga) is mentioned in <i>Akananuru 345</i>, <i>Kalittokai 89</i>, <i>Perumpanarruppatai 459</i> and elsewhere. She is both a mother goddess and the goddess of war and victory in Sangam poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-rf108_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rf108-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kailas-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kailas_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFK_Kailasapathy1968" class="citation book cs1">K Kailasapathy (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kF9kAAAAMAAJ"><i>Tamil Heroic Poetry</i></a>. Clarendon Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198154341" title="Special:BookSources/9780198154341"><bdi>9780198154341</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Heroic+Poetry&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=9780198154341&rft.au=K+Kailasapathy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkF9kAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Singh2008p27-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008p27_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008p27_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008p27_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008p27_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUpinder_Singh2008" class="citation book cs1">Upinder Singh (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA27"><i>A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century</i></a>. Pearson Education India. pp. 27–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0"><bdi>978-81-317-1120-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+India%3A+From+the+Stone+Age+to+the+12th+Century&rft.pages=27-28&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-317-1120-0&rft.au=Upinder+Singh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH3lUIIYxWkEC%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zvelebil1973p46-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zvelebil1973p46_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zvelebil1973p46_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zvelebil1973p46_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zvelebil1973p46_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 45–49 with footnotes</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoma_Chatterjee2021" class="citation book cs1">Roma Chatterjee, ed. (2021). <i>India: Society, Religion and Literature in Ancient and Medieval Periods</i> (1st ed.). New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5409-122-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5409-122-3"><bdi>978-93-5409-122-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%3A+Society%2C+Religion+and+Literature+in+Ancient+and+Medieval+Periods&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=73&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Government+of+India%2C+Ministry+of+Information+and+Broadcasting&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-93-5409-122-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadarajah1994" class="citation book cs1">Nadarajah, Devapoopathy (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ7b6msS3kgC&q=info:Q1h0NSIwwIEJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PR9"><i>Love in Sanskrit and Tamil Literature: A Study of Characters and Nature, 200 B.C.-A.D. 500</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1215-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1215-4"><bdi>978-81-208-1215-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Love+in+Sanskrit+and+Tamil+Literature%3A+A+Study+of+Characters+and+Nature%2C+200+B.C.-A.D.+500&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1215-4&rft.aulast=Nadarajah&rft.aufirst=Devapoopathy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIZ7b6msS3kgC%26q%3Dinfo%3AQ1h0NSIwwIEJ%3Ascholar.google.com%2F%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUniversity2017" class="citation book cs1">University, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Jawaharlal Nehru (25 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&q=info:YtwrhAmuSNIJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PR9"><i>Historical Dictionary of the Tamils</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-0686-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-0686-0"><bdi>978-1-5381-0686-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Tamils&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2017-08-25&rft.isbn=978-1-5381-0686-0&rft.aulast=University&rft.aufirst=Vijaya+Ramaswamy%2C+Jawaharlal+Nehru&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DALUvDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dinfo%3AYtwrhAmuSNIJ%3Ascholar.google.com%2F%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scharfe1977p178-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scharfe1977p178_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartmut_Scharfe1977" class="citation book cs1">Hartmut Scharfe (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2_VbnWkZ-SYC&pg=PA178"><i>Grammatical Literature</i></a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 178–179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01706-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01706-0"><bdi>978-3-447-01706-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatical+Literature&rft.pages=178-179&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-3-447-01706-0&rft.au=Hartmut+Scharfe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2_VbnWkZ-SYC%26pg%3DPA178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zvelebil1992p12-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zvelebil1992p12_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zvelebil1992p12_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1992" class="citation book cs1">Kamil Zvelebil (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qAPtq49DZfoC"><i>Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 12–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09365-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09365-6"><bdi>90-04-09365-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Companion+Studies+to+the+History+of+Tamil+Literature&rft.pages=12-13&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=90-04-09365-6&rft.au=Kamil+Zvelebil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqAPtq49DZfoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sastri1958p110-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sastri1958p110_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKallidaikurichi_Aiyah_Nilakanta_Sastri1958" class="citation book cs1">Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ae6AAAAAIAAJ"><i>A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 110–112.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+South+India+from+prehistoric+times+to+the+fall+of+Vijayanagar&rft.pages=110-112&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.au=Kallidaikurichi+Aiyah+Nilakanta+Sastri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dae6AAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_with_footnotes-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_with_footnotes_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1974">Kamil Zvelebil 1974</a>, pp. 9–10 with footnotes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19747–8_with_footnotes-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19747–8_with_footnotes_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1974">Kamil Zvelebil 1974</a>, pp. 7–8 with footnotes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-takahashi1-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi1_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi1_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi1_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi1_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi1_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi1_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi1_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakanobu_Takahashi1995" class="citation book cs1">Takanobu Takahashi (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC"><i>Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 1–3 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10042-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10042-3"><bdi>90-04-10042-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Love+Poetry+and+Poetics&rft.pages=1-3+with+footnotes&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=90-04-10042-3&rft.au=Takanobu+Takahashi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwgCHuVGyZoEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19749–10_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1974">Kamil Zvelebil 1974</a>, pp. 9–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George L. Hart III, <i>The Poems of Ancient Tamil,</i> U of California P, 1975.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shelby-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shelby_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shelby_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelby2011" class="citation book cs1">Selby, Martha Ann, ed. (31 January 2011). <i>Tamil Love Poetry</i>. New York Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7312%2Fselb15064">10.7312/selb15064</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52158-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52158-1"><bdi>978-0-231-52158-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Love+Poetry&rft.place=New+York+Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2011-01-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7312%2Fselb15064&rft.isbn=978-0-231-52158-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKallidaikurichi_Aiyah_Nilakanta_Sastri1958" class="citation book cs1">Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ae6AAAAAIAAJ"><i>A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 110–119, 330–335.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+South+India+from+prehistoric+times+to+the+fall+of+Vijayanagar&rft.pages=110-119%2C+330-335&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.au=Kallidaikurichi+Aiyah+Nilakanta+Sastri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dae6AAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britsangam-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britsangam_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britsangam_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/shangam-literature">Sangam Literature</a>, Encyclopaedia Britannica (2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman201627–28-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201627–28_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201627–28_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201627–28_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShulman2016">Shulman 2016</a>, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniélou2003" class="citation book cs1">Daniélou, Alain (11 February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xlwoDwAAQBAJ&q=sangam"><i>A Brief History of India</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594777943" title="Special:BookSources/9781594777943"><bdi>9781594777943</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+India&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2003-02-11&rft.isbn=9781594777943&rft.aulast=Dani%C3%A9lou&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxlwoDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsangam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman201625–28-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201625–28_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201625–28_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShulman2016">Shulman 2016</a>, pp. 25–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman201628–29-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman201628–29_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShulman2016">Shulman 2016</a>, pp. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilden201412_with_footnote_25-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilden201412_with_footnote_25_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilden2014">Wilden 2014</a>, p. 12 with footnote 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197410–11-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197410–11_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197410–11_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1974">Kamil Zvelebil 1974</a>, pp. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197559–61_with_footnotes-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197559–61_with_footnotes_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1975">Kamil Zvelebil 1975</a>, pp. 59–61 with footnotes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManguinManiWade2011138-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManguinManiWade2011138_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManguinManiWade2011">Manguin et al. (2011)</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson200014-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson200014_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2000">Wilson (2000)</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShinu2003-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShinu2003_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShinu2003_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShinu2003">Shinu (2003)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnjali2017123–136-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnjali2017123–136_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnjali2017">Anjali (2017)</a>, p. 123–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENath_sen1999205-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENath_sen1999205_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNath_sen1999">Nath sen (1999)</a>, p. 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosen1975-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosen1975_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosen1975">Rosen (1975)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sastri43-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sastri43_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sastri43_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._A._Nilakanta_Sastri1950" class="citation journal cs1">K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (1950). "Sanskrit Elements in Early Tamil Literature". <i>Proceedings of the Indian History Congress</i>. <b>13</b>: 43–45. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44140886">44140886</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Indian+History+Congress&rft.atitle=Sanskrit+Elements+in+Early+Tamil+Literature&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=43-45&rft.date=1950&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44140886%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=K.+A.+Nilakanta+Sastri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manninezhath1993p78-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manninezhath1993p78_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manninezhath1993p78_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Manninezhath1993" class="citation book cs1">Thomas Manninezhath (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uE4-veDrY7AC&pg=PA78"><i>Harmony of Religions: Vedānta Siddhānta Samarasam of Tāyumānavar</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 78–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1001-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1001-3"><bdi>978-81-208-1001-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harmony+of+Religions%3A+Ved%C4%81nta+Siddh%C4%81nta+Samarasam+of+T%C4%81yum%C4%81navar&rft.pages=78-79&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1001-3&rft.au=Thomas+Manninezhath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuE4-veDrY7AC%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-takahashi2-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi2_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi2_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi2_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi2_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-takahashi2_39-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakanobu_Takahashi1995" class="citation book cs1">Takanobu Takahashi (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC"><i>Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 3–5 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10042-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10042-3"><bdi>90-04-10042-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Love+Poetry+and+Poetics&rft.pages=3-5+with+footnotes&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=90-04-10042-3&rft.au=Takanobu+Takahashi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwgCHuVGyZoEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197350–56-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197350–56_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 50–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakanobu_Takahashi1995" class="citation book cs1">Takanobu Takahashi (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC"><i>Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 5–9 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10042-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10042-3"><bdi>90-04-10042-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Love+Poetry+and+Poetics&rft.pages=5-9+with+footnotes&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=90-04-10042-3&rft.au=Takanobu+Takahashi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwgCHuVGyZoEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–71_with_footnotes-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–71_with_footnotes_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 65–71 with footnotes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1989" class="citation book cs1">Kamil Zvelebil (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wYAOAAAAYAAJ"><i>Classical Tamil Prosody: An Introduction</i></a>. New Era Publications. pp. 1–7, 50–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780836424591" title="Special:BookSources/9780836424591"><bdi>9780836424591</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Tamil+Prosody%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=1-7%2C+50-55&rft.pub=New+Era+Publications&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780836424591&rft.au=Kamil+Zvelebil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwYAOAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–68-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–68_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197365–68_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 65–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Niklas1988p165-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Niklas1988p165_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niklas1988p165_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiklas1988" class="citation journal cs1">Niklas, Ulrike (1988). "Introduction to Tamil Prosody". <i>Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient</i>. <b>77</b> (1). PERSEE, France: 165–227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbefeo.1988.1744">10.3406/befeo.1988.1744</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0336-1519">0336-1519</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+de+l%27%C3%89cole+fran%C3%A7aise+d%27Extr%C3%AAme-Orient&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Tamil+Prosody&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=165-227&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fbefeo.1988.1744&rft.issn=0336-1519&rft.aulast=Niklas&rft.aufirst=Ulrike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mariaselvam1988-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mariaselvam1988_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mariaselvam1988_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham_Mariaselvam1988" class="citation book cs1">Abraham Mariaselvam (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9TULZX3SY18C&pg=PA124"><i>The Song of Songs and Ancient Tamil Love Poems: Poetry and Symbolism</i></a>. Gregorian. pp. 124–127 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7653-118-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-7653-118-7"><bdi>978-88-7653-118-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Song+of+Songs+and+Ancient+Tamil+Love+Poems%3A+Poetry+and+Symbolism&rft.pages=124-127+with+footnotes&rft.pub=Gregorian&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-88-7653-118-7&rft.au=Abraham+Mariaselvam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9TULZX3SY18C%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197366–67_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 66–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197371–72-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197371–72_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 71–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197367–72-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197367–72_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 67–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTschacher2011" class="citation journal cs1">Tschacher, Thorsten (2011). "Method and Theory in the Study of Caṅkam (Sangam) Literature". <i>Orientalistische Literaturzeitung</i>. <b>106</b> (1). Walter de Gruyter GmbH: 4–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Folzg.2011.0002">10.1524/olzg.2011.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163609253">163609253</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orientalistische+Literaturzeitung&rft.atitle=Method+and+Theory+in+the+Study+of+Ca%E1%B9%85kam+%28Sangam%29+Literature&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4-14&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2Folzg.2011.0002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163609253%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tschacher&rft.aufirst=Thorsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197383–84-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197383–84_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 83–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilden201413–15_with_footnotes-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilden201413–15_with_footnotes_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilden2014">Wilden 2014</a>, pp. 13–15 with footnotes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonas Buchholz and Giovanni Ciotti (2017), <i>What a Multiple-text Manuscript Can Tell Us about the Tamil Scholarly Tradition: The Case of UVSL 589</i>, Manuscri[pt Cultures, Vol. 10, Editors: Michael Friedrich and Jorg Quenzer, Universitat Hamburg, pages 129–142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilden201435–39-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilden201435–39_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilden201435–39_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilden2014">Wilden 2014</a>, pp. 35–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature", Kamil V. Zvelebil</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.R. Venkatachalapathy, <i>Enna Prayocanam?' Constructing the canon in colonial Tamilnadu</i>, Indian Economic Social History Review 2005 42:535, p544</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hudson1996-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hudson1996_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennis_Hudson1996" class="citation book cs1">Dennis Hudson (1996). Raymond Brady Williams (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3VV0VntTpvMC"><i>A Sacred Thread: Modern Transmission of Hindu Traditions in India and Abroad</i></a>. Columbia University Press. pp. 23–37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10779-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10779-2"><bdi>978-0-231-10779-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Sacred+Thread%3A+Modern+Transmission+of+Hindu+Traditions+in+India+and+Abroad&rft.pages=23-37&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-231-10779-2&rft.au=Dennis+Hudson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3VV0VntTpvMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShulman2016301–303-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShulman2016301–303_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShulman2016">Shulman 2016</a>, pp. 301–303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.R. Venkatachalapathy, <i>Enna Prayocanam?' Constructing the canon in colonial Tamilnadu</i>, Indian Economic Social History Review 2005 42:535, p544</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kamil_Zvelebil" title="Kamil Zvelebil">Kamil Zvelebil</a> (1975). Jan Gonda (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C"><i>Handbook of Oriental Studies: Tamil Literature</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 108–109 with footnote 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-04190-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-04190-7"><bdi>90-04-04190-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Oriental+Studies%3A+Tamil+Literature&rft.pages=108-109+with+footnote+129&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=90-04-04190-7&rft.au=Kamil+Zvelebil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKx4uqyts2t4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197345–46Shulman201628–30-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197345–46Shulman201628–30_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 45–46; <a href="#CITEREFShulman2016">Shulman 2016</a>, pp. 28–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197447-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197447_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1974">Kamil Zvelebil 1974</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197351-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197351_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197351–56-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197351–56_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 51–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197357–58-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197357–58_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 57–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19735–8,_51–56-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil19735–8,_51–56_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 5–8, 51–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Staal2008p23-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Staal2008p23_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Staal2008p23_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrits_Staal2008" class="citation book cs1">Frits Staal (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HcE23SjLX8sC"><i>Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights</i></a>. Penguin. pp. 23–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-309986-4"><bdi>978-0-14-309986-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovering+the+Vedas%3A+Origins%2C+Mantras%2C+Rituals%2C+Insights&rft.pages=23-24&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-14-309986-4&rft.au=Frits+Staal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHcE23SjLX8sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HockBashir2016-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HockBashir2016_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin_C_Southworth2016" class="citation book cs1">Franklin C Southworth (2016). <a href="/wiki/Hans_Henrich_Hock" title="Hans Henrich Hock">Hock, Hans Henrich</a>; <a href="/wiki/Elena_Bashir" title="Elena Bashir">Bashir, Elena</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFBDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia: A Comprehensive Guide</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 252–255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-042330-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-042330-3"><bdi>978-3-11-042330-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+South+Asia%3A+A+Comprehensive+Guide&rft.pages=252-255&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-11-042330-3&rft.au=Franklin+C+Southworth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPSFBDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Erdosy2012p98-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Erdosy2012p98_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Witzel2012" class="citation book cs1">Michael Witzel (2012). George Erdosy (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OZ0gAAAAQBAJ"><i>The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 98–110 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-081643-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-081643-3"><bdi>978-3-11-081643-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indo-Aryans+of+Ancient+South+Asia%3A+Language%2C+Material+Culture+and+Ethnicity&rft.pages=98-110+with+footnotes&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-11-081643-3&rft.au=Michael+Witzel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOZ0gAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span>, Quote (p. 99): "Although the Middle/Late Vedic periods are the earliest for which we can reconstruct a linguistic map, the situation even at the time of the Indus Civilisation and certainly during the time of the <i>earliest texts of the Rigveda</i>, cannot have been very different. There are clear indications that the speakers of Rigvedic Sanskrit knew, and interacted with, Dravidian and Munda speakers."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197313–14-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197313–14_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 13–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_L._Hart1976" class="citation book cs1">George L. Hart (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VqE5c4QAs9gC&pg=PA317"><i>The Relation Between Tamil and Classical Sanskrit Literature</i></a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 317–326. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01785-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01785-5"><bdi>978-3-447-01785-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Relation+Between+Tamil+and+Classical+Sanskrit+Literature&rft.pages=317-326&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-3-447-01785-5&rft.au=George+L.+Hart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVqE5c4QAs9gC%26pg%3DPA317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rf108-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rf108_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_Ferenczi2019" class="citation book cs1">Ronald Ferenczi (2019). Róbert Válóczi (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d3kyuwEACAAJ"><i>Goddess Woman</i></a>. Museum of Fine Art Budapest, Hungarian National Gallery. pp. 108–111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-615-5304-84-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-615-5304-84-2"><bdi>978-615-5304-84-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Goddess+Woman&rft.pages=108-111&rft.pub=Museum+of+Fine+Art+Budapest%2C+Hungarian+National+Gallery&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-615-5304-84-2&rft.au=Ronald+Ferenczi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd3kyuwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart_III1973" class="citation journal cs1">Hart III, George L. (1973). "Woman and the Sacred in Ancient Tamilnad". <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>32</b> (2). Cambridge University Press: 233–250. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2052342">10.2307/2052342</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2052342">2052342</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163785902">163785902</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Woman+and+the+Sacred+in+Ancient+Tamilnad&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=233-250&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163785902%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2052342%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2052342&rft.aulast=Hart+III&rft.aufirst=George+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973123–128_78-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 123–128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZvelebil1974" class="citation book cs1">Zvelebil, Kamil (22 October 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&pg=PA48"><i>Tamil Literature</i></a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447015820" title="Special:BookSources/9783447015820"><bdi>9783447015820</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Literature&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1974-10-22&rft.isbn=9783447015820&rft.aulast=Zvelebil&rft.aufirst=Kamil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOQ33i496MsIC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A HISTORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE volume 10 TAMIL LITERATURE page number 49 written by Kamil Zvelebil</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hardy_156-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hardy_156_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardy2015" class="citation book cs1">Hardy, Friedhelm (1 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XY42EAAAQBAJ&dq=mayon+mullai&pg=PA156"><i>Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3816-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3816-1"><bdi>978-81-208-3816-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viraha+Bhakti%3A+The+Early+History+of+Krsna+Devotion&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2015-01-01&rft.isbn=978-81-208-3816-1&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Friedhelm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXY42EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dmayon%2Bmullai%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clothey_34-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clothey_34_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClothey2019" class="citation book cs1">Clothey, Fred W. (20 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PC2aDwAAQBAJ&dq=Tirum%C4%81l&pg=PA34"><i>The Many Faces of Murukan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. With the Poem Prayers to Lord Murukan</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080410-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080410-2"><bdi>978-3-11-080410-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Many+Faces+of+Murukan%3A+The+History+and+Meaning+of+a+South+Indian+God.+With+the+Poem+Prayers+to+Lord+Murukan&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2019-05-20&rft.isbn=978-3-11-080410-2&rft.aulast=Clothey&rft.aufirst=Fred+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPC2aDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DTirum%25C4%2581l%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDr.C.R.Krishnamurti" class="citation web cs1">Dr.C.R.Krishnamurti. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ckrishnamurti.tripod.com/chap2a.html">"2. The Sangam Period"</a>. <i>tripod.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=tripod.com&rft.atitle=2.+The+Sangam+Period&rft.au=Dr.C.R.Krishnamurti&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fckrishnamurti.tripod.com%2Fchap2a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/in-praise-of-vishnu/article6245959.ece">"In praise of Vishnu"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. 24 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=In+praise+of+Vishnu&rft.date=2014-07-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Ffeatures%2Ffriday-review%2Freligion%2Fin-praise-of-vishnu%2Farticle6245959.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadmaja2002" class="citation book cs1">Padmaja, T. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&dq=mayon+sangam&pg=PA27"><i>Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu</i></a>. Abhinav Publications. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-398-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-398-4"><bdi>978-81-7017-398-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Temples+of+Kr%CC%A5%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87a+in+South+India%3A+History%2C+Art%2C+and+Traditions+in+Tamiln%C4%81%E1%B8%8Du&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-81-7017-398-4&rft.aulast=Padmaja&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpzgaS1wRnl8C%26dq%3Dmayon%2Bsangam%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sangam-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sangam_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna"><i>Journal of Tamil Studies, Volume 1</i></a>. International Institute of Tamil Studies. 1969. p. 131. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171113060321/https://books.google.no/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna&dq=tolkappiyam+varuna&hl=no&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiloMXV6bnXAhXiDZoKHXyuDMAQ6AEILTAB">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+Tamil+Studies%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=International+Institute+of+Tamil+Studies&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZjoRAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dtolkappiyam%2Bvaruna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paripāṭal Poem 1 Line 50 to 56 ஐந்தலை உயிரிய அணங்குடை அருந்திறல் மைந்துடை ஒருவனும்– you are the one with five heads who causes great fear and is one of great ability and strength – Sivan, மடங்கலும்நீ – one where all lives end, நலம் முழுது அளைஇய – with all benefits, புகர்அறு காட்சிப் புலமும்– faultless learning – Vēdās, பூவனும் – you are Brahman who appeared on a flower, நாற்றமும்நீ – you are creation created by Brahman, வலன் உயர் எழிலியும் – clouds that rise up with strength, மாக விசும்பும் – wide sky, நிலனும்– land, நீடிய இமயமும்– and the tall Himalayas, நீ– you, அதனால் – so, இன்னோர் அனையை– like so and so, இனையையால்– like somebody, என– thus, அன்னோர் – those, யாம் இவண் காணாமையின் – I have not seen here, பொன் அணி நேமி – wheels decorated with gold, வலம் கொண்டு ஏந்திய – lifting on your right side or lifting with strength, மன்னுயிர் முதல்வனை – you are supreme to all the living beings on the Earth.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197449-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197449_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil197449_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1974">Kamil Zvelebil 1974</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna"><i>Journal of Tamil Studies, Volume 1</i></a>. International Institute of Tamil Studies. 1969. p. 131. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171113060321/https://books.google.no/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna&dq=tolkappiyam+varuna&hl=no&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiloMXV6bnXAhXiDZoKHXyuDMAQ6AEILTAB">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+Tamil+Studies%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=International+Institute+of+Tamil+Studies&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZjoRAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dtolkappiyam%2Bvaruna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalasubrahmanyam1977" class="citation book cs1">Balasubrahmanyam, S (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dufVAAAAMAAJ"><i>Middle Chola Temples Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I (A.D. 985-1070)</i></a>. Oriental Press. p. 291. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789060236079" title="Special:BookSources/9789060236079"><bdi>9789060236079</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Chola+Temples+Rajaraja+I+to+Kulottunga+I+%28A.D.+985-1070%29&rft.pages=291&rft.pub=Oriental+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9789060236079&rft.aulast=Balasubrahmanyam&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdufVAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharan2023" class="citation web cs1">Charan, Sai (24 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/sengol-a-historic-sceptre-with-a-deep-tamil-nadu-connection/article66888264.ece">"The Sengol — A historic sceptre with a deep Tamil Nadu connection"</a>. <i>thehindu.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=thehindu.com&rft.atitle=The+Sengol+%E2%80%94+A+historic+sceptre+with+a+deep+Tamil+Nadu+connection&rft.date=2023-05-24&rft.aulast=Charan&rft.aufirst=Sai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Ftamil-nadu%2Fsengol-a-historic-sceptre-with-a-deep-tamil-nadu-connection%2Farticle66888264.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/541792-sandham.html">"A Major event in the world of Music- The Hindu Music Review"</a>. The Hindu Tamil. 28 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Major+event+in+the+world+of+Music-+The+Hindu+Music+Review&rft.pub=The+Hindu+Tamil&rft.date=2020-02-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindutamil.in%2Fnews%2Fsupplements%2F541792-sandham.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sangam poems in contemporary songs <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2017/mar/26/sangam-poems-in-contemporary-songs-1586219.html">https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2017/mar/26/sangam-poems-in-contemporary-songs-1586219.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Narumugaiye - A.R.Rahman - Mirchi Unplugged Season 1 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QatLrdzalew">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QatLrdzalew</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnjali2017" class="citation book cs1">Anjali (2017). <i>Social and Cultural History of Ancient India</i>. Lucknow: OnlineGatha—The Endless Tale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-86352-69-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-86352-69-9"><bdi>978-93-86352-69-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+and+Cultural+History+of+Ancient+India&rft.place=Lucknow&rft.pub=OnlineGatha%E2%80%94The+Endless+Tale&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-93-86352-69-9&rft.au=Anjali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJV_Chelliah1946" class="citation book cs1">JV Chelliah (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/PattupattuTenTamilIdylls_20180715/page/n1"><i>Pattupattu - Ten Tamil Idylls (Tamil Verses with Englilsh Translation)</i></a>. Tamil University (1985 print).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pattupattu+-+Ten+Tamil+Idylls+%28Tamil+Verses+with+Englilsh+Translation%29&rft.pub=Tamil+University+%281985+print%29&rft.date=1946&rft.au=JV+Chelliah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FPattupattuTenTamilIdylls_20180715%2Fpage%2Fn1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniélou2003" class="citation book cs1">Daniélou, Alain (11 February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xlwoDwAAQBAJ&q=sangam"><i>A Brief History of India</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594777943" title="Special:BookSources/9781594777943"><bdi>9781594777943</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+India&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2003-02-11&rft.isbn=9781594777943&rft.aulast=Dani%C3%A9lou&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxlwoDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsangam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_LehmannThomas_Malten1992" class="citation book cs1">Thomas Lehmann; Thomas Malten (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iIcOAAAAYAAJ"><i>A Word Index of Old Tamil Caṅkam Literature</i></a>. F. Steiner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-515-05814-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-515-05814-8"><bdi>978-3-515-05814-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Word+Index+of+Old+Tamil+Ca%E1%B9%85kam+Literature&rft.pub=F.+Steiner&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-515-05814-8&rft.au=Thomas+Lehmann&rft.au=Thomas+Malten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiIcOAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManguinManiWade2011" class="citation book cs1">Manguin, Pierre-Yves; Mani, A.; Wade, Geoff (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ni9AlOLTFZYC&q=tamilakam+northern+sri+lanka&pg=PA138"><i>Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross Cultural exchange</i></a>. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789814345101" title="Special:BookSources/9789814345101"><bdi>9789814345101</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Interactions+Between+South+and+Southeast+Asia%3A+Reflections+on+Cross+Cultural+exchange&rft.pub=Institute+of+Southeast+Asian+Studies&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9789814345101&rft.aulast=Manguin&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Yves&rft.au=Mani%2C+A.&rft.au=Wade%2C+Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dni9AlOLTFZYC%26q%3Dtamilakam%2Bnorthern%2Bsri%2Blanka%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._Meenakshi_Sundaram1965" class="citation book cs1">P. Meenakshi Sundaram (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sLEuAAAAMAAJ"><i>History of Tamil Literature</i></a>. Annamalai University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Tamil+Literature&rft.pub=Annamalai+University&rft.date=1965&rft.au=P.+Meenakshi+Sundaram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsLEuAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFV._S._Rajam1992" class="citation book cs1">V. S. Rajam (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n6VhXLdmdKkC"><i>A Reference Grammar of Classical Tamil Poetry</i></a>. American Philosophical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-199-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-199-6"><bdi>978-0-87169-199-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Reference+Grammar+of+Classical+Tamil+Poetry&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-199-6&rft.au=V.+S.+Rajam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn6VhXLdmdKkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay2003" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iHHzP4uVpn4C"><i>The archaeology of seafaring in ancient South Asia</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521011099" title="Special:BookSources/9780521011099"><bdi>9780521011099</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+archaeology+of+seafaring+in+ancient+South+Asia&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780521011099&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Himanshu+Prabha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiHHzP4uVpn4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen1975" class="citation journal cs1">Rosen, Elizabeth S. (1975). "Prince ILango Adigal, Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet), translated by Alain Damelou. Review". <i>Artibus Asiae</i>. <b>37</b> (1/2): 148–150. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3250226">10.2307/3250226</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250226">3250226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artibus+Asiae&rft.atitle=Prince+ILango+Adigal%2C+Shilappadikaram+%28The+anklet+Bracelet%29%2C+translated+by+Alain+Damelou.+Review&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=148-150&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3250226&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3250226%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNath_sen1999" class="citation book cs1">Nath sen, Sailendra (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&q=maurya+dynasty+sen"><i>Ancient Indian History and Civilization</i></a> (Second ed.). Routledge. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788122411980" title="Special:BookSources/9788122411980"><bdi>9788122411980</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Indian+History+and+Civilization&rft.pages=205&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9788122411980&rft.aulast=Nath+sen&rft.aufirst=Sailendra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWk4_ICH_g1EC%26q%3Dmaurya%2Bdynasty%2Bsen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Selby, Martha Ann (2011) Tamil Love Poetry: The Five Hundred Short Poems of the Aiṅkuṟunūṟu, an Early Third-Century Anthology. Columbia University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231150651" title="Special:BookSources/9780231150651">9780231150651</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShinu2003" class="citation journal cs1">Shinu, Abraham (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=GfpTLJYcL1XJGP4Vv1mSvT1hvmCvCxGMhrrDBZ23l2vmKVN1JkYG!-2096127210?docId=5002047766">"Chera, Chola, Pandya: using archaeological evidence to identify the Tamil kingdoms of early historic South India"</a>. <i>Asian Perspectives</i>. <b>42</b> (2): 207–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fasi.2003.0031">10.1353/asi.2003.0031</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F17189">10125/17189</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153420843">153420843</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Chera%2C+Chola%2C+Pandya%3A+using+archaeological+evidence+to+identify+the+Tamil+kingdoms+of+early+historic+South+India&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=207-223&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10125%2F17189&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153420843%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fasi.2003.0031&rft.aulast=Shinu&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FgoogleScholar.qst%3Bjsessionid%3DGfpTLJYcL1XJGP4Vv1mSvT1hvmCvCxGMhrrDBZ23l2vmKVN1JkYG%21-2096127210%3FdocId%3D5002047766&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShulman2016" class="citation book cs1">Shulman, David (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ"><i>Tamil</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97465-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97465-4"><bdi>978-0-674-97465-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-674-97465-4&rft.aulast=Shulman&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfG8NDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakanobu_Takahashi1995" class="citation book cs1">Takanobu Takahashi (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCHuVGyZoEC"><i>Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics</i></a>. BRILL Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10042-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10042-3"><bdi>90-04-10042-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Love+Poetry+and+Poetics&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=90-04-10042-3&rft.au=Takanobu+Takahashi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwgCHuVGyZoEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerman_Tieken2001" class="citation book cs1">Herman Tieken (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yXlkAAAAMAAJ"><i>Kāvya in South India: Old Tamil Caṅkam Poetry</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6980-134-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6980-134-6"><bdi>978-90-6980-134-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=K%C4%81vya+in+South+India%3A+Old+Tamil+Ca%E1%B9%85kam+Poetry&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-90-6980-134-6&rft.au=Herman+Tieken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyXlkAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilden2014" class="citation book cs1">Wilden, Eva Maria (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KuPmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA75"><i>Manuscript, Print and Memory: Relics of the Cankam in Tamilnadu</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-035276-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-035276-4"><bdi>978-3-11-035276-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manuscript%2C+Print+and+Memory%3A+Relics+of+the+Cankam+in+Tamilnadu&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-11-035276-4&rft.aulast=Wilden&rft.aufirst=Eva+Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKuPmBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2000" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, A.Jeyaratnam (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W3aAB9IFVdkC&q=tamilakam+northern+sri+lanka&pg=PA14"><i>Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in 19th and 20th Centuries</i></a>. UBC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780774807593" title="Special:BookSources/9780774807593"><bdi>9780774807593</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sri+Lankan+Tamil+Nationalism%3A+Its+Origins+and+Development+in+19th+and+20th+Centuries&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780774807593&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=A.Jeyaratnam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW3aAB9IFVdkC%26q%3Dtamilakam%2Bnorthern%2Bsri%2Blanka%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973" class="citation book cs1">Kamil Zvelebil (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-03591-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-03591-5"><bdi>90-04-03591-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Smile+of+Murugan%3A+On+Tamil+Literature+of+South+India&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=90-04-03591-5&rft.au=Kamil+Zvelebil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdegUAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1974" class="citation book cs1">Kamil Zvelebil (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC"><i>Tamil Literature</i></a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01582-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01582-0"><bdi>978-3-447-01582-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Literature&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-3-447-01582-0&rft.au=Kamil+Zvelebil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOQ33i496MsIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1975" class="citation book cs1">Kamil Zvelebil (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C"><i>Tamil Literature</i></a>. Handbook of Oriental Studies. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-04190-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-04190-7"><bdi>90-04-04190-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Literature&rft.series=Handbook+of+Oriental+Studies&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=90-04-04190-7&rft.au=Kamil+Zvelebil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKx4uqyts2t4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Web-sources</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Saju_2019_ToI-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saju_2019_ToI_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaju2019" class="citation web cs1">Saju, M. T. (20 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/carbon-dating-confirms-keeladi-3-centuries-older/articleshow/71209468.cms">"Carbon dating confirms Keeladi 3 centuries older"</a>. <i>The Times of India</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+India&rft.atitle=Carbon+dating+confirms+Keeladi+3+centuries+older&rft.date=2019-09-20&rft.aulast=Saju&rft.aufirst=M.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesofindia.indiatimes.com%2Fcity%2Fchennai%2Fcarbon-dating-confirms-keeladi-3-centuries-older%2Farticleshow%2F71209468.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tamil_Society-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tamil_Society_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P1naAAAAMAAJ&q=nagadipa+naga+nadu">"Women, Transition, and Change: A Study of the Impact of Conflict and Displacement on Women in Traditional Tamil Society"</a>. 1995.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Women%2C+Transition%2C+and+Change%3A+A+Study+of+the+Impact+of+Conflict+and+Displacement+on+Women+in+Traditional+Tamil+Society&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP1naAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dnagadipa%2Bnaga%2Bnadu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jesudasan_2019_The_Hindu-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jesudasan_2019_The_Hindu_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJesudasan2019" class="citation news cs1">Jesudasan, Dennis S. (20 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/keeladi-findings-traceable-to-6th-century-bc-report/article29461583.ece">"Keezhadi excavations: Sangam era older than previously thought, finds study"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X">0971-751X</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Keezhadi+excavations%3A+Sangam+era+older+than+previously+thought%2C+finds+study&rft.date=2019-09-20&rft.issn=0971-751X&rft.aulast=Jesudasan&rft.aufirst=Dennis+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Ftamil-nadu%2Fkeeladi-findings-traceable-to-6th-century-bc-report%2Farticle29461583.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASangam+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com">sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com Sangam poetry with translation in English</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vaidehi_Herbert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vaidehi Herbert (page does not exist)">Vaidehi Herbert</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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title="Old Tamil">Old Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Tamil" title="Middle Tamil">Middle Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Tamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Tamil">Modern Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipravalam" title="Manipravalam">Manipravalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Dravidian_language" title="Proto-Dravidian language">Proto-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-South_Dravidian_language" title="Proto-South Dravidian language">Proto-South Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Sangams" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Sangams">Tamil Sangams</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="First Sangam">First Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Sangam">Second Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Sangam">Third Sangam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangalore_Tamil_dialects" title="Bangalore Tamil dialects">Bangalore Tamil dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tamil_dialect" title="Central Tamil dialect">Central Tamil dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongu_Tamil" title="Kongu Tamil">Kongu Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madras_Bashai" title="Madras Bashai">Madras Bashai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai_Tamil" title="Madurai Tamil">Madurai Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nellai_Tamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Nellai Tamil">Nellai Tamil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamil_dialects" title="Sri Lankan Tamil dialects">Sri Lankan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negombo_Tamil_dialect" title="Negombo Tamil dialect">Negombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batticaloa_Tamil_dialect" title="Batticaloa Tamil dialect">Batticaloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaffna_Tamil_dialect" title="Jaffna Tamil dialect">Jaffna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southeast Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Tamil" title="Malaysian Tamil">Malaysian Tamil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Sociolects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin_Tamil" title="Brahmin Tamil">Brahmin Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwi" title="Arwi">Arwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Global organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Tamil_Conference" title="World Tamil Conference">World Tamil Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Classical_Tamil_Conference_2010" title="World Classical Tamil Conference 2010">World Classical Tamil Conference 2010</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Classics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sangam literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_books_of_Law" title="Tamil books of Law">Tamil books of Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Five_Great_Epics_of_Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponniyin_Selvan" title="Ponniyin Selvan">Ponniyin Selvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sangam_poets" title="List of Sangam poets">List of Sangam poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_in_Tamil_literary_tradition" title="Commentaries in Tamil literary tradition">Commentaries in Tamil literary tradition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Devotional<br />literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umaru_Pulavar#Literary_works" title="Umaru Pulavar">Cīrappurānam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramavataram" title="Ramavataram">Kampa Irāmāyaṉam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabhandham" class="mw-redirect" title="Naalayira Divya Prabhandham">Nālāyira Tivviya Pirapantam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thembavani" title="Thembavani">Tēmpāvaṉi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugal">Thiruppugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tamil_literature_works_about_Ganesha" title="List of Tamil literature works about Ganesha">Tamil Ganaptya texts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Poetry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kural_(poetic_form)" title="Kural (poetic form)">Kural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venpa" title="Venpa">Venpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraichchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraichchi">Iraichchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akam_(poetry)" title="Akam (poetry)">Akam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puram_(poetry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Puram (poetry)">Puram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Thinai">Thinai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ullurai" title="Ullurai">Ullurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ula_(poetry)" title="Ula (poetry)">Ulā</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Grammars and<br />dictionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agattiyam" title="Agattiyam">Agattiyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nann%C5%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Nannūl">Nannūl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purapporul_Venbamaalai" title="Purapporul Venbamaalai">Purapporul Venbamaalai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature#Vijayanagar_and_Nayak_period" title="Tamil literature">Caturakarāti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Lexicon_dictionary" title="Tamil Lexicon dictionary">Tamil Lexicon dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yalpana_Vaipava_Malai" title="Yalpana Vaipava Malai">Yāḻpāna Vaipava Mālai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mathematics and<br />natural science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthana_Kolahalam" title="Asthana Kolahalam">Asthana Kolahalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87akkatik%C4%81ram" title="Kaṇakkatikāram">Kaṇakkatikāram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87ita_T%C4%ABpikai" title="Kaṇita Tīpikai">Kaṇita Tīpikai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerambam" title="Yerambam">Yerambam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tamil and<br /> other languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Tamil_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="List of English words of Tamil origin">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sinhala_words_of_Tamil_origin" title="List of Sinhala words of Tamil origin">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_loanwords_in_Tamil" title="Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil">Indo-Aryan languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_loanwords_in_Malay" title="List of loanwords in Malay">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravido-Korean_languages" title="Dravido-Korean languages">Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_graffiti_symbols" title="Megalithic graffiti symbols">Megalithic graffiti symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Koleḻuttu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatteluttu alphabet">Vatteluttu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_grantha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallava grantha">Pallava grantha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Modern script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Braille" title="Tamil Braille">Tamil Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwi" title="Arwi">Arwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lexis and<br /> grammar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_honorifics" title="Tamil honorifics">Tamil honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_numerals" title="Tamil numerals">Tamil numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_phonology" title="Tamil phonology">Tamil phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_onomatopoeia" title="Tamil onomatopoeia">Tamil onomatopoeia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_prosody" title="Tamil prosody">Tamil prosody</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transliteration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15919" title="ISO 15919">ISO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozhi_(transliteration)" title="Mozhi (transliteration)">Moḻi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standardisation_of_Tamil_script" title="Standardisation of Tamil script">Standardisation of Tamil script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanittamil_Iyakkam" title="Tanittamil Iyakkam">Tanittamil Iyakkam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Tamil_script" title="Simplified Tamil script">Simplified Tamil script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_in_Tamil_language" title="Printing in Tamil language">Printing in Tamil language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Heritage_Foundation" title="Tamil Heritage Foundation">Ancient manuscript digitalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Institute_of_Classical_Tamil" title="Central Institute of Classical Tamil">Formation of CICT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Madurai" title="Project Madurai">Project Madurai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_languages_of_South_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Bangladesh" title="Languages of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Bhutan" title="Languages of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers_in_India" title="List of languages by number of native speakers in India">list by number of speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages with official status in India">scheduled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Languages_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Languages of India">classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives#Languages" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nepal" title="Languages of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Pakistan" title="Languages of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Languages of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aka-Jeru_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aka-Jeru language">Aka-Jeru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aka-Bo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aka-Bo language">Aka-Bo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahui_language" title="Brahui language">Brahui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulu_language" title="Tulu language">Tulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_English" title="South Asian English">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_English" title="Bangladeshi English">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_English" title="Nepalese English">Nepalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_English" title="Pakistani English">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_English" title="Sri Lankan English">Sri Lankan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angika" title="Angika">Angika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_language" title="Bhojpuri language">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_language" title="Chakma language">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagonian_language" title="Chittagonian language">Chittagonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Dhivehi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinglish" title="Hinglish">Hinglish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindko" title="Hindko">Hindko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_language" title="Konkani language">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumaoni_language" title="Kumaoni language">Kumaoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magahi_language" title="Magahi language">Magahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Mahal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_languages" title="Rajasthani languages">Rajasthani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangpuri_language" title="Rangpuri language">Rangpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraiki_language" title="Saraiki language">Saraiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_language" title="Sylheti language">Sylheti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balochi_language" title="Balochi language">Balochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dari" title="Dari">Dari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakhi_language" title="Wakhi language">Wakhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Isolates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Khasic_languages" title="Khasic languages">Khasic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khasi_language" title="Khasi language">Khasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyngngam_language" title="Lyngngam language">Lyngngam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pnar_language" title="Pnar language">Pnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_language" title="War language">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Malay_trade_and_creole_languages" title="Malay trade and creole languages">Malay creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Creole_Malay" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan Creole Malay">Sri Lankan Creole Malay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Munda_languages" title="Munda languages">Munda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ho_language" title="Ho language">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korku_language" title="Korku language">Korku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_language" title="Mundari language">Mundari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santali_language" title="Santali language">Santali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sora_language" title="Sora language">Sora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Nicobarese_languages" title="Nicobarese languages">Nicobaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Car_language" title="Car language">Car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Nicobarese_languages" title="Central Nicobarese languages">Central Nicobarese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaura_language" title="Chaura language">Chaura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nicobarese_language" title="Southern Nicobarese language">Southern Nicobarese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teressa_language" title="Teressa language">Teressa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96nge_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Önge language">Önge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarawa_language_(Andaman_Islands)" title="Jarawa language (Andaman Islands)">Jarawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_people_in_India#Indian_French" title="French people in India">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Portuguese_creoles" title="Indo-Portuguese creoles">Portuguese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ao_language" title="Ao language">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balti_language" title="Balti language">Balti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodo language">Bodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha" title="Dzongkha">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garo_language" title="Garo language">Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajong_language" title="Hajong language">Hajong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakhi_language" title="Ladakhi language">Ladakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_language" title="Limbu language">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_Bhasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepal Bhasa">Nepal Bhasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkimese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikkimese language">Sikkimese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenyidie_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenyidie language">Tenyidie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Tibetan">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripuri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripuri language">Tripuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi</a> (Abugida)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus</a> (Undeciphered)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwi" title="Arwi">Arwi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahmukhi alphabet">Shahmukhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_alphabet" title="Bengali alphabet">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prestige language-<br /><br />influence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Englishisation" title="Englishisation">Englishisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinglish" title="Hinglish">Hinglish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perso-Arabization" class="mw-redirect" title="Perso-Arabization">Perso-Arabization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritisation (language)">Sanskritisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language_movement" title="Bengali language movement">Bengali movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hela_Havula" title="Hela Havula">Hela Havula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_associate_official_language_movement" title="Meitei associate official language movement">Meitei associate official language movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_classical_language_movement" title="Meitei classical language movement">Meitei classical language movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_linguistic_purism_movement" title="Meitei linguistic purism movement">Meitei linguistic purism movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_Bhasa_movement" title="Nepal Bhasa movement">Newar movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_Language_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepali Language Movement">Nepali movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Language_Movement" title="Punjabi Language Movement">Punjabi Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Tamil_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure Tamil movement">Pure Tamil movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival" title="Sanskrit revival">Sanskrit revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_movement" title="Urdu movement">Urdu movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&oldid=1260038333">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&oldid=1260038333</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tamil-language_literature" title="Category:Tamil-language literature">Tamil-language literature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sangam_literature" 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