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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assyria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assyria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 Assyria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assyria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hebraic_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hebraic_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.5 Hebraic tradition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hebraic_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.6 Ancient Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ritual_child_sacrifice_in_Carthage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ritual_child_sacrifice_in_Carthage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.7 Ritual child sacrifice in Carthage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ritual_child_sacrifice_in_Carthage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Celtic_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Celtic_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.8 Celtic traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Celtic_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baltic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baltic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.9 Baltic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baltic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Christian states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Eastern Roman Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Inquisition_and_the_burning_of_heretics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Inquisition_and_the_burning_of_heretics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Medieval Inquisition and the burning of heretics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Inquisition_and_the_burning_of_heretics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burnings_of_Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burnings_of_Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Burnings of Jews </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burnings_of_Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lepers'_Plot_of_1321" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lepers'_Plot_of_1321"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.4 Lepers' Plot of 1321 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lepers'_Plot_of_1321-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_Inquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_Inquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.5 Spanish Inquisition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_Inquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portuguese_Inquisition_at_Goa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portuguese_Inquisition_at_Goa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.6 Portuguese Inquisition at Goa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portuguese_Inquisition_at_Goa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Crimes_against_nature"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Crimes_against_nature""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.7 "Crimes against nature" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Crimes_against_nature"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penal_code_of_Charles_V" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penal_code_of_Charles_V"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.8 Penal code of Charles V </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penal_code_of_Charles_V-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Witches_and_heretics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Witches_and_heretics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.9 Witches and heretics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Witches_and_heretics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denmark" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denmark"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.10 Denmark </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denmark-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.11 England </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.12 Scotland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.13 Ireland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.14 Greece </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_judicial_burnings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_judicial_burnings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.15 Last judicial burnings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_judicial_burnings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Colonial Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_Indies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Indies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 West Indies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Indies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Islamic countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Followers_of_a_false_claimant_of_prophethood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Followers_of_a_false_claimant_of_prophethood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Followers of a false claimant of prophethood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Followers_of_a_false_claimant_of_prophethood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholic_monks_in_13th-century_Tunis_and_Morocco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_monks_in_13th-century_Tunis_and_Morocco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Catholic monks in 13th-century Tunis and Morocco </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_monks_in_13th-century_Tunis_and_Morocco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Converts_to_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Converts_to_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.3 Converts to Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Converts_to_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muslim_heretics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim_heretics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.4 Muslim heretics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim_heretics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barbary_States,_18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barbary_States,_18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.5 Barbary States, 18th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barbary_States,_18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.6 Persia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malaya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malaya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.7 Malaya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malaya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roasting_by_means_of_heated_metal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roasting_by_means_of_heated_metal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Roasting by means of heated metal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roasting_by_means_of_heated_metal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_brazen_bull" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_brazen_bull"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 The brazen bull </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_brazen_bull-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fate_of_a_Scottish_regicide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fate_of_a_Scottish_regicide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.2 Fate of a Scottish regicide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fate_of_a_Scottish_regicide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-György_Dózsa_on_the_iron_throne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#György_Dózsa_on_the_iron_throne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.3 György Dózsa on the iron throne </div> </a> <ul id="toc-György_Dózsa_on_the_iron_throne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_tale_of_the_murderous_midwife" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_tale_of_the_murderous_midwife"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.4 The tale of the murderous midwife </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_tale_of_the_murderous_midwife-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pouring_molten_metal_down_the_throat_or_ears" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pouring_molten_metal_down_the_throat_or_ears"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Pouring molten metal down the throat or ears </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pouring_molten_metal_down_the_throat_or_ears-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Molten_gold_poured_down_the_throat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molten_gold_poured_down_the_throat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.1 Molten gold poured down the throat </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molten_gold_poured_down_the_throat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_punishment_for_inebriation_and_tobacco_smoking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_punishment_for_inebriation_and_tobacco_smoking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.2 As punishment for inebriation and tobacco smoking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_punishment_for_inebriation_and_tobacco_smoking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_punishment_for_horse_thieves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_punishment_for_horse_thieves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.3 Mongol punishment for horse thieves </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_punishment_for_horse_thieves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_tradition_of_Buddhist_self-immolation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_tradition_of_Buddhist_self-immolation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Chinese tradition of Buddhist self-immolation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_tradition_of_Buddhist_self-immolation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mughal_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mughal_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Mughal Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mughal_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_widow_burning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_widow_burning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Indian widow burning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_widow_burning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-Saharan_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11 Sub-Saharan Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indigenous_cannibalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indigenous_cannibalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.12 Indigenous cannibalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indigenous_cannibalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.12.1 Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiji" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiji"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.12.2 Fiji </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiji-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislation_against_the_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislation_against_the_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.13 Legislation against the practice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legislation_against_the_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_burnings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_burnings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Modern burnings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_burnings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern burnings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_burnings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Holocaust_and_German_war_crimes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Holocaust_and_German_war_crimes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 The Holocaust and German war crimes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Holocaust_and_German_war_crimes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revenge_against_Germans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revenge_against_Germans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Revenge against Germans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revenge_against_Germans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lynching_of_Germans_in_Czechoslovakia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lynching_of_Germans_in_Czechoslovakia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Lynching of Germans in Czechoslovakia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lynching_of_Germans_in_Czechoslovakia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese_war_crimes_of_WWII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_war_crimes_of_WWII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Japanese war crimes of WWII </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_war_crimes_of_WWII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extrajudicial_burnings_in_Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extrajudicial_burnings_in_Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Extrajudicial burnings in Latin America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extrajudicial_burnings_in_Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lynchings_and_killings_by_burning_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lynchings_and_killings_by_burning_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Lynchings and killings by burning in the United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lynchings_and_killings_by_burning_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cases_from_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cases_from_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Cases from Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cases_from_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cases_from_the_Middle_East_and_Indian_subcontinent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cases_from_the_Middle_East_and_Indian_subcontinent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Cases from the Middle East and Indian subcontinent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cases_from_the_Middle_East_and_Indian_subcontinent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bride-burning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bride-burning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Bride-burning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bride-burning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> 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Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" > 37 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheiterhaufen" title="Scheiterhaufen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Scheiterhaufen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A7" title="إعدام حرقا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إعدام حرقا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muerte_na_foguera" title="Muerte na foguera – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Muerte na foguera" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B3e-h%C3%AAng" title="Hóe-hêng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hóe-hêng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mort_a_la_foguera" title="Mort a la foguera – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mort a la foguera" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up%C3%A1len%C3%AD_na_hranici" title="Upálení na hranici – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Upálení na hranici" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%A6nding_p%C3%A5_b%C3%A5l" title="Brænding på bål – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Brænding på bål" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheiterhaufen" title="Scheiterhaufen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Scheiterhaufen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muerte_en_la_hoguera" title="Muerte en la hoguera – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Muerte en la hoguera" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brul%C5%9Dtiparo" title="Brulŝtiparo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Brulŝtiparo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutan_errea" title="Sutan errea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sutan errea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86" title="زنده سوزاندن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زنده سوزاندن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BBcher" title="Bûcher – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bûcher" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%ED%98%95" title="화형 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화형" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksekusi_pembakaran" title="Eksekusi pembakaran – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Eksekusi pembakaran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morte_sul_rogo" title="Morte sul rogo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Morte sul rogo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%94_%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%93" title="העלאה על המוקד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="העלאה על המוקד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadedzin%C4%81%C5%A1ana" title="Sadedzināšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sadedzināšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1glyahal%C3%A1l" title="Máglyahalál – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Máglyahalál" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B3_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7" title="തീവച്ചുള്ള വധശിക്ഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തീവച്ചുള്ള വധശിക്ഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukuman_mati_melalui_pembakaran" title="Hukuman mati melalui pembakaran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Hukuman mati melalui pembakaran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandstapel" title="Brandstapel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Brandstapel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%88%91" title="火刑 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="火刑" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenning_p%C3%A5_b%C3%A5l" title="Brenning på bål – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Brenning på bål" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenhi%C3%A8r" title="Lenhièr – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lenhièr" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spalenie_na_stosie" title="Spalenie na stosie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Spalenie na stosie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morte_na_fogueira" title="Morte na fogueira – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Morte na fogueira" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardere_pe_rug" title="Ardere pe rug – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ardere pe rug" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Сожжение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сожжение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_by_burning" title="Death by burning – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Death by burning" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roviolla_polttaminen" title="Roviolla polttaminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Roviolla polttaminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%A4nning_p%C3%A5_b%C3%A5l" title="Bränning på bål – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bränning på bål" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakarak_%C3%B6ld%C3%BCrme" title="Yakarak öldürme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yakarak öldürme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Спалення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Спалення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi%C3%AAu_s%E1%BB%91ng" title="Thiêu sống – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Burned at the stake" redirects here. For the 1981 horror film, see <a href="/wiki/Burned_at_the_Stake" title="Burned at the Stake">Burned at the Stake</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Burned alive" redirects here. For the book about honor killing, see <a href="/wiki/Burned_Alive" title="Burned Alive">Burned Alive</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avvakum_by_Pyotr_Yevgenyevich_Myasoyedov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Avvakum_by_Pyotr_Yevgenyevich_Myasoyedov.jpg/330px-Avvakum_by_Pyotr_Yevgenyevich_Myasoyedov.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Avvakum_by_Pyotr_Yevgenyevich_Myasoyedov.jpg/495px-Avvakum_by_Pyotr_Yevgenyevich_Myasoyedov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Avvakum_by_Pyotr_Yevgenyevich_Myasoyedov.jpg/660px-Avvakum_by_Pyotr_Yevgenyevich_Myasoyedov.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1404" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>An 1892 painting showing the 1682 burning of <a href="/wiki/Old_Believer" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Believer">Old Believer</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Avvakum" title="Avvakum">Avvakum</a> and others in <a href="/wiki/Pustozersk" title="Pustozersk">Pustozersk</a>, Russia</figcaption></figure> Death by burning is an <a href="/wiki/List_of_execution_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="List of execution methods">execution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> method involving <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> or exposure to extreme heat. It has a long history as a form of public <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a>, and many societies have employed it as a punishment for and warning against crimes such as <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a>. The best-known execution of this type is burning at the stake, where the condemned is bound to a large wooden stake and a fire lit beneath. A holocaust is a religious animal sacrifice that is completely consumed by fire, also known as a burnt offering. The word derives from the ancient Greek holokaustos, the form of sacrifice in which the victim was reduced to ash, as distinguished from an animal sacrifice that resulted in a communal meal. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Effects">edit</a>]</div> In the process of being burned to death, a body experiences burns to tissue, changes in content and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Body_fluid" title="Body fluid">body fluid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fixation_(histology)" title="Fixation (histology)">fixation</a> of tissue, and shrinkage (especially of the skin).<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Internal organs may be shrunken due to fluid loss. Shrinkage and contraction of the muscles may cause joints to flex and the body to adopt the "pugilistic stance" (boxer stance), with the elbows and knees flexed and the fists clenched.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Shrinkage of the skin around the neck may be severe enough to <a href="/wiki/Strangling" title="Strangling">strangle</a> a victim.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Fluid shifts, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a> and in the hollow organs of the <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_cavity" title="Abdominal cavity">abdomen</a>, can cause pseudo-hemorrhages in the form of <a href="/wiki/Epidural_hematoma" title="Epidural hematoma">heat hematomas</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> of the body may be consumed as <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> by a fire. The cause of death is frequently determined by the respiratory tract, where <a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a> or bleeding of <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membranes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucous membranes">mucous membranes</a> and patchy or vesicular detachment of the <a href="/wiki/Mucosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucosa">mucosa</a> may be indicative of inhalation of hot gases. Complete <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">cremation</a> is only achieved under extreme circumstances. The amount of pain experienced is greatest at the beginning of the burning process before the flame burns the <a href="/wiki/Nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerves">nerves</a>, after which the skin does not hurt.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Many victims die quickly from suffocation as hot gases damage the respiratory tract. Those who survive the burning frequently die within days as the <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>' <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveoli</a> fill with fluid and the victim dies of <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_edema" title="Pulmonary edema">pulmonary edema</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_use">Historical use</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical use">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_Near_East">Ancient Near East</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient Near East">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Old_Babylonia">Old Babylonia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Old Babylonia">edit</a>]</div> The 18th-century BCE law code promulgated by <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_King" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian King">Babylonian King</a> <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> specifies several crimes in which death by burning was thought appropriate. Looters of houses on fire could be cast into the flames, and priestesses who abandoned cloisters and began frequenting inns and taverns could also be punished by being burnt alive. Furthermore, a man who began committing <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a> with his mother after the death of his father could be ordered to be burned alive.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ancient Egypt">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, several incidents of burning alive perceived rebels are attested to. <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> (r. 1971–1926 BC) is said to have rounded up the rebels in campaign, and burnt them as human torches. Under the civil war flaring under <a href="/wiki/Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a> more than a thousand years later, the <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Crown Prince Osorkon</a> showed no mercy, and burned several rebels alive.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> On the statute books, at least, women committing adultery might be burned to death. <a href="/wiki/Jon_Manchip_White" title="Jon Manchip White">Jon Manchip White</a>, however, did not think capital judicial punishments were often carried out, pointing to the fact that the <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a> had to personally <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">ratify</a> each verdict.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Professor Susan Redford speculates that after the <a href="/wiki/Harem_conspiracy" title="Harem conspiracy">harem conspiracy</a> in which pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a> was assassinated, the non-nobles who had participated in the plot were burned alive, because the Egyptians believed that without a physical body, one could not enter the afterlife. This would explain why <a href="/wiki/Pentawere" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentawere">Pentawere</a>, the prince whose mother instigated the would-be coup, was most likely strangled or hanged himself; as a royal, he would have been spared this ultimate fate.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Assyria">Assyria</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Assyria">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Assyrian period">Middle Assyrian period</a>, paragraph 40 in a preserved law text concerns the obligatory unveiled face for the professional prostitute, and the concomitant punishment if she violated that by veiling herself (the way wives were to dress in public): <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">A prostitute shall not be veiled. Whoever sees a veiled prostitute shall seize her ... and bring her to the palace entrance. ... they shall pour hot <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">pitch</a> over her head.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></blockquote> For the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrians</a>, mass executions seem to have been not only designed to instill terror and to enforce obedience, but also as proof of their might. Neo-Assyrian King <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> (r. 883–859 BC) was evidently proud enough of his executions that he committed them to monument as follows:<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I cut off their hands, I burned them with fire, a pile of the living men and of heads over against the city gate I set up, men I impaled on stakes, the city I destroyed and devastated, I turned it into mounds and ruin heaps, the young men and the maidens in the fire I burned.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hebraic_tradition">Hebraic tradition</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hebraic tradition">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a> 38, <a href="/wiki/Judah_(biblical_person)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah (biblical person)">Judah</a> orders <a href="/wiki/Tamar_(Genesis)" title="Tamar (Genesis)">Tamar</a>—the widow of his son, living in her father's household—to be burned when she is believed to have become pregnant via extramarital sexual relations. Tamar saves herself by proving that Judah is himself the father of her child. In the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jubilees" title="Book of Jubilees">Book of Jubilees</a>, the same story is told, with some differences. In Genesis, Judah is exercising his patriarchal power at a distance, whereas he and the relatives seem more actively involved in Tamar's impending execution.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Hebraic law</a>, death by burning was prescribed for ten forms of sexual crimes: the imputed crime of Tamar, namely that a married daughter of a priest commits adultery, and nine versions of relationships considered as incestuous, such as having sex with one's own daughter, or granddaughter, but also having sex with one's mother-in-law or with one's wife's daughter.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>, the following manner of burning the criminal is described: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The obligatory procedure for execution by burning: They immersed him in dung up to his knees, rolled a rough cloth into a soft one and wound it about his neck. One pulled it one way, one the other until he opened his mouth. Thereupon one ignites the (lead) wick and throws it in his mouth, and it descends to his bowels and sears his bowels.</blockquote> That is, the person dies from being fed molten lead.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_Rome">Ancient Rome</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ancient Rome">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siemiradski_Fackeln.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Siemiradski_Fackeln.jpg/300px-Siemiradski_Fackeln.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Siemiradski_Fackeln.jpg/450px-Siemiradski_Fackeln.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Siemiradski_Fackeln.jpg/600px-Siemiradski_Fackeln.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2105" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nero%27s_Torches" title="Nero's Torches">Nero's Torches</a></figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Christian_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian legend">Christian legend</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> authorities executed many of the early <a href="/wiki/Martyr#Christianity" title="Martyr">Christian martyrs</a> by burning, including the <a href="/wiki/Military_saint" title="Military saint">warrior saint</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Tiron" title="Theodore Tiron">Theodore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a>, the earliest recorded martyr.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Sometimes Roman immolation was carried out using the <a href="/wiki/Tunica_molesta" title="Tunica molesta">tunica molesta</a>,<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> a flammable tunic:<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... the Christian, stripped naked, was forced to put on a garment called the tunica molesta, made of papyrus, smeared on both sides with wax, and was then fastened to a high pole, from the top of which they continued to pour down burning pitch and lard, a spike fastened under the chin preventing the excruciated victim from turning the head to either side, so as to escape the liquid fire, until the whole body, and every part of it, was literally clad and cased in flame.</blockquote> In 326, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> promulgated a law that increased the penalties for parentally non-sanctioned "abduction" of their girls, and concomitant sexual intercourse/rape. The man would be burnt alive without the possibility of appeal, and the girl would receive the same treatment if she had participated willingly. Nurses who had corrupted their female wards and led them to sexual encounters would have molten lead poured down their throats.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In the same year, Constantine also passed a law that said if a woman had sexual relations with her own slave, both would be subjected to capital punishment, the slave by burning (if the slave himself reported the offense—presumably having been raped—he was to be set free).<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In 390 AD, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius</a> issued an edict against <a href="/wiki/Male_prostitute" class="mw-redirect" title="Male prostitute">male prostitutes</a> and brothels offering such services; those found guilty should be burned alive.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In the 6th-century collection of the sayings and rulings of the pre-eminent jurists from earlier ages, the <a href="/wiki/Digest_(Roman_law)" title="Digest (Roman law)">Digest</a>, a number of crimes are regarded as punishable by death by burning. The 3rd-century jurist <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a> said that enemies of the state and deserters to the enemy were to be burned alive. His rough contemporary, the juristical writer <a href="/wiki/Callistratus_(jurist)" title="Callistratus (jurist)">Callistratus</a>, mentions that arsonists are typically burnt, as well as slaves who have conspired against the well-being of their masters (this last also, on occasion, being meted out to free persons of "low rank").<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The punishment of burning alive arsonists (and traitors) seems to have been particularly ancient; it was included in the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a>, a mid-5th-century BC law code, that is, about 700 years prior to the times of Ulpian and Callistratus.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ritual_child_sacrifice_in_Carthage">Ritual child sacrifice in Carthage</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ritual child sacrifice in Carthage">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tophet" title="Tophet">Tophet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moloch" title="Moloch">Moloch</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bardo_National_Museum_tanit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bardo_National_Museum_tanit.jpg/100px-Bardo_National_Museum_tanit.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bardo_National_Museum_tanit.jpg/150px-Bardo_National_Museum_tanit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bardo_National_Museum_tanit.jpg/200px-Bardo_National_Museum_tanit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4288" /></a><figcaption>Tanit with a lion's head</figcaption></figure> Beginning in the early 3rd century BC, Greek and Roman writers commented on the purported institutionalized <a href="/wiki/Child_sacrifice" title="Child sacrifice">child sacrifice</a> the North African <a href="/wiki/Carthaginians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginians">Carthaginians</a> are said to have performed in honour of the gods <a href="/wiki/Baal_Hammon" title="Baal Hammon">Baal Hammon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tanit" title="Tanit">Tanit</a>. The earliest writer, <a href="/wiki/Cleitarchus" title="Cleitarchus">Cleitarchus</a>, is among the most explicit. He says live infants were placed in the arms of a bronze statue, the statue's hands over a brazier, so that the infant slowly rolled into the fire. As it did so, the limbs of the infant contracted and the face was distorted into a sort of laughing grimace, hence called "the act of laughing". Other, later authors such as <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> say the throats of the infants were generally cut before they were placed in the statue's embrace<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> In the vicinity of ancient Carthage, large scale graveyards containing the incinerated remains of infants, typically up to the age of 3, have been found; such graves are called "tophets". However, some scholars have argued that these findings are not evidence of systematic child sacrifice, and that estimated figures of ancient natural infant mortality (with cremation afterwards and reverent separate burial) might be the real historical basis behind the hostile reporting from non-Carthaginians. A late charge of the imputed sacrifice is found by the North African bishop <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, who says that child sacrifices were still carried out, in secret, in the countryside at his time, 3rd century AD.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Celtic_traditions">Celtic traditions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Celtic traditions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Wicker_Man_of_the_Druids_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Wicker_Man_of_the_Druids_crop.jpg/267px-The_Wicker_Man_of_the_Druids_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Wicker_Man_of_the_Druids_crop.jpg/401px-The_Wicker_Man_of_the_Druids_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_Wicker_Man_of_the_Druids_crop.jpg/534px-The_Wicker_Man_of_the_Druids_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1755" data-file-height="1996" /></a><figcaption>An 18th-century illustration of a wicker man. Engraving from A Tour in Wales written by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pennant" title="Thomas Pennant">Thomas Pennant</a></figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, the ancient <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> practised the burning alive of humans in a number of settings. In Book 6, chapter 16, he writes of the <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidic</a> sacrifice of criminals within huge <a href="/wiki/Wicker_man" title="Wicker man">wicker frames shaped as men</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Others have figures of vast size, the limbs of which formed of <a href="/wiki/Salix_viminalis" title="Salix viminalis">osiers</a> they fill with living men, which being set on fire, the men perish enveloped in the flames. They consider that the <a href="/wiki/Oblation" title="Oblation">oblation</a> of such as have been taken in theft, or in robbery, or any other offence, is more acceptable to the immortal gods; but when a supply of that class is wanting, they have recourse to the oblation of even the innocent.</blockquote> Slightly later, in Book 6, chapter 19, Caesar also says the Celts perform, on the occasion of death of great men, the funeral sacrifice on the pyre of living slaves and dependents ascertained to have been "beloved by them". Earlier on, in Book 1, chapter 4, he relates of the conspiracy of the nobleman <a href="/wiki/Orgetorix" title="Orgetorix">Orgetorix</a>, charged by the Celts for having planned a coup d'état, for which the customary penalty would be burning to death. It is said Orgetorix committed suicide to avoid that fate.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Baltic">Baltic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Baltic">edit</a>]</div> Throughout the 12th–14th centuries, a number of non-Christian peoples living around the Eastern <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Old_Prussians" title="Old Prussians">Old Prussians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithuanians" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanians</a>, were charged by Christian writers with performing human sacrifice. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_IX" title="Pope Gregory IX">Pope Gregory IX</a> issued a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> denouncing an alleged practice among the Prussians, that girls were dressed in fresh flowers and wreaths and were then burned alive as offerings to evil spirits.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_states">Christian states</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Christian states">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Filip2_albigensti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Filip2_albigensti.jpg/220px-Filip2_albigensti.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Filip2_albigensti.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="278" /></a><figcaption>The burning of the <a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathar</a> heretics</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eastern_Roman_Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Eastern Roman Empire">edit</a>]</div> Under 6th-century Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>, the death penalty had been decreed for impenitent <a href="/wiki/Manicheans" class="mw-redirect" title="Manicheans">Manicheans</a>, but a specific punishment was not made explicit. By the 7th century, however, those found guilty of "dualist heresy" could risk being burned at the stake.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Those found guilty of performing magical rites, and corrupting sacred objects in the process, might face death by burning, as evidenced in a 7th-century case.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In the 10th century AD, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> instituted death by burning for <a href="/wiki/Parricides" class="mw-redirect" title="Parricides">parricides</a>, i.e. those who had killed their own relatives, replacing the older punishment of <a href="/wiki/Poena_cullei" title="Poena cullei">poena cullei</a>, the stuffing of the convict into a leather sack, along with a rooster, a viper, a dog and a monkey, and then throwing the sack into the sea.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval_Inquisition_and_the_burning_of_heretics">Medieval Inquisition and the burning of heretics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Medieval Inquisition and the burning of heretics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Templars_Burning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Templars_Burning.jpg/220px-Templars_Burning.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Templars_Burning.jpg/330px-Templars_Burning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Templars_Burning.jpg/440px-Templars_Burning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="952" data-file-height="956" /></a><figcaption>Burning of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a>, 1314</figcaption></figure> The first recorded case of heretics being burnt in Western Europe in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> occurred in 1022 at <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Orléans">Orléans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Civil authorities burned persons judged to be <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretics</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a>. Burning heretics had become customary practice in the latter half of the twelfth century in continental Europe, and death by burning became statutory punishment from the early 13th century. Death by burning for heretics was made positive law by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Aragon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedro II of Aragon">Pedro II of Aragon</a> in 1197. In 1224, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, made burning a legal alternative, and in 1238, it became the principal punishment in the Empire. In <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, the punishment was made law in 1231. In England at the start of the 15th century, the teachings of <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lollards" class="mw-redirect" title="Lollards">Lollards</a> began to be seen as a threat to the establishment, and draconic punishments were enacted. In 1401, Parliament passed the <a href="/wiki/De_heretico_comburendo" title="De heretico comburendo">De heretico comburendo</a> act, which can be loosely translated as "Regarding the burning of heretics." Lollard persecution would continue for over a hundred years in England. The <a href="/wiki/Fire_and_Faggot_Parliament" title="Fire and Faggot Parliament">Fire and Faggot Parliament</a> met in May 1414 at <a href="/wiki/Grey_Friars_Priory" class="mw-redirect" title="Grey Friars Priory">Grey Friars Priory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Leicester" title="Leicester">Leicester</a> to lay out the notorious <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_Heresy_Act_1414" title="Suppression of Heresy Act 1414">Suppression of Heresy Act 1414</a>, enabling the burning of heretics by making the crime enforceable by the <a href="/wiki/Justices_of_the_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Justices of the peace">justices of the peace</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Oldcastle" title="John Oldcastle">John Oldcastle</a>, a prominent Lollard leader, was not saved from the gallows by his old friend King <a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V</a>. Oldcastle was hanged and his gallows burned in 1417. <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> was burned at the stake after being accused at the Roman Catholic <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a> (1414–18) of heresy. The council also decreed that the remains of <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a>, dead for 30 years, should be exhumed and burned. This <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_execution" title="Posthumous execution">posthumous execution</a> was carried out in 1428. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Burnings_of_Jews">Burnings of Jews</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Burnings of Jews">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doutielt1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Doutielt1.jpg/220px-Doutielt1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Doutielt1.jpg/330px-Doutielt1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Doutielt1.jpg/440px-Doutielt1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1473" data-file-height="1001" /></a><figcaption>Representation of a massacre of the Jews in the 1349 Anti-Jew riots, that was justified by allegations that Jews were behind the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death Epidemic</a>. Antiquitates Flandriae (<a href="/wiki/Royal_Library_of_Belgium" title="Royal Library of Belgium">Royal Library of Belgium</a> manuscript 1376/77).</figcaption></figure> Several incidents are recorded of massacres on <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> from the 12th through 16th centuries in which they were burned alive, often on account of the <a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">blood libel</a>. In 1171 in <a href="/wiki/Blois" title="Blois">Blois</a>, 51 Jews were burned alive (the entire adult community). In 1191, King <a href="/wiki/Philip_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Augustus">Philip Augustus</a> ordered around 100 Jews burnt alive.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> That Jews purportedly performed <a href="/wiki/Host_desecration" title="Host desecration">host desecration</a> also led to mass burnings; In 1243 in <a href="/wiki/Beelitz" title="Beelitz">Beelitz</a>, the entire Jewish community was burnt alive, and in 1510 in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, 26 Jews were burnt alive for the same crime.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> During the "<a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>" in the mid-14th century a spate of large-scale <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death" title="Persecution of Jews during the Black Death">massacres</a> occurred. One libel was that the Jews had <a href="/wiki/Well_poisoning" title="Well poisoning">poisoned the wells</a>. In 1349, as panic grew along with the increasing death toll from the plague, general massacres, but also specifically mass burnings, began to occur. Six hundred Jews were burnt alive in <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a> alone. A large mass burning occurred in <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, where several hundred Jews were burnt alive in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg_massacre" title="Strasbourg massacre">Strasbourg massacre</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> A Jewish man, Johannes Pfefferkorn, met a particularly gruesome death in 1514 in <a href="/wiki/Halle_(Saale)" title="Halle (Saale)">Halle</a>. He had been accused of having impersonated a priest for twenty years, performing <a href="/wiki/Host_desecration" title="Host desecration">host desecration</a>, stealing Christian children to be tortured and killed by other Jews, poisoning 13 people and poisoning wells. He was lashed to a pillar in such a way that he could run about it. Then, a ring of glowing coal was made around him, and gradually pushed ever closer to him, until he was roasted to death.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lepers'_Plot_of_1321">Lepers' Plot of 1321</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lepers' Plot of 1321">edit</a>]</div> Not only Jews could be victims of mass hysteria. The charge of well-poisoning was the basis for a <a href="/wiki/1321_lepers%27_plot" title="1321 lepers' plot">large-scale hunt of lepers in 1321 France</a>. In the spring of 1321, in <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A9rigueux" title="Périgueux">Périgueux</a>, people became convinced that the local lepers had poisoned the wells, causing ill-health among the normal populace. The lepers were rounded up and burned alive. The action against the lepers had repercussions throughout France, not least because King <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_France" title="Philip V of France">Philip V</a> issued an order to arrest all lepers, those found guilty to be burnt alive. Jews became tangentially included as well; at <a href="/wiki/Chinon" title="Chinon">Chinon</a> alone, 160 Jews were burnt alive.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> All in all, around 5,000 lepers and Jews are recorded in one tradition to have been killed during the Lepers' Plot hysteria.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The charge of the lepers' plot was not wholly confined to France; extant records from England show that on <a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a> the same year, at least one family of lepers was burnt alive for having poisoned others.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spanish_Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Spanish Inquisition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Auto-da-f%C3%A9" title="Auto-da-fé">Auto-da-fé</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anneken_Hendriks,_Dam,_Amsterdam,_by_Jan_Luyken.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Anneken_Hendriks%2C_Dam%2C_Amsterdam%2C_by_Jan_Luyken.jpg/220px-Anneken_Hendriks%2C_Dam%2C_Amsterdam%2C_by_Jan_Luyken.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Anneken_Hendriks%2C_Dam%2C_Amsterdam%2C_by_Jan_Luyken.jpg/330px-Anneken_Hendriks%2C_Dam%2C_Amsterdam%2C_by_Jan_Luyken.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Anneken_Hendriks%2C_Dam%2C_Amsterdam%2C_by_Jan_Luyken.jpg/440px-Anneken_Hendriks%2C_Dam%2C_Amsterdam%2C_by_Jan_Luyken.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1752" data-file-height="1478" /></a><figcaption>The burning of a 16th-century Dutch <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptist">Anabaptist</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anneken_Hendriks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anneken Hendriks (page does not exist)">Anneken Hendriks</a>, who was charged with heresy</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> was established in 1478, with the aim of preserving Catholic orthodoxy; some of its principal targets were "<a href="/wiki/Marranos" class="mw-redirect" title="Marranos">Marranos</a>", formally converted Jews thought to have relapsed into <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Moriscos" class="mw-redirect" title="Moriscos">Moriscos</a>, formally converted Muslims thought to have relapsed into <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. The public executions of the Spanish Inquisition were called <a href="/wiki/Autos-da-f%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Autos-da-fé">autos-da-fé</a>; convicts were "released" (handed over) to secular authorities in order to be burnt. Estimates of how many were executed on behest of the Spanish Inquisition have been offered from early on; historian <a href="/wiki/Hernando_del_Pulgar" title="Hernando del Pulgar">Hernando del Pulgar</a> (1436–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1492) estimated that 2,000 people were burned at the stake between 1478 and 1490.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Estimates ranging from 30,000 to 50,000 burnt at the stake (alive or not) at the behest of the Spanish Inquisition during its 300 years of activity have previously been given and are still to be found in popular books.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In February 1481, in what is said to be the first auto-da-fé, six Marranos were burnt alive in <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>. In November 1481, 298 Marranos were burnt publicly at the same place, their property confiscated by the Church.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Not all Marranos executed by being burnt at the stake seem to have been burnt alive. If the Jew confessed his heresy, the Church would show mercy, and he would be strangled prior to the burning. Autos-da-fé against Marranos extended beyond the Spanish heartland. In Sicily, in 1511–15, 79 were burnt at the stake, while from 1511 to 1560, 441 Marranos were condemned to be burned alive.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> In Spanish American colonies, autos-da-fé were held as well. In 1664, a man and his wife were burned alive in <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a>, and in 1699, a Jew was burnt alive in <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> In 1535, five Moriscos were burned at the stake on <a href="/wiki/Majorca" class="mw-redirect" title="Majorca">Majorca</a>; the images of a further four were also burnt in <a href="/wiki/Effigy" title="Effigy">effigy</a>, since the actual individuals had managed to flee. During the 1540s, some 232 Moriscos were paraded in autos-da-fé in <a href="/wiki/Zaragoza" title="Zaragoza">Zaragoza</a>; five of those were burnt at the stake.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The claim that out of 917 Moriscos appearing in autos of the Inquisition in <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a> between 1550 and 1595, just 20 were executed<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> seems at odds with the English government's state papers which claim that, while at war with Spain, they received a report from Seville of 17 June 1593 that over 70 of the richest men of Granada were burnt.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> As late as 1728 as many as 45 Moriscos were recorded as having been burned for heresy.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In the May 1691 "bonfire of the Jews", Rafael Valls, Rafael Benito Terongi and <a href="/wiki/Caterina_Tarong%C3%AD" title="Caterina Tarongí">Catalina Terongi</a> were burned alive.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Portuguese_Inquisition_at_Goa">Portuguese Inquisition at Goa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Portuguese Inquisition at Goa">edit</a>]</div> In 1560, the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a> opened offices in the Indian colony <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a>. Its aim was to protect Catholic orthodoxy among new converts to Christianity, and retain its hold on the old, particularly against "Judaizing" deviancy. From the 17th century, Europeans were shocked at the tales of how brutal and extensive the activities of the Inquisition were.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Modern scholars have established that some 4,046 individuals in the time 1560–1773 received some sort of punishment from the Portuguese Inquisition, of whom 121 persons were condemned to be burned alive; 57 actually suffered that fate, while the rest escaped it, and were burnt in effigy instead.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> For the Portuguese Inquisition in total, not just at Goa, modern estimates of persons actually executed on its behest is about 1,200, whether burnt alive or not.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Crimes_against_nature"">"Crimes against nature"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: "Crimes against nature"">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burning_of_Sodomites.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.jpg/220px-Burning_of_Sodomites.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.jpg/330px-Burning_of_Sodomites.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.jpg/440px-Burning_of_Sodomites.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1198" data-file-height="1462" /></a><figcaption>Burning of two <a href="/wiki/Homosexuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexuals">homosexuals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Puller_von_Hohenburg" title="Richard Puller von Hohenburg">Richard Puller von Hohenburg</a> and Anton Mätzler, at the stake outside <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a>, 1482 (<a href="/wiki/Spiezer_Schilling" title="Spiezer Schilling">Spiezer Schilling</a>)</figcaption></figure> From the 12th to the 18th centuries, various European authorities legislated (and held judicial proceedings) against sexual crimes such as <a href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">sodomy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bestiality" class="mw-redirect" title="Bestiality">bestiality</a>; often, the prescribed punishment was that of death by burning. Many scholars think that the first time death by burning appeared within explicit codes of law for the crime of sodomy was at the ecclesiastical 1120 <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Nablus" title="Council of Nablus">Council of Nablus</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">crusader</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>. Here, if public repentance were done, the death penalty might be avoided.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In Spain, the earliest records for executions for the crime of sodomy are from the 13th to 14th centuries, and it is noted there that the preferred mode of execution was death by burning. The Partidas of King <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X_of_Castile" title="Alfonso X of Castile">Alfonso "El Sabio"</a> condemned sodomites to be castrated and hung upside down to die from the bleeding, following the Old Testament phrase "their blood shall be upon them".<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> At <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, the first recorded burning of sodomites occurred in 1555, and up to 1678, some two dozen met the same fate. In <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, the first burning took place in 1492, and a monk was burnt as late as 1771.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The last case in France where two men were condemned by court to be burned alive for engaging in consensual homosexual sex was in 1750 (although, it seems, they were actually strangled prior to being burned). The last case in France where a man was condemned to be burned for a murderous rape of a boy occurred in 1784.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Crackdowns and the public burning of a homosexual couple sometimes led others to flee out of fear of a similar fate. The traveller <a href="/wiki/William_Lithgow_(traveller_and_author)" title="William Lithgow (traveller and author)">William Lithgow</a> witnessed such a dynamic when he visited <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> in 1616 :<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The fifth day of my staying here, I saw a Spanish soldier and a Maltezen boy burnt in ashes, for the public profession of sodomy; and long before night, there were above an hundred bardassoes, whorish boys, that fled away to Sicily in a galliot, for fear of fire; but never one bugeron stirred, being few or none there free of it.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></blockquote> In 1409 and 1532 in <a href="/wiki/Augsburg" title="Augsburg">Augsburg</a> two <a href="/wiki/Pederasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Pederasts">pederasts</a> were burned alive for their offenses.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Penal_code_of_Charles_V">Penal code of Charles V</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Penal code of Charles V">edit</a>]</div> In 1532, Holy Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> promulgated his penal code <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Criminalis_Carolina" title="Constitutio Criminalis Carolina">Constitutio Criminalis Carolina</a>. A number of crimes were punishable with death by burning, such as coin <a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">forgery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">arson</a>, and sexual acts "contrary to nature".<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Also, those guilty of aggravated theft of sacred objects from a church could be condemned to be burnt alive.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Only those found guilty of malevolent witchcraft<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> could be punished by death by fire.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Witches_and_heretics">Witches and heretics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Witches and heretics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wickiana5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Wickiana5.jpg/220px-Wickiana5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Wickiana5.jpg/330px-Wickiana5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Wickiana5.jpg/440px-Wickiana5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption>Burning of three witches in <a href="/wiki/Baden,_Switzerland" title="Baden, Switzerland">Baden</a> (1585), from the <a href="/wiki/Wickiana" title="Wickiana">Wickiana</a> Collection</figcaption></figure> Burning was used during the <a href="/wiki/Witch-hunt#Early_Modern_Europe_and_Colonial_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch-hunt">witch-hunts of Europe</a>, although hanging was the preferred style of execution in England and Wales. The penal code known as the <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Criminalis_Carolina" title="Constitutio Criminalis Carolina">Constitutio Criminalis Carolina</a> (1532) decreed that sorcery throughout the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> should be treated as a criminal offence, and if it purported to inflict injury upon any person the witch was to be burnt at the stake. In 1572, <a href="/wiki/Augustus,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Augustus, Elector of Saxony">Augustus, Elector of Saxony</a> imposed the penalty of burning for witchcraft of every kind, including simple <a href="/wiki/Fortunetelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortunetelling">fortunetelling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> From the latter half of the 18th century, the number of "<a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Witch trials in the early modern period">nine million witches</a> burned in Europe" has been bandied about in popular accounts and media, but has never had a following among specialist researchers.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Today, based on meticulous study of trial records, ecclesiastical and inquisitorial registers and so on, as well as on the utilization of modern statistical methods, the specialist research community on witchcraft has reached an agreement for roughly 40,000–50,000 people executed for witchcraft in Europe in total, and by no means all of them executed by being burned alive. Furthermore, it is solidly established that the peak period of witch-hunts was the century 1550–1650, with a slow increase preceding it, from the 15th century onward, as well as a sharp drop following it, with "witch-hunts" having basically fizzled out by the first half of the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/220px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/330px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/440px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1943" data-file-height="2953" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> burnt at the stake</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stilke_Hermann_Anton_-_Joan_of_Arc%27s_Death_at_the_Stake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Stilke_Hermann_Anton_-_Joan_of_Arc%27s_Death_at_the_Stake.jpg/170px-Stilke_Hermann_Anton_-_Joan_of_Arc%27s_Death_at_the_Stake.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Stilke_Hermann_Anton_-_Joan_of_Arc%27s_Death_at_the_Stake.jpg/255px-Stilke_Hermann_Anton_-_Joan_of_Arc%27s_Death_at_the_Stake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Stilke_Hermann_Anton_-_Joan_of_Arc%27s_Death_at_the_Stake.jpg/340px-Stilke_Hermann_Anton_-_Joan_of_Arc%27s_Death_at_the_Stake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1341" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Joan of Arc's Death at the Stake, by <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Stilke" title="Hermann Stilke">Hermann Stilke</a> (1843)</figcaption></figure> Notable individuals executed by burning include <a href="/wiki/Jacques_de_Molay" title="Jacques de Molay">Jacques de Molay</a> (1314),<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> (1415),<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> (1431),<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola" title="Girolamo Savonarola">Girolamo Savonarola</a> (1498),<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Hamilton_(martyr)" title="Patrick Hamilton (martyr)">Patrick Hamilton</a> (1528),<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Frith_(martyr)" title="John Frith (martyr)">John Frith</a> (1533),<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Tyndale" title="William Tyndale">William Tyndale</a> (1536), <a href="/wiki/Michael_Servetus" title="Michael Servetus">Michael Servetus</a> (1553),<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a> (1600),<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Urbain_Grandier" title="Urbain Grandier">Urbain Grandier</a> (1634),<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avvakum" title="Avvakum">Avvakum</a> (1682).<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Anglican martyrs <a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Bible_editor_and_martyr)" title="John Rogers (Bible editor and martyr)">John Rogers</a>,<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Latimer" title="Hugh Latimer">Hugh Latimer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Ridley_(martyr)" title="Nicholas Ridley (martyr)">Nicholas Ridley</a> were burned at the stake in 1555.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a> followed the next year (1556).<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Denmark">Denmark</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Denmark">edit</a>]</div> In Denmark, after the 1536 <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark" title="Christian IV of Denmark">Christian IV of Denmark</a> (r. 1588–1648) encouraged the practice of burning witches, in particular by the law against witchcraft in 1617. In <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a>, the mainland part of Denmark, more than half the recorded cases of witchcraft in the 16th and 17th centuries occurred after 1617. Rough estimates says about a thousand persons were executed due to convictions for <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a> in the 1500–1600s, but it is not wholly clear if all of the transgressors were burned to death.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="England">England</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: England">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Mary_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary I">Mary I</a> ordered hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> burnt at the stake during her reign (1553–58) in what would be known as the "<a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_martyrs_of_the_English_Reformation#List_of_Marian_Martyrs" title="List of Protestant martyrs of the English Reformation">Marian Persecutions</a>" earning her the epithet of "Bloody" Mary.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Many of those executed by Mary are listed in <a href="/wiki/Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs" title="Foxe's Book of Martyrs">Actes and Monuments</a>, written by <a href="/wiki/John_Foxe" title="John Foxe">Foxe</a> in 1563 and 1570. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Wightman" title="Edward Wightman">Edward Wightman</a>, a radical Anabaptist from <a href="/wiki/Burton_on_Trent" class="mw-redirect" title="Burton on Trent">Burton on Trent</a>, who publicly denied the Trinity and the divinity of Christ was the last person burned at the stake for <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a> in England in <a href="/wiki/Lichfield" title="Lichfield">Lichfield, Staffordshire</a> on 11 April 1612.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Although cases can be found of burning heretics in the 16th and 17th centuries in England, that penalty for heretics was historically relatively new. It did not exist in 14th-century England, and when the bishops in England petitioned King <a href="/wiki/Richard_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard II">Richard II</a> to institute death by burning for heretics in 1397, he flatly refused, and no one was burnt for heresy during his reign.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Just one year after his death, however, in 1401, <a href="/wiki/William_Sawtrey" title="William Sawtrey">William Sawtrey</a> was burnt alive for heresy.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Death by burning for heresy was formally abolished by Parliament during the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> in 1676.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> The traditional punishment for women found guilty of treason was to be <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_women_in_England" title="Burning of women in England">burned at the stake</a>, where they did not need to be publicly displayed naked, whereas men were <a href="/wiki/Hanged,_drawn_and_quartered" title="Hanged, drawn and quartered">hanged, drawn and quartered</a>. The jurist <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a> argued as follows for the different punishments for females and males: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">For as the decency due to sex forbids the exposing and public mangling of their bodies, their sentence (which is to the full as terrible to sensation as the other) is to be drawn to the gallows and there be burned alive<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></blockquote> However, as described in Camille Naish's "Death Comes to the Maiden", in practice, the woman's clothing would burn away at the beginning, and she would be left naked anyway.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] There were two types of treason: <a href="/wiki/High_treason" class="mw-redirect" title="High treason">high treason</a>, for crimes against the sovereign; and <a href="/wiki/Petty_treason" title="Petty treason">petty treason</a>, for the murder of one's lawful superior, including that of a husband by his wife. Commenting on the 18th-century execution practice, Frank McLynn says that most convicts condemned to burning were not burnt alive, and that the executioners made sure the women were dead before consigning them to the flames.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The last person condemned to death for "petty treason" was Mary Bailey, whose body was burned in 1784. The last woman to be convicted for "high treason", and have her body burnt, in this case for the crime of coin forgery, was <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Murphy_(counterfeiter)" title="Catherine Murphy (counterfeiter)">Catherine Murphy</a> in 1789.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The last case where a woman was actually burnt alive in England is that of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Hayes_(murderer)" title="Catherine Hayes (murderer)">Catherine Hayes</a> in 1726, for the murder of her husband. In this case, one account says this happened because the executioner accidentally set fire to the pyre before he had hanged Hayes properly.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Rictor_Norton" title="Rictor Norton">Rictor Norton</a> has assembled a number of contemporary newspaper reports on the actual death of Mrs. Hayes, internally somewhat divergent. The following excerpt is one example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The fuel being placed round her, and lighted with a torch, she begg'd for the sake of Jesus, to be strangled first: whereupon the Executioner drew tight the halter, but the flame coming to his hand in the space of a second, he let it go, when she gave three dreadful shrieks; but the flames taking her on all sides, she was heard no more; and the Executioner throwing a piece of timber into the Fire, it broke her skull, when her brains came plentifully out; and in about an hour more she was entirely reduced to ashes.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scotland">Scotland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Scotland">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="James VI of Scotland">James VI of Scotland</a> (later James I of England) shared the Danish king's interest in witch trials. This special interest of the king resulted in the <a href="/wiki/North_Berwick_witch_trials" title="North Berwick witch trials">North Berwick witch trials</a>, which led more than seventy people to be accused of witchcraft. James sailed in 1590 to Denmark to meet his betrothed, <a href="/wiki/Anne_of_Denmark" title="Anne of Denmark">Anne of Denmark</a>, who, ironically, is believed by some to have secretly converted to Roman Catholicism herself from <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a> around 1598, although historians are divided on whether she ever was received into the Roman Catholic faith.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The last to be executed as a witch in Scotland was <a href="/wiki/Janet_Horne" title="Janet Horne">Janet Horne</a> in 1727, condemned to death for using her own daughter as a flying horse in order to travel. Horne was burnt alive in a tar barrel.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ireland">Ireland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Ireland">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Petronilla_de_Meath" title="Petronilla de Meath">Petronilla de Meath</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1300–1324) was the maidservant of Dame <a href="/wiki/Alice_Kyteler" title="Alice Kyteler">Alice Kyteler</a>, a 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Norman" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiberno-Norman">Hiberno-Norman</a> noblewoman. After the death of Kyteler's fourth husband, the widow was accused of practicing <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a> and Petronilla of being her accomplice. Petronilla was tortured and forced to proclaim that she and Kyteler were guilty of witchcraft. Petronilla was then flogged and eventually burnt at the stake on 3 November 1324, in <a href="/wiki/Kilkenny" title="Kilkenny">Kilkenny</a>, Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-:1-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Hers was the first known case in the history of the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> of death by fire for the crime of <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>. Kyteler was charged by the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Ossory" title="Bishop of Ossory">Bishop of Ossory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_de_Ledrede" title="Richard de Ledrede">Richard de Ledrede</a>, with a wide slate of crimes, from <a href="/wiki/Magic_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic (paranormal)">sorcery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonism">demonism</a> to the murders of several husbands. She was accused of having illegally acquired her wealth through <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a>, which accusations came principally from her stepchildren, the children of her late husbands by their previous marriages. The trial predated any formal witchcraft statute in Ireland, thus relying on <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesiastical law">ecclesiastical law</a> (which treated witchcraft as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>) rather than <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> (which treated it as a <a href="/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">felony</a>). Under torture, Petronilla claimed she and her mistress applied a magical ointment to a wooden beam, which enabled both women to fly. She was then forced to proclaim publicly that Lady Alice and her followers were guilty of witchcraft.<a href="#cite_note-:1-89">[89]</a> Some were convicted and whipped, but others, Petronilla included, were burnt at the stake. With the help of relatives, Alice Kyteler fled, taking with her Petronilla's daughter, Basilia.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> In 1327 or 1328, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Duff_O%27Toole" title="Adam Duff O'Toole">Adam Duff O'Toole</a> was burned at the stake in Dublin for <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a> after branding <a href="/wiki/Christian_scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian scripture">Christian scripture</a> a fable and denying the <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">resurrection of Jesus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The brothel madam <a href="/wiki/Darkey_Kelly" title="Darkey Kelly">Darkey Kelly</a> was convicted of murdering shoemaker John Dowling in 1760 and burned at the stake in Dublin on 7 January 1761. Later legends claimed that she was a <a href="/wiki/Serial_killer" title="Serial killer">serial killer</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Witch" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch">witch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> In 1895, <a href="/wiki/Bridget_Cleary" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridget Cleary">Bridget Cleary</a> (née Boland), a <a href="/wiki/County_Tipperary" title="County Tipperary">County Tipperary</a> woman, was burnt by her husband and others, the stated motive for the crime being the belief that the real Bridget had been abducted by <a href="/wiki/Fairy" title="Fairy">fairies</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Changeling" title="Changeling">changeling</a> left in her place. Her husband claimed to have slain only the changeling. The gruesome nature of the case prompted extensive press coverage. The trial was closely followed by newspapers in both Ireland and Britain.<a href="#cite_note-McCullough-NYT-98">[98]</a> As one reviewer commented, nobody, with the possible exception of the presiding judge, thought it was an ordinary murder case.<a href="#cite_note-McCullough-NYT-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greece">Greece</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Greece">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a> in the 1820s contained several instances of death by burning. When the Greeks in April 1821 captured a <a href="/wiki/Corvette" title="Corvette">corvette</a> near <a href="/wiki/Hydra_(island)" title="Hydra (island)">Hydra</a>, the Greeks chose to roast to death the 57 <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> crew members. After the fall of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tripolitsa" title="Siege of Tripolitsa">Tripolitsa</a> in September 1821, European officers were horrified to note that not only were Muslims suspected of hiding money being slowly roasted after having had their arms and legs cut off but also, in one instance, three Muslim children were roasted over a fire while their parents were forced to watch. On their part, the Ottomans committed many similar acts. In retaliation they gathered up Greeks in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, throwing several of them into huge ovens, baking them to death.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Last_judicial_burnings">Last judicial burnings</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Last judicial burnings">edit</a>]</div> According to the jurist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eduard_Osenbr%C3%BCggen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eduard Osenbrüggen (page does not exist)">Eduard Osenbrüggen</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Osenbr%C3%BCggen" class="extiw" title="de:Eduard Osenbrüggen">de</a>], the last case he knew of where a person had been judicially burned alive on account of arson in Germany happened in 1804, in <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B6tzelsroda" class="extiw" title="de:Hötzelsroda">Hötzelsroda</a>, close by <a href="/wiki/Eisenach" title="Eisenach">Eisenach</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The manner in which Johannes Thomas<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> was executed on 13 July that year is described as follows: Some feet above the actual pyre, attached to a stake, a wooden chamber had been constructed, into which the delinquent was placed. Pipes or chimneys filled with sulphuric material led up to the chamber, and that was first lit, so that Thomas died from inhaling the sulphuric smoke, rather than being strictly burnt alive, before his body was consumed by the general fire. Some 20,000 people had gathered to watch Thomas' execution.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Although Thomas is regarded as the last to have been actually executed by means of fire (in this case, through suffocation), the couple Johann Christoph Peter Horst and his lover <a href="/wiki/Friederike_Luise_Delitz" title="Friederike Luise Delitz">Friederike Louise Christiane Delitz</a>, who had made a career of robberies in the confusion made by their acts of arson, were condemned to be burnt alive in Berlin 28 May 1813. They were, however, according to <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Gustav Radbruch</a>, secretly strangled just prior to being burnt, namely when their arms and legs were tied fast to the stake.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Although these two cases are the last where execution by burning might be said to have been carried out in some degree, Eduard Osenbrüggen mentions that verdicts to be burned alive were given in several cases in different German states afterwards, such as in cases from 1814, 1821, 1823, 1829 and finally in a case from 1835.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_Americas">Colonial Americas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Colonial Americas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Execution_of_Mariana_de_Carabajal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Execution_of_Mariana_de_Carabajal.jpg/220px-Execution_of_Mariana_de_Carabajal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Execution_of_Mariana_de_Carabajal.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption>Execution of <a href="/wiki/Francisca_Nu%C3%B1ez_de_Carabajal" title="Francisca Nuñez de Carabajal">Mariana de Carabajal</a> (converted Jew), <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>, 1601</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_America">North America</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Modocs_Scalping_and_Torturing_Prisoners.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Modocs_Scalping_and_Torturing_Prisoners.jpg/220px-Modocs_Scalping_and_Torturing_Prisoners.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Modocs_Scalping_and_Torturing_Prisoners.jpg/330px-Modocs_Scalping_and_Torturing_Prisoners.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Modocs_Scalping_and_Torturing_Prisoners.jpg/440px-Modocs_Scalping_and_Torturing_Prisoners.jpg 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="1028" /></a><figcaption>Native Americans scalping and roasting their prisoners, published in 1873</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous</a> North Americans often used burning as a form of execution, against members of other tribes or white settlers during the 18th and 19th centuries. Roasting over a slow fire was a customary method.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> (See <a href="/wiki/Captives_in_American_Indian_Wars" title="Captives in American Indian Wars">Captives in American Indian Wars</a>.) In <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, there are two known cases of burning at the stake. First, in 1681, an <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_British_America" title="Slavery in British America">enslaved woman</a> named Maria was accused of trying to kill her enslaver by setting his house on fire. She was convicted of arson and burned at the stake in <a href="/wiki/Roxbury,_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Roxbury, Massachusetts">Roxbury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Maria,_Burned_at_the_Stake-106">[106]</a> Concurrently, an enslaved man named Jack, convicted in a separate arson case, was hanged at a nearby gallows, and after death his body was thrown into the fire with that of Maria. Second, in 1755, a group of enslaved people accused of having conspired and killed their enslaver, Mark and Phillis were executed for his murder. Mark was hanged and his body <a href="/wiki/Gibbet" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibbet">gibbeted</a>, and Phillis burned at the stake, at <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mark_and_Phillis_Executions-107">[107]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>, then part of the colony of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marie-Joseph_Ang%C3%A9lique" title="Marie-Joseph Angélique">Marie-Joseph Angélique</a>, an enslaved woman, was sentenced to being burned alive for an arson which destroyed 45 homes and a hospital in 1734. The sentence was commuted on appeal to burning after death by strangulation. In <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>, several burnings at the stake are recorded, particularly following suspected <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">slave revolt</a> plots. In 1708, one woman was burnt and one man hanged. In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Slave_Revolt_of_1712" title="New York Slave Revolt of 1712">New York Slave Revolt of 1712</a>, 20 enslaved people were burnt (one of the leaders slowly roasted, before he died after 10 hours of torture)<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> and during the alleged <a href="/wiki/New_York_Conspiracy_of_1741" title="New York Conspiracy of 1741">slave conspiracy of 1741</a>, at least 13 enslaved people were burnt at the stake.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> In 1731, 51-year-old <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a> housewife Catherine Bevan was burned for murder, and in 1746, Esther Anderson was burned in <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> for another murder.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> 87% percent of the women executed by burning at the stake in the USA between 1608 and 2002 were Black.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_America">South America</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: South America">edit</a>]</div> The last known burning by the Spanish colonial government in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> was of Mariana de Castro, during the <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Inquisition" title="Peruvian Inquisition">Peruvian Inquisition</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a> on 22 December 1736<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> after she had been convicted on 4 February 1732 of being a <a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">judaizante</a> (a person who was privately practicing the Jewish faith after having publicly converted to Roman Catholicism). In 1855 the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Abolitionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolitionist">abolitionist</a> and historian <a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Wolbers" class="extiw" title="nl:Julien Wolbers">Julien Wolbers</a> spoke to the Anti Slavery Society in Amsterdam. Painting a dark picture of the condition of slaves in <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a>, he mentions in particular that in 1853, "three Negroes were burnt alive".<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="West_Indies">West Indies</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: West Indies">edit</a>]</div> In 1760, the slave rebellion known as <a href="/wiki/Tacky%27s_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Tacky's War">Tacky's War</a> broke out in <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>. Apparently, some of the defeated rebels were burned alive, while others were gibbeted alive, left to die of thirst and starvation.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> In 1774, nine enslaved Africans in <a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a> were found complicit of murdering a white man. Eight of them had first their right arms chopped off, and were then burned alive bound to stakes, according to the report of an eyewitness.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a>, enslaved Africans found guilty of committing crimes were sometimes punished by being burnt at the stake, particularly if the crime was attempting to foment a slave rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_countries">Islamic countries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Islamic countries">edit</a>]</div> The sources may manifest religious, legal, and political ideas quite an evolution from the chronological aspect and different from those that prevailed in early <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphates</a> since the practice of burning convicted person is forbidden in the <a href="/wiki/Sharia_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharia Law">Sharia Law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Followers_of_a_false_claimant_of_prophethood">Followers of a false claimant of prophethood</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Followers of a false claimant of prophethood">edit</a>]</div> The Arab chieftain <a href="/wiki/Tulayha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulayha">Tulayha ibn Khuwaylid ibn Nawfal al-Asad</a> set himself up as a prophet in 630 AD. Tulayha had a strong following which was, however, soon quashed in the so-called <a href="/wiki/Ridda_Wars" title="Ridda Wars">Ridda Wars</a>. He himself escaped, though, and later was reconverted to Islam, but many of his rebel followers were burnt to death; his mother chose to embrace the same fate.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Catholic_monks_in_13th-century_Tunis_and_Morocco">Catholic monks in 13th-century Tunis and Morocco</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Catholic monks in 13th-century Tunis and Morocco">edit</a>]</div> A number of monks are said to have been burnt alive in <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> in the 13th century. In 1243, two English monks, Brothers Rodulph and Berengarius, after having secured the release of some 60 captives, were charged with being spies for the <a href="/wiki/English_Crown" class="mw-redirect" title="English Crown">English Crown</a>, and were burnt alive on 9 September. In 1262, Brothers Patrick and William, again having freed captives, but also sought to <a href="/wiki/Proselytize" class="mw-redirect" title="Proselytize">proselytize</a> among <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>, were burnt alive in Morocco. In 1271, 11 Catholic monks were burnt alive in Tunis. Several other cases are reported.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Converts_to_Christianity">Converts to Christianity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Converts to Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a>, i.e. the act of converting to another religion, was (and remains so in a few countries) punishable with death. The French traveller <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Thevenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean de Thevenot">Jean de Thevenot</a>, traveling the East in the 1650s, says: "Those that turn Christians, they burn alive, hanging a bag of Powder about their neck, and putting a <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">pitched</a> Cap upon their Head."<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Travelling the same regions some 60 years earlier, <a href="/wiki/Fynes_Moryson" title="Fynes Moryson">Fynes Moryson</a> writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A Turke forsaking his Fayth and a Christian speaking or doing anything against the law of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Mahomett</a> are burnt with fyer.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Muslim_heretics">Muslim heretics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Muslim heretics">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Certain_accursed_ones_of_no_significance" title="Certain accursed ones of no significance">Certain accursed ones of no significance</a> is the term used by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ta%C5%9F_K%C3%B6pr%C3%BC_Zade&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taş Köprü Zade (page does not exist)">Taş Köprü Zade</a> in the Şakaiki Numaniye to describe some members of the <a href="/wiki/Hurufiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurufiyya">Hurufiyya</a> who became intimate with the Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> to the extent of initiating him as a follower. This alarmed members of the <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">Ulema</a>, particularly Mahmut Paşa, who then consulted Mevlana Fahreddin. Fahreddin hid in the Sultan's palace and heard the <a href="/wiki/Hurufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurufi">Hurufis</a> propound their doctrines. Considering these heretical, he reviled them with curses. The Hurufis fled to the Sultan, but Fahreddin's denunciation of them was so virulent that <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> was unable to defend them. Farhreddin then took them in front of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7_%C5%9Eerefeli_Mosque" title="Üç Şerefeli Mosque">Üç Şerefeli Mosque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a>, where he publicly condemned them to death. While preparing the fire for their execution, Fahreddin accidentally set fire to his beard. However, the Hurufis were burnt to death. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Barbary_States,_18th_century">Barbary States, 18th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Barbary States, 18th century">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/John_Braithwaite_(author)" title="John Braithwaite (author)">John Braithwaite</a>, staying in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> in the late 1720s, says that apostates from Islam would be burnt alive: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">THOSE that can be proved after Circumcision to have revolted, are stripped quite naked, then anointed with Tallow, and with a Chain about the Body, brought to the Place of Execution, where they are burnt.</blockquote> Similarly, he notes that non-Muslims entering mosques or being blasphemous against Islam will be burnt, unless they convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The chaplain for the English in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> at the same time, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Shaw_(divine_and_traveller)" title="Thomas Shaw (divine and traveller)">Thomas Shaw</a>, wrote that whenever capital crimes were committed either by Christian slaves or Jews, the Christian or Jew was to be burnt alive.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Several generations later, in Morocco in 1772, a Jewish interpreter for the British, and a merchant in his own right, sought from the <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_ben_Abdallah" title="Mohammed ben Abdallah">Emperor of Morocco</a> restitution for some goods confiscated, and was burnt alive for his impertinence. His widow made her woes clear in a letter to the British government.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In 1792 in <a href="/wiki/Ifrane" title="Ifrane">Ifrane</a>, Morocco, 50 Jews preferred to be burned alive, rather than convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> In 1794 in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>, the Jewish Rabbi Mordecai Narboni was accused of having maligned Islam in a quarrel with his neighbour. He was ordered to be burnt alive unless he converted to Islam, but he refused and was therefore executed on 14 July 1794.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> In 1793, <a href="/wiki/Trabluslu_Ali_Pasha" title="Trabluslu Ali Pasha">Ali Pasha</a> made a short-lived coup d'état in <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a>, deposing the ruling <a href="/wiki/Karamanli_dynasty" title="Karamanli dynasty">Karamanli dynasty</a>. During his short, violent reign he seized the two interpreters for the Dutch and English consuls, both of them Jews, and roasted them over a slow fire, on charges of conspiracy and espionage.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persia">Persia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Persia">edit</a>]</div> During a famine in <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> in 1668, the government took severe measures against those trying to profiteer from the misfortune of the populace. Restaurant owners found guilty of profiteering were slowly roasted on spits, and greedy bakers were baked in their own ovens.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Dr C. J. Wills, a physician traveling through Persia in 1866–81, wrote that:<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Just prior to my first arrival in Persia, the "Hissam-u-Sultaneh", another uncle of the king, had burned a priest to death for a horrible crime and murder; the priest was chained to a stake, and the matting from the mosques piled on him to a great height, the pile of mats was lighted and burnt freely, but when the mats were consumed the priest was found groaning, but still alive. The executioner went to Hissam-u-Sultaneh who ordered him to obtain more mats, pour <a href="/wiki/Naphtha" title="Naphtha">naphtha</a> on them, and apply a light, which 'after some hours' he did.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Malaya">Malaya</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Malaya">edit</a>]</div> Although not burning with the use of fire, a practice was documented in 19th-century Malaya of sewing a live human in a buffalo hide and left it exposed to the burning sun which caused the hide to shrink and led the person to be squeezed to death.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roasting_by_means_of_heated_metal">Roasting by means of heated metal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Roasting by means of heated metal">edit</a>]</div> The previous cases concern primarily death by burning through contact with open fire or burning material; a slightly different principle is to enclose an individual within, or attach him to, a metal contraption which is subsequently heated. In the following, some reports of such incidents, or anecdotes about such are included. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_brazen_bull">The brazen bull</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: The brazen bull">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre_Woeiriot_Phalaris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pierre_Woeiriot_Phalaris.jpg/220px-Pierre_Woeiriot_Phalaris.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pierre_Woeiriot_Phalaris.jpg/330px-Pierre_Woeiriot_Phalaris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pierre_Woeiriot_Phalaris.jpg/440px-Pierre_Woeiriot_Phalaris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="702" data-file-height="916" /></a><figcaption>Perillos being forced into the brazen bull that he built for Phalaris</figcaption></figure> Perhaps the most infamous example of a <a href="/wiki/Brazen_bull" title="Brazen bull">brazen bull</a>, which is a hollow metal structure shaped like a bull within which the condemned is put, and then roasted alive as the metal bull is gradually heated up, is the one allegedly constructed by Perillos of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> for the 6th-century BC tyrant <a href="/wiki/Phalaris" title="Phalaris">Phalaris</a> at <a href="/wiki/Agrigentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrigentum">Agrigentum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>. As the story goes, the first victim of the bull was its constructor Perillos himself. The historian George Grote was among those regarding this story as having sufficient evidence behind it to be true, and points particularly to that the Greek poet <a href="/wiki/Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</a>, working just one or two generations after the times of Phalaris, refers to the brazen bull. A bronze bull was, in fact, one of the spoils of victory when the <a href="/wiki/Carthaginians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginians">Carthaginians</a> conquered Agrigentum.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> The story of a brazen bull as an execution device is not unique. About 1,000 years later in 497 AD, it can be read in an old chronicle about the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> and the south of France: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><a href="/wiki/Burdunellus" title="Burdunellus">Burdunellus</a> became a tyrant in Spain and a year later was ... handed over by his own men and having been sent to <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>, he was placed inside a bronze bull and burnt to death.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fate_of_a_Scottish_regicide">Fate of a Scottish regicide</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Fate of a Scottish regicide">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Stewart,_Earl_of_Atholl" title="Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl">Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl</a> was a Scottish nobleman complicit in the murder of King <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_Scotland" title="James I of Scotland">James I of Scotland</a>. On 26 March 1437 Stewart had a red hot iron crown placed upon his head, was cut in pieces alive, his heart was taken out, and then thrown in a fire. A papal <a href="/wiki/Nuncio" title="Nuncio">nuncio</a>, the later Pope <a href="/wiki/Pius_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Pius II">Pius II</a> witnessed the execution of Stewart and his associate <a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Graham" title="Sir Robert Graham">Sir Robert Graham</a>, and, reportedly, said he was at a loss to determine whether the crime committed by the regicides, or the punishment of them was the greater.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="György_Dózsa_on_the_iron_throne">György Dózsa on the iron throne</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: György Dózsa on the iron throne">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GeorgheDoja.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/GeorgheDoja.jpg/220px-GeorgheDoja.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/GeorgheDoja.jpg/330px-GeorgheDoja.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/GeorgheDoja.jpg/440px-GeorgheDoja.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1242" data-file-height="1329" /></a><figcaption>Dózsa's execution (contemporary woodcut)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_D%C3%B3zsa" title="György Dózsa">György Dózsa</a> led a peasants' revolt in <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, and was captured in 1514. He was bound to a glowing iron throne and a likewise hot iron crown was placed on his head, and he was roasted to death.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_tale_of_the_murderous_midwife">The tale of the murderous midwife</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: The tale of the murderous midwife">edit</a>]</div> In a few English 18th- and 19th-century newspapers and magazines, a tale was circulated about the particularly brutal manner in which a French midwife was put to death on 28 May 1673 in Paris. No fewer than 62 infant skeletons were found buried on her premises, and she was condemned on multiple accounts of abortion/<a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a>. One detailed account of her supposed execution runs as follows: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A gibbet was erected, under which a fire was made, and the prisoner being brought to the place of execution, was hung up in a large iron cage, in which were also placed sixteen wild cats, which had been catched in the woods for the purpose.—When the heat of the fire became too great to be endured with patience, the cats flew upon the woman, as the cause of the intense pain they felt.—In about fifteen minutes they had pulled out her entrails, though she continued yet alive, and sensible, imploring, as the greatest favour, an immediate death from the hands of some charitable spectator. No one however dared to afford her the least assistance; and she continued in this wretched situation for the space of thirty-five minutes, and then expired in unspeakable torture. At the time of her death, twelve of the cats were expired, and the other four were all dead in less than two minutes afterwards.</blockquote> The English commentator adds his own view on the matter:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">However cruel this execution may appear with regard to the poor animals, it certainly cannot be thought too severe a punishment for such a monster of iniquity, as could calmly proceed in acquiring a fortune by the deliberate murder of such numbers of unoffending, harmless innocents. And if a method of executing murderers, in a manner somewhat similar to this was adapted in England, perhaps the horrid crime of murder might not so frequently disgrace the annals of the present times.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> </blockquote> The English story is derived from a pamphlet published in 1673.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pouring_molten_metal_down_the_throat_or_ears">Pouring molten metal down the throat or ears</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Pouring molten metal down the throat or ears">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Molten_gold_poured_down_the_throat">Molten gold poured down the throat</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Molten gold poured down the throat">edit</a>]</div> In 88 BC, <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI of Pontus">Mithridates VI of Pontus</a> captured the Roman general <a href="/w/index.php?title=Manius_Aquillius_(consul_101_BCE)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manius Aquillius (consul 101 BCE) (page does not exist)">Manius Aquillius</a>, and executed him by pouring molten gold down his throat.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> A popular but unsubstantiated rumor also had the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a> executing the famously greedy Roman general <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Licinius Crassus</a> in this manner in 53 BC.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HulaguInBagdad.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/HulaguInBagdad.JPG/220px-HulaguInBagdad.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/HulaguInBagdad.JPG/330px-HulaguInBagdad.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/HulaguInBagdad.JPG/440px-HulaguInBagdad.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1678" data-file-height="982" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu</a> (left) imprisons Caliph Al-Musta'sim among his treasures to starve him to death (medieval depiction from "Le livre des merveilles", 15th century)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> is said to have ordered the execution of <a href="/wiki/Inalchuq" title="Inalchuq">Inalchuq</a>, the perfidious <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian</a> governor of <a href="/wiki/Otrar" title="Otrar">Otrar</a>, by pouring molten gold or silver down his throat in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1220,<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> and an early-14th-century chronicle mentions that his grandson <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a> did likewise to the sultan <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">Al-Musta'sim</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">fall of Baghdad in 1258</a> to the Mongol army.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s version is that <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">Al-Musta'sim</a> was locked without food or water to starve in his treasure room) <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theodor_de_Bry_78.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Theodor_de_Bry_78.jpeg/220px-Theodor_de_Bry_78.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Theodor_de_Bry_78.jpeg/330px-Theodor_de_Bry_78.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Theodor_de_Bry_78.jpeg/440px-Theodor_de_Bry_78.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3330" data-file-height="2586" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Theodor_de_Bry" title="Theodor de Bry">Theodor de Bry</a> engraving of a Conquistador being executed by gold</figcaption></figure> The Spanish in 16th-century Americas gave horrified reports that the Spanish who had been captured by the natives (who had learnt of the Spanish thirst for gold) had their feet and hands bound, and then molten gold poured down their throats as the victims were mocked: "Eat, eat gold, Christians".<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> From the 19th-century reports from the <a href="/wiki/Rattanakosin_Kingdom_(1782%E2%80%931932)" title="Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)">Kingdom of Siam</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>) stated that those who have defrauded the public treasury could have either molten gold or silver poured down their throat.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_punishment_for_inebriation_and_tobacco_smoking">As punishment for inebriation and tobacco smoking</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: As punishment for inebriation and tobacco smoking">edit</a>]</div> The 16th-/early-17th-century prime minister <a href="/wiki/Malik_Ambar" title="Malik Ambar">Malik Ambar</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmadnagar_Sultanate" title="Ahmadnagar Sultanate">Ahmadnagar Sultanate</a> would not tolerate inebriation among his subjects, and would pour molten lead down the mouths of those caught in that condition.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Similarly, in the 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Aceh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Aceh">Sultanate of Aceh</a>, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Iskandar_Muda" title="Iskandar Muda">Iskandar Muda</a> (r. 1607–36) is said to have poured molten lead into the mouths of at least two drunken subjects.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Military discipline in 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a> was reportedly harsh, with strict prohibition of smoking <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> or drinking <a href="/wiki/Arrack" title="Arrack">arrack</a>. Some monarchs had ordained pouring molten lead down the throats of those who drank, "but it has been found necessary to relax this severity, in order to conciliate the army."<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Shah <a href="/wiki/Safi_of_Persia" title="Safi of Persia">Safi I</a> of Persia is said to have abhorred <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco</a>, and apparently in 1634, he prescribed the punishment of pouring molten lead into the throats of smokers.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mongol_punishment_for_horse_thieves">Mongol punishment for horse thieves</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Mongol punishment for horse thieves">edit</a>]</div> According to historian Pushpa Sharma, stealing a horse was considered the most heinous offence within the Mongol army, and the criminal would either have molten lead poured into his ears, or alternatively, his punishment would be the breaking of the spinal cord or beheading.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_tradition_of_Buddhist_self-immolation">Chinese tradition of Buddhist self-immolation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Chinese tradition of Buddhist self-immolation">edit</a>]</div> Apparently, for many centuries, a tradition of devotional <a href="/wiki/Self-immolation" title="Self-immolation">self-immolation</a> existed among <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> monks in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. One monk who immolated himself in 527 AD explained his intent a year before, in the following manner: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The body is like a poisonous plant; it would really be right to burn it and extinguish its life. I have been weary of this physical frame for many a long day. I vow to worship the buddhas, just like Xijian.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></blockquote> A severe critic in the 16th century wrote the following comment on this practice: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">There are demonic people ... who pour on oil, stack up firewood, and burn their bodies while still alive. Those who look on are overawed and consider it the attainment of enlightenment. This is erroneous.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</div> While the earliest record of death by burning in Japan appears in "<a href="/wiki/Nihonshoki" class="mw-redirect" title="Nihonshoki">Nihonshoki</a>", on <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E5%B7%9D%E6%A5%AF" class="extiw" title="ja:石川楯">Ishikawa no Tate</a> and <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%A0%E6%B4%A5%E5%AA%9B" class="extiw" title="ja:池津媛">Iketsuhime</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuryaku" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Yuryaku">Emperor Yuryaku</a>, the contemporary code of law hasn't survived and the historical authenticity of this event is uncertain. The oldest preserved written code, <a href="/wiki/Y%C5%8Dr%C5%8D_Code" title="Yōrō Code">Yōrō Code</a> didn't mention death by burning. It still included capital punishment but it was either death by strangulation or death by cutting with sword. The historically reliable earliest record of death by burning was ruled by <a href="/wiki/Oda_Nobukatsu" title="Oda Nobukatsu">Oda Nobukatsu</a>. In the first half of the 17th century, Japanese authorities sporadically persecuted <a href="/wiki/Kirishitan" title="Kirishitan">Christians</a>, with some executions seeing persons being burnt alive. At <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a> in 1622 some 25 monks were burnt alive,<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Edo" title="Edo">Edo</a> in 1624, 50 Christians were burnt alive.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Tokugawa Shogunate included death by burning alive into their criminal code. Arsonists were often sentenced to death by burning but not always. They might be sentenced to exile instead. At <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a> death by burning was abolished in 1868<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.moj.go.jp/content/000096623.pdf">[3]</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mughal_Empire">Mughal Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Mughal Empire">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Bhai_Sati_Das" title="Bhai Sati Das">Bhai Sati Das</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Martyrdom_in_Sikhism" title="Martyrdom in Sikhism">Sikh martyr</a> was burned with <a href="/wiki/Cotton_wool" title="Cotton wool">cotton wool</a> soaked in oil on the orders of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Aurangzeb" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Aurangzeb">Emperor Aurangzeb</a> after he refused to convert to Islam. <a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_widow_burning">Indian widow burning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Indian widow burning">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg/220px-A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg/330px-A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg/440px-A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="465" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> widow burning herself with the corpse of her husband, 1820s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burning_of_a_Widow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Burning_of_a_Widow.jpg/220px-Burning_of_a_Widow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Burning_of_a_Widow.jpg/330px-Burning_of_a_Widow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Burning_of_a_Widow.jpg/440px-Burning_of_a_Widow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1084" data-file-height="702" /></a><figcaption>Ceremony of Burning a Hindu Widow with the Body of her Late Husband, from Pictorial History of China and India, 1851</figcaption></figure> Sati refers to a <a href="/wiki/Funeral" title="Funeral">funeral</a> practice among some communities of <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> in which a recently widowed woman <a href="/wiki/Self-immolation" title="Self-immolation">immolates herself</a> on her husband's <a href="/wiki/Funeral_pyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Funeral pyre">funeral pyre</a>. The first reliable evidence for the practice of sati appears from the time of the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> (400 AD), when instances of sati began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones.<a href="#cite_note-Shastri-153">[153]</a> According to one model of history thinking, the practice of sati only became really widespread with the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim invasions of India</a>, and the practice of sati now acquired a new meaning as a means to preserve the honour of women whose men had been slain. As S. S. Sashi lays out the argument, "The argument is that the practice came into effect during the Islamic invasion of India, to protect their honor from Muslims who were known to commit mass rape on the women of cities that they could capture successfully."<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> It is also said that according to the memorial stone evidence, the practice was carried out in appreciable numbers in western and southern parts of India, and even in some areas, during pre-Islamic times.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Some of the rulers and activist of the time sought actively to suppress the practice of sati.<a href="#cite_note-Columbia-156">[156]</a> The <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> began to compile statistics of the incidences of sati for all their domains from 1815 and onwards. The official statistics for <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> represents that the practice was much more common here than elsewhere, recorded numbers typically in the range 500–600 per year, up to the year 1829, when Company authorities banned the practice.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Since the 19th and 20th centuries, the practice remains outlawed in the Indian subcontinent. <a href="/wiki/Jauhar" title="Jauhar">Jauhar</a> was a practice among royal Hindu women to prevent capture by Muslim conquerors. In <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, the practice was not banned until 1920.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> The practice of burning widows has not been restricted to the Indian subcontinent; at <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, the practice was called masatia and, apparently, restricted to the burning of royal widows. This practice is probably resulted from the spread of Hindu culture into Southeast Asia. Although the Dutch colonial authorities had banned the practice, one such occasion is attested as late as in 1903, probably for the last time.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Sub-Saharan Africa">edit</a>]</div> C. H. L. Hahn<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> wrote that within the O-ndnonga tribe among the <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_people" title="Ovambo people">Ovambo people</a> in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>, abortion was not used at all (in contrast to among the other tribes), and that furthermore, if two young unwed individuals had sex resulting in pregnancy, then both the girl and the boy were "taken out to the bush, bound up in bundles of grass and ... burnt alive."<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indigenous_cannibalism">Indigenous cannibalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Indigenous cannibalism">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Americas">Americas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Americas">edit</a>]</div> Even fateful encounters with <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibals</a> are recorded: in 1514, in the Americas, Francis of Córdoba and five companions were, reportedly, caught, impaled on spits, roasted and eaten by the natives. In 1543, such was also the end of a previous bishop, <a href="/wiki/Vincente_de_Valverde" title="Vincente de Valverde">Vincent de Valle Viridi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Perckmayr-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fiji">Fiji</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Fiji">edit</a>]</div> In 1844, the missionary John Watsford wrote a letter about the <a href="/wiki/Internecine_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Internecine war">internecine wars</a> on <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>, and how captives could be eaten, after being roasted alive: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">At <a href="/wiki/Mbau" title="Mbau">Mbau</a>, perhaps, more human beings are eaten than anywhere else. A few weeks ago they ate twenty-eight in one day. They had seized their wretched victims while fishing, and brought them alive to Mbau, and there half-killed them, and then put them into their ovens. Some of them made several vain attempts to escape from the scorching flame.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></blockquote> The actual manner of the roasting process was described by the missionary pioneer David Cargill, in 1838: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">When about to be immolated, he is made to sit on the ground with his feet under his thighs and his hands placed before him. He is then bound so that he cannot move a limb or a joint. In this posture he is placed on stones heated for the occasion (and some of them are red-hot), and then covered with leaves and earth, to be roasted alive. When cooked, he is taken out of the oven and, his face and other parts being painted black, that he may resemble a living man ornamented for a feast or for war, he is carried to the temple of the gods and, being still retained in a sitting posture, is offered as a propitiatory sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legislation_against_the_practice">Legislation against the practice</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Legislation against the practice">edit</a>]</div> In 1790, Sir <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hammett" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Hammett">Benjamin Hammett</a> introduced a bill into the British <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> to end the practice of judicial burning. He explained that the year before, as <a href="/wiki/Sheriff" title="Sheriff">Sheriff</a> of London, he had been responsible for the burning of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Murphy_(counterfeiter)" title="Catherine Murphy (counterfeiter)">Catherine Murphy</a>, found guilty of <a href="/wiki/Counterfeit" title="Counterfeit">counterfeiting</a>, but that he had allowed her to be hanged first. He pointed out that as the law stood, he himself could have been found guilty of a crime in not carrying out the lawful punishment and, as no woman had been burnt alive in the kingdom for more than half a century, so could all those still alive who had held an official position at all of the previous burnings. The <a href="/wiki/Treason_Act_1790" title="Treason Act 1790">Treason Act 1790</a> was duly passed by Parliament and given <a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">royal assent</a> by King <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> (30 George III. C. 48).<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland" title="Parliament of Ireland">Parliament of Ireland</a> subsequently passed the similar <a href="/wiki/Treason_by_Women_Act_(Ireland)_1796" title="Treason by Women Act (Ireland) 1796">Treason by Women Act (Ireland) 1796</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_burnings">Modern burnings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Modern burnings">edit</a>]</div> In the modern era, deaths by burning are largely <a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killings" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrajudicial killings">extrajudicial</a> in nature. These killings may be committed by mobs, small numbers of criminals, or <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitary</a> groups. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Holocaust_and_German_war_crimes">The Holocaust and German war crimes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: The Holocaust and German war crimes">edit</a>]</div> In 1941, Polish natives—in cooperation with German police—locked 340 Jews in a barn and set it on fire during the <a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne pogrom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> During the 1943 <a href="/wiki/Khatyn_massacre" title="Khatyn massacre">Khatyn massacre</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dirlewanger_Brigade" title="Dirlewanger Brigade">SS-Sturmbrigade Dirlewanger</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Schutzmannschaft_Battalion_118" title="Schutzmannschaft Battalion 118">Schutzmannschaft Battalion 118</a>—a Germany-sponsored battalion of Ukrainian partisans—locked 149 villagers into a shed and set it on fire.<a href="#cite_note-ZurGeschichte-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grenkevich-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Restitution_Successor_Organization" title="Jewish Restitution Successor Organization">World Jewish Restitution Organisation</a> reported to <a href="/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post" title="The Jerusalem Post">The Jerusalem Post</a> that the German staff of <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a> burnt children alive in 1944.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> In another 1944 atrocity, the <a href="/wiki/Waffen_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Waffen SS">Waffen SS</a> <a href="/wiki/Oradour-sur-Glane_massacre" title="Oradour-sur-Glane massacre">locked 452 French women and children in a church and set it on fire.</a> German prosecutors charged an alleged perpetrator of that massacre in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> SS-<a href="/wiki/Sturmbannf%C3%BChrer" title="Sturmbannführer">Sturmbannführer</a> Adolf Diekmann—commander of the 1st Battalion, 4th SS Panzer Grenadier Regiment—ordered the massacre, claiming retaliation against French partisans for burning SS-Sturmbannführer Helmut Kämpfe alive.<a href="#cite_note-ddef-173">[173]</a> In April 1945, the <a href="/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde" title="SS-Totenkopfverbände">SS camp guards</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora_concentration_camp" title="Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp">Dora-Mittelbau</a>—along with local civilian and military authorities—<a href="/wiki/Gardelegen_massacre" title="Gardelegen massacre">set a barn on fire with more than a thousand inmates trapped inside.</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revenge_against_Germans">Revenge against Germans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Revenge against Germans">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_B._Ferencz" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin B. Ferencz">Benjamin B. Ferencz</a>, one of the prosecutors in the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a> after the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> who, in May 1945, investigated occurrences at the <a href="/wiki/Ebensee_concentration_camp" title="Ebensee concentration camp">Ebensee concentration camp</a>, narrated them to Tom Hofmann, a family member and biographer. Ferencz was outraged at what the Germans had done there. When people discovered an SS guard who attempted to flee, they tied him to one of the metal trays used to transport bodies into the <a href="/wiki/Crematorium" title="Crematorium">crematorium</a>. They then lit the oven and slowly roasted the SS guard to death, taking him in and out of the oven several times. Ferencz said to Hofmann that at the time, he was in no position to stop the proceedings of the mob, and frankly admitted that he had not been inclined to try. Hofmann adds, "There seemed to be no limit to human brutality in wartime."<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lynching_of_Germans_in_Czechoslovakia">Lynching of Germans in Czechoslovakia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Lynching of Germans in Czechoslovakia">edit</a>]</div> During the post-World War II <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia" title="Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia">expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia</a>, a number of attacks against the German minority occurred. In one case in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> in May 1945, a Czech mob hanged several Germans upside down on lampposts, doused them in fuel and set them on fire, burning them alive.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-ullrich-demetz-178">[178]</a> The future literature scholar <a href="/wiki/Peter_Demetz" title="Peter Demetz">Peter Demetz</a>, who grew up in Prague, later reported on this.<a href="#cite_note-ullrich-demetz-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_war_crimes_of_WWII">Japanese war crimes of WWII</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Japanese war crimes of WWII">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_decaying_corpse_of_a_person_burned_to_death.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/The_decaying_corpse_of_a_person_burned_to_death.jpg/220px-The_decaying_corpse_of_a_person_burned_to_death.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/The_decaying_corpse_of_a_person_burned_to_death.jpg/330px-The_decaying_corpse_of_a_person_burned_to_death.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/The_decaying_corpse_of_a_person_burned_to_death.jpg/440px-The_decaying_corpse_of_a_person_burned_to_death.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>The decaying corpse of a person burned to death in <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, about 1938–1939</figcaption></figure> Immolation was a commonly reported execution method among <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese troops</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a> after Japanese forces <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">captured the city of Nanjing in 1937</a>, immolation was a commonly used method of execution and brutality towards the Chinese people in Nanjing during the Imperial Japanese Army's occupation of the city.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> The most infamous case of the Imperial Japanese military utilizing this method of execution on Allied <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Palawan_massacre" title="Palawan massacre">Palawan massacre</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> in the midst of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">United States military's campaign to retake the Philippines</a>. To prevent the rescue of the POWs by liberating American forces, the 150 American POWs in the Palawan prison camp; Camp 10-A<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> were herded into air raid shelters via <a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_siren" title="Civil defense siren">air raid sirens</a>. The Japanese guards, taking advantage of the POWs being confined in the shelters, then doused the shelter entrances with gasoline before lighting them on fire. They then fired a few shots into the entrances to hit the POWs standing near the entrances in order to use their bodies to trap the other POWs that were deeper inside the shelter and engulf them all in the inferno. Any POWs who did manage to dig themselves out of the trench and escape the flames were hunted down. At the end of the ordeal, only 11 POWs managed to escape to friendly lines. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extrajudicial_burnings_in_Latin_America">Extrajudicial burnings in Latin America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Extrajudicial burnings in Latin America">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, Brazil, burning people <a href="/wiki/Necklacing" title="Necklacing">standing inside a pile of tires</a> is a common form of murder used by drug dealers to punish those who have supposedly collaborated with the police. This form of burning is called micro-ondas (microwave oven).<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> The film Tropa de Elite (<a href="/wiki/Elite_Squad" title="Elite Squad">Elite Squad</a>) and the video game <a href="/wiki/Max_Payne_3" title="Max Payne 3">Max Payne 3</a> contain scenes depicting this practice.<a href="#cite_note-A_Revista_Veja,_o_PT_e_as_Tendências-184">[184]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Guatemalan Army">Guatemalan Army</a> and security forces carried out an unknown number of extrajudicial killings by burning. In one instance in March 1967, Guatemalan <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> and poet <a href="/wiki/Otto_Ren%C3%A9_Castillo" title="Otto René Castillo">Otto René Castillo</a> was captured by Guatemalan government forces and taken to <a href="/wiki/Zacapa" title="Zacapa">Zacapa</a> army barracks alongside one of his comrades, Nora Paíz Cárcamo. The two were interrogated, tortured for four days, and burned alive.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Other reported instances of immolation by Guatemalan government forces occurred in the Guatemalan government's rural counterinsurgency operations in the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Highlands" title="Guatemalan Highlands">Guatemalan Altiplano</a> in the 1980s. In April 1982, 13 members of a <a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCanjob%CA%BCal_people" title="Qʼanjobʼal people">Qʼanjobʼal</a> Pentecostal congregation in Xalbal, <a href="/wiki/Ixcan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ixcan">Ixcan</a>, were burnt alive in their church by the Guatemalan Army.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> On 31 August 1996, a Mexican man, Rodolfo Soler Hernandez, was burned to death in <a href="/wiki/Playa_Vicente" title="Playa Vicente">Playa Vicente</a>, Mexico, after he was accused of raping and strangling a local woman to death. Local residents tied Hernandez to a tree, doused him in a flammable liquid and then set him ablaze. His death was also filmed by residents of the village. Shots taken before the killing showed that he had been badly beaten.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> On 5 September 1996, Mexican television stations broadcast footage of the murder. Locals carried out the killing because they were fed up with crime and believed that the police and courts were both incompetent. Footage was also shown in the 1998 <a href="/wiki/Shockumentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Shockumentary">shockumentary</a> film, <a href="/wiki/Banned_from_Television" class="mw-redirect" title="Banned from Television">Banned from Television</a>. A young Guatemalan woman, Alejandra María Torres, was attacked by a mob in <a href="/wiki/Guatemala_City" title="Guatemala City">Guatemala City</a> on 15 December 2009. The mob alleged that Torres had attempted to rob passengers on a bus. Torres was beaten, doused with gasoline, and set on fire, but was able to put the fire out before sustaining life-threatening burns. Police intervened and arrested Torres. Torres was forced to go topless throughout the ordeal and subsequent arrest, and many photographs were taken and published.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Approximately 219 people were lynched in Guatemala in 2009, of whom 45 died.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In May 2015, a sixteen-year-old girl was allegedly burned to death in <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Bravo,_Suchitep%C3%A9quez" title="Río Bravo, Suchitepéquez">Río Bravo</a>, Guatemala, by a vigilante mob after being accused of involvement in the killing of a taxi driver earlier in the month.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> during public mass protests held against the military regime of General <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet" title="Augusto Pinochet">Augusto Pinochet</a> on 2 July 1986, engineering student <a href="/wiki/Carmen_Gloria_Quintana" title="Carmen Gloria Quintana">Carmen Gloria Quintana</a>, 18, and Chilean-American photographer <a href="/wiki/Rodrigo_Rojas_de_Negri" title="Rodrigo Rojas de Negri">Rodrigo Rojas de Negri</a>, 19, were arrested by a <a href="/wiki/Chilean_Army" title="Chilean Army">Chilean Army</a> patrol in the <a href="/wiki/Los_Nogales" title="Los Nogales">Los Nogales</a> neighborhood of <a href="/wiki/Santiago" title="Santiago">Santiago</a>. The two were searched and beaten before being doused in gasoline and burned alive by Chilean troops. Rojas was killed, while Quintana survived but with severe burns.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lynchings_and_killings_by_burning_in_the_United_States">Lynchings and killings by burning in the United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Lynchings and killings by burning in the United States">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington,_1916_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington%2C_1916_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington%2C_1916_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington%2C_1916_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington%2C_1916_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington%2C_1916_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington%2C_1916_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">Lynching of Jesse Washington</a> in <a href="/wiki/Waco,_Texas" title="Waco, Texas">Waco, Texas</a>, on 15 May 1916. He was repeatedly lowered and raised onto a fire for about two hours.</figcaption></figure> Burnings continued as a method of <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching in the United States</a> in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a>. One of the most notorious extrajudicial burnings in modern history occurred in <a href="/wiki/Waco,_Texas" title="Waco, Texas">Waco, Texas</a> on 15 May 1916. <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Washington_lynching" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesse Washington lynching">Jesse Washington</a>, an African-American <a href="/wiki/Farmhand" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmhand">farmhand</a>, after having been convicted of the rape and subsequent murder of a white woman, was taken by a mob to a bonfire, castrated, doused in <a href="/wiki/Coal_oil" title="Coal oil">coal oil</a>, and hanged by the neck from a chain over the bonfire, slowly burning to death. A postcard from the event still exists, showing a crowd standing next to Washington's charred corpse with the words on the back "This is the barbecue we had last night. My picture is to the left with a cross over it. Your son, Joe". This attracted international condemnation and is remembered as the "<a href="/wiki/Waco_Horror" class="mw-redirect" title="Waco Horror">Waco Horror</a>".<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> More recently, during the 1980 <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Penitentiary_riot" title="New Mexico State Penitentiary riot">New Mexico State Penitentiary riot</a>, a number of inmates were burnt to death by fellow prisoners, who threw flammable liquids into locked cells and ignited the fuel using <a href="/wiki/Blowtorch" title="Blowtorch">blowtorches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cases_from_Africa">Cases from Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Cases from Africa">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrajudicial">extrajudicial</a> executions by burning were carried out via "<a href="/wiki/Necklacing" title="Necklacing">necklacing</a>", wherein a mob would fill a rubber tire with <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a> (or gasoline) and place it around the neck of a live person. The fuel was then ignited, the rubber melted, and the victim burnt to death.<a href="#cite_note-sanctions-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-hilton-195">[195]</a> The method was most commonly used during the 1980s and early 1990s by anti-<a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a> opposition. In 1986, <a href="/wiki/Winnie_Mandela" class="mw-redirect" title="Winnie Mandela">Winnie Mandela</a>, wife of the then-imprisoned ANC (<a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a>) leader <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a>, stated, "With our boxes of matches, and our necklaces, we shall liberate this country", which was widely seen as an explicit endorsement of necklacing.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> This caused the ANC to initially distance itself from her,<a href="#cite_note-africafiles-198">[198]</a> although she later took on a number of official positions within the party.<a href="#cite_note-africafiles-198">[198]</a> It was reported that in <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, on 21 May 2008, a mob had burned to death at least 11 accused <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cases_from_the_Middle_East_and_Indian_subcontinent">Cases from the Middle East and Indian subcontinent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Cases from the Middle East and Indian subcontinent">edit</a>]</div> Immolation was a common execution method for Armenian children, particularly orphans, with <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army_(1861%E2%80%931922)" title="Ottoman Army (1861–1922)">Ottoman troops</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Armenian children would be herded into a building to a secluded area outside the city in batches, doused in gasoline, and lit on fire. This practice took place in <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_camps" title="Deir ez-Zor camps">Der Zor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harpoot" title="Harpoot">Kharpert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Diyarbakır">Diarbekir</a> provinces, and most infamously, at a German run orphanage in <a href="/wiki/Mu%C5%9F" title="Muş">Mush</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> <a href="/wiki/Graham_Staines" title="Graham Staines">Dr Graham Stuart Staines</a>, an Australian Christian <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary</a>, and his two sons Philip (aged ten) and Timothy (aged six), were burnt to death by a gang while the three slept in the family car (a station wagon), at <a href="/wiki/Manoharpur" class="mw-redirect" title="Manoharpur">Manoharpur</a> village in <a href="/wiki/Keonjhar" class="mw-redirect" title="Keonjhar">Keonjhar District, Odisha, India</a> on 22 January 1999. Four years later, in 2003, a <a href="/wiki/Bajrang_Dal" title="Bajrang Dal">Bajrang Dal</a> activist, <a href="/wiki/Dara_Singh_(Hindu_nationalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dara Singh (Hindu nationalist)">Dara Singh</a>, was convicted of leading the gang that murdered Staines and his sons, and was sentenced to life in prison. Staines had worked in Odisha with the tribal poor and <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">lepers</a> since 1965. Some Hindu groups made allegations that Staines had forcibly converted or lured many Hindus into <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> On 19 June 2008, the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a>, at Sadda, <a href="/wiki/Lower_Kurram" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Kurram">Lower Kurram</a>, Pakistan, burned three truck drivers of the <a href="/wiki/Turi_(Pashtun_tribe)" title="Turi (Pashtun tribe)">Turi</a> tribe alive after attacking a convoy of trucks en route from <a href="/wiki/Kohat" title="Kohat">Kohat</a> to <a href="/wiki/Parachinar" title="Parachinar">Parachinar</a>, possibly for supplying the <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Armed_Forces" title="Pakistan Armed Forces">Pakistan Armed Forces</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In January 2015, Jordanian pilot <a href="/wiki/Moaz_al-Kasasbeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Moaz al-Kasasbeh">Moaz al-Kasasbeh</a> was burned in a cage by the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant</a> (ISIS). The pilot was captured when his plane crashed near <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, Syria, during a mission against IS in December 2014.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> This became known on 4 February 2015 after ISIS published a 22-minute video online showing the burning of a Jordanian pilot.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> In August 2015, ISIS burned to death four Iraqi <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> In December 2016, <a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Sefter_Ta%C5%9F_and_Fethi_%C5%9Eahin" title="Murders of Sefter Taş and Fethi Şahin">ISIS burned to death two Turkish soldiers</a>,<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> publishing video of the atrocity.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bride-burning">Bride-burning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Bride-burning">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bride_burning" title="Bride burning">Bride burning</a></div> Bride burning is a form of <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a> involving burning. The wife is typically doused with <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>, or other flammable liquid, and set alight, leading to death by fire. Kerosene is often used as the cooking fuel for small petrol stoves, some of which being dangerous, so it allows the claim that the crime was an accident. On 20 January 2011, a 28-year-old woman, Ranjeeta Sharma, was found burning to death on a road in rural <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. The police confirmed the woman was alive before being covered in an accelerant and set on fire.<a href="#cite_note-Stuff.co.nz_4573912-210">[210]</a> Sharma's husband, Davesh Sharma, was charged with her murder.<a href="#cite_note-NZ_Herald_10702860-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Execution_by_burning" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Execution by burning">Execution by burning</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_justice" title="Jungle justice">Jungle justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muath_al-Kasasbeh" title="Muath al-Kasasbeh">Muath al-Kasasbeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_burned_as_heretics" title="List of people burned as heretics">List of people burned as heretics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxado_en_persona" title="Relaxado en persona">Relaxado en persona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-immolation" title="Self-immolation">Self-immolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_human_combustion" title="Spontaneous human combustion">Spontaneous human combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_Acts" title="Witchcraft Acts">Witchcraft Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaoya_Oshichi" title="Yaoya Oshichi">Yaoya Oshichi</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBohnert2004" class="citation book cs1">Bohnert, Michael (2004). "Morphological Findings in Burned Bodies". Forensic Pathology Reviews. Vol. 1. Humana Press. pp. 3–27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-59259-786-4_1">10.1007/978-1-59259-786-4_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1617375507" title="Special:BookSources/978-1617375507"><bdi>978-1617375507</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Morphological+Findings+in+Burned+Bodies&rft.btitle=Forensic+Pathology+Reviews&rft.pages=3-27&rft.pub=Humana+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-59259-786-4_1&rft.isbn=978-1617375507&rft.aulast=Bohnert&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/forensic-archaeology-and-anthropology/0/steps/67911">"What happens to human bodies when they are burned"</a>. FutureLearn.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FutureLearn&rft.atitle=What+happens+to+human+bodies+when+they+are+burned&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.futurelearn.com%2Fcourses%2Fforensic-archaeology-and-anthropology%2F0%2Fsteps%2F67911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.interfire.org/termoftheweek.asp?term=1660">"Pugilistic attitude (posture)"</a>. interfire.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=interfire.org&rft.atitle=Pugilistic+attitude+%28posture%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.interfire.org%2Ftermoftheweek.asp%3Fterm%3D1660&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxeiner1988" class="citation journal cs1">Maxeiner, H. (1988). "[Hemorrhage of the head and neck in death by burning]". Zeitschrift für Rechtsmedizin. Journal of Legal Medicine. 101 (2): 61–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00200288">10.1007/BF00200288</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3055743">3055743</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42121516">42121516</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Rechtsmedizin.+Journal+of+Legal+Medicine&rft.atitle=%5BHemorrhage+of+the+head+and+neck+in+death+by+burning%5D&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=61-80&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42121516%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3055743&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00200288&rft.aulast=Maxeiner&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuardian_Staff2003" class="citation web cs1">Guardian Staff (26 April 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2003/apr/26/theeditorpressreview">"What does death by burning mean?"</a>. The Guardian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=What+does+death+by+burning+mean%3F&rft.date=2003-04-26&rft.au=Guardian+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftheguardian%2F2003%2Fapr%2F26%2Ftheeditorpressreview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Roth (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=awrOHv-gtqQC&pg=PA5">p. 5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Wilkinson (2011): Senusret I incident, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P07rgiJjsk4C&pg=PA169">p. 169</a> Osorkon incident, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P07rgiJjsk4C&pg=PA412">p. 412</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> White (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GVhQ_lDWq0EC&pg=PA167">p. 167</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedford2002" class="citation book cs1">Redford, Susan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/haremconspiracy00susa">The Harem Conspiracy</a>. Northern Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0875802954" title="Special:BookSources/978-0875802954"><bdi>978-0875802954</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Harem+Conspiracy&rft.pub=Northern+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0875802954&rft.aulast=Redford&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fharemconspiracy00susa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Schneider (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4hHLe60cYBcC&pg=PA154">p. 154</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Olmstead (1918) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1946342">p. 66</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Reeder (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PiNSpBdtsCgC&pg=PA82">p. 82</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Full list in Quint (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2nEZQXWsXG4C&pg=PA257">p. 257</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Quotation from Ben-Menahem, Edrei, Hecht (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J-ZE_BJpJnIC&pg=PA111">p. 111</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.iv.html">"ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus – Christian Classics Ethereal Library"</a>. ccel.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ccel.org&rft.atitle=ANF01.+The+Apostolic+Fathers+with+Justin+Martyr+and+Irenaeus+%E2%80%93+Christian+Classics+Ethereal+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fanf01.iv.iv.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a> has an extended description of the tunica molesta, the punishment as meted out by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> as contained in <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> matches the concept. See Pagán (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bHzMYrWHjVoC&pg=PA53">p. 53</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Miley (1843), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iSsLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA223">pp. 223–224</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/theod/liber09.htm#24">9,24</a>. Law text found in Pharr (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ROBb7SIvYgC&pg=PA244">pp. 244–245</a> The full law was changed in context to the penalties just 20 years later by Constantine's son, <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a>, for free citizens aiding and abetting in the abduction, to an unspecified "capital punishment". The full severity of the law was to be kept, however, for slaves. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ROBb7SIvYgC&pg=PA245">p. 245</a>, ibidem </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Law text in <a href="/wiki/Codex_Justinianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Codex Justinianus">Codex Justinianus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/Anglica/CJ9_Scott.gr.htm#11">9.11.1</a>, as referred to in Winroth, Müller, Sommar (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4smZ4JjGJcsC&pg=PA107">p. 107</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Pickett (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XH-SMq-NKf0C&pg=PR21">p. xxi</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> See Watson (1998) Ulpian, section 48.19.8.2, p. 361. Callistratus, sections 48.19.28.11–12, p. 366 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Kyle (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x4vekGBc_McC&pg=PA53">p. 53</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> On ritual description, Plutarch, and in general, see Markoe (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC&pg=PA132">pp. 132–136</a> On Diodorus, see Schwartz, Houghton, Macchiarelli, Bondioli (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0009177">Skeletal remains..do not support</a> on phrase "the act of laughing", see Decker (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/uc_decker_carthrel3.htm">p. 3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090315024147/http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/uc_decker_carthrel3.htm">Archived</a> 15 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Generally accepting the tradition of child sacrifice, see Markoe (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC&pg=PA132">pp. 132–136</a> Generally skeptical, see Schwartz, Houghton, Macchiarelli, Bondioli (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0009177">Skeletal remains..do not support</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Julius Caesar, McDevitt, Bohn (1851) On penalty for conspiracy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7FsIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA4">p. 4</a> On criminals in large wicker frames, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7FsIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA149">p. 149</a> On funeral human sacrifice, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7FsIAAAAQAAJ&pg=P150">pp. 150–151</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> This case, and a number of others in Pluskowski (2013), pp.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-8NykshHHesC&pg=PA77">77–78</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Hamilton, Hamilton, Stoyanov (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uH-8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13">p. 13, footnote 42</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Haldon (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pSHmT1G_5T0C&pg=PA333">p. 333, footnote 22</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Trenchard-Smith, Turner (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2ombkgpGt_AC&pg=PA48">p. 48, footnote 58</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRice2022" class="citation journal cs1">Rice, Joshua (1 June 2022). "Burn in Hell". History Today. 72 (6): 16–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Burn+in+Hell&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=16-18&rft.date=2022-06-01&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-matters/burn-hell">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Both incidents in Weiss (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oJOvpkHg7msC&pg=PA104">p. 104</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Prager, Telushkin (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VK0llzUqQ2YC&pg=PA87">https://books.google.com/books?id=VK0llzUqQ2YC&pg=PA87</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/jewish/1348-jewsblackdeath.asp">"Internet History Sourcebooks Project"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fjewish%2F1348-jewsblackdeath.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Bülau (1860), <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z4YBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA423–424">https://books.google.com/books?id=z4YBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA423–424</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Richards (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=saXbAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161">pp. 161–163</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> John, Pope (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-_fnv5pmECsC&pg=PA177">p. 177</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Smirke (1865), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G4dbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA326">pp. 326–331</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kamen" title="Henry Kamen">Henry Kamen</a>, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision., p. 62, (Yale University Press, 1997). </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> On mercy, and 50,000 estimate, for Marranos Telchin (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4K7QH76_HdIC&pg=PA41">p. 41</a> On 30,000 estimate of Marranos killed, see Pasachoff, Littman (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z4eaj09hscAC&pg=PA151">p. 151</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Cipolla (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sggys-_O-2cC&pg=PA91">p. 91</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Stillman, Zucker (1993) On the Río de la Plata incident, see Matilde Gini de Barnatan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yq7VUKWz5dwC&pg=PA144">p. 144</a>, on Mexico City incident, see Eva Alexandra Uchmany, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yq7VUKWz5dwC&pg=PA128">p. 128</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Carr (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bloodfaithpurgin00carr/page/101">p. 101</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Kamen" class="citation web cs1">Henry Kamen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spanishinquisition2">"The Spanish Inquisition A Historical Revision 4th Ed. By Henry Kamen"</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Inquisition+A+Historical+Revision+4th+Ed.+By+Henry+Kamen&rft.au=Henry+Kamen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspanishinquisition2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> List And Analysis of State Papers Foreign, Jul 1593 – Dec 1594. v. 5; p. 444 (595): by Public Record Office (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0114402181" title="Special:BookSources/978-0114402181">978-0114402181</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Matar (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2QRd_rbWu8C&pg=PR21">p. xxi</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarvajal2011" class="citation news cs1">Carvajal, Doreen (7 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/07/world/europe/07iht-spain07.html">"In Majorca, Atoning for the Sins of 1691"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 20 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Majorca%2C+Atoning+for+the+Sins+of+1691&rft.date=2011-05-07&rft.aulast=Carvajal&rft.aufirst=Doreen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F05%2F07%2Fworld%2Feurope%2F07iht-spain07.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Nachman Seltzer,Incredible, Shaar Press, 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Already noted originally by Hunter (1886), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdv7AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA253">pp. 253–254</a>, see also Salomon, Sassoon, Saraiva (2001), pp. 345–347 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> See extensive table at <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a>, de Almeida (1923), in particular p. 442 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> See for first time Heng (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pRXvHbNLPQ0C&pg=PA56">p. 56</a> on option of public repentance Puff, Bennett, Karras (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QThLAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA387">p. 387</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Pickett (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XH-SMq-NKf0C&pg=PA178">p. 178</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> On Geneva and Venice, see Coward, Dynes, Donaldson (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y8_Ya2s3zN8C&pg=PA36">p. 36</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Crompton (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TfBYd9xVaXcC&pg=PA450">p. 450</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Lithgow (1814), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=whMwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305">p. 305</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Osenbrüggen (1860), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dasalamannische00osengoog/page/n308">p. 290</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> specified as men or women found guilty of same-sex sexual behaviour or guilty of having had sex with animals. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> As late as in 1730 <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Posen</a>, a church robber had his right hand cut off, and the stump covered in pitch. Then, the pitch was ignited, and the person was burnt alive on a pyre as well. Oehlschlaeger (1866), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F41aAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA55">p. 55</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> No fixed penalty was placed on performing acts of witchcraft that had caused no harm </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> All in Koch (1824) Coin forgers: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ/page/n125">Article 111, p. 52</a>, Malevolent witchcraft: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ/page/n68">Article 109, p. 55</a> Sexual acts contrary to nature:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ/page/n61">Article 116, p. 58</a>, Arson:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ/page/n64">Article 125, p. 61</a>, Theft of sacred objects: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ/page/n157">Article 172, p. 84</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Thurston (1912) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm%20New%20Advent">Witchcraft</a>, 2010 web resource.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Professional researchers in the 19th, and early 20th century tended to refuse giving any quantification at all but, when pushed, typically landed on about 100,000 to 1 million victims </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Behringer" title="Wolfgang Behringer">Wolfgang Behringer</a> (1998) on the history of witch-counting, and on specialist academic consensus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historicum.net/themen/hexenforschung/thementexte/rezeption/art/Neun_Millionen/html/ca/0e43e9dea3a4144c50997da6aa74bd34/">Neun Millionen Hexen</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190128080612/https://www.historicum.net/themen/hexenforschung/thementexte/rezeption/art/Neun_Millionen/html/ca/0e43e9dea3a4144c50997da6aa74bd34/">Archived</a> 28 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Originally published in GWU 49 (1998) pp. 664–685, web publication 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Contemporary description of the burning at Ile-des-Javiaux in Barber (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GEu58-OIT1MC&pg=PA241">p. 241</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Extracts of eyewitness report at website of Columbia University, Peter from Mladonovic (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~js322/misc/hus-eng.html">How was executed Jan Hus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130306132946/http://www.columbia.edu/~js322/misc/hus-eng.html">Archived</a> 6 March 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Reconstruction of Joan of Arc's death scene in Mooney, Patterson (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0hYWzuecyHMC&pg=PA1">pp. 1–2</a> excerpt from Mooney (1919) </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Eyewitness account provided in Landucci, Jarvis (1927), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ldpd_10273453_000#page/n169/mode/2up">pp. 142–143</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> According to eyewitness <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Ales" title="Alexander Ales">Alexander Ales</a>, Hamilton entered the pyre at noon, and died after six hours burning, see Tjernagel (1974, web reprint), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wlsessays.net/node/1535">p. 6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100707174042/http://www.wlsessays.net/node/1535">Archived</a> 7 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Description of John Frith's death in Foxe, Townsend, Cattley (1838), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5hA5AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA15">p. 15</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Detailed description of Servetus' death at Kurth (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salon.com/2002/11/12/goldstone/">Out of the Flames</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> A perfunctory official notice of the manner of his death 17 February 1600, is contained in Rowland (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gus_rugtLN0C&pg=PA10">p. 10</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Apparently, Grenadier had been promised to be strangled prior to his burning, but his executioners reneged on that promise as he was fastened to the stake. See modern monograph Rapley (2001), in particular <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lxlHuai91ZsC&pg=PA195">pp. 195–198</a>, for a classic description, see <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Alexandre Dumas</a> on the execution details in Dumas (1843), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t64SAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA424">pp. 424–426</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Alan Wood describes Avvakum's execution as follows: Avvakum and three fellow prisoners were led from their icy cells to an elaborate pyre of pinewood billets and there burned alive. The tsar had finally rid himself of "this turbulent priest", Wood (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VZZLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA44">p. 44</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Foxe, Milner, Cobbin (1856), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foxesbookofmarty00fo/page/608">pp. 608–609</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Foxe, Milner, Cobbin (1856), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foxesbookofmarty00fo/page/864">pp. 864–865</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Foxe, Milner, Cobbin (1856), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foxesbookofmarty00fo/page/925">pp. 925–926</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> For Denmark, see Burns (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qr6_q-chR6MC&pg=PA64">pp. 64–65</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Foxe" title="John Foxe">John Foxe</a> is particularly mentioned in being assiduous at documenting such cases of persecutions. See, Miller (1972), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3S89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA72">p. 72</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> For a claim of the last heretic burned at the stake, see Durso (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=68jfRYQo3zsC&pg=PA29">p. 29</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Sayles (1971) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HVQLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31">p. 31</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Richards (1812), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JRkwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1190">p. 1190</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Willis-Bund (1982), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2gA9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA95">p. 95</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Direct citation in McLynn (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ylf8t7uSGJEC&pg=PA122">p. 122</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> McLynn (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ylf8t7uSGJEC&pg=PA122">p. 122</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Comprehensive list at capitalpunishmentuk.org, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/burning.html">Burning at the stake</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> O'Shea (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YvdKyEJo0osC&pg=PA3">p. 3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> See website article, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rictornorton.co.uk/grubstreet/hayes.htm">The Case of Catherine Hayes</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rictornorton.co.uk/">rictornorton.co.uk</a> See also the detailed synthesis at capitalpunishmentuk.org, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/hayes.html">Catherine Hayes burnt for Petty Treason</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> "Some time in the 1590s, Anne became a Roman Catholic." Wilson (1963), p. 95 "Some time after 1600, but well before March 1603, Queen Anne was received into the Catholic Church in a secret chamber in the royal palace" Fraser (1997), p. 15 "The Queen ... [converted] from her native Lutheranism to a discreet, but still politically embarrassing Catholicism which alienated many ministers of the Kirk" Croft (2003), pp. 24–25 "Catholic foreign ambassadors—who would surely have welcomed such a situation—were certain that the Queen was beyond their reach. 'She is a Lutheran', concluded the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a> envoy Nicolo Molin in 1606." Stewart (2003), p. 182 "In 1602 a report appeared, claiming that Anne ... had converted to the Catholic faith some years before. The author of this report, the Scottish <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Abercromby_(missionary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Abercromby (missionary)">Robert Abercromby</a>, testified that James had received his wife's desertion with equanimity, commenting, 'Well, wife, if you cannot live without this sort of thing, do your best to keep things as quiet as possible.' Anne would, indeed, keep her religious beliefs as quiet as possible: for the remainder of her life—even after her death—they remained obfuscated." Hogge (2005), pp. 303–304 </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Pavlac (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KCjlptFEMZsC&pg=PA145">p. 145</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_89-1">b</a> de Ledrede, Wright (1843) </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> de Ledrede, Davidson, Ward (2004) </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Story of flight in contemporary chronicle Gilbert (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R_w-CZ0eXnYC&pg=PR134">p. cxxxiv</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/burnt-at-the-stake-was-the-original-punishment-for-blasphemy-in-ireland">"Burned at the stake was the original punishment for blasphemy in Ireland"</a>. 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The Irish Independent. 11 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Independent&rft.atitle=Heretic+was+burned+at+the+stake&rft.date=2010-08-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.ie%2Fregionals%2Fwicklowpeople%2Fnews%2Fheretic-was-burned-at-the-stake-27855759.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/blasphemy-from-being-burned-at-the-stake-in-1328-to-a-25000-fine-in-2017-449655.html">"Blasphemy: From being burned at the stake in 1328 to a €25,000 fine in 2017"</a>. Irish Examiner. 9 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Irish+Examiner&rft.atitle=Blasphemy%3A+From+being+burned+at+the+stake+in+1328+to+a+%E2%82%AC25%2C000+fine+in+2017&rft.date=2017-05-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishexaminer.com%2Fireland%2Fblasphemy-from-being-burned-at-the-stake-in-1328-to-a-25000-fine-in-2017-449655.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurden2018" class="citation web cs1">Murden, Sarah (15 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://georgianera.wordpress.com/2018/02/15/darkey-kelly-brothel-keeper-of-dublin/">"'Darkey Kelly', Brothel Keeper of Dublin"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Darkey+Kelly%27%2C+Brothel+Keeper+of+Dublin&rft.date=2018-02-15&rft.aulast=Murden&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgeorgianera.wordpress.com%2F2018%2F02%2F15%2Fdarkey-kelly-brothel-keeper-of-dublin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCathy_Hayes2011" class="citation web cs1">Cathy Hayes (12 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irishcentral.com/news/was-irish-witch-darkey-kelly-really-irelands-first-serial-killer-113340849-237364711.html">"Was Irish witch Darkey Kelly really Ireland's first serial killer?"</a>. IrishCentral.com. Retrieved 4 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Was+Irish+witch+Darkey+Kelly+really+Ireland%27s+first+serial+killer%3F&rft.pub=IrishCentral.com&rft.date=2011-01-12&rft.au=Cathy+Hayes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishcentral.com%2Fnews%2Fwas-irish-witch-darkey-kelly-really-irelands-first-serial-killer-113340849-237364711.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nosmokewithouthellfire1.podomatic.com/">"PodOmatic | Podcast – No Smoke Without Hellfire"</a>. Nosmokewithouthellfire1.podomatic.com. 19 January 2011. Retrieved 4 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PodOmatic+%26%23124%3B+Podcast+%E2%80%93+No+Smoke+Without+Hellfire&rft.pub=Nosmokewithouthellfire1.podomatic.com&rft.date=2011-01-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnosmokewithouthellfire1.podomatic.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCullough-NYT-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCullough-NYT_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCullough-NYT_98-1">b</a> McCullough (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE4D91E3AF93BA35753C1A9669C8B63">The Fairy Defense</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_St_Clair" title="William St Clair">William St Clair</a>, That Greece Might Still Be Free (2008) Hydra incident, p. xxiv, those suspected of hiding money, p. 45, the three Turkish children, p. 77, baked in ovens, p. 81 </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Osenbrüggen (1854), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_C-4PAAAAYAAJ/page/n33">p. 21</a> For a similar, more modern assessment, as well as locating the incident to Hötzelsroda, see Dietze (1995) </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Last name "Mothas" used in extended account in Bischoff, Hitzig (1832), real name "Thomas" given in Herden (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wVNuf9VEhGkC&pg=PA89">p. 89</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> On the manner of execution according to the original account, see Bischoff, Hitzig (1832), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=88dCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA178">p. 178</a> Contemporary newspaper notice, Hübner (1804), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jyVEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PT964">p. 760, column 2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Original account by investigating police officer Heinrich L. Hermann, Hermann (1818) Gustav Rudbrach's mention Rudbrach (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3JOVbGPdrjYC&pg=PA247">p. 247</a> Precise moment of strangulation Gräff (1834), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ucZDAAAAcAAJ/page/n61">p. 56</a> Modern newspaper article Springer (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.welt.de/regionales/berlin/article2489746/Das-letzte-Feuer.html">Das Letzte Feuer</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Osenbrüggen (1854), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_C-4PAAAAYAAJ/page/n33">pp. 21–22, footnote 83</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Scott (1940) p. 41 </li> <li id="cite_note-Maria,_Burned_at_the_Stake-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Maria,_Burned_at_the_Stake_106-0">^</a> CelebrateBoston.com (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.celebrateboston.com/crime/puritan-burned-at-stake-maria.htm">"Maria, Burned at the Stake"</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mark_and_Phillis_Executions-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Mark_and_Phillis_Executions_107-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.celebrateboston.com/crime/puritan-mark-and-phillis-executions.htm">Mark and Phillis Executions</a> (2014) </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> McManus (1973), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2H3S1OLtmagC&pg=PA86">p. 86</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Hoey (1974),<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanheritage.com/content/terror-new-york--1741">Terror in New York–1741</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deathpenaltyusa.org/usa1/other.htm">"DeathPenaltyUSA, the database of executions in the United States"</a>. deathpenaltyusa.org. 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Edinburgh University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Zurkhana, Houtsma (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wpM3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA830">p. 830</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Digby (1853), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4K06AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA342">pp. 342–345</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> De Thevenot, Lovell (1687), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6q9EAAAAcAAJ">p. 69</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Moryson, Hadfield (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fl6gkL5h6A0C&pg=PA171">p. 171</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Braithwaite (1729) On apostates citation, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyrevoluti00braigoog">p. 366</a>, on the conditional fate of non-Muslims, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyrevoluti00braigoog">p. 355</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Shaw (1757), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/travelsorobserv01shawgoog/page/n282">p. 253</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Stillman (1979), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewsofarablands00stil/page/310">pp. 310–311</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Kantor (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1SD_AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA230">p. 230</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.jewishgen.org/wconnect/wc.dll?jg~jgsys~josdates">JOS Calendar Conversion Results</a>, Hirschberg (1981), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g_mh5fuel0QC&pg=PA20">p. 20</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Tully (1817), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QBkQAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA365">p. 365</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Ferrier (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5CLkDgmVs1QC&pg=PA94">p. 94</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Wills (1891), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7180554M/In_the_land_of_the_lion_and_sun">p. 204</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinstedt1962" class="citation book cs1">Winstedt, Richard Olof (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/historyofmalaya0000wins/page/180">A History of Malaya</a>. Singapore: Marican. p. 180.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Malaya&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Marican&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Winstedt&rft.aufirst=Richard+Olof&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmalaya0000wins%2Fpage%2F180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Grote (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=62HlSNN2lqQC&pg=PA305">p. 305, footnote 1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Quote and extrapolation to be found in Collins (2004), p. 35 </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Encycl. Perth. (1816), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VoJnKgmUH54C&pg=PA131">p. 131, column 1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Klein (1833), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ppwAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA351">p. 351</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Stevens (1764), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DIsfAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA522">pp. 522–523</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> For full title and provenance, see item 357 in Nassau (1824), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MDlbAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA17">p. 17</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Steel (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae63Gjp21SgC&pg=PA98">p. 98</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Licinius Crassus</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Saunders (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nFx3OlrBMpQC&pg=PA57">p. 57</a> According to the 13th-century historian <a href="/wiki/Shihab_al-Din_Muhammad_al-Nasawi" title="Shihab al-Din Muhammad al-Nasawi">al-Nasawi</a>, the governor Inal Khan (who had assassinated the <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a> ambassadors and thus given Genghis Khan cause to invade), had the molten gold poured into his eyes and ears, rather than down his throat. Cameron, Sela (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SAX5ohFkcVgC&pg=PA128">p. 128</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Crawford regards the Hulagu story as a legend Crawford (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BfNqgYlo9fMC&pg=PA149">p. 149</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Cummins, Cole, Zorach (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IUKBQfzKlIYC&pg=PA99">p. 99</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Begbie (1834), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0MwNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA447">p. 447</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Eaton (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DNNgdBWoYKoC&pg=PA121">p. 121</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Peletz (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q4TA4hjqjJ0C&pg=PA28">p. 28</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Buckingham (1835), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qrhHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA250">p. 250</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Berger, Sicker (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4jjhnbu8ytEC&pg=PA6">p. 6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Sharma, Srivastava (1981), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nKJiBUFrmfoC&pg=PA361">p. 361</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Benn (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dWL6EEkL8goC&pg=PA3">p. 3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Benn (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dWL6EEkL8goC&pg=PA198">pp. 198–199</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Lee (2010),<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LKj2B9vd7HsC&pg=PA121">pp. 121–122</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Matsumoto (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kF1sTidtP_sC&pg=PA73">p. 73</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorduan2013" class="citation book cs1">Corduan, Winfried (2013). Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions. InterVarsity Press. p. 383. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0830871971" title="Special:BookSources/978-0830871971"><bdi>978-0830871971</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neighboring+Faiths%3A+A+Christian+Introduction+to+World+Religions&rft.pages=383&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0830871971&rft.aulast=Corduan&rft.aufirst=Winfried&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shastri-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Shastri_153-0">^</a> Shakuntala Rao Shastri, Women in the Sacred Laws – the later law books (1960), also reproduced online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.hindubooks.org/women_in_the_sacredlaws/">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140408222221/http://www.hindubooks.org/women_in_the_sacredlaws/">Archived</a> 8 April 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Sashi (1996), p.115 </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> For Yang's full discussion back and forth, see Yang, Sarkar, Sarkar (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GEPYbuzOwcQC&pg=PA21">pp. 21–23</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Columbia-156"><a href="#cite_ref-Columbia_156-0">^</a> S.M. Ikram, Embree (1964) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_17.html">XVII. "Economic and Social Developments under the Mughals"</a> This page maintained by Prof. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frances_Pritchett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frances Pritchett (page does not exist)">Frances Pritchett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> These statistics are further researched and discussed by other scholars, for their reliability (in particular, objections to that) and representation, see For detailed official statistical information 1815–1829,Yang, Sarkar, Sarkar (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GEPYbuzOwcQC&pg=PA23">pp. 23–25</a> see pages 24 and 25 in particular, history behind them, p. 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Mittra, Kumar (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hYEQGam5hVgC&pg=PA200">p. 200</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> For notice of estimate of last time, see Schulte Nordholt (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUVlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211">pp. 211–212, footnote 56</a> For estimate of restriction to royal widows, see Wiener (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GE1uc1UNXNYC&pg=PA267">p. 267</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Biographical entry of C. H. L. Hahn at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.klausdierks.com/Biographies/Biographies_H.htm">BIOGRAPHIES OF NAMIBIAN PERSONALITIES</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Hahn (1966), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8Z3FQXOiNEC&pg=PA33">p. 33</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perckmayr-162"><a href="#cite_ref-Perckmayr_162-0">^</a> Perckmayr, Reginbald (1738). Geschicht- und Predigbuch, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3lpBAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA628">p. 628</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Calvert, Rowe (1858), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fijiandfijiansi00rowegoog/page/n290">p. 258</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> See Hogg (1980) </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Wilson (1853), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JdkHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA4">p. 4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-711642">"On This Day: Poles kill 340 Jews in Jedwabne pogrom 81 years ago"</a>. The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 10 July 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post+%7C+JPost.com&rft.atitle=On+This+Day%3A+Poles+kill+340+Jews+in+Jedwabne+pogrom+81+years+ago&rft.date=2022-07-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2Fdiaspora%2Fantisemitism%2Farticle-711642&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ZurGeschichte-167"><a href="#cite_ref-ZurGeschichte_167-0">^</a> Zur Geschichte der Ordnungspolizei 1936–1942, Teil II, Georg Tessin, Dies Satbe und Truppeneinheiten der Ordnungspolizei, Koblenz 1957, s. 172–173 </li> <li id="cite_note-Grenkevich-168"><a href="#cite_ref-Grenkevich_168-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonid_D._GrenkevichDavid_M._Glantz1999" class="citation book cs1">Leonid D. Grenkevich; <a href="/wiki/David_M._Glantz" title="David M. Glantz">David M. 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Part One: Background", Historical Yearbook of the Nicolae Iorga History Institute (Bucharest) 8 (2011), pp. 202–203 </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180721192111/https://www.khatyn.by/en/tragedy/">""Khatyn" – The tragedy of Khatyn"</a>. 21 July 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khatyn.by/en/tragedy/">the original</a> on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 22 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Khatyn%22+%E2%80%93+The+tragedy+of+Khatyn&rft.date=2018-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khatyn.by%2Fen%2Ftragedy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/news/auschwitz-children-burnt-alive-1.179084">"Auschwitz children 'burnt alive'"</a>. The Irish Times. Retrieved 10 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Auschwitz+children+%27burnt+alive%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fnews%2Fauschwitz-children-burnt-alive-1.179084&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-germany-nazi-massacre-idUSBREA071G320140108">"Former SS soldier, 88, charged over 1944 village massacre in France"</a>. Reuters. 8 January 2014. 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Retrieved 22 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Fox+News+site+embeds+unedited+Isis+video+showing+brutal+murder+of+Jordanian+pilot&rft.date=2015-02-04&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Woolf&rft.aufirst=Nicky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fmedia%2F2015%2Ffeb%2F04%2Ffox-news-shows-isis-video-jordan-pilot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-releases-graphic-video-showing-four-shia-spies-being-burned-alive-in-anbar-iraq-10479626.html">"Isis releases graphic video showing four men burning alive in 'act of vengeance'"</a>. The Independent. 31 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Isis+releases+graphic+video+showing+four+men+burning+alive+in+%27act+of+vengeance%27&rft.date=2015-08-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fmiddle-east%2Fisis-releases-graphic-video-showing-four-shia-spies-being-burned-alive-in-anbar-iraq-10479626.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/isil-burns-turkish-soldiers-alive-shocking-video-161223035619947.html">"ISIL video shows 'Turkish soldiers burned alive'"</a>. Al Jazeera. 23 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=ISIL+video+shows+%27Turkish+soldiers+burned+alive%27&rft.date=2016-12-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2016%2F12%2Fisil-burns-turkish-soldiers-alive-shocking-video-161223035619947.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._J._Prince2016" class="citation web cs1">S. J. Prince (22 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heavy.com/news/2016/12/new-isis-islamic-state-amaq-news-cross-shield-syrian-arab-army-russian-turkey-turkish-soldiers-burned-to-death-execution-wilayat-halab-aleppo-syria-video/">"New ISIS Video Burns 2 Caged Turkish Soldiers to Death in Aleppo"</a> (video). Heavy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+ISIS+Video+Burns+2+Caged+Turkish+Soldiers+to+Death+in+Aleppo&rft.pub=Heavy&rft.date=2016-12-22&rft.au=S.+J.+Prince&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheavy.com%2Fnews%2F2016%2F12%2Fnew-isis-islamic-state-amaq-news-cross-shield-syrian-arab-army-russian-turkey-turkish-soldiers-burned-to-death-execution-wilayat-halab-aleppo-syria-video%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> The victims are shown burning to death in the last three minutes of the film. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stuff.co.nz_4573912-210"><a href="#cite_ref-Stuff.co.nz_4573912_210-0">^</a> Feek (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/4573912/Burnt-body-victim-named-as-search-goes-offshore">Burnt body victim named</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-NZ_Herald_10702860-211"><a href="#cite_ref-NZ_Herald_10702860_211-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10702860">"Husband of burnt woman charged with murder"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Zealand_Herald" title="The New Zealand Herald">The New Zealand Herald</a>. 29 January 2011. Retrieved 27 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+Zealand+Herald&rft.atitle=Husband+of+burnt+woman+charged+with+murder&rft.date=2011-01-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzherald.co.nz%2Fnz%2Fnews%2Farticle.cfm%3Fc_id%3D1%26objectid%3D10702860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Almeida1923" class="citation book cs1">de Almeida, Fortunato (1923). "Appendix IX". História da Igreja em Portugal. Vol. 4, 3. Oporto: Imprensa académica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+IX&rft.btitle=Hist%C3%B3ria+da+Igreja+em+Portugal&rft.place=Oporto&rft.pub=Imprensa+acad%C3%A9mica&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=de+Almeida&rft.aufirst=Fortunato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2002" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, James M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XxUvfIko1TUC">Daily Life During the Spanish Inquisition</a>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313316678" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313316678"><bdi>978-0313316678</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+During+the+Spanish+Inquisition&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0313316678&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXxUvfIko1TUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarber1993" class="citation book cs1">Barber, Malcolm (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GEu58-OIT1MC">The Trial of the Templars</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521457279" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521457279"><bdi>978-0521457279</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trial+of+the+Templars&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0521457279&rft.aulast=Barber&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGEu58-OIT1MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/264326.stm">"Missionary widow continues leprosy work"</a>. BBC News. 27 January 1999.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Missionary+widow+continues+leprosy+work&rft.date=1999-01-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fasia-pacific%2F264326.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBegbie1834" class="citation book cs1">Begbie, Peter J. (1834). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/malayanpeninsul00banegoog">The Malayan Peninsula: Embracing Its History, Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants, Politics, Natural History, Etc. from Its Earliest Records</a>. Madras: Author.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Malayan+Peninsula%3A+Embracing+Its+History%2C+Manners+and+Customs+of+the+Inhabitants%2C+Politics%2C+Natural+History%2C+Etc.+from+Its+Earliest+Records&rft.place=Madras&rft.pub=Author&rft.date=1834&rft.aulast=Begbie&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmalayanpeninsul00banegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehringer2006" class="citation web cs1">Behringer, Wolfgang (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190128080612/https://www.historicum.net/themen/hexenforschung/thementexte/rezeption/art/Neun_Millionen/html/ca/0e43e9dea3a4144c50997da6aa74bd34/">"Neun Millionen Hexen. Entstehung, Tradition und Kritik eines populären Mythos"</a>. historicum.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historicum.net/themen/hexenforschung/thementexte/rezeption/art/Neun_Millionen/html/ca/0e43e9dea3a4144c50997da6aa74bd34/">the original</a> on 28 January 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=historicum.net&rft.atitle=Neun+Millionen+Hexen.+Entstehung%2C+Tradition+und+Kritik+eines+popul%C3%A4ren+Mythos&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Behringer&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historicum.net%2Fthemen%2Fhexenforschung%2Fthementexte%2Frezeption%2Fart%2FNeun_Millionen%2Fhtml%2Fca%2F0e43e9dea3a4144c50997da6aa74bd34%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-MenahemEdreiHecht2012" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Menahem, Hanina (author, ed.); Edrei, Arye (ed.); Hecht, Neil S. (ed.) (2012). "3, Exigency Authority". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J-ZE_BJpJnIC">Windows Onto Jewish Legal Culture: Fourteen Exploratory Essays</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415500494" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415500494"><bdi>978-0415500494</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3%2C+Exigency+Authority&rft.btitle=Windows+Onto+Jewish+Legal+Culture%3A+Fourteen+Exploratory+Essays&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0415500494&rft.aulast=Ben-Menahem&rft.aufirst=Hanina+%28author%2C+ed.%29&rft.au=Edrei%2C+Arye+%28ed.%29&rft.au=Hecht%2C+Neil+S.+%28ed.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ-ZE_BJpJnIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first1=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenn2007" class="citation book cs1">Benn, James A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dWL6EEkL8goC">Burning for the Buddha: Self-Immolation in Chinese Buddhism</a>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0824829926" title="Special:BookSources/978-0824829926"><bdi>978-0824829926</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Burning+for+the+Buddha%3A+Self-Immolation+in+Chinese+Buddhism&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0824829926&rft.aulast=Benn&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdWL6EEkL8goC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergerSicker2009" class="citation book cs1">Berger, Stefan; Sicker, Dieter (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4jjhnbu8ytEC">Classics in Spectroscopy</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3527325160" title="Special:BookSources/978-3527325160"><bdi>978-3527325160</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classics+in+Spectroscopy&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3527325160&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Sicker%2C+Dieter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4jjhnbu8ytEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBischoff1832" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Bischoff (1832). Hitzig, Julius (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=88dCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA109">"Wer ist im Sinne der Carolina als ein "boshafter überwundener Brenner" zu bestrafen?"</a>. Annalen der Deutschen und Ausländischen Criminal-Rechtspflege. 2 (Neue Folge), 14 (In total) (27). Berlin: Ferdinand Dümmler: 109–178.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Deutschen+und+Ausl%C3%A4ndischen+Criminal-Rechtspflege&rft.atitle=Wer+ist+im+Sinne+der+Carolina+als+ein+%22boshafter+%C3%BCberwundener+Brenner%22+zu+bestrafen%3F&rft.volume=2+%28Neue+Folge%29%2C+14+%28In+total%29&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=109-178&rft.date=1832&rft.au=Bischoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D88dCAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlake1857" class="citation book cs1">Blake, William O. (1857). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofslavery1857blak">The History of Slavery and the Slave Trade, Ancient and Modern</a>. Columnus, Ohio: J. and H. Miller. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofslavery1857blak/page/154">154</a>–155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312272883" title="Special:BookSources/978-0312272883"><bdi>978-0312272883</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Slavery+and+the+Slave+Trade%2C+Ancient+and+Modern&rft.place=Columnus%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=154-155&rft.pub=J.+and+H.+Miller&rft.date=1857&rft.isbn=978-0312272883&rft.aulast=Blake&rft.aufirst=William+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofslavery1857blak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuckingham,_J.S.1835" class="citation journal cs1">Buckingham, J.S. (28 March 1835). James S. Buckingham (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qrhHAQAAIAAJ">"The Athenæum"</a>. 387. London: J. Francis.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Athen%C3%A6um&rft.volume=387&rft.date=1835-03-28&rft.au=Buckingham%2C+J.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqrhHAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBülau1860" class="citation book cs1">Bülau, Friedrich (1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z4YBAAAAQAAJ">Geheime Geschichten und räthselhafte Menschen, Sammlung verborgener oder vergessener Merkwürdigkeiten</a>. Vol. 12. Leipzig: Brockhaus.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geheime+Geschichten+und+r%C3%A4thselhafte+Menschen%2C+Sammlung+verborgener+oder+vergessener+Merkw%C3%BCrdigkeiten&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Brockhaus&rft.date=1860&rft.aulast=B%C3%BClau&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz4YBAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2003" class="citation book cs1">Burns, William E. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qr6_q-chR6MC">Witch Hunts in Europe and America: An Encyclopedia</a>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313321429" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313321429"><bdi>978-0313321429</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Witch+Hunts+in+Europe+and+America%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0313321429&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQr6_q-chR6MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalvertRowe1858" class="citation book cs1">Calvert, James; Rowe, George S. (ed.) (1858). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ov1EAAAAIAAJ">Fiji and the Fijians: Mission history</a>. Vol. 2. London: A. Heylin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fiji+and+the+Fijians%3A+Mission+history&rft.place=London&rft.pub=A.+Heylin&rft.date=1858&rft.aulast=Calvert&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Rowe%2C+George+S.+%28ed.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOv1EAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameronSela2010" class="citation book cs1">Cameron, Scott; Sela, Ron, eds. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SAX5ohFkcVgC">Islamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources</a>. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0253353856" title="Special:BookSources/978-0253353856"><bdi>978-0253353856</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Central+Asia%3A+An+Anthology+of+Historical+Sources&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0253353856&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSAX5ohFkcVgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarey1814" class="citation journal cs1">Carey, William (April 1814). J. Hooper (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IfADAAAAQAAJ">"Burning a leper to death"</a>. Evangelical Magazine and Missionary Chronicle. 22. London: Williams&Son.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evangelical+Magazine+and+Missionary+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Burning+a+leper+to+death&rft.volume=22&rft.date=1814-04&rft.aulast=Carey&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIfADAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr2009" class="citation book cs1">Carr, Matthew (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=netlOtzI6R8C">Blood and Faith: The Purging of Muslim Spain</a>. New York: The New Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1595583611" title="Special:BookSources/978-1595583611"><bdi>978-1595583611</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+Faith%3A+The+Purging+of+Muslim+Spain&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+New+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1595583611&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnetlOtzI6R8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarvacho2004" class="citation book cs1">Carvacho, René M. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P30WGMWwsqMC">La Inquisición de Lima: signos de su decadencia, 1726–1750</a>. <a href="/wiki/LOM_Ediciones" title="LOM Ediciones">LOM Ediciones</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9562827089" title="Special:BookSources/978-9562827089"><bdi>978-9562827089</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Inquisici%C3%B3n+de+Lima%3A+signos+de+su+decadencia%2C+1726%E2%80%931750&rft.pub=LOM+Ediciones&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-9562827089&rft.aulast=Carvacho&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP30WGMWwsqMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_las_Casas1974" class="citation book cs1">De las Casas, Bartolomé (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=krP0qAvXK4QC">The Devastation of the Indies: A Brief Account</a>. JHU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801844300" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801844300"><bdi>978-0801844300</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Devastation+of+the+Indies%3A+A+Brief+Account&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0801844300&rft.aulast=De+las+Casas&rft.aufirst=Bartolom%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkrP0qAvXK4QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraithwaite1729" class="citation book cs1">Braithwaite, John (1729). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyrevoluti00braigoog">The history of the revolutions in the empire of Morocco</a>. London, UK: Knapton and Betterworth.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+the+revolutions+in+the+empire+of+Morocco&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Knapton+and+Betterworth&rft.date=1729&rft.aulast=Braithwaite&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryrevoluti00braigoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCipolla2005" class="citation book cs1">Cipolla, Gaetano (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sggys-_O-2cC">Siciliana: Studies on the Sicilian Ethos</a>. Mineola, New York: Legas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1881901457" title="Special:BookSources/978-1881901457"><bdi>978-1881901457</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Siciliana%3A+Studies+on+the+Sicilian+Ethos&rft.place=Mineola%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Legas&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1881901457&rft.aulast=Cipolla&rft.aufirst=Gaetano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSggys-_O-2cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2004" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain 409–711. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631181857" title="Special:BookSources/0631181857"><bdi>0631181857</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visigothic+Spain+409%E2%80%93711&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0631181857&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowardDynesDonaldson1992" class="citation book cs1">Coward, D.A; Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.); Donaldson, Stephen (ed.) (1992). "Attitudes to Homosexuality in Eighteenth Century France". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y8_Ya2s3zN8C">History of Homosexuality in Europe and America</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0815305507" title="Special:BookSources/978-0815305507"><bdi>978-0815305507</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Attitudes+to+Homosexuality+in+Eighteenth+Century+France&rft.btitle=History+of+Homosexuality+in+Europe+and+America&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0815305507&rft.aulast=Coward&rft.aufirst=D.A&rft.au=Dynes%2C+Wayne+R.+%28ed.%29&rft.au=Donaldson%2C+Stephen+%28ed.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy8_Ya2s3zN8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroft2003" class="citation book cs1">Croft, J.Pauline (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kingjames00crof">King James</a>. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0333613953" title="Special:BookSources/0333613953"><bdi>0333613953</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+James&rft.place=Basingstoke+and+New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0333613953&rft.aulast=Croft&rft.aufirst=J.Pauline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkingjames00crof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford2003" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, Paul, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BfNqgYlo9fMC&pg=PA149">The 'Templar of Tyre': Part III of the 'Deeds of the Cypriots'</a>. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1840146189" title="Special:BookSources/978-1840146189"><bdi>978-1840146189</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%27Templar+of+Tyre%27%3A+Part+III+of+the+%27Deeds+of+the+Cypriots%27&rft.place=Aldershot%2C+England&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1840146189&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBfNqgYlo9fMC%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrompton2006" class="citation book cs1">Crompton, Louis (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TfBYd9xVaXcC">Homosexuality and Civilization</a>. Boston: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674030060" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674030060"><bdi>978-0674030060</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Homosexuality+and+Civilization&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0674030060&rft.aulast=Crompton&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTfBYd9xVaXcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCumminsColeZorach_(ed.)2009" class="citation book cs1">Cummins, Thomas; Cole, Martin W. (ed.); Zorach (ed.), Rebecca (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IUKBQfzKlIYC&pg=PA99">"The Golden Calf in America"</a>. The Idol in the Age of Art: Objects, Devotions and the Early Modern World. Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0754652908" title="Special:BookSources/978-0754652908"><bdi>978-0754652908</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Golden+Calf+in+America&rft.btitle=The+Idol+in+the+Age+of+Art%3A+Objects%2C+Devotions+and+the+Early+Modern+World&rft.place=Burlington%2C+Vermont&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0754652908&rft.aulast=Cummins&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Cole%2C+Martin+W.+%28ed.%29&rft.au=Zorach+%28ed.%29%2C+Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIUKBQfzKlIYC%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDas1977" class="citation book cs1">Das, Sukla (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rQa43r1GyicC">Crime and Punishment in Ancient India: (C. A.D. 300 to A.D. 1100)</a>. Abhinav Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8170170549" title="Special:BookSources/978-8170170549"><bdi>978-8170170549</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+and+Punishment+in+Ancient+India%3A+%28C.+A.D.+300+to+A.D.+1100%29&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-8170170549&rft.aulast=Das&rft.aufirst=Sukla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrQa43r1GyicC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDecker2001" class="citation web cs1">Decker, Roy (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090315024147/http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/uc_decker_carthrel3.htm">"Religion of Carthage"</a>. 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Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0881460919" title="Special:BookSources/978-0881460919"><bdi>978-0881460919</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Armor+for+the+Back%3A+Baptist+Prison+Writings%2C+1600s%E2%80%931700s&rft.place=Macon%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=Mercer+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0881460919&rft.aulast=Durso&rft.aufirst=Keith+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D68jfRYQo3zsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerthensis1816" class="citation book cs1">Perthensis, Encyclopaedia (1816). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VoJnKgmUH54C">Encyclopaedia Perthensis; or, Universal dictionary of Knowledge</a>. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521254847" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521254847"><bdi>978-0521254847</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Social+History+of+the+Deccan%2C+1300%E2%80%931761%3A+Eight+Indian+Lives&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0521254847&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDNNgdBWoYKoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEraly2011" class="citation book cs1">Eraly, Abraham (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C">The First Spring: The Golden Age of India</a>. 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Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1850435648" title="Special:BookSources/978-1850435648"><bdi>978-1850435648</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Journey+To+Persia&rft.place=London&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1850435648&rft.aulast=Ferrier&rft.aufirst=Ronald+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5CLkDgmVs1QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoxeTownsendCattley1838" class="citation book cs1">Foxe, John; Townsend, George (commentary); Cattley, Stephen R. (ed.) 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London: Knight and Son. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foxesbookofmarty00fo/page/608">608</a>–609.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foxe%27s+book+of+martyrs%3A+a+complete+and+authentic+account+of+the+lives%2C+sufferings%2C+and+triumphant+deaths+of+the+primitive+and+Protestant+martyrs+in+all+parts+of+the+world%2C+with+notes%2C+comments+and+illustrations&rft.place=London&rft.pages=608-609&rft.pub=Knight+and+Son&rft.date=1856&rft.aulast=Foxe&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Milner%2C+John&rft.au=Cobbin%2C+Ingram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoxesbookofmarty00fo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrança,_Ronaldo." class="citation web cs1">França, Ronaldo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071015082422/http://veja.abril.com.br/300102/p_094.html">"Como na Chicago de Capone"</a>. Veja on-line (30 January 2002). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://veja.abril.com.br/300102/p_094.html">the original</a> on 15 October 2007. Retrieved 8 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Veja+on-line+%2830+January+2002%29&rft.atitle=Como+na+Chicago+de+Capone&rft.au=Fran%C3%A7a%2C+Ronaldo.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fveja.abril.com.br%2F300102%2Fp_094.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraser1997" class="citation book cs1">Fraser, Antonia (1997). Faith and Treason: The Story of the Gunpowder Plot. 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(2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R_w-CZ0eXnYC">Chartularies of St Mary's Abbey, Dublin: With the Register of Its House at Dunbrody, and Annals of Ireland</a>. Vol. 2. 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Rio de Janeiro. Retrieved 6 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folha+de+S.Paulo&rft.atitle=Autorizado+a+visitar+fam%C3%ADlia%2C+condenado+por+morte+de+Tim+Lopes+foge+da+pris%C3%A3o&rft.date=2010-05-24&rft.au=Grellet%2C+F%C3%A1bio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.folha.uol.com.br%2Fcotidiano%2F740136-autorizado-a-visitar-familia-condenado-por-morte-de-tim-lopes-foge-da-prisao.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrote2013" class="citation book cs1">Grote, George (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=62HlSNN2lqQC">History of Greece</a>. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521319171" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521319171"><bdi>978-0521319171</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+in+the+Seventh+Century%3A+The+Transformation+of+a+Culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0521319171&rft.aulast=Haldon&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpSHmT1G_5T0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamiltonHamiltonStoyanov1998" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Janet; Hamilton, Bernard; Stoyanov, Yuri (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uH-8AAAAIAAJ">Christian Dualist Heresies in the Byzantine World, C. 650-c. 1450: Selected Sources</a>. 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Coles. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0774029254" title="Special:BookSources/978-0774029254"><bdi>978-0774029254</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cannibalism+%26+Human+Sacrifice&rft.pub=Coles&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0774029254&rft.aulast=Hogg&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogge2005" class="citation book cs1">Hogge, Alice (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godssecretagents00hogg">God's Secret Agents: Queen Elizabeth's Forbidden Priests and the Hatching of the Gunpowder Plot</a>. London: Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0007156375" title="Special:BookSources/0007156375"><bdi>0007156375</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Secret+Agents%3A+Queen+Elizabeth%27s+Forbidden+Priests+and+the+Hatching+of+the+Gunpowder+Plot&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0007156375&rft.aulast=Hogge&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodssecretagents00hogg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHübner1804" class="citation journal cs1">Hübner, Lorenz (7 August 1804). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jyVEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PT964">"Eisenach, den 15ten July"</a>. Kurpfalzbaierische Gnädigst Priviligierte Münchner Staats-Zeitung. 5 (185). Munich: Kurpfb. Münchner Zeitungs-Comptoir: 760.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kurpfalzbaierische+Gn%C3%A4digst+Priviligierte+M%C3%BCnchner+Staats-Zeitung&rft.atitle=Eisenach%2C+den+15ten+July&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=185&rft.pages=760&rft.date=1804-08-07&rft.aulast=H%C3%BCbner&rft.aufirst=Lorenz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjyVEAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPT964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter2013" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, W.W (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdv7AQAAQBAJ">The Indian Empire: Its People, History and Products</a>. 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Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231025805" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231025805"><bdi>978-0231025805</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Economic+and+Social+Developments+under+the+Mughals&rft.btitle=Muslim+Civilization+in+India&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-0231025805&rft.aulast=Ikram&rft.aufirst=S.M.&rft.au=Embree%2C+Ainslie+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuslimcivilizati00ikra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnPope2003" class="citation book cs1">John, Barbara; Pope, Robert (ed.) (2003). "An Examination of the Origins and Development of the Legend of the Jewish Mass Poisoner". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-_fnv5pmECsC">Honouring the Past and Shaping the Future: Religious and Biblical Studies in Wales : Essays in Honour of Gareth Lloyd Jones</a>. Leominster: Gracewing Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0852444016" title="Special:BookSources/978-0852444016"><bdi>978-0852444016</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Examination+of+the+Origins+and+Development+of+the+Legend+of+the+Jewish+Mass+Poisoner&rft.btitle=Honouring+the+Past+and+Shaping+the+Future%3A+Religious+and+Biblical+Studies+in+Wales+%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+Gareth+Lloyd+Jones&rft.place=Leominster&rft.pub=Gracewing+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0852444016&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft.au=Pope%2C+Robert+%28ed.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-_fnv5pmECsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulius_CaesarMcDevitt_(tr.)Bohn_(tr.)1851" class="citation book cs1">Julius Caesar, Gaius; McDevitt (tr.); Bohn (tr.) 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Boston: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300078800" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300078800"><bdi>978-0300078800</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Inquisition%3A+A+Historical+Revision&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0300078800&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspanishinquisiti00henr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanina2008" class="citation news cs1">Kanina, Wangui (21 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL21301127">"Mob burns to death 11 Kenyan 'witches'"</a>. Reuters.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Mob+burns+to+death+11+Kenyan+%27witches%27&rft.date=2008-05-21&rft.aulast=Kanina&rft.aufirst=Wangui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FlatestCrisis%2FidUSL21301127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKantor1993" class="citation book cs1">Kantor, Mattis (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1SD_AQAAQBAJ">The Jewish Time Line Encyclopedia: A Year-by-Year History From Creation to the Present</a>. Lanham, Maryland: Jason Aronson, Incorporated. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1461631491" title="Special:BookSources/978-1461631491"><bdi>978-1461631491</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Time+Line+Encyclopedia%3A+A+Year-by-Year+History+From+Creation+to+the+Present&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Jason+Aronson%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1461631491&rft.aulast=Kantor&rft.aufirst=Mattis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1SD_AQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKantor2005" class="citation book cs1">Kantor, Máttis (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6uK5pa3R4d8C&pg=PA203">Codex Judaica: Chronological Index of Jewish History, Covering 5,764 Years of Biblical, Talmudic & Post-Talmudic History</a>. Zichron Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0967037837" title="Special:BookSources/978-0967037837"><bdi>978-0967037837</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Codex+Judaica%3A+Chronological+Index+of+Jewish+History%2C+Covering+5%2C764+Years+of+Biblical%2C+Talmudic+%26+Post-Talmudic+History&rft.pub=Zichron+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0967037837&rft.aulast=Kantor&rft.aufirst=M%C3%A1ttis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6uK5pa3R4d8C%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein1833" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Samuel (1833). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ppwAAAAAcAAJ">Handbuch der Geschichte von Ungarn und seiner Verfaßung</a>. 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Marburg: Krieger.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hals-oder+peinliche+Gerichtsordnung+Kaiser+Carls+V&rft.place=Marburg&rft.pub=Krieger&rft.date=1824&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=Johann+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurth2002" class="citation web cs1">Kurth, Peter (12 November 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salon.com/2002/11/12/goldstone/">""Out of the Flames" by Lawrence and Nancy Goldstone"</a>. Salon. Retrieved 11 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Salon&rft.atitle=%22Out+of+the+Flames%22+by+Lawrence+and+Nancy+Goldstone&rft.date=2002-11-12&rft.aulast=Kurth&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salon.com%2F2002%2F11%2F12%2Fgoldstone%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKyle2002" class="citation book cs1">Kyle, Donald G. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x4vekGBc_McC">Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0203006351" title="Special:BookSources/978-0203006351"><bdi>978-0203006351</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spectacles+of+Death+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0203006351&rft.aulast=Kyle&rft.aufirst=Donald+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx4vekGBc_McC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanducciJarvis1927" class="citation book cs1">Landucci, Luca; Jarvis, Alice de Rosen (tr.) (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ldpd_10273453_000">A Florentine diary from 1450 to 1516</a>. London: J.M. Dent&Sons, Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Florentine+diary+from+1450+to+1516&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.M.+Dent%26Sons%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Landucci&rft.aufirst=Luca&rft.au=Jarvis%2C+Alice+de+Rosen+%28tr.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fldpd_10273453_000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLattimer2007" class="citation news cs1">Lattimer, Mark (13 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/13/gender.iraq">"Freedom Lost"</a>. The Guardian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Freedom+Lost&rft.date=2007-12-13&rft.aulast=Lattimer&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2007%2Fdec%2F13%2Fgender.iraq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_La_VegaRycaut1688" class="citation book cs1">de La Vega, Garcilaso; Rycaut, Paul (tr.) (1688). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PQYQruNKzaYC&pg=PA216">The Royal Commentaries of Peru</a>. London: Christopher Wilkinson. pp. 216–217.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Royal+Commentaries+of+Peru&rft.place=London&rft.pages=216-217&rft.pub=Christopher+Wilkinson&rft.date=1688&rft.aulast=de+La+Vega&rft.aufirst=Garcilaso&rft.au=Rycaut%2C+Paul+%28tr.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPQYQruNKzaYC%26pg%3DPA216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_LedredeWright1843" class="citation book cs1">de Ledrede, Richard; Wright, Thomas (ed.) (1843). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz07AQAAMAAJ">A Contemporary Narrative of the Proceedings Against Dame Alice Kyteler, Prosecuted for Sorcery in 1324, by Richard de Ledrede, Bishop of Ossory</a>. London: The Camden Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Contemporary+Narrative+of+the+Proceedings+Against+Dame+Alice+Kyteler%2C+Prosecuted+for+Sorcery+in+1324%2C+by+Richard+de+Ledrede%2C+Bishop+of+Ossory&rft.place=London&rft.pub=The+Camden+Society&rft.date=1843&rft.aulast=de+Ledrede&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Wright%2C+Thomas+%28ed.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDz07AQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_LedredeDavidsonWard2004" class="citation book cs1">de Ledrede, Richard; Davidson, Sharon (ed.); Ward, John (2004). The Sorcery Trial of Alice Kyteler: A Contemporary Account (1324). Asheville, North Carolina: Pegasus Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1889818429" title="Special:BookSources/978-1889818429"><bdi>978-1889818429</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sorcery+Trial+of+Alice+Kyteler%3A+A+Contemporary+Account+%281324%29&rft.place=Asheville%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pub=Pegasus+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1889818429&rft.aulast=de+Ledrede&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Davidson%2C+Sharon+%28ed.%29&rft.au=Ward%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2010" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Samuel (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LKj2B9vd7HsC">Rediscovering Japan, Reintroducing Christendom: Two Thousand Years of Christian History in Japan</a>. Lanham, Maryland: Hamilton Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0761849506" title="Special:BookSources/978-0761849506"><bdi>978-0761849506</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rediscovering+Japan%2C+Reintroducing+Christendom%3A+Two+Thousand+Years+of+Christian+History+in+Japan&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Hamilton+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0761849506&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLKj2B9vd7HsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLithgow1814" class="citation book cs1">Lithgow, William (1814). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=whMwAAAAYAAJ">Travels & Voyages Through Europe, Asia, and Africa, for Nineteen Years</a>. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme&Brown.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travels+%26+Voyages+Through+Europe%2C+Asia%2C+and+Africa%2C+for+Nineteen+Years&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Hurst%2C+Rees%2C+Orme%26Brown&rft.date=1814&rft.aulast=Lithgow&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwhMwAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCullough2000" class="citation news cs1">McCullough, David W. (8 October 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE4D91E3AF93BA35753C1A9669C8B63">"The Fairy Defense"</a>. The New York Times. 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London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136093081" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136093081"><bdi>978-1136093081</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+and+Punishment+in+Eighteenth+Century+England&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1136093081&rft.aulast=McLynn&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYlf8t7uSGJEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcManus1973" class="citation book cs1">McManus, Edgar J. (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2H3S1OLtmagC">Black Bondage in the North</a>. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0815628934" title="Special:BookSources/978-0815628934"><bdi>978-0815628934</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Bondage+in+the+North&rft.place=Syracuse%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0815628934&rft.aulast=McManus&rft.aufirst=Edgar+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2H3S1OLtmagC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManu1825" class="citation book cs1">Manu (1825). Haughton; Graves C. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1blZAAAAMAAJ">The Institutes of Menu</a>. Vol. 2. London: Cox and Baylis.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Institutes+of+Menu&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cox+and+Baylis&rft.date=1825&rft.au=Manu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1blZAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkoe2000" class="citation book cs1">Markoe, Glenn (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC">Phoenicians</a>. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520226142" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520226142"><bdi>978-0520226142</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phoenicians&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0520226142&rft.aulast=Markoe&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsmPZ-ou74EwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatar2013" class="citation book cs1">Matar, Nabil I. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2QRd_rbWu8C">Europe Through Arab Eyes, 1578–1727</a>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231512084" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231512084"><bdi>978-0231512084</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+Through+Arab+Eyes%2C+1578%E2%80%931727&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0231512084&rft.aulast=Matar&rft.aufirst=Nabil+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz2QRd_rbWu8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatsumoto2009" class="citation book cs1">Matsumoto, Dianna (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kF1sTidtP_sC">The Soul of a Nation: Japan's Destiny</a>. Garden City, New York: Morgan James Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1600375538" title="Special:BookSources/978-1600375538"><bdi>978-1600375538</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soul+of+a+Nation%3A+Japan%27s+Destiny&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Morgan+James+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1600375538&rft.aulast=Matsumoto&rft.aufirst=Dianna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkF1sTidtP_sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiley1843" class="citation book cs1">Miley, John (1843). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iSsLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA223">Rome, as it was Under Paganism, and as it Became Under the Popes, Volume 1</a>. London: J. Madden. pp. 223–224.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%2C+as+it+was+Under+Paganism%2C+and+as+it+Became+Under+the+Popes%2C+Volume+1&rft.place=London&rft.pages=223-224&rft.pub=J.+Madden&rft.date=1843&rft.aulast=Miley&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiSsLAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1972" class="citation book cs1">Miller, John (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/poperypoliticsin00mill">Popery and Politics in England 1660–1688</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521202367" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521202367"><bdi>978-0521202367</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popery+and+Politics+in+England+1660%E2%80%931688&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0521202367&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoperypoliticsin00mill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMittraKumar2004" class="citation book cs1">Mittra, Sangh; Kumar, Bachchan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hYEQGam5hVgC">Encyclopaedia of Women in South Asia: Nepal</a>. Vol. 6. Gyan Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8178351933" title="Special:BookSources/978-8178351933"><bdi>978-8178351933</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Women+in+South+Asia%3A+Nepal&rft.pub=Gyan+Publishing+House&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-8178351933&rft.aulast=Mittra&rft.aufirst=Sangh&rft.au=Kumar%2C+Bachchan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhYEQGam5hVgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMooney1919" class="citation book cs1">Mooney, John A. (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/joanofarc00moon">Joan of Arc</a>. New York: Encyclopedia Press, Incorporated.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Joan+of+Arc&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Press%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Mooney&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjoanofarc00moon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMooneyPatterson2002" class="citation book cs1">Mooney, John A.; Patterson, Gail (ed.) (2002). "From Domremy to Chinon". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0hYWzuecyHMC">Joan of Arc: Historical Overview and Bibliography</a>. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1590335031" title="Special:BookSources/978-1590335031"><bdi>978-1590335031</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Domremy+to+Chinon&rft.btitle=Joan+of+Arc%3A+Historical+Overview+and+Bibliography&rft.place=Hauppauge%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1590335031&rft.aulast=Mooney&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft.au=Patterson%2C+Gail+%28ed.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0hYWzuecyHMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorysonHadfield2001" class="citation book cs1">Moryson, Fynes; Hadfield, Andrew (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fl6gkL5h6A0C&pg=PA166">"Fynes Moryson, An Itinerary (1617)"</a>. Amazons, Savages, and Machiavels. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 166–179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198711865" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198711865"><bdi>978-0198711865</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fynes+Moryson%2C+An+Itinerary+%281617%29&rft.btitle=Amazons%2C+Savages%2C+and+Machiavels&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=166-179&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0198711865&rft.aulast=Moryson&rft.aufirst=Fynes&rft.au=Hadfield%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfl6gkL5h6A0C%26pg%3DPA166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2012" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Cullen (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsjuryinquisit0000murp">God's Jury: The Inquisition and the making of the Modern World</a>. 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Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275959524" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275959524"><bdi>978-0275959524</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+the+Death+Penalty+in+the+United+States%2C+1900%E2%80%931998&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0275959524&rft.aulast=O%27Shea&rft.aufirst=Kathleen+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYvdKyEJo0osC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagán2012" class="citation book cs1">Pagán, Victoria (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bHzMYrWHjVoC">Conspiracy Theory in Latin Literature</a>. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0292749795" title="Special:BookSources/978-0292749795"><bdi>978-0292749795</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conspiracy+Theory+in+Latin+Literature&rft.place=Austin%2C+Texas&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0292749795&rft.aulast=Pag%C3%A1n&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbHzMYrWHjVoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaige,_Jeffery_M1983" class="citation journal cs1">Paige, Jeffery M (November 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43640/1/11186_2004_Article_BF00912078.pdf">"Social Theory and Peasant Revolution in Vietnam and Guatemala"</a> (PDF). 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Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810870727" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810870727"><bdi>978-0810870727</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+Homosexuality&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0810870727&rft.aulast=Pickett&rft.aufirst=Brent+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXH-SMq-NKf0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPluskowski2013" class="citation book cs1">Pluskowski, Aleksander (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-8NykshHHesC">The Archaeology of the Prussian Crusade: Holy War and Colonisation</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136162817" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136162817"><bdi>978-1136162817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+the+Prussian+Crusade%3A+Holy+War+and+Colonisation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1136162817&rft.aulast=Pluskowski&rft.aufirst=Aleksander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-8NykshHHesC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPragerTelushkin2007" class="citation book cs1">Prager, Dennis; Telushkin, Joseph (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VK0llzUqQ2YC">Why the Jews?: The Reason for Antisemitism</a>. New York: Touchstone. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1416591238" title="Special:BookSources/978-1416591238"><bdi>978-1416591238</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+the+Jews%3F%3A+The+Reason+for+Antisemitism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Touchstone&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1416591238&rft.aulast=Prager&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft.au=Telushkin%2C+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVK0llzUqQ2YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuffBennettKarras2013" class="citation book cs1">Puff, Helmut; Bennett, Judith M.(ed.); Karras, Ruth M. (ed.) (2013). 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Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9652293237" title="Special:BookSources/978-9652293237"><bdi>978-9652293237</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Restatement+of+Rabbinic+Civil+Law&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pub=Gefen+Publishing+House+Ltd&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-9652293237&rft.aulast=Quint&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2nEZQXWsXG4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadbruch1992" class="citation book cs1">Radbruch, Gustav (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3JOVbGPdrjYC&pg=PA246">"Abbau des Strafrechts. 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Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1441236197" title="Special:BookSources/978-1441236197"><bdi>978-1441236197</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enemy+in+the+Household%3A+Family+Violence+in+Deuteronomy+and+Beyond&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=Baker+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1441236197&rft.aulast=Reeder&rft.aufirst=Caryn+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPiNSpBdtsCgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards2013" class="citation book cs1">Richards, Jeffrey (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=saXbAAAAQBAJ">Sex, Dissidence and Damnation: Minority Groups in the Middle Ages</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136127007" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136127007"><bdi>978-1136127007</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex%2C+Dissidence+and+Damnation%3A+Minority+Groups+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1136127007&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsaXbAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards1812" class="citation book cs1">Richards, William (1812). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JRkwAAAAYAAJ">The History of Lynn: Civil, Ecclesiastical, Political, Commercial, Biographical, Municipal, and Military, from the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time</a>. 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Belmont, California: Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0495809883" title="Special:BookSources/978-0495809883"><bdi>978-0495809883</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+and+Punishment%3A+A+History+of+the+Criminal+Justice+System&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0495809883&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=Mitchel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DawrOHv-gtqQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowland2009" class="citation book cs1">Rowland, Ingrid D. 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Anmol Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8170418597" title="Special:BookSources/978-8170418597"><bdi>978-8170418597</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Indica%3A+India%2C+Pakistan%2C+Bangladesh&rft.pub=Anmol+Publications&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-8170418597&rft.aulast=Sashi&rft.aufirst=S.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2001" class="citation book cs1">Saunders, John J. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nFx3OlrBMpQC">The History of the Mongol Conquests</a>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812217667" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812217667"><bdi>978-0812217667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Mongol+Conquests&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0812217667&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnFx3OlrBMpQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayles1971" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Sayles, George O. 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Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society: 28–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1422371275" title="Special:BookSources/978-1422371275"><bdi>978-1422371275</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-049X">0003-049X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=King+Richard+II+of+England%2C+A+Fresh+Look&rft.volume=115%2C1&rft.pages=28-32&rft.date=1971-02-17&rft.issn=0003-049X&rft.isbn=978-1422371275&rft.aulast=Sayles&rft.aufirst=George+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHVQLAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneider2008" class="citation book cs1">Schneider, Tammi J. 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Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1441206015" title="Special:BookSources/978-1441206015"><bdi>978-1441206015</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mothers+of+Promise%3A+Women+in+the+Book+of+Genesis&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=Baker+Academic&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1441206015&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Tammi+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4hHLe60cYBcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchulte_Nordholt2010" class="citation book cs1">Schulte Nordholt, H.G.C. 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Leyden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004253759" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004253759"><bdi>978-9004253759</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spell+of+Power%3A+A+History+of+Balinese+Politics%2C+1650%E2%80%931940&rft.place=Leyden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-9004253759&rft.aulast=Schulte+Nordholt&rft.aufirst=H.G.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZUVlAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartzHoughtonMacchiarelliBondioli2010" class="citation journal cs1">Schwartz, Jeffrey; Houghton, Frank; Macchiarelli, Roberto; Bondioli, Luca (17 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2822869">"Skeletal Remains from Punic Carthage Do Not Support Systematic Sacrifice of Infants"</a>. PLOS ONE. 5 (2): e9177. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PLoSO...5.9177S">2010PLoSO...5.9177S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0009177">10.1371/journal.pone.0009177</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2822869">2822869</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20174667">20174667</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Skeletal+Remains+from+Punic+Carthage+Do+Not+Support+Systematic+Sacrifice+of+Infants&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e9177&rft.date=2010-02-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2822869%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20174667&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0009177&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PLoSO...5.9177S&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft.au=Houghton%2C+Frank&rft.au=Macchiarelli%2C+Roberto&rft.au=Bondioli%2C+Luca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2822869&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2003" class="citation book cs1">Scott, George R. 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Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742544024" title="Special:BookSources/978-0742544024"><bdi>978-0742544024</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0742544024&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoJOvpkHg7msC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2011" class="citation book cs1">White, Jon M. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GVhQ_lDWq0EC">Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt</a>. Minneola, New York: Courier Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0486425108" title="Special:BookSources/978-0486425108"><bdi>978-0486425108</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Everyday+Life+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Minneola%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0486425108&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Jon+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGVhQ_lDWq0EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiener1995" class="citation book cs1">Wiener, Margaret J. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GE1uc1UNXNYC">Visible and Invisible Realms: Power, Magic, and Colonial Conquest in Bali</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226885827" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226885827"><bdi>978-0226885827</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visible+and+Invisible+Realms%3A+Power%2C+Magic%2C+and+Colonial+Conquest+in+Bali&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0226885827&rft.aulast=Wiener&rft.aufirst=Margaret+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGE1uc1UNXNYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2011" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, Toby (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P07rgiJjsk4C">The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt</a>. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1408810026" title="Special:BookSources/978-1408810026"><bdi>978-1408810026</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1408810026&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Toby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP07rgiJjsk4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillis-Bund1982" class="citation book cs1">Willis-Bund, J.W. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2gA9AAAAIAAJ">A Selection of Cases from the State Trials. Vol. II Part I. Trials for Treason (1660–1678)</a>. Cambridge: CUP Archive. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0029U3KWY">B0029U3KWY</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Selection+of+Cases+from+the+State+Trials.+Vol.+II+Part+I.+Trials+for+Treason+%281660%E2%80%931678%29&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0029U3KWY%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Willis-Bund&rft.aufirst=J.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2gA9AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWills1891" class="citation book cs1">Wills, C.J. (1891). In the land of the lion and sun. p. 204. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7180554M">7180554M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+land+of+the+lion+and+sun&rft.pages=204&rft.date=1891&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7180554M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Wills&rft.aufirst=C.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1963" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, David H. (1963) [original edition 1956]. King James VI & 1. London, UK: Jonathan Cape Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0224605720" title="Special:BookSources/0224605720"><bdi>0224605720</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+James+VI+%26+1&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Jonathan+Cape+Ltd&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=0224605720&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=David+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson,_James_Holbert.1853" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, James Holbert. (1853). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JdkHAAAAQAAJ">Temple bar, the city Golgotha, by a member of the Inner Temple</a>. London: David Bogue. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Temple+bar%2C+the+city+Golgotha%2C+by+a+member+of+the+Inner+Temple&rft.place=London&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=David+Bogue&rft.date=1853&rft.au=Wilson%2C+James+Holbert.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJdkHAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinrothMüllerSommar2006" class="citation book cs1">Winroth, Anders; Müller, Wolfgang P. (ed.); Sommar, Mary E.(ed.) (2006). "Neither Slave Nor Free:Theology and Law in Gratian's Thoughts on the Definition of Marriage and Unfree Persons". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4smZ4JjGJcsC">Medieval Church Law and the Origins of the Western Legal Tradition: A Tribute to Kenneth Pennington</a>. CUA Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813214627" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813214627"><bdi>978-0813214627</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neither+Slave+Nor+Free%3ATheology+and+Law+in+Gratian%27s+Thoughts+on+the+Definition+of+Marriage+and+Unfree+Persons&rft.btitle=Medieval+Church+Law+and+the+Origins+of+the+Western+Legal+Tradition%3A+A+Tribute+to+Kenneth+Pennington&rft.pub=CUA+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0813214627&rft.aulast=Winroth&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+Wolfgang+P.+%28ed.%29&rft.au=Sommar%2C+Mary+E.%28ed.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4smZ4JjGJcsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoblers1855" class="citation journal cs1">Woblers, Julien (1 September 1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WqcNAAAAQAAJ">"Speech for the Amsterdam Anti Slavery Society, 19th July 1855"</a>. The Anti Slavery Reporter. 3. London: Peter Jones Bolton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Anti+Slavery+Reporter&rft.atitle=Speech+for+the+Amsterdam+Anti+Slavery+Society%2C+19th+July+1855&rft.volume=3&rft.date=1855-09-01&rft.aulast=Woblers&rft.aufirst=Julien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWqcNAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2011" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Alan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VZZLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA44">Russia's Frozen Frontier: A History of Siberia and the Russian Far East 1581–1991</a>. London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0340971246" title="Special:BookSources/978-0340971246"><bdi>978-0340971246</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+Frozen+Frontier%3A+A+History+of+Siberia+and+the+Russian+Far+East+1581%E2%80%931991&rft.place=London&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0340971246&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVZZLAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoutsma1987" class="citation book cs1">Houtsma, M. (1987). Zurkhana, Taif (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wpM3AAAAIAAJ">E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936</a>. Vol. 8. Leyden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004082656" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004082656"><bdi>978-9004082656</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=E.J.+Brill%27s+First+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam+1913%E2%80%931936&rft.place=Leyden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-9004082656&rft.aulast=Houtsma&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwpM3AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangSarkarSarkar2008" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Anand A.; Sarkar, Sumit (ed.); Sarkar, Tanika (ed.) (2008). "Whose Sati?Widow-Burning in early Nineteenth Century India". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GEPYbuzOwcQC">Women and Social Reform in Modern India: A Reader</a>. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0253352699" title="Special:BookSources/978-0253352699"><bdi>978-0253352699</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Whose+Sati%3FWidow-Burning+in+early+Nineteenth+Century+India&rft.btitle=Women+and+Social+Reform+in+Modern+India%3A+A+Reader&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0253352699&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Anand+A.&rft.au=Sarkar%2C+Sumit+%28ed.%29&rft.au=Sarkar%2C+Tanika+%28ed.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGEPYbuzOwcQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first2=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZvi_Gilat2013" class="citation book cs1">Zvi Gilat, Israel (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4h8iAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA62">"Exegetical creativity in Interpreting Biblical Laws"</a>. In Lifshitz, Berachyahu (ed.). Jewish Law Annual. Vol. 20. London: Routledge. p. 62, footnote 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136013768" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136013768"><bdi>978-1136013768</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exegetical+creativity+in+Interpreting+Biblical+Laws&rft.btitle=Jewish+Law+Annual&rft.place=London&rft.pages=62%2C+footnote+73&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1136013768&rft.aulast=Zvi+Gilat&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4h8iAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeath+by+burning" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_by_burning&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Burning_to_Death" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Burning to Death">Burning to Death</a>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/burning.html">CapitalPunishmentUK.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.monkeychicken.com/fir.htm">List of deaths by fire throughout history</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad" title="Execution by firing squad">firing squad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lethal_injection" title="Lethal injection">Lethal injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inert_gas_asphyxiation" title="Inert gas asphyxiation">Nitrogen hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_chair" title="Electric chair">Electrocution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">Gas chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decapitation" title="Decapitation">Beheading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoning" title="Stoning">Stoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_methods_of_capital_punishment#Ancient_methods" title="List of methods of capital punishment">Ancient and post-classical methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damnatio_ad_bestias" title="Damnatio ad bestias">Damnatio ad bestias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_eagle" title="Blood eagle">Blood eagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blowing_from_a_gun" title="Blowing from a gun">Blowing from a gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazen_bull" title="Brazen bull">Brazen bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_by_boiling" title="Death by boiling">Boiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wheel" title="Breaking wheel">Breaking wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premature_burial" title="Premature burial">Burial</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crushing_(execution)" title="Crushing (execution)">Crushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decimation_(punishment)" title="Decimation (punishment)">Decimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disembowelment" title="Disembowelment">Disembowelment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismemberment" title="Dismemberment">Dismemberment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_by_drowning" title="Execution by drowning">Drowning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republican_marriage" title="Republican marriage">Republican marriage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_by_elephant" title="Execution by elephant">Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falling_(execution)" title="Falling (execution)">Falling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flaying" title="Flaying">Flaying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrote" title="Garrote">Garrote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbeting" title="Gibbeting">Gibbeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillotine" title="Guillotine">Guillotine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanged,_drawn_and_quartered" title="Hanged, drawn and quartered">Hanged, drawn and quartered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immurement" title="Immurement">Immurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impalement" title="Impalement">Impalement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishikozume" title="Ishikozume">Ishikozume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazzatello" title="Mazzatello">Mazzatello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_by_sawing" title="Death by sawing">Sawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scaphism" title="Scaphism">Scaphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingchi" title="Lingchi">Slow slicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoning" title="Stoning">Stoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffocation_in_ash" title="Suffocation in ash">Suffocation in ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upright_jerker" title="Upright jerker">Upright jerker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waist_chop" title="Waist chop">Waist chop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_by_country" title="Capital punishment by country">Enforcement or use by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_recent_executions_by_jurisdiction" title="List of most recent executions by jurisdiction">Most recent executions by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_row" title="Death row">Death row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executioner" title="Executioner">Executioner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_executioners" title="List of executioners">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scharfrichter" title="Scharfrichter">Scharfrichter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Final statement">Final statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_meal" title="Last meal">Last meal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_methods_of_capital_punishment" title="List of methods of capital punishment">List of methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_capital_punishment" title="Religion and capital punishment">Religion and capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongful_execution" title="Wrongful execution">Wrongful execution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botched_executions" title="List of botched executions">Botched execution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resolutions_concerning_death_penalty_at_the_United_Nations" title="Resolutions concerning death penalty at the United Nations">Resolutions concerning death penalty at the United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_drug_trafficking" title="Capital punishment for drug trafficking">Capital punishment for drug trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fire" title="Template:Fire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fire" title="Template talk:Fire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">Fire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_fires" title="Category:Lists of fires">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Control of fire by early humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fires" title="List of fires">Historic fires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_use_of_fire_in_ecosystems" title="Native American use of fire in ecosystems">Native American use of fire in ecosystems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">Chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_explosion" title="Dust explosion">Dust explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">Fire ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_piston" title="Fire piston">Fire piston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_point" title="Flash point">Flash point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_protection" title="Fire protection">Fire protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">Pyrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_combustion" title="Spontaneous combustion">Spontaneous combustion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">Fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">Heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flame" title="Flame">Flame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">Smoke</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual fires</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fires_by_type" title="Category:Fires by type">By type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fires_by_country" title="Category:Fires by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fires_by_year" title="Category:Fires by year">By year</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crime</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">Arson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Death by burning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyromania" title="Pyromania">Pyromanias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_pyromaniac" title="Child pyromaniac">Child</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefighter" title="Firefighter">Firefighter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Flame_Research_Foundation" title="International Flame Research Foundation">International Flame Research Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Combustion_Institute" title="The Combustion Institute">The Combustion Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wildfires" title="List of wildfires">List of wildfires</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backdraft" title="Backdraft">Backdraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefighting" title="Firefighting">Firefighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_whirl" title="Fire whirl">Fire whirl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_lava" title="Blue lava">Blue lava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ash" title="Ash">Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">Slash-and-burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_making" title="Fire making">Fire making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fire" title="Category:Fire">Category</a></li> <li> <img alt="" 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