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Kagama</i> (1886)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_v._Kagama_(1886)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_General_Allotment_Act_(Dawes_Act),_1887" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_General_Allotment_Act_(Dawes_Act),_1887"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>The General Allotment Act (Dawes Act), 1887</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_General_Allotment_Act_(Dawes_Act),_1887-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twentieth-century_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twentieth-century_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Twentieth-century developments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Twentieth-century_developments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Twentieth-century developments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Twentieth-century_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revenue_and_Indian_Citizenship_acts,_1924" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revenue_and_Indian_Citizenship_acts,_1924"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Revenue and Indian Citizenship acts, 1924</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revenue_and_Indian_Citizenship_acts,_1924-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Reorganization_Act,_1934" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Reorganization_Act,_1934"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Indian Reorganization Act, 1934</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Reorganization_Act,_1934-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_Law_280,_1953" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_Law_280,_1953"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Public Law 280, 1953</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_Law_280,_1953-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_Crow_v._Oglala_Sioux_Tribe_(1956)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Crow_v._Oglala_Sioux_Tribe_(1956)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span><i>Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe</i> (1956)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_Crow_v._Oglala_Sioux_Tribe_(1956)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tribal_governments_today" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tribal_governments_today"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Tribal governments today</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tribal_governments_today-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Tribal governments today subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Tribal_governments_today-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tribal_courts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tribal_courts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Tribal courts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tribal_courts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nation_to_nation:_tribes_and_the_federal_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nation_to_nation:_tribes_and_the_federal_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Nation to nation: tribes and the federal government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nation_to_nation:_tribes_and_the_federal_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tribal_state_relations:_sovereign_within_a_sovereign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tribal_state_relations:_sovereign_within_a_sovereign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Tribal state relations: sovereign within a sovereign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tribal_state_relations:_sovereign_within_a_sovereign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tribal_sovereignty_over_land_and_natural_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tribal_sovereignty_over_land_and_natural_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Tribal sovereignty over land and natural resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tribal_sovereignty_over_land_and_natural_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>List of cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_(Vereinigte_Staaten)" title="Tribal sovereignty (Vereinigte Staaten) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tribal sovereignty (Vereinigte Staaten)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soberan%C3%ADa_tribal_en_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Soberanía tribal en los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Soberanía tribal en los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%82%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="حاکمیت قبیله‌ای در ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حاکمیت قبیله‌ای در ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souverainet%C3%A9_tribale_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Souveraineté tribale aux États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Souveraineté tribale aux États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%83%A8%E6%97%8F%E3%81%AE%E4%B8%BB%E6%A8%A9_(%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD)" title="部族の主権 (アメリカ合衆国) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="部族の主権 (アメリカ合衆国)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stammesuverenitet" title="Stammesuverenitet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Stammesuverenitet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA:s_indiannationer" title="USA:s indiannationer – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="USA:s indiannationer" data-language-autonym="Svenska" 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="float: right; width: ;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size: 125%; background-color: #F0F0F0; vertical-align: middle">Indian reservations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span style="font-weight: normal;">Also known as:</span></li><li>Domestic dependent nations</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png" 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divisions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Created</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1658 (<a href="/wiki/Powhatan" title="Powhatan">Powhatan Tribes</a>)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Number</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">326<sup id="cite_ref-Department_of_the_Interior_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Department_of_the_Interior-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (map includes the 310 as of May 1996)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Populations</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">123 (several) – 173,667 (<a href="/wiki/Navajo_Nation" title="Navajo Nation">Navajo Nation</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Areas</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Ranging from the 1.32-acre (0.534 hectare) <a href="/wiki/Pit_River_Tribe" title="Pit River Tribe">Pit River Tribe</a>'s cemetery in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> to the 16 million–acre (64,750 square kilometer) <a href="/wiki/Navajo_Nation" title="Navajo Nation">Navajo Nation Reservation</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States" title="List of states and territories of the United States"><span style="color:white;">First level</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">State</a> (<a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_(U.S._state)" title="Commonwealth (U.S. state)">Commonwealth</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_(U.S._insular_area)" title="Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)">Commonwealth</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a>) / <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Alaska Native tribal entity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a> / <a href="/wiki/Off-reservation_trust_land" title="Off-reservation trust land">Off-reservation trust land</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tribal_Jurisdictional_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Jurisdictional Area">Tribal Jurisdictional Area</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;"> Second level</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_parishes_in_Louisiana" title="List of parishes in Louisiana">Parish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Borough_(United_States)" title="Borough (United States)">Borough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unorganized_Borough,_Alaska" title="Unorganized Borough, Alaska">Unorganized Borough</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_boroughs_and_census_areas_in_Alaska" title="List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska">Census area</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of populated places in Guam">Villages</a> / <a href="/wiki/Districts_and_sub-districts_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="Districts and sub-districts of the United States Virgin Islands">District (USVI)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_American_Samoa" title="Administrative divisions of American Samoa">District (AS)</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Municipalities of Puerto Rico">Municipality (PR)</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_American_Samoa" title="Administrative divisions of American Samoa">Unorganized atoll</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;"> Third level</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">Cities, towns, and villages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census-designated_place" title="Census-designated place">Census-designated place</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrios_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Barrios of Puerto Rico">Barrio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_house_(Navajo_Nation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapter house (Navajo Nation)">Chapter</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;"> Fourth level</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ward_(United_States)" title="Ward (United States)">Ward</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #8C959A;"> Other areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_the_United_States" title="Protected areas of the United States">Protected areas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Conservation_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation district">Conservation district</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_monument_(United_States)" title="National monument (United States)">National monument</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_the_United_States" title="List of national parks of the United States">National park</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_congressional_districts" title="List of United States congressional districts">Congressional district</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a> (<a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">school district</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homeowner_association" title="Homeowner association">Homeowner association</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compact_of_Free_Association" title="Compact of Free Association">Associated state</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_military_bases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States military bases">Military base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">Federal enclave</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unincorporated_area" title="Unincorporated area">Unincorporated area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_town" title="Ghost town">Ghost town</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/50px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/75px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span><br /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_divisions_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Political divisions of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_divisions_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Political divisions of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_divisions_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political divisions of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_reservations.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Indian_reservations.gif/300px-Indian_reservations.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Indian_reservations.gif/450px-Indian_reservations.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Indian_reservations.gif 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>Map of the contiguous United States with reservation lands excluded as of 2003</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png/300px-Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png/450px-Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png/600px-Indian_reservations_in_the_Continental_United_States.png 2x" data-file-width="966" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>Reservation lands in the contiguous United States as of 2019</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Tribal sovereignty in the United States</b> is the concept of the inherent authority of <a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Indigenous tribes</a> to govern themselves within the borders of the United States. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">U.S. federal government</a> recognized American Indian tribes as independent nations and came to policy agreements with them via <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaties</a>. As the U.S. accelerated its <a href="/wiki/Westward_Expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Westward Expansion">westward expansion</a>, internal political pressure grew for "<a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a>", but the pace of treaty-making grew regardless. The <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> forged the U.S. into a more centralized and nationalistic country, fueling a "full bore assault on tribal culture and institutions", and pressure for Native Americans to assimilate.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act#1871_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act of 1871</a>, Congress prohibited any future treaties. This move was steadfastly opposed by Native Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently, the U.S. recognizes tribal nations as "<b>domestic dependent nations</b>"<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and uses its own legal system to define the relationship between the federal, state, and tribal governments. The U.S. recognizes 574 tribal nations, 229 of which are in Alaska.<sup id="cite_ref-ncai_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncai-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a> explains, "Native peoples and governments have inherent rights and a political relationship with the U.S. government that does not derive from race or ethnicity."<sup id="cite_ref-ncai_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncai-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Native_American_sovereignty_and_the_Constitution">Native American sovereignty and the Constitution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Native American sovereignty and the Constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a> mentions Native American tribes three times: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_3:_Apportionment_of_Representatives_and_taxes" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I, Section 2, Clause 3</a> states that "Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States ... excluding Indians not taxed."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States">Story's <i>Commentaries on the U.S. Constitution</i></a>, "There were Indians, also, in several, and probably in most, of the states at that period, who were not treated as citizens, and yet, who did not form a part of independent communities or tribes, exercising general sovereignty and powers of government within the boundaries of the states."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8:_Powers_of_Congress" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I, Section 8</a> of the Constitution states that "Congress shall have the power to regulate Commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes",<sup id="cite_ref-Policy-Center_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Policy-Center-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> determining that Indian tribes were separate from the federal government, the states, and foreign nations;<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">The Fourteenth Amendment</a>, Section 2 amends the apportionment of representatives in Article I, Section 2 above.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>These constitutional provisions, and subsequent interpretations by the Supreme Court (see below), are today often summarized in three principles of U.S. Indian law:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-deskbook_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deskbook-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Territorial sovereignty</b>: Tribal authority on Indian land is <a href="/wiki/Organic_law" title="Organic law">organic</a> and is not granted by the states in which Indian lands are located.</li> <li><b>Plenary power doctrine</b>: Congress, and not the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Executive_Branch" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Executive Branch">Executive Branch</a> or <a href="/wiki/United_States_Judicial_Branch" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Judicial Branch">Judicial Branch</a>, has ultimate authority with regard to matters affecting the Indian tribes. Federal courts give greater deference to Congress on Indian matters than on other subjects.</li> <li><b>Trust relationship</b>: The federal government has a "duty to protect" the tribes, implying (courts have found) the necessary legislative and executive authorities to effect that duty.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history">Early history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Marshall_Trilogy,_1823–1832"><span id="The_Marshall_Trilogy.2C_1823.E2.80.931832"></span>The Marshall Trilogy, 1823–1832</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Marshall Trilogy, 1823–1832"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hassanamisco_Nipmuc_Indian_Sign.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Hassanamisco_Nipmuc_Indian_Sign.jpg/250px-Hassanamisco_Nipmuc_Indian_Sign.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Hassanamisco_Nipmuc_Indian_Sign.jpg/375px-Hassanamisco_Nipmuc_Indian_Sign.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Hassanamisco_Nipmuc_Indian_Sign.jpg/500px-Hassanamisco_Nipmuc_Indian_Sign.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="616" /></a><figcaption>Hassanamisco Nipmuc Indian Reservation sign</figcaption></figure> <p>The Marshall Trilogy is a set of three Supreme Court decisions in the early nineteenth century affirming the legal and political standing of Indian nations. </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823), holding that private citizens could not purchase lands from Native Americans.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831), holding the Cherokee nation dependent, with a relationship to the United States like that of a "ward to its guardian".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832), which laid out the relationship between tribes and the state and federal governments, stating that the federal government was the sole authority to deal with Indian nations.<sup id="cite_ref-TRR_2021-03-18_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TRR_2021-03-18-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Appropriations_Act_of_1871">Indian Appropriations Act of 1871</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Indian Appropriations Act of 1871"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Originally, the United States had recognized the Indian Tribes as independent nations, but after the Civil War, the U.S. suddenly changed its approach.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act#1871_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act of 1871</a> had two significant sections. First, the Act ended United States recognition of additional Native American tribes or independent nations and prohibited additional treaties. Thus, it required the federal government no longer interact with the various tribes through treaties, but rather through statutes: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>That hereafter no Indian nation or tribe within the territory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty: Provided, further, that nothing herein contained shall be construed to invalidate or impair the obligation of any treaty heretofore lawfully made and ratified with any such Indian nation or tribe.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Indian Appropriations Act of 1871<sup id="cite_ref-App_act_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-App_act-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25_usc_71_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25_usc_71-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The 1871 Act also made it a federal crime to commit murder, manslaughter, rape, assault with intent to kill, arson, burglary, and larceny within any Territory of the United States.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empowerment_of_tribal_courts,_1883"><span id="Empowerment_of_tribal_courts.2C_1883"></span>Empowerment of tribal courts, 1883</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Empowerment of tribal courts, 1883"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Indian_Police" title="United States Indian Police">United States Indian Police</a></div> <p>On April 10, 1883, five years after establishing Indian police powers throughout the various reservations, the Indian Commissioner approved rules for a "court of Indian offenses". The court provided a venue for prosecuting criminal charges but afforded no relief for tribes seeking to resolve civil matters. Another five years later, Congress began providing funds to operate the Indian courts. </p><p>While U.S. courts clarified some of the rights and responsibilities of states and the federal government toward the Indian nations within the new nation's first century, it was almost another century before United States courts determined what powers remained vested in the tribal nations. In the interim, as a trustee charged with protecting their interests and property, the federal government was legally entrusted with ownership and administration of the assets, land, water, and treaty rights of the tribal nations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_v._Kagama_(1886)"><span id="United_States_v._Kagama_.281886.29"></span><i>United States v. Kagama</i> (1886)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: United States v. Kagama (1886)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1871 Act was affirmed in 1886 by the U.S. Supreme Court, in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Kagama" title="United States v. Kagama">United States v. Kagama</a></i>, which affirmed that the Congress has <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> over all Native American tribes within its borders by rationalization that "The power of the general government over these remnants of a race once powerful ... is necessary to their protection as well as to the safety of those among whom they dwell".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court affirmed that the U.S. Government "has the right and authority, instead of controlling them by treaties, to govern them by acts of Congress, they being within the geographical limit of the United States. ... The Indians owe no allegiance to a State within which their reservation may be established, and the State gives them no protection."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_General_Allotment_Act_(Dawes_Act),_1887"><span id="The_General_Allotment_Act_.28Dawes_Act.29.2C_1887"></span>The General Allotment Act (Dawes Act), 1887</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The General Allotment Act (Dawes Act), 1887"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a></div> <p>Passed by Congress in 1887, the "Dawes Act" was named for Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massachusetts, Chairman of the Senate's Indian Affairs Committee. It came as another crucial step in attacking the tribal aspect of the Indians of the time. In essence, the act broke up the land of most all tribes into modest parcels to be distributed to Indian families, and those remaining were auctioned off to white purchasers. Indians who accepted the farmland and became "civilized" were made American citizens. But the Act itself proved disastrous for Indians, as much tribal land was lost, and cultural traditions destroyed. Whites benefited the most; for example, when the government made 2 million acres (8,100 km<sup>2</sup>) of Indian lands available in Oklahoma, 50,000 white settlers poured in almost instantly to claim it all (in a period of one day, April 22, 1889). </p><p><b>Evolution of relationships:</b> The evolution of the relationship between tribal governments and federal governments has been glued together through partnerships and agreements. Also running into problems of course such as finances which also led to not being able to have a stable social and political structure at the helm of these tribes or states.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Twentieth-century_developments">Twentieth-century developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Twentieth-century developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> in the United States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0.7em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Native America"><img alt="Native America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/55px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/83px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/110px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="593" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide#Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slaves">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_slave_ownership" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slave ownership">Native American slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Racism against Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Red Power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American rights">Native American rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">Alcohol and Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_temperance_activists" title="Native American temperance activists">Native American temperance activists</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cultures_in_the_United_States" title="Native American cultures in the United States">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_cuisine_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous cuisine of the Americas">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Wars</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">(1858)|Antelope Hills expedition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars(1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War"> Mohave War(1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War(1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars(1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Political movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Women in politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">MMIW</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_Feather_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Eagle Feather law">Eagle Feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Traditional religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic subdivisions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Demographics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Societal statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reservation">Reservations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_disenrollment" title="Tribal disenrollment">Tribal disenrollment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Geography</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> by region</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Great_Basin" title="Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin">Great Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands">Northeastern Woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau">Northwest Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">The Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Southeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands">Southeastern Woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_North_American_Southwest" title="Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest">Southwest</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> by state</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Iowa" title="Native American tribes in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">war leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">congressional politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">List of federally recognized tribes by state </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revenue_and_Indian_Citizenship_acts,_1924"><span id="Revenue_and_Indian_Citizenship_acts.2C_1924"></span>Revenue and Indian Citizenship acts, 1924</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Revenue and Indian Citizenship acts, 1924"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1924" title="Revenue Act of 1924">Revenue Act of 1924</a> (<a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/68/176">68–176</a>, H.R. 6715, 43 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-43-253">253</a>, enacted <span data-sort-value="000000001924-06-02-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">June 2, 1924</span>), also known as the Mellon tax bill after <a href="/wiki/U.S._Secretary_of_the_Treasury" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Secretary of the Treasury">U.S. Secretary of the Treasury</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Mellon" title="Andrew Mellon">Andrew Mellon</a>, cut <a href="/wiki/Federal_Government_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Government of the United States">federal</a> <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">tax</a> rates and established the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Board_of_Tax_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Board of Tax Appeals">U.S. Board of Tax Appeals</a>, which was later renamed the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Tax_Court" title="United States Tax Court">United States Tax Court</a> in 1942. The Revenue Act was applicable to incomes for 1924.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bottom rate, on income under $4,000, fell from 1.5% to 1.125% (both rates are after reduction by the "<a href="/wiki/Earned_income_credit" class="mw-redirect" title="Earned income credit">earned income credit</a>"). A parallel act, the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a> (<a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/68/175">68–175</a>, H.R. 6355, 43 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-43-253">253</a>, enacted <span data-sort-value="000000001924-06-02-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">June 2, 1924</span>), granted all non-citizen resident Indians citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus the Revenue Act declared that there were no longer any "Indians, not taxed" to be not counted for purposes of <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">United States congressional apportionment</a>. President <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> signed the bill into law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Reorganization_Act,_1934"><span id="Indian_Reorganization_Act.2C_1934"></span>Indian Reorganization Act, 1934</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Indian Reorganization Act, 1934"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1934 the <i><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a></i>, codified as Title 25, Section 476 of the U.S. Code, allowed Indian nations to select from a catalogue of constitutional documents that enumerated powers for tribes and for <a href="/wiki/Tribal_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Council">tribal councils</a>. Though the Act did not specifically recognize the Courts of Indian Offenses, 1934 is widely considered to be the year when tribal authority, rather than United States authority, gave the tribal courts legitimacy. <a href="/wiki/John_Collier_(sociologist)" title="John Collier (sociologist)">John Collier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Margold" class="mw-redirect" title="Nathan Margold">Nathan Margold</a> wrote the solicitor's opinion, "Powers of Indian Tribes" which was issued October 25, 1934, and commented on the wording of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a>. This opinion stated that sovereign powers inhered in Indian tribes except for where they were restricted by Congress. The opinion stated that "Conquest has brought the Indian tribes under the control of Congress, but except as Congress has expressly restricted or limited the internal powers of sovereignty vested in the Indian tribes such powers are still vested in the respective tribes and may be exercised by their duly constituted organs of government."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_Law_280,_1953"><span id="Public_Law_280.2C_1953"></span>Public Law 280, 1953</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Public Law 280, 1953"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Indian_termination_policy" title="Indian termination policy">Indian termination policy</a></div> <p>In 1953, Congress enacted <a href="/wiki/Public_Law_280" title="Public Law 280">Public Law 280</a>, which gave some states extensive jurisdiction over the criminal and civil controversies involving Indians on Indian lands. Many, especially Indians, continue to believe the law unfair because it imposed a system of laws on the tribal nations without their approval. </p><p>In 1965 the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit</a> concluded that no law had ever extended provisions of the U.S. Constitution, including the right of <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a>, to tribal members brought before tribal courts. Still, the court concluded, "it is pure fiction to say that the Indian courts functioning in the Fort Belknap Indian community are not in part, at least, arms of the federal government. Originally they were created by federal executive and imposed upon the Indian community, and to this day the federal government still maintains a partial control over them." In the end however, the Ninth Circuit limited its decision to the particular reservation in question and stated, "it does not follow from our decision that the tribal court must comply with every constitutional restriction that is applicable to federal or state courts." </p><p>While many modern courts in Indian nations today have established <a href="/wiki/Full_faith_and_credit" class="mw-redirect" title="Full faith and credit">full faith and credit</a> with state courts, the nations still have no direct access to U.S. courts. When an Indian nation files suit against a state in U.S. court, they do so with the approval of the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a>. In the modern legal era, the courts and Congress have, however, further refined the often competing jurisdictions of tribal nations, states and the United States in regard to Indian law. </p><p>In the 1978 case of <i><a href="/wiki/Oliphant_v._Suquamish_Indian_Tribe" title="Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe">Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe</a></i>, the Supreme Court, in a 6–2 opinion authored by Justice <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a>, concluded that tribal courts do not have jurisdiction over non-Indians (the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court at that time, <a href="/wiki/Warren_Burger" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren Burger">Warren Burger</a>, and Justice <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> filed a dissenting opinion). But the case left unanswered some questions, including whether tribal courts could use criminal contempt powers against non-Indians to maintain decorum in the courtroom, or whether tribal courts could subpoena non-Indians. </p><p>A 1981 case, <i><a href="/wiki/Montana_v._United_States" title="Montana v. United States">Montana v. United States</a></i>, clarified that tribal nations possess inherent power over their internal affairs, and civil authority over non-members on <a href="/wiki/Fee-simple" class="mw-redirect" title="Fee-simple">fee-simple</a> lands within its reservation when their "conduct threatens or has some direct effect on the political integrity, the economic security, or the health or welfare of the tribe." </p><p>Other cases of those years precluded states from interfering with tribal nations' sovereignty. Tribal sovereignty is dependent on, and subordinate to, only the federal government, not states, under <i>Washington v. Confederated Tribes of Colville Indian Reservation</i> (1980). Tribes are sovereign over tribal members and tribal land, under <i>United States v. Mazurie</i> (1975).<sup id="cite_ref-TRR_2021-03-18_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TRR_2021-03-18-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina">Duro v. Reina</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_495" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 495">495</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/495/676/">676</a> (1990), the Supreme Court held that a tribal court does not have criminal jurisdiction over a non-member Indian, but that tribes "also possess their traditional and undisputed power to exclude persons who they deem to be undesirable from tribal lands. ... Tribal law enforcement authorities have the power if necessary, to eject them. Where jurisdiction to try and punish an offender rests outside the tribe, tribal officers may exercise their power to detain and transport him to the proper authorities." In response to this decision, Congress passed the '<i>Duro</i> Fix', which recognizes the power of tribes to exercise criminal jurisdiction within their reservations over all Indians, including non-members. The <i>Duro</i> Fix was upheld by the Supreme Court in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_541" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 541">541</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/541/193/">193</a> (2004). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_Crow_v._Oglala_Sioux_Tribe_(1956)"><span id="Iron_Crow_v._Oglala_Sioux_Tribe_.281956.29"></span><i>Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe</i> (1956)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe (1956)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Iron_Crow_v._Oglala_Sioux_Tribe" title="Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe">Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe</a></i>, the United States Supreme Court concluded that two <a href="/wiki/Oglala_Sioux" class="mw-redirect" title="Oglala Sioux">Oglala Sioux</a> defendants convicted of adultery under tribal laws, and another challenging a tax from the tribe, were not exempted from the tribal justice system because they had been granted U.S. citizenship. It found that tribes "still possess their inherent sovereignty excepting only when it has been specifically taken from them by treaty or Congressional Act". This means American Indians do not have exactly the same rights of citizenship as other American citizens. The court cited case law from a pre-1924 case that said, "when Indians are prepared to exercise the privileges and bear the burdens of" <i><a href="/wiki/Sui_iuris" title="Sui iuris">sui iuris</a></i>, i.e. of one's own right and not under the power of someone else, "the tribal relation may be dissolved and the national guardianship brought to an end, but it rests with Congress to determine when and how this shall be done, and whether the emancipation shall be complete or only partial" (<i>U.S. v. Nice</i>, 1916). The court further determined, based on the earlier <i><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a></i> case, that "It is thoroughly established that Congress has <a href="/wiki/Plenary_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Plenary authority">plenary authority</a> over Indians." The court held that, "the granting of citizenship in itself did not destroy ... jurisdiction of the Indian tribal courts and ... there was no intention on the part of Congress to do so." The adultery conviction and the power of tribal courts were upheld. </p><p>Further, the court held that whilst no law had directly established tribal courts, federal funding "including pay and other expenses of judges of Indian courts" implied that they were legitimate courts. <cite><i><a href="/wiki/Iron_Crow_v._Oglala_Sioux_Tribe" title="Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe">Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe</a></i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/231/89/374603/">231 F.2d 89</a> (8th Cir. 1956) ("including pay and other expenses of judges of Indian courts"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tribal_governments_today">Tribal governments today</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tribal governments today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Federally_recognized_tribes_by_state.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Federally_recognized_tribes_by_state.png/220px-Federally_recognized_tribes_by_state.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Federally_recognized_tribes_by_state.png/330px-Federally_recognized_tribes_by_state.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Federally_recognized_tribes_by_state.png/440px-Federally_recognized_tribes_by_state.png 2x" data-file-width="3996" data-file-height="2471" /></a><figcaption>Map of states with US federally recognized tribes marked in yellow. Hawaii and the states that removed all of their tribes are marked in gray.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Seal_of_the_Navajo_Nation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Great_Seal_of_the_Navajo_Nation.svg/220px-Great_Seal_of_the_Navajo_Nation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Great_Seal_of_the_Navajo_Nation.svg/330px-Great_Seal_of_the_Navajo_Nation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Great_Seal_of_the_Navajo_Nation.svg/440px-Great_Seal_of_the_Navajo_Nation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Great Seal of the <a href="/wiki/Navajo_Nation" title="Navajo Nation">Navajo Nation</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tribal_courts">Tribal courts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tribal courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tribal_court" title="Tribal court">Tribal court</a></div> <p>At the dawn of the 21st century, the powers of tribal courts across the United States varied, depending on whether the tribe was in a <a href="/wiki/Public_Law_280" title="Public Law 280">Public Law 280</a> (PL280) state (Alaska, California, Minnesota, Nebraska, Oregon, and Wisconsin). </p><p>The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the 1978 decision <i><a href="/wiki/Oliphant_v._Suquamish_Indian_Tribe" title="Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe">Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe</a></i> that tribes have no jurisdiction over non-Indians. Tribal courts maintain much criminal jurisdiction over their members, and because of the <a href="/wiki/Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina"><i>Duro</i> fix</a>, also over non-member Indians regarding crime on tribal land. The <a href="/wiki/Violence_Against_Women_Act" title="Violence Against Women Act">Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013</a> expanded the criminal jurisdiction of tribes over non-Indian perpetrators of domestic violence that occur in Indian Country when the victim is Indian.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1968 <a href="/wiki/Indian_Civil_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Civil Rights Act">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> limited tribal punishment to one year in jail and a $5,000 fine,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this was expanded by the <a href="/wiki/Tribal_Law_and_Order_Act_of_2010" title="Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010">Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010</a>. </p><p>While tribal nations do not enjoy direct access to U.S. courts to bring cases against individual states, as sovereign nations they do enjoy <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States#Tribal_sovereign_immunity" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">immunity</a> against many lawsuits,<sup id="cite_ref-SCPueblo_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCPueblo-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> unless a plaintiff is granted a waiver by the tribe or by congressional abrogation.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sovereignty extends to tribal enterprises<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and tribal casinos or gaming commissions.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indian Civil Rights Act does not allow actions against an Indian tribe in federal court for deprivation of substantive rights, except for <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a> proceedings.<sup id="cite_ref-SCPueblo_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCPueblo-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tribal and pueblo governments today launch far-reaching economic ventures, operate growing law enforcement agencies, and adopt codes to govern conduct within their jurisdiction, while the United States retains control over the scope of tribal law making. Laws adopted by Native American governments must also pass the <a href="/wiki/Secretarial_Review" title="Secretarial Review">Secretarial Review</a> of the Department of Interior through the Bureau of Indian Affairs. </p><p>With crime twice as high on Indian lands, federal funding of tribal courts has been criticized by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_Civil_Rights" title="United States Commission on Civil Rights">United States Commission on Civil Rights</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a> as inadequate to allow them to perform necessary judicial functions, such as hiring officials trained in law, and prosecuting cases neglected by the federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nation_to_nation:_tribes_and_the_federal_government">Nation to nation: tribes and the federal government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nation to nation: tribes and the federal government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United States Constitution specifically mentions American Indians three times. Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 and the Section 2 of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> address the handling of "Indians not taxed" in the apportionment of the seats of the House of Representatives according to population and in so doing suggest that Indians need not <i>be</i> taxed. In Article I Section 8, Clause 3, Congress is empowered to "regulate commerce with foreign nations…states…and with the Indian tribes." Technically, Congress has no more power over Indian nations than it does over individual states. In the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">Native American self-determination</a> replaced <a href="/wiki/Indian_termination_policy" title="Indian termination policy">Indian termination policy</a> as the official United States policy towards Native Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a> promoted the ability of tribes to self-govern and make decisions concerning their people. In dealing with Indian policy, a separate agency, the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a> has been in place since 1824. </p><p>The idea that tribes have an inherent right to govern themselves is at the foundation of their constitutional status – the power is not delegated by congressional acts. Congress can, however, limit tribal sovereignty. Unless a treaty or federal statute removes a power, however, the tribe is assumed to possess it.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Current federal policy in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> recognizes this sovereignty and stresses the government-to-government relations between the United States and <a href="/wiki/Federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Federally recognized tribes">Federally recognized tribes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, most Native American land is held in trust by the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and federal law still regulates the economic rights of tribal governments and political rights. Tribal jurisdiction over persons and things within tribal borders are often at issue. While tribal criminal jurisdiction over Native Americans is reasonably well settled, tribes are still striving to achieve criminal jurisdiction over non-Native persons who commit crimes in Indian Country. This is largely due to the Supreme Court's ruling in 1978 in <i><a href="/wiki/Oliphant_v._Suquamish_Indian_Tribe" title="Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe">Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe</a></i> that tribes lack the inherent authority to arrest, try and convict non-Natives who commit crimes on their lands (see below for additional discussion on this point.) </p><p>As a result of a pair of treaties in 1830s, two tribal nations (the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a>) each have the right to send <a href="/wiki/Non-voting_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives">non-voting members to the United States House of Representatives</a> (similar to a <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">non-state U.S. territory</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a>); the Choctaw have never exercised their right to do so since they were given the power and the Cherokee had not done so until appointing a delegate in 2019, though this delegate has not been accepted by Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pommersheim2009_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pommersheim2009-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tribal_state_relations:_sovereign_within_a_sovereign">Tribal state relations: sovereign within a sovereign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tribal state relations: sovereign within a sovereign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Otoe_Tribal_Seal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Otoe_Tribal_Seal.jpg/220px-Otoe_Tribal_Seal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Otoe_Tribal_Seal.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Otoe-Missouria Tribal Seal</figcaption></figure> <p>Another dispute over American Indian government is its sovereignty versus that of the states. The federal U.S. government has always been the government that makes treaties with Indian tribes – not individual states. Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution states that "Congress shall have the power to regulate Commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes".<sup id="cite_ref-Policy-Center_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Policy-Center-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This determined that Indian tribes were separate from the federal or state governments and that the states did not have power to regulate commerce with the tribes, much less regulate the tribes. The states and tribal nations have clashed over many issues such as <a href="/wiki/Native_American_gaming" title="Native American gaming">Indian gaming</a>, fishing, and hunting. American Indians believed that they had treaties between their ancestors and the United States government, protecting their right to fish, while non-Indians believed the states were responsible for regulating commercial and sports fishing.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case <i><a href="/wiki/Menominee_Tribe_v._United_States" title="Menominee Tribe v. United States">Menominee Tribe v. United States</a></i> in 1968, it was ruled that "the establishment of a reservation by treaty, statute or agreement includes an implied right of Indians to hunt and fish on that reservation free of regulation by the state".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> States have tried to extend their power over the tribes in many other instances, but federal government ruling has continuously ruled in favor of tribal sovereignty. A seminal court case was <i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i>. Chief Justice Marshall found that "England had treated the tribes as sovereign and negotiated treaties of alliance with them. The United States followed suit, thus continuing the practice of recognizing tribal sovereignty. When the United States assumed the role of protector of the tribes, it neither denied nor destroyed their sovereignty."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As determined in the Supreme Court case <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Nice" title="United States v. Nice">United States v. Nice</a></i> (1916),<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> U.S. citizens are subject to all U.S. laws even if they also have tribal citizenship. </p><p>In July 2020, the U.S Supreme Court ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a></i> that the state of Oklahoma acted outside its jurisdiction when trying a member of the <a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Muscogee</a> (Creek) Nation in 1997 for rape and that the case should have been tried in federal court since Congress had never officially dissolved the reservation in question.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ruling's expansion of jurisdiction sovereignty also opened the possibility for Native Americans to obtain more power in alcohol regulation and casino gambling.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similar to the promised non-voting tribal delegates in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maine_House_of_Representatives" title="Maine House of Representatives">Maine House of Representatives</a> maintains three state-level non-voting seats for representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy" title="Passamaquoddy">Passamaquoddy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maliseet" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliseet">Maliseet</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Penobscot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maine_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maine-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two of the seats are currently <a href="/wiki/Abstentionism" title="Abstentionism">not filled in protest</a> over issues of tribal sovereignty and rights.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tribal_sovereignty_over_land_and_natural_resources">Tribal sovereignty over land and natural resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tribal sovereignty over land and natural resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following industrialization, the 1800s brought many challenges to tribal sovereignty over tribal members' occupied lands in the United States. In 1831, <i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> established a trust relationship between the United States and tribal territories. This gave the U.S. federal government primary jurisdictional authority over tribal land use, while maintaining tribal members' rights to reside on their land and access its resources.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, in 1841, a treaty between the U.S. federal government and the Mole Lake Band of Sokaogon Chippewa resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Chippewa</a> ceding extensive lands to the U.S., but maintaining usufructuary rights to fishing, hunting, and gathering in perpetuity on all ceded land.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wartime industry of the early 1900s introduced <a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_in_the_United_States" title="Uranium mining in the United States">uranium mining</a> and the need for weapons testing sites, for which the U.S. federal government often selected former and current tribal territories in the southwestern deserts.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uranium mines were constructed upstream of <a href="/wiki/Navajo_Nation" title="Navajo Nation">Navajo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hopi" title="Hopi">Hopi</a> reservations in Arizona and Nevada, measurably contaminating Native American water supply through the 1940s and 1950s with lasting impacts to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nevada desert was also a common <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">nuclear testing</a> site for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">U.S. military</a> through <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the closest residents being Navajo Nation members.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1970, President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> established the federal government's <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1974, the EPA became the first U.S. federal agency to release an Indian Policy, which established the model of environmental federalism operational today. Under this model, the federal EPA sets water, air, and waste disposal standards, but delegates enforcement authority and the opportunity to design stricter environmental regulations to each state. Enforcement authority over Native American territory, however, remains under federal EPA jurisdiction, unless a given tribe applies for and is granted Treatment as State (TAS) status.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a> movements in the United States through the 1990s, President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> released executive orders 12898 (1994) and 13007 (1996). EO 12898 affirmed disparate impacts of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> as stratified by socioeconomic status; EO 13007 ordered the protection of Native American cultural sites.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the passage of EO 12898 and EO 13007, tribal prosecutors have litigated extensively against the federal government and industry polluters over land use and jurisdiction with varying degrees of success. </p><p>In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">U.N.</a> adopted the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People</a> ("The Declaration"), despite the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> voting against it along with <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-votelist_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-votelist-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2010, President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> revisited The Declaration and declared that the U.S. government now supported it;<sup id="cite_ref-:02_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, as of December 2022, the requirements of The Declaration have still not been adopted into U.S. law. As recently as 2015, the <a href="/wiki/2015_Gold_King_Mine_waste_water_spill" title="2015 Gold King Mine waste water spill">Gold King Mine</a> contaminated three million gallons of water in the <a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado River</a> which serves as drinking water for the Navajo and Hopi downstream. The federal EPA appropriated $156,000 in reparations for Gold King Mine, while the <a href="/wiki/Flint_water_crisis" title="Flint water crisis">Flint, Michigan water crisis</a> in 2014 received $80 million in federal funds.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A recent challenge faced by <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> regarding land and natural resource sovereignty has been posed by the modern real estate market. While Native Nations have made substantial progress in land and resource sovereignty, such authority is limited to land classified as 'Native American owned.' In the private real estate market, however, big industry polluters and hopeful <a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_in_the_United_States" title="Uranium mining in the United States">miners</a> have made a practice of buying out individual landowners in Native American residential areas, subsequently using that land to build mines or factories which increase local <a href="/wiki/Pollution_in_the_United_States" title="Pollution in the United States">pollution</a>. There is not regulation or legislation in place to sufficiently curb this practice at the rate necessary to preserve <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_reservation_inequality" title="Native Americans and reservation inequality">Native American land</a> and natural resources.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_50-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, the federally-recognized <a href="/wiki/Resighini_Rancheria" title="Resighini Rancheria">Resighini Rancheria</a> of the Yurok People, <a href="/wiki/Tolowa_Dee-ni%27_Nation" title="Tolowa Dee-ni' Nation">Tolowa Dee-ni' Nation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cher-Ae_Heights_Indian_Community_of_the_Trinidad_Rancheria" title="Cher-Ae Heights Indian Community of the Trinidad Rancheria">Cher-Ae Heights Indian Community of the Trinidad Rancheria</a> announced that as territorial governments they have protected the Yurok-Tolowa-Dee-ni' Indigenous Marine Stewardship Area of 700 square miles (1,800 km<sup>2</sup>) of ocean waters and coastline reaching from Oregon to just south of Trinidad in the <a href="/wiki/Redwood_National_and_State_Parks" title="Redwood National and State Parks">Redwood National and State Parks</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-Pew_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pew-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_cases">List of cases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: List of cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._Supreme_Court_Cases_involving_Indian_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. Supreme Court Cases involving Indian tribes">List of U.S. Supreme Court Cases involving Indian tribes</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a>,</i> 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1 (1831) (established trust relationship between Native American lands and the U.S. federal government)</li> <li><i>United States v. Holiday</i>, 70 U.S. 407 (1866) (holding that a congressional ban on selling liquor to the Indians was constitutional)</li> <li><i>Sarlls v. United States</i>, 152 U.S. 570 (1894) (holding that lager beer is not spiritous liquor nor wine within the meaning of those terms as used in Revised Statutes § 2139)</li> <li><i>In re Heff</i>, 197 U.S. 488 (1905) (holding that Congress has the power to place the Indians under state law if it chooses, and the ban on selling liquor does not apply to Indians subject to the Allotment acts)</li> <li><i>Iron Crow v. Ogallala Sioux Tribe</i>, 129 F. Supp. 15 (1955) (holding that tribes have power to create and change their court system and that power is limited only by Congress, not the courts)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Washington" title="United States v. Washington">United States v. Washington</a></i> (1974) also known as the Boldt Decision (concerning off-reservation fishing rights: holding that Indians had an easement to go through private property to their fishing locations, that the state could not charge Indians a fee to fish, that the state could not discriminate against the tribes in the method of fishing allowed, and that the Indians had a right to a fair and equitable share of the harvest)</li> <li><i>Wisconsin Potowatomies of Hannahville Indian Community v. Houston</i>, 393 F. Supp. 719 (holding that tribal law and not state law governs the custody of children domiciled on reservation land)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oliphant_v._Suquamish_Indian_Tribe" title="Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe">Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe</a></i>, 435 U.S. 191 (1978) (holding that Indian tribal courts do not have inherent criminal jurisdiction to try and to punish non-Indians, and hence may not assume such jurisdiction unless specifically authorized to do so by Congress.)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a></i>, 455 U.S. 130 (1982) (holding that Indian Nations have the power to tax Non-Native Americans based on their power as a nation and treaty rights to exclude others; this right can be curtailed only by Congress.)</li> <li><i>American Indian Agricultural Credit Consortium, Inc. v. Fredericks</i>, 551 F. Supp. 1020 (1982) (holding that federal, not state courts have jurisdiction over tribal members)</li> <li><i>Maynard v. Narrangansett Indian Tribe</i>, 798 F. Supp. 94 (1992) (holding that tribes have sovereign immunity against state tort claims)</li> <li><i>Venetie I.R.A. Council v. Alaska</i>, 798 F. Supp. 94 (holding that tribes have power to recognize and legislate adoptions)</li> <li><i>Native American Church v. Navajo Tribal Council</i>, 272 F.2d 131 (holding that the First Amendment does not apply to Indian nations unless it is applied by Congress)</li> <li><i>Teague v. Bad River Band</i>, 236 Wis. 2d 384 (2000) (holding that tribal courts deserve full faith and credit since they are the court of an independent sovereign; however, in order to end confusion, cases that are filed in state and tribal courts require consultation of both courts before they are decided.)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inyo_County_v._Paiute-Shoshone_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians">Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians</a></i> (U.S. 2003) (holding that tribal sovereignty may override the search and seizure powers of a state)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a></i> 591 U.S. ___ (2020), and <i><a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a></i> 591 U.S. ___ (2020) (holding that if Congress did not expressly disestablish a reservation, the state wherein the reservation lies has no jurisdiction to prosecute crimes involving Indian defendants or Indian victims under the Major Crimes Act)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">Diplomatic recognition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_unrecognized_states_and_dependencies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies">List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">List of states with limited recognition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_country_jurisdiction" title="Indian country jurisdiction">Indian country jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Indigenous rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights_in_Australia" title="Indigenous land rights in Australia">Indigenous land rights in Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_self-government_in_Canada" title="Indigenous self-government in Canada">Indigenous self-government in Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">List of Alaska Native tribal entities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the United States">List of federally recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">List of national legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_protest_movement" title="Māori protest movement">Māori protest movement</a> in New Zealand</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_reservation_politics" title="Native American reservation politics">Native American reservation politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">Native American self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Off-reservation_trust_land" title="Off-reservation trust land">Off-reservation trust land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_divisions_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Political divisions of the United States">Political divisions of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_that_self-identify_as_Native_American_tribes" title="List of organizations that self-identify as Native American tribes">List of organizations that self-identify as Native American tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district (United States)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Department_of_the_Interior-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Department_of_the_Interior_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Department_of_the_Interior_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 3,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.epa.gov&rft.atitle=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency+%7C+US+EPA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATribal+sovereignty+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiver2019" class="citation journal cs1">Diver, Sybil (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fglep_a_00517">"Engaging Colonial Entanglements: "Treatment as a State" Policy for Indigenous Water Co-Governance"</a>. <i>Global Environmental Politics</i>. <b>19</b> (3): 33–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fglep_a_00517">10.1162/glep_a_00517</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199537244">199537244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Environmental+Politics&rft.atitle=Engaging+Colonial+Entanglements%3A+%22Treatment+as+a+State%22+Policy+for+Indigenous+Water+Co-Governance&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=33-56&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fglep_a_00517&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A199537244%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Diver&rft.aufirst=Sybil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1162%252Fglep_a_00517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATribal+sovereignty+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-votelist-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-votelist_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/ga10612.doc.htm">UN adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140925040218/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/ga10612.doc.htm">Archived</a> September 25, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> United Nations News Centre, 13 September 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Examining EPA's Unacceptable Response to Indian Tribes. Congressional Hearing, 2016-04-22, 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pew-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pew_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillHayden2024" class="citation news cs1">Hill, Jos; Hayden, Bobby (January 26, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2024/01/25/tribal-nations-designate-first-us-indigenous-marine-stewardship-area">"Tribal Nations Designate First US Indigenous Marine Stewardship Area"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Pew_Charitable_Trusts" class="mw-redirect" title="Pew Charitable Trusts">Pew Charitable Trusts</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 30,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pew+Charitable+Trusts&rft.atitle=Tribal+Nations+Designate+First+US+Indigenous+Marine+Stewardship+Area&rft.date=2024-01-26&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Jos&rft.au=Hayden%2C+Bobby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewtrusts.org%2Fen%2Fresearch-and-analysis%2Farticles%2F2024%2F01%2F25%2Ftribal-nations-designate-first-us-indigenous-marine-stewardship-area&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATribal+sovereignty+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesClow2009" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Wade & Clow, Richmond L. (2009). <i>American Indian Sovereignty and Law: An Annotated Bibliography</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Sovereignty+and+Law%3A+An+Annotated+Bibliography&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Wade&rft.au=Clow%2C+Richmond+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATribal+sovereignty+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hays, Joel Stanford. "Twisting the Law: Legal Inconsistencies in Andrew Jackson's Treatment of Native-American Sovereignty and State Sovereignty." <i>Journal of Southern Legal History,</i> 21 (no. 1, 2013), 157–92.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacklem1993" class="citation journal cs1">Macklem, Patrick (1993). "Distributing Sovereignty: Indian Nations and Equality of Peoples". <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Law_Review" title="Stanford Law Review">Stanford Law Review</a></i>. <b>45</b> (5): 1311–1367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1229071">10.2307/1229071</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1229071">1229071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Distributing+Sovereignty%3A+Indian+Nations+and+Equality+of+Peoples&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1311-1367&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1229071&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1229071%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Macklem&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATribal+sovereignty+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Kussel, Wm. F. Jr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webpages.charter.net/wfkussel/trust_out.pdf">Tribal Sovereignty and Jurisdiction (It's a Matter of Trust)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110709045752/http://webpages.charter.net/wfkussel/trust_out.pdf">Archived</a> July 9, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060718005518/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/ntreaty/ntreaty.htm">The Avalon Project: Treaties Between the United States and Native Americans</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/cherokee.htm"><i>Cherokee Nation v. the State of Georgia</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031202224909/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/cherokee.htm">Archived</a> December 2, 2003, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 1831</li> <li>Prygoski, Philip J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/marshall-marshall-supreme-courts-changing-stance-tribal-sovereignty">From Marshall to Marshall: The Supreme Court's Changing Stance on Tribal Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americansc.org.uk/Online/indians.htm">From War to Self Determination, the Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li> <li>NiiSka, Clara, Indian Courts, A Brief History, parts <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maquah.net/clara/Press-ON/01-06-08.html">I</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maquah.net/clara/Press-ON/01-06-15-courts.html">II</a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maquah.net/clara/Press-ON/01-06-22_courts.html">III</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tribal-institute.org/lists/pl280.htm">Public Law 280</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130110162534/http://religiousfreedomwithraptors.110mb.com/">Religious Freedom with Raptors</a> at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a> (archived 2013-01-10) – details racism and attack on tribal sovereignty regarding eagle feathers</li> <li><i>San Diego Union Tribune</i>, 17 December 2007: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20071217/news_1n17tort.html">Tribal justice not always fair, critics contend</a> (Tort cases tried in tribal courts)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180718110818/http://www.tilj.org/content/journal/42/num1/Lenzerini155.pdf">Sovereignty Revisited: International Law and Parallel Sovereignty of Indigenous Peoples</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#F0E68C;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_rights" title="Template talk:Native American rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Rights</a> of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Case law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a></i> (1858)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Standing_Bear_v._Crook" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing Bear v. Crook">Standing Bear v. Crook</a></i> (D. Neb. 1879)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Crow_Dog" title="Ex parte Crow Dog">Ex parte Crow Dog</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Talton_v._Mayes" title="Talton v. Mayes">Talton v. Mayes</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1941)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Lee" title="Williams v. Lee">Williams v. Lee</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Menominee_Tribe_v._United_States" title="Menominee Tribe v. United States">Menominee Tribe v. United States</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McClanahan_v._Arizona_State_Tax_Commission" title="McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission">McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bryan_v._Itasca_County" title="Bryan v. Itasca County">Bryan v. Itasca County</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Antelope" title="United States v. Antelope">United States v. Antelope</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez" title="Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solem_v._Bartlett" title="Solem v. Bartlett">Solem v. Bartlett</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hodel_v._Irving" title="Hodel v. Irving">Hodel v. Irving</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians_v._Holyfield" title="Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield">Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina">Duro v. Reina</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_v._Bourland" title="South Dakota v. Bourland">South Dakota v. Bourland</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cobell_v._Salazar" title="Cobell v. Salazar">Cobell v. Salazar</a></i> (D.C. Cir. 2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adoptive_Couple_v._Baby_Girl" title="Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl">Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a> </i>and<i> <a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_v._Castro-Huerta" title="Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta">Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Indian_tribes" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes">List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a> (1705 onwards)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_Fund_Act" title="Civilization Fund Act">Civilization Act</a> (1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Burke Act</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Indian Citizenship Act</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_arts_and_crafts_laws" title="Indian arts and crafts laws">Indian arts and crafts laws</a> (1935–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Indian_Welfare_Act" title="Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act">Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_Act_of_1940" title="Nationality Act of 1940">Nationality Act</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Law_280" title="Public Law 280">Public Law 280</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Relocation_Act_of_1956" title="Indian Relocation Act of 1956">Indian Relocation Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Self-Determination_and_Education_Assistance_Act_of_1975" title="Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975">Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Child_Welfare_Act" title="Indian Child Welfare Act">Indian Child Welfare Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Gaming_Regulatory_Act" title="Indian Gaming Regulatory Act">Indian Gaming Regulatory Act</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990" title="Native American Languages Act of 1990">Native American Languages Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Arts_and_Crafts_Act_of_1990" title="Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990">Indian Arts and Crafts Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_Truth_in_Advertising_for_Native_Art" title="Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art">Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Federal</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognized tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eagle-bone_whistle" title="Eagle-bone whistle">Eagle-bone whistle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_license" title="Hunting license">Hunting license</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_the_Courts_of_the_Conqueror" title="In the Courts of the Conqueror">In the Courts of the Conqueror</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Gaming_Commission" title="National Indian Gaming Commission">National Indian Gaming Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_gaming" title="Native American gaming">Native American gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recognition_of_Native_American_sacred_sites_in_the_United_States" title="Recognition of Native American sacred sites in the United States">Recognition of sacred sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivance" title="Survivance">Survivance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tribal sovereignty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Special_Committee_on_Conditions_of_Indian_Tribes" title="United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes">United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Native_American_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics" title="Template talk:Native American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Native_American_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">ownership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_Degree_of_Indian_Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate Degree of Indian Blood">Certificate Degree of Indian Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_school_gravesites" title="American Indian boarding school gravesites">gravesites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Native American identity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American wars">Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition (1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars (1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War (1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education, science<br /> and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American church">Native American church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smudging" title="Smudging">Smudging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_tribal_nations_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States">Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Native American women in politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">Pretendian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Modern social statistics of Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Pidgin_English" title="Native American Pidgin English">Native American Pidgin English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indians_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indians of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Native_Americans_in_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Native Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">Native American War Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_peoples_indigenous_to_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">Massacres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Aboriginal title in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Aboriginal title in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aboriginal title in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_statutes_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies">Colonial era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Freedoms_and_Exemptions" title="Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions">Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions</a> (1629 New Netherland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a> (British North America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_Congress_Proclamation_of_1783" title="Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783">Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/150px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/225px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/300px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act of 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission Act</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Indian Land Claims Settlements</a> (1978–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Limitations_Act" title="Indian Claims Limitations Act">Indian Claims Limitations Act</a> (1982)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precedents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_Taney_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Taney Court">Taney Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a></i> (1858)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1890—1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1941)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Warren Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a></i> (1960)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Burger Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilson_v._Omaha_Indian_Tribe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe (page does not exist)">Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rehnquist Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_California" title="Aboriginal title in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_land_rights_in_Hawaii" title="Category:Indigenous land rights in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_Louisiana" title="Aboriginal title in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Tribal_Council_of_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe_v._Morton" title="Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_tribes_in_Michigan" title="Category:Native American tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_New_Mexico" title="Aboriginal title in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_New_York" title="Aboriginal title in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Indian_reservations_in_Oklahoma" title="Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narragansett_land_claim" title="Narragansett land claim">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_v._Elliott" title="State v. Elliott">Vermont</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Indigenous land rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">Aboriginal title</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">in Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tribal sovereignty in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">List of federally recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&oldid=1258742986">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States&oldid=1258742986</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Legal_systems" title="Category:Legal systems">Legal systems</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Indigenous politics in the United States">Indigenous politics in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_law" title="Category:Native American law">Native American law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_tribal_sovereign_immunity_case_law" title="Category:United States tribal sovereign immunity case law">United States tribal sovereign immunity case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sovereignty" title="Category:Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_April_2019" title="Category:Use mdy dates from April 2019">Use mdy dates from April 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_April_2019" title="Category:Use American English from April 2019">Use American English from April 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_archiveis_links" title="Category:Webarchive template archiveis links">Webarchive template archiveis links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 10:47<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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