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In operation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_operation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In operation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Growing_hostilities_between_UNOSOM_and_the_SNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growing_hostilities_between_UNOSOM_and_the_SNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Growing hostilities between UNOSOM and the SNA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growing_hostilities_between_UNOSOM_and_the_SNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kismayo_Incident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kismayo_Incident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Kismayo Incident </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kismayo_Incident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mudug_peace_agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mudug_peace_agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Mudug peace agreement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mudug_peace_agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Somaliland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Somaliland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Somaliland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Somaliland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-UNOSOM_II_-_SNA_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#UNOSOM_II_-_SNA_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 UNOSOM II - SNA conflict </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-UNOSOM_II_-_SNA_conflict-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle UNOSOM II - SNA conflict subsection </button> <ul id="toc-UNOSOM_II_-_SNA_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radio_Mogadishu_and_5_June_1993_inspection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_Mogadishu_and_5_June_1993_inspection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Radio Mogadishu and 5 June 1993 inspection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_Mogadishu_and_5_June_1993_inspection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-UNSCR_837_and_UNOSOM_-_SNA_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#UNSCR_837_and_UNOSOM_-_SNA_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 UNSCR 837 and UNOSOM - SNA war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-UNSCR_837_and_UNOSOM_-_SNA_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-June_1993_UNOSOM_offensive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#June_1993_UNOSOM_offensive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 June 1993 UNOSOM offensive </div> </a> <ul id="toc-June_1993_UNOSOM_offensive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bloody_Monday_raid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bloody_Monday_raid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Bloody Monday raid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bloody_Monday_raid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Escalation_of_insurgency_and_deployment_of_Task_Force_Ranger" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Escalation_of_insurgency_and_deployment_of_Task_Force_Ranger"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Escalation of insurgency and deployment of Task Force Ranger </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Escalation_of_insurgency_and_deployment_of_Task_Force_Ranger-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fallout_of_the_Battle_of_Mogadishu_and_the_end_of_UNOSOM_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fallout_of_the_Battle_of_Mogadishu_and_the_end_of_UNOSOM_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Fallout of the Battle of Mogadishu and the end of UNOSOM II </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fallout_of_the_Battle_of_Mogadishu_and_the_end_of_UNOSOM_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Fallout of the Battle of Mogadishu and the end of UNOSOM II subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Fallout_of_the_Battle_of_Mogadishu_and_the_end_of_UNOSOM_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Withdrawal_and_end_of_UNOSOM_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Withdrawal_and_end_of_UNOSOM_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Withdrawal and end of UNOSOM II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Withdrawal_and_end_of_UNOSOM_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Casualties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Casualties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Casualties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Casualties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Results_of_1994_UN_Inquiry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Results_of_1994_UN_Inquiry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Results of 1994 UN Inquiry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Results_of_1994_UN_Inquiry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_UNOSOM_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_UNOSOM_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Criticism of UNOSOM II </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism_of_UNOSOM_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criticism of UNOSOM II subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_UNOSOM_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Over_emphasis_on_military_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Over_emphasis_on_military_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Over emphasis on military operations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Over_emphasis_on_military_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Excessive_force_and_human_rights_abuses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Excessive_force_and_human_rights_abuses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Excessive force and human rights abuses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Excessive_force_and_human_rights_abuses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misleading_claims_and_relationship_with_journalists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misleading_claims_and_relationship_with_journalists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Misleading claims and relationship with journalists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misleading_claims_and_relationship_with_journalists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Aftermath and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">United Nations Operation in Somalia II</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" > 16 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84" title="عملية الأمم المتحدة الثانية في الصومال – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عملية الأمم المتحدة الثانية في الصومال" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNOSOM_II" title="UNOSOM II – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="UNOSOM II" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II" title="United Nations Operation in Somalia II – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="United Nations Operation in Somalia II" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segunda_Operaci%C3%B3n_de_las_Naciones_Unidas_en_Somalia" title="Segunda Operación de las Naciones Unidas en Somalia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Segunda Operación de las Naciones Unidas en Somalia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_des_Nations_unies_en_Somalie_II" title="Opération des Nations unies en Somalie II – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Opération des Nations unies en Somalie II" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operasi_Perserikatan_Bangsa-Bangsa_di_Somalia_II" title="Operasi Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa di Somalia II – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Operasi Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa di Somalia II" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNOSOM_II" title="UNOSOM II – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="UNOSOM II" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98_II" title="გაერთიანებული ერების ოპერაცია სომალიში II – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გაერთიანებული ერების ოპერაცია სომალიში II" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operasi_Pertubuhan_Bangsa-Bangsa_Bersatu_di_Somalia_II" title="Operasi Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu di Somalia II – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Operasi Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu di Somalia II" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E5%9B%BD%E9%9A%9B%E9%80%A3%E5%90%88%E3%82%BD%E3%83%9E%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E6%B4%BB%E5%8B%95" title="第二次国際連合ソマリア活動 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="第二次国際連合ソマリア活動" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNOSOM_II" title="UNOSOM II – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="UNOSOM II" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNOSOM_II" title="UNOSOM II – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="UNOSOM II" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_das_Na%C3%A7%C3%B5es_Unidas_na_Som%C3%A1lia_II" title="Operação das Nações Unidas na Somália II – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Operação das Nações Unidas na Somália II" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9E%D0%9E%D0%9D_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Миротворческая операция ООН в Сомали – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Миротворческая операция ООН в Сомали" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II" title="United Nations Operation in Somalia II – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="United Nations Operation in Somalia II" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%9E%D0%9E%D0%9D_%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96_II" title="Місія ООН у Сомалі II – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Місія ООН у Сомалі II" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1778229#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=UNOSOM_II&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="UNOSOM II">UNOSOM II</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Second phase of UN Intervention in Somalia after civil war erupted in 1991</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">United Nations Operation in Somalia II</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:NepalesischeUNSoldaten1993.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/NepalesischeUNSoldaten1993.jpg/220px-NepalesischeUNSoldaten1993.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/NepalesischeUNSoldaten1993.jpg/330px-NepalesischeUNSoldaten1993.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/NepalesischeUNSoldaten1993.jpg/440px-NepalesischeUNSoldaten1993.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2916" data-file-height="1947" /></a> Nepalese UNOSOM II troops</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>26 March 1993 – 28 March 1995 (2 years and 2 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> UNOSOM II failure<a href="#cite_note-Utley_2006_105-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Springer-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_University_Press-10">[10]</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="#Composition">UNOSOM II</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 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decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/46px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/23px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/35px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/45px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/16px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/25px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/33px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="885" />   <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/23px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/35px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/46px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/46px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /> <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /> <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" />  <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">UAE</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/46px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia"><img alt="Somalia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Flag_of_Jihad.svg/23px-Flag_of_Jihad.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Flag_of_Jihad.svg/35px-Flag_of_Jihad.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Flag_of_Jihad.svg/46px-Flag_of_Jihad.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Al-Itihaad_al-Islamiya" title="Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya">Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya</a><a href="#cite_note-Scahill_2013_121–122-7">[7]</a> <hr /> <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia"><img alt="Somalia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Front" title="Somali National Front">Somali National Front</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations"><img alt="United Nations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Boutros_Boutros_Ghali" class="mw-redirect" title="Boutros Boutros Ghali">Boutros Boutros Ghali</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Howe" title="Jonathan Howe">Jonathan Howe</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%87evik_Bir" title="Çevik Bir">Çevik Bir</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_M._Montgomery" title="Thomas M. Montgomery">Tom Montgomery</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a> <a href="/wiki/William_F._Garrison" title="William F. Garrison">Bill Garrison</a> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia"><img alt="Malaysia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboo_Samah_Bin_Aboo_Bakar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aboo Samah Bin Aboo Bakar (page does not exist)">Aboo Samah Bin Aboo Bakar</a> [<a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboo_Samah_Bin_Aboo_Bakar" class="extiw" title="ms:Aboo Samah Bin Aboo Bakar">ms</a>]</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia"><img alt="Somalia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Mohamed Farrah Aidid</a> <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia"><img alt="Somalia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Said_Hersi_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohamed Said Hersi Morgan">Said Hersi Morgan</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Flag_of_Jihad.svg/23px-Flag_of_Jihad.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Flag_of_Jihad.svg/35px-Flag_of_Jihad.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Flag_of_Jihad.svg/46px-Flag_of_Jihad.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Dahir_Aweys" title="Hassan Dahir Aweys">Hassan Dahir Aweys</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 30,000 personnel, including 22,000 troops and 8,000 logistic and civilian staff</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Unknown</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> Approx. 385 casualties, including 134 - 154 killed <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a> 26 killed, 170 wounded <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> 24 killed <a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> 12 killed<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria"><img alt="Nigeria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/46px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> 7 killed<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrysdale1994208-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> 5 killed <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia"><img alt="Malaysia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> 1 killed <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco"><img alt="Morocco" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/23px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/35px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/45px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> Several killed <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium"><img alt="Belgium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> 1 killed </td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Approx. 2,000 - 13,000 casualties (Somali insurgents and <a href="/wiki/Civilians" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilians">civilians</a>) 2,000 casualties (Per. <a href="/wiki/Scott_Peterson_(writer)" title="Scott Peterson (writer)">Peterson</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson200088-13">[13]</a> 6,000 to 10,000 casualties (Several estimates)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006254-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson200088-13">[13]</a> 13,000 casualties (Per. <a href="/wiki/Aidid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aidid">Aidid</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson200088-13">[13]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_Nations_Intervention_in_Somalia_(1992–1995)" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_United_Nations_Intervention_in_Somalia_(1992-1995)" title="Template:Campaignbox United Nations Intervention in Somalia (1992-1995)"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_United_Nations_Intervention_in_Somalia_(1992-1995)" title="Template talk:Campaignbox United Nations Intervention in Somalia (1992-1995)"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_United_Nations_Intervention_in_Somalia_(1992-1995)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox United Nations Intervention in Somalia (1992-1995)"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_Nations_Intervention_in_Somalia_(1992–1995)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">United Nations Intervention in Somalia (1992–1995)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_I" title="United Nations Operation in Somalia I">UNOSOM I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Provide_Relief" title="Operation Provide Relief">Provide Relief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">UNITAF / Restore Hope</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Deliverance" title="Operation Deliverance">Deliverance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somalia_affair" title="Somalia affair">Somalia affair</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">UNOSOM II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/June_1993_attack_on_Pakistani_military_in_Somalia" title="June 1993 attack on Pakistani military in Somalia">Pakistani Peacekeepers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1993_UN_killings_of_Somali_protestors" title="June 1993 UN killings of Somali protestors">UN killings of protestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdi_House_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdi House raid">Abdi House raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Checkpoint_Pasta" title="Battle of Checkpoint Pasta">Checkpoint Pasta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gothic_Serpent" title="Operation Gothic Serpent">Gothic Serpent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Black Hawk Down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_United_Shield" title="Operation United Shield">United Shield</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> The United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) was the second phase of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> intervention in <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> and took place from March 1993 until March 1995, following the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a> in 1991. UNOSOM II carried on from the transitory <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>-controlled (UN-sanctioned) <a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">Unified Task Force</a> (UNITAF), which had been preceded by <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_I" title="United Nations Operation in Somalia I">UNOSOM I</a>. Notably, UNOSOM II embarked on a <a href="/wiki/Nation-building" title="Nation-building">nation-building</a> mission, diverging from its predecessors.<a href="#cite_note-:11-15">[15]</a> As delineated in <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_814" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 814">UNSCR 814</a>, the operation's objectives were to aid in relief provision and economic rehabilitation, foster political reconciliation, and re-establish political and civil administrations across Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a> UNOSOM II was a substantial multinational initiative, uniting over 22,000 troops from 27 nations. This operation marked the largest <a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">multilateral</a> force ever assembled for <a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">peacekeeping</a>, and at that time, it was the costliest UN operation.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a> Notably, it was the first UN mission authorized from the start to use military force proactively, beyond self-defense.<a href="#cite_note-:44-17">[17]</a> Four months into its mandate in June 1993, UNOSOM II transformed into a military campaign as it found itself entangled in armed conflict with Somali factions, predominantly against the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a> (SNA) led by Gen. <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Mohammed Farah Aidid</a>. As the intervention progressed, <a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">military operations</a> against the SNA took focus, relegating the task of political reconciliation, institution-building and <a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">humanitarian aid</a> to a peripheral role.<a href="#cite_note-:334-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-15">[15]</a> Three months into the conflict, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">US military</a> would implement <a href="/wiki/Operation_Gothic_Serpent" title="Operation Gothic Serpent">Operation Gothic Serpent</a> to assist UNOSOM II against the SNA with <a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">special forces</a>. Soon after, the infamous <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Battle of Mogadishu</a> took place, signifying the end of the hunt for Aidid and military operations in Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-:20-19">[19]</a> The United States withdrew six months after the battle, and the remaining UN forces departed from Somalia in early 1995, concluding the operation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrune199933-20">[20]</a> UNOSOM II faced heavy criticism for alleged <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> abuses, violations of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>, and the use of excessive force, attracting scrutiny from a wide range of humanitarian organizations, academics and journalists.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-:28-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-:332-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Furthermore, the operation was widely criticized for an overemphasis on military operations, diverging from its original humanitarian intent.<a href="#cite_note-:5-25">[25]</a> The humanitarian impact and number of lives saved is disputed.<a href="#cite_note-:4-26">[26]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/UNOSOM_I" class="mw-redirect" title="UNOSOM I">UNOSOM I</a></div> Following the failure of the monitoring mission created as <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_I" title="United Nations Operation in Somalia I">UNOSOM</a> by the United Nations, the United States offered to lead a substantial intervention force, made up chiefly of American personnel. This was accepted by the UN and made possible through <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_794" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 794">United Nations Security Council Resolution 794</a>, authorizing the use of "all necessary means to establish as soon as possible a secure environment for humanitarian relief operations in Somalia".<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The Security Council urged the Secretary-General and member states to make arrangements for the unified command and control of the military forces that would be involved.<a href="#cite_note-UN_794-28">[28]</a> On the evening of 4 December 1992, <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> addressed the nation, informing them that <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of the United States">U.S. troops</a> would be sent to Somalia. The U.S. contribution would be known as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Restore_Hope" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Restore Hope">Operation Restore Hope</a>, which joined a multinational force and became known as the United Task Force (UNITAF).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiPrizio200246-29">[29]</a> The operations of <a href="/wiki/UNOSOM_I" class="mw-redirect" title="UNOSOM I">UNOSOM I</a> were suspended. UNITAF was authorized under Chapter VII of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Charter">United Nations Charter</a>. The United States designed the UNITAF mission to be a transitional action under U.S. control, structured into four phases. Initially, troops were deployed to secure key harbor and airport sites in <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baledogle_Airfield" title="Baledogle Airfield">Baledogle</a>, forming the operation's base. The security zone was then extended to encompass the surrounding regions of southern Somalia, a step completed ahead of schedule due to favorable conditions and support from <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">Non-governmental Organizations</a> (NGOs). The third phase involved further southern expansion of the security zone into <a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bardere" title="Bardere">Bardera</a> while ensuring secure routes for humanitarian operations. Finally, in the last phase the U.S. transferred operations to the United Nations and withdrew most UNITAF forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiPrizio200246-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_of_mandate">Expansion of mandate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Expansion of mandate">edit</a>]</div> On 3 March 1993, the <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">Secretary-General</a> submitted to the Security Council his recommendations for effecting the transition from <a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">UNITAF</a> to UNOSOM II. He noted that despite the size of the UNITAF mission, a secure environment was not yet established. There was still no effective functioning government or local security/police force.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-30">[30]</a> The Secretary-General concluded that, should the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">Security Council</a> determine that the time had come for the transition from UNITAF to UNOSOM II, the latter should be endowed with enforcement powers under <a href="/wiki/Chapter_VII_of_the_United_Nations_Charter" title="Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter">Chapter VII</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Charter">United Nations Charter</a> to establish a secure environment throughout Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-30">[30]</a> UNOSOM II would therefore seek to complete the task begun by UNITAF. The new mandate would also empower UNOSOM II to assist in rebuilding their economic, political and social life, so as to recreate a Somali State. Most notably it would also mandate the disarmament of Somali militias.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> While Somalia was not reincorporated into a <a href="/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_Somaliland" title="Trust Territory of Somaliland">UN trusteeship</a> as it had been in the 1950s, UNOSOM II was entrusted with the power to make decisions on behalf of the Somali people. This significant shift in mandate incited numerous allegations of UN <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>. The United Nations, by invoking <a href="/wiki/Chapter_VII_of_the_United_Nations_Charter" title="Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter">Chapter VII</a>, essentially transformed the scope of its operations in Somalia, a move that would become a major point of contention in the near future.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a> According to UNOSOM II advisor <a href="/wiki/John_Drysdale_(historian)" title="John Drysdale (historian)">John Drysdale</a> the majority of Somali political leaders rejected the notion of UN administering any aspect of Somalia, though some prominent figures such as Gen. <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Abshir_Muse" title="Mohamed Abshir Muse">Mohamed Abshir</a> called for the return of trusteeship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrysdale1994115-32">[32]</a> The shift raised suspicions among a wide spectrum of Somalis, inciting concerns about the UN's possible attempts to reestablish a trusteeship. Aidid's faction was particularly vocal about these apprehensions, but was not alone. A variety of other Somali factions, including that of Aidid's main adversary, <a href="/wiki/Ali_Mahdi_Muhammad" title="Ali Mahdi Muhammad">Ali Mahdi</a>, also expressed similar concerns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006176-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Addis_Ababa_Reconciliation_Conference_and_creation_of_UNOSOM_II">Addis Ababa Reconciliation Conference and creation of UNOSOM II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Addis Ababa Reconciliation Conference and creation of UNOSOM II">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conference_on_National_Reconciliation_in_Somalia" title="Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia">Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia</a></div> During March 1993, several weeks before UNOSOM II was created, the first UN sponsored Somali peace conference was being held in <a href="/wiki/Addis_Ababa" title="Addis Ababa">Addis Ababa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Conference_on_National_Reconciliation_in_Somalia" title="Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia">Conference on National Reconciliation</a> consisted of the majority of Somalis factions and leaders. UN Special Representative <a href="/wiki/Lansana_Kouyat%C3%A9" title="Lansana Kouyaté">Lansana Kouyate</a> of <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> warned the delegates of the national reconciliation conference that the UN was going to invoke its <a href="/wiki/Chapter_VII_of_the_United_Nations_Charter" title="Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter">Chapter VI</a> powers across the entirety of Somalia unless they came to an agreement by 25 March 1993. The conference finalized an agreement 24 hours past the deadline.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrysdale1994164-34">[34]</a> On 26 March 1993 UNOSOM II, was established by the Security Council in <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_814" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 814">Resolution 814</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrysdale1994164-34">[34]</a> though did not formally take over operations in Somalia until UNITAF was dissolved just over a month later on 4 May 1993.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a> UNOSOM II was the first UN mission authorized from the start to use military force proactively, beyond self-defense.<a href="#cite_note-:44-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Drysdale_(historian)" title="John Drysdale (historian)">John Drysdale</a> notes that by invoking <a href="/wiki/Chapter_VII_of_the_United_Nations_Charter" title="Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter">Chapter VII</a>, the UNOSOM II Force Commander could operate with near impunity depending on their interpretation of Article 42 of Chapter VII. Article 42 offered no <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">rules of engagement</a>, in effect gave UNOSOM II forces the power to make <a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention" title="Arbitrary arrest and detention">arbitrary detentions</a> and offer no right to <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a> for Somalis. In <a href="/wiki/John_Drysdale_(historian)" title="John Drysdale (historian)">Drysdale's</a> view <a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">UNITAF</a> had avoided armed conflict with Somali factions due to the careful <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">rules of engagement</a> created by the head of the operation, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">US Marine</a> Lt. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Johnston" title="Robert B. Johnston">Robert B. Johnston</a>. Johnston's approach, which focused above all on winning the Somali's public confidence, was lost during the transfer to the far more aggressive UNOSOM II mandate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrysdale1994165-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a>]</div> UNOSOM II would be composed of four main divisions. They would be officially led and coordinated in Somalia by the representative of the <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">UN Secretary-General</a>, retired US Admiral <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Howe" title="Jonathan Howe">Jonathan Howe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a> The four divisions were tasked with: <ol><li>Force Command: Maintaining overall security in Somalia and protecting UN operations. The Force Commander was a Turkish General named <a href="/wiki/%C3%87evik_Bir" title="Çevik Bir">Cevik Bir</a>, although his second in command, Major General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_M._Montgomery" title="Thomas M. Montgomery">Thomas M. Montgomery</a>, a US military officer was noted to wield more power and influence, as the command structure was dominated by US officers. Montgomery headed the US <a href="/wiki/Quick_reaction_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Quick reaction force">Quick Reaction Force</a> and reported directly to the US <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">Pentagon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-36">[36]</a></li> <li>Division for Humanitarian Relief and Rehabilitation: Planning and coordination of all humanitarian activities.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a></li> <li>Division for Political Affairs: Promoting political reconciliation and building of transitional governmental and administrative structures.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a></li> <li>Justice Division: Formation of civil police and rehabilitation of the judiciary. Also tasked with monitoring violations of international law.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a></li></ol> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saudi_Arabian_Humvee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Saudi_Arabian_Humvee.jpg/220px-Saudi_Arabian_Humvee.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Saudi_Arabian_Humvee.jpg/330px-Saudi_Arabian_Humvee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Saudi_Arabian_Humvee.jpg/440px-Saudi_Arabian_Humvee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1983" /></a><figcaption>Saudi Arabian UNOSOM II <a href="/wiki/Humvee" title="Humvee">Humvee</a> </figcaption></figure> UNOSOM II had a strength of 30,000 personnel, including 22,000 troops and 8,000 logistic and civilian staff from <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Supply_Contingent_Somalia" title="New Zealand Supply Contingent Somalia">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiPrizio200248-37">[37]</a> The United States military provided 1,167 troops and numerous helicopter gunships for a <a href="/wiki/Quick_reaction_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Quick reaction force">Quick Reaction Force</a>, which would remain completely under US operational control.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrune199928-38">[38]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_UN_Soldiers_during_UNOSOM_II_1993.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/German_UN_Soldiers_during_UNOSOM_II_1993.jpg/220px-German_UN_Soldiers_during_UNOSOM_II_1993.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/German_UN_Soldiers_during_UNOSOM_II_1993.jpg/330px-German_UN_Soldiers_during_UNOSOM_II_1993.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/German_UN_Soldiers_during_UNOSOM_II_1993.jpg/440px-German_UN_Soldiers_during_UNOSOM_II_1993.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2910" data-file-height="1900" /></a><figcaption>German UNOSOM II troops in Somalia (1993)</figcaption></figure>Despite UNOSOM II being composed of a coalition of twenty-seven countries, most of the decision makers and many of the staff were Americans, giving the United States significant control over much of the operation.<a href="#cite_note-:16-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-:24-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-:38-40">[40]</a> It was observed that very few nations involved had any representation in the UN military command structure. Due to this, many states providing troops to the operation insisted on maintaining command structures with their own respective governments, which would result in numerous future inter-UNOSOM II disputes between contingents.<a href="#cite_note-:16-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a> UNOSOM II Force Commander <a href="/wiki/%C3%87evik_Bir" title="Çevik Bir">Cevik Bir</a> openly admitted that the critical posts in his headquarters were filled by Americans by May 1993.<a href="#cite_note-:24-39">[39]</a> In addition to this the representative of the <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">UN Secretary-General</a> in Somalia, retired US Admiral <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Howe" title="Jonathan Howe">Jonathan Howe</a>, staffed the UNOSOM II headquarters with twenty-eight US officers in key positions. Months into the operation, following the <a href="/wiki/June_1993_attack_on_Pakistani_military_in_Somalia" title="June 1993 attack on Pakistani military in Somalia">5 June 1993 killings of the Pakistanis</a> and the passing of <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_837" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 837">UNSCR 837</a>, the US would effectively take complete lead of the mission. In the months following US officers would operate with minimal consultations with UN headquarters in New York.<a href="#cite_note-:16-36">[36]</a> Marine Lt. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Johnston" title="Robert B. Johnston">Robert B. Johnston</a>, head of <a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">UNITAF</a>, would state that although in his view UNITAF had been success US efforts and losses would be in vain if UNOSOM II was also not successful.<a href="#cite_note-:24-39">[39]</a> UNOSOM II would divide Somalia into five distinct zones. Northwest, Northeast, Central, South and <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_operation">In operation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In operation">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalist</a> government based on 18 autonomous regions was agreed upon by the leaders of Somalia's various armed factions. It was the objective of UNOSOM II to support this new system and initiate <a href="/wiki/Nation-building" title="Nation-building">nation-building</a> in Somalia. This included disarming the various factions, restoring law and order,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] helping the people to set up a <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative government</a>, and restoring <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growing_hostilities_between_UNOSOM_and_the_SNA">Growing hostilities between UNOSOM and the SNA</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Growing hostilities between UNOSOM and the SNA">edit</a>]</div> Major disagreements between the UN and the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a> began soon after the establishment of UNOSOM II, centering on the perceived true nature of the operations political mandate. In May 1993, relations between the SNA and UNOSOM would rapidly deteriorate following two significant events.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kismayo_Incident">Kismayo Incident</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Kismayo Incident">edit</a>]</div> During the March <a href="/wiki/Conference_on_National_Reconciliation_in_Somalia" title="Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia">Addis Ababa conference</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Front" title="Somali National Front">Somali National Front</a> (SNF), a pro-<a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Barre</a> faction opposing Aidid, smuggled weapons into the strategic port city of <a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a>. Although the city was nominally controlled by the SNA and <a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">UNITAF</a> forces, Gen. <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Said_Hersi_Morgan" title="Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan">Hersi Morgan</a> of the SNF ousted the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a> forces led by Col. Omar Jess.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_soldiers_in_Kismayo,_1993.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/US_soldiers_in_Kismayo%2C_1993.JPEG/220px-US_soldiers_in_Kismayo%2C_1993.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/US_soldiers_in_Kismayo%2C_1993.JPEG/330px-US_soldiers_in_Kismayo%2C_1993.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/US_soldiers_in_Kismayo%2C_1993.JPEG/440px-US_soldiers_in_Kismayo%2C_1993.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="1526" data-file-height="816" /></a><figcaption>US soldiers coming down a street in <a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a> (1993)</figcaption></figure>On 7 May 1993, three days after UNOSOM II took control of Kismayo from <a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">UNITAF</a>, the SNA made an attempt to retake the city. During the assault the Belgian peacekeepers stationed in the town intervened, considering the assault to take Kismayo an attack on their positions and consequently repelled the SNA forces. The fall of Kismayo to Gen. Morgan infuriated the Somali National Alliance. To the SNA the incident was viewed as blatant U.N. partiality, as UNITAF had failed to prevent Morgan from seizing the city and UNOSOM had then fought SNA forces who had tried to retake it.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> Following the loss of Kismayo, Aidid began to deeply mistrust the United States and the UN mission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal1997186-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrunier1997142-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mudug_peace_agreement">Mudug peace agreement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mudug peace agreement">edit</a>]</div> In early May, Gen. Aidid and Col. <a href="/wiki/Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed" title="Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed">Abdullahi Yusuf</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Salvation_Democratic_Front" title="Somali Salvation Democratic Front">Somali Salvation Democratic Front</a> (SSDF) agreed to convene a peace conference for central Somalia. In light of recent conflict between the two, the initiative was seen a major step towards halting the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrysdale1994167-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Gen. <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Aidid</a>, having initiated the talks with Col. Yusuf, considered himself the conference chair, setting the agenda.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> Beginning 9 May, elder delegations from their respective clans, <a href="/wiki/Habar_Gidir" title="Habar Gidir">Habr Gidr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Majeerteen" title="Majeerteen">Majerteen</a>, met.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrysdale1994167-44">[44]</a> While Aidid and Yusuf aimed for a central Somalia-focused conference, they clashed with UNOSOM, which aimed to include other regions and replace Aidid's chairmanship with ex-President <a href="/wiki/Aden_Adde" title="Aden Adde">Abdullah Osman</a>, a staunch critic of Aidid.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> As the conference began, Aidid sought assistance from UNOSOM ambassador <a href="/wiki/Lansana_Kouyat%C3%A9" title="Lansana Kouyaté">Lansana Kouyate</a>, who proposed air transport for delegates and a 14-day accommodation. However, he was called back to New York and replaced by <a href="/wiki/April_Glaspie" title="April Glaspie">April Glaspie</a>, following which UNOSOM retracted its offer. Aidid resorted to private aircraft to transport delegates. Following the aircraft incident, Aidid would publicly rebuke the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> on <a href="/wiki/Radio_Mogadishu" title="Radio Mogadishu">Radio Mogadishu</a> for interference in Somali internal affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrysdale1994167-168-46">[46]</a> Aidid invited Special Representative of the <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">Secretary-General</a> for Somalia, Adm. <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Howe" title="Jonathan Howe">Johnathan Howe</a> to open the conference, which was refused.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> The differences between Aidid and the UN proved to be to great, and the conference proceeded without the United Nations participation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> On the 2 June 1993 the conference between Gen. <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Aidid</a> and Col. <a href="/wiki/Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed" title="Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed">Abdullahi Yusuf</a> successfully concluded. Admiral <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Howe" title="Jonathan Howe">Howe</a> would be invited to witness the peace agreement, but again declined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrsydale1994177-47">[47]</a> The Galkacyo peace accord successfully ended large scale conflict in the <a href="/wiki/Galguduud" title="Galguduud">Galgadud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mudug" title="Mudug">Mudug</a> regions of Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The contention between the Somali National Alliance and UNOSOM from this point forward would begin to manifest in anti-UNOSOM propaganda broadcast from SNA controlled <a href="/wiki/Radio_Mogadishu" title="Radio Mogadishu">Radio Mogadishu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Somaliland">Somaliland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Somaliland">edit</a>]</div> UNOSOM II would have a highly contentious relationship with <a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a>, eventually resulting in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> being expelled from the region. Most notably during a visit to <a href="/wiki/Hargeisa" title="Hargeisa">Hargeisa</a>, Leonard Kamungo, the head of the Political Affairs division for UNOSOM II, engaged in discussions with the President of Somaliland, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Haji_Ibrahim_Egal" title="Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal">Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal</a>. Kamungo warned Egal that he held the authority to deploy UNOSOM military forces in Somaliland without requiring local consent, if he deemed it necessary. This remark incensed Egal who retorted by threatening that Hargeisa "would become the United Nations' <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu" title="Battle of Dien Bien Phu">Dien Bien Phu</a>." In response, Egal gave Kamungo a 24-hour ultimatum to depart from Somaliland. UNOSOM would later be entirely expelled from the territory on Egals orders.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="UNOSOM_II_-_SNA_conflict">UNOSOM II - SNA conflict</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: UNOSOM II - SNA conflict">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_Mogadishu_and_5_June_1993_inspection">Radio Mogadishu and 5 June 1993 inspection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Radio Mogadishu and 5 June 1993 inspection">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/June_1993_attack_on_Pakistani_military_in_Somalia" title="June 1993 attack on Pakistani military in Somalia">June 1993 attack on Pakistani military in Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pictures_from_an_armed_convoy_trip_in_Mogadishu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pictures_from_an_armed_convoy_trip_in_Mogadishu.jpg/220px-Pictures_from_an_armed_convoy_trip_in_Mogadishu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pictures_from_an_armed_convoy_trip_in_Mogadishu.jpg/330px-Pictures_from_an_armed_convoy_trip_in_Mogadishu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pictures_from_an_armed_convoy_trip_in_Mogadishu.jpg/440px-Pictures_from_an_armed_convoy_trip_in_Mogadishu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="587" /></a><figcaption>Mogadishu skyline from UNOSOM convoy (1993)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Radio_Mogadishu" title="Radio Mogadishu">Radio Mogadishu</a> was a highly popular broadcast station with the residents of the city, and was a vital piece of SNA infrastructure that had been captured following a vicious battle with <a href="/wiki/Ali_Mahdi_Muhammad" title="Ali Mahdi Muhammad">Ali Mahdi's</a> forces. Following the <a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galkayo" title="Galkayo">Galkayo</a> incidents that station began to air anti-UNOSOM propaganda, incensing high ranking UN personnel. It was feared that the broadcasts would shift the attitudes of the Somali public towards the United Nations operation, leading UNOSOM officials to resolve to close the station. In mid-May, the Pakistani contingent was asked to draw up a plan to shut down the station. The Pakistanis did not possess the technical expertise required for such an operation and requested that the US supply experts.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrysdale1994164–195-51">[51]</a> Importantly, <a href="/wiki/Radio_Mogadishu" title="Radio Mogadishu">Radio Mogadishu</a> had also been an Authorized Weapons Store Site (AWSS), subject to UNOSOM inspection. It was decided the American special forces technicians would accompany a Pakistani weapons inspection team to the site in order to determine how to disable the station. Gen. Aidid and the upper echelons of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a>, had been made aware of the discussions to seize or destroy the station.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> According to the 1994 United Nations Inquiry: <blockquote>Opinions differ, even among UNOSOM officials, on whether the weapons inspections of 5 June 1993 was genuine or was merely a cover-up for reconnaissance and subsequent seizure of Radio Mogadishu.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></blockquote> On the morning of Saturday June 5, 1993 an element of the Pakistani force in Somalia had been tasked with the inspection of site AWSS 5, which happened to be located at Aidid controlled <a href="/wiki/Radio_Mogadishu" title="Radio Mogadishu">Radio Mogadishu</a>. The station was popular across the city, even among those who did not like Aidid or the Habr Gidr clan and concern that UNOSOM was coming to shut it down infuriated many citizens of Mogadishu.<a href="#cite_note-:34-53">[53]</a> The fighting would result in 24 Pakistanis and dozens of Somalis killed.<a href="#cite_note-:63-54">[54]</a> UNOSOM believed forces associated with Aidid were behind the attack.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The 1994 UN Inquiry would conclude that in absence of a "...more convincing explanation," it believed the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a> was most likely behind the attack. Despite this, the commission noted that no evidence existed to back previous UNOSOM assertions that the attack had been pre-planned or pre-meditated by the SNA, and further noted that the incident had likely been a spontaneous reaction.<a href="#cite_note-:63-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="UNSCR_837_and_UNOSOM_-_SNA_war">UNSCR 837 and UNOSOM - SNA war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: UNSCR 837 and UNOSOM - SNA war">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_837" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 837">United Nations Security Council Resolution 837</a></div> The next day, the UN responded with <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_837" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 837">Resolution 837</a>, reaffirming that the secretary-general had the authorization to "take all necessary measures against those responsible for the armed attacks and to establish the effective authority of UNOSOM II throughout Somalia."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayall1996110-56">[56]</a> This was essentially a declaration of war on <a href="/wiki/Aidid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aidid">Aidid</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a>, leading to numerous armed confrontations between the two parties.<a href="#cite_note-:17-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:37-58">[58]</a> Although UNOSOM II had fewer war-fighting resources than <a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">UNITAF</a>, it adopted a more ambitious and aggressive stance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrune199928-38">[38]</a> Nevertheless, several UNOSOM contingents expressed opposition to the aggressive military posture. They viewed an offensive as politically misguided and militarily untenable.<a href="#cite_note-:35-59">[59]</a> As the conflict dragged on, these contingents began advocating for a diplomatic resolution.<a href="#cite_note-:25-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:35-59">[59]</a> International observers notably criticized the UN's decision to initiate a military offensive as 'incomprehensible', given the dynamics of Somali society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006178-61">[61]</a> Professor <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Lewis" title="Ioan Lewis">Ioan M. Lewis</a> asserted that the UN made an unwise choice to resort to military force, which led to substantial Somali casualties, rather than attempting to politically isolate Aidid and launch an independent legal inquiry.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The UN offensive that followed UNSCR 837 had significant negative repercussions for UNOSOM II as it incited hostility from across a wide spectrum of Somali society, extending to those Somali who had been most favorable of the intervention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006176-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="June_1993_UNOSOM_offensive">June 1993 UNOSOM offensive</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: June 1993 UNOSOM offensive">edit</a>]</div> On 12 June 1993 US troops began a <a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">military offensive</a> around Mogadishu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrune199928-38">[38]</a> On 17 June, a <a href="/wiki/Arrest_warrant" title="Arrest warrant">warrant</a> with a $25,000 reward was issued by Admiral <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Howe" title="Jonathan Howe">Jonathan Howe</a> for information leading to the arrest of <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Aidid</a>, but he was never captured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrune199928-38">[38]</a> That same day, Aidid's compound and <a href="/wiki/Radio_Mogadishu" title="Radio Mogadishu">Radio Mogadishu</a> were directly targeted by US <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_AC-130" title="Lockheed AC-130">AC-130</a> gunships.<a href="#cite_note-:26-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Over the following weeks, strikes were carried out all over Mogadishu with <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_AC-130" title="Lockheed AC-130">AC-130s</a> and <a href="/wiki/Attack_helicopter" title="Attack helicopter">attack helicopters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> UNOSOM began to greatly increase its firepower in Mogadishu and started making deliberate <a href="/wiki/Show_of_force" title="Show of force">shows of force</a> with Italian and American helicopters over the city.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The US <a href="/wiki/Quick_reaction_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Quick reaction force">Quick Reaction Force</a>, which had been split up into several different hot spots in Somalia, was entirely recalled to Mogadishu.<a href="#cite_note-:110-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-:26-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> East Africa correspondent <a href="/wiki/Mark_Doyle_(journalist)" title="Mark Doyle (journalist)">Mark Doyle</a> described the war between the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a> and UNOSOM forces as seen by journalists in Mogadishu: <blockquote>Typical daylight hours in south Mogadishu thunder to the sound of American <a href="/wiki/Attack_helicopter" title="Attack helicopter">helicopter gunships</a> criss-crossing the skies at low level; militia with small arms or <a href="/wiki/Rocket-propelled_grenade" title="Rocket-propelled grenade">rocket-propelled grenade</a> launchers (RPGs) take aim at what they see as an offensive provocation. It's not unusual, from the main hotel in south Mogadishu, to view open battles, with U.S. helicopters firing <a href="/wiki/20_mm_caliber" title="20 mm caliber">20-millimeter</a> cannons at apparent militia ground positions. From other vantage points, full-scale battles have been observed pitting Turkish tanks, Pakistani <a href="/wiki/Armoured_personnel_carrier" title="Armoured personnel carrier">APCs</a>, and American <a href="/wiki/Humvee" title="Humvee">Humvees</a> against the militia. All this has taken place in a heavily built-up urban environment, with the inevitable heavy casualties. By night, the macabre events continue. Loud explosions are common as militia mortars are aimed at the UN compound or the fortified, UN-controlled airport. UN forces' flares light up the sky in an often futile attempt to pinpoint their enemy. Slow dull tracer fire streaks across the blackness from the militias' weapons. The crack-crack-crack and flash-flash-flash of cannons fired from U.S. helicopter gunships can be seen spitting at apparent militia emplacements.<a href="#cite_note-:21-72">[72]</a></blockquote> In the week after the offensive, US officers and intelligence experts contended that Aidid's <a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">command and control</a> capability over his SNA fighters had been significantly weakened, and the organization's <a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">morale</a> had taken a substantial hit. They also believed that the intensive American aerial bombardment had decimated most of the Somali National Alliance's arsenal. American officials involved in the war estimated that the SNA had no more than 300 loyal fighters, motivated merely by cash or <a href="/wiki/Khat" title="Khat">Khat</a> handouts. However, interviews conducted by the <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">Washington Post</a> with Somali insurgents painted a contrasting picture: a highly motivated and committed military force whose morale seemed to strengthen as the conflict intensified. Months into the conflict, US and UN officials would concede that they had, "...greatly underestimated their enemy,"<a href="#cite_note-:41-73">[73]</a> Following the passing of <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_837" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 837">UNSCR 837</a>, the hunt for <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Aidid</a> characterized much of the UNOSOM II intervention. The increasing tempo of <a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">military operations</a> being carried out in Mogadishu caused <a href="/wiki/Civilian_casualties" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilian casualties">civilian casualties</a> and began to seriously affect the relationship between UN troops and the Somali people. UNOSOM forces began to be increasingly perceived as foreign interlopers and <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialists</a>, particularly after incidents such as the <a href="/wiki/June_1993_UN_killings_of_Somali_protestors" title="June 1993 UN killings of Somali protestors">13 June mass shooting</a>, when UN troops fired upon a demonstration with a machine gun killing 20 Somalis, many women and children,<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> and a US helicopter attack on <a href="/wiki/Erdo%C4%9Fan_Hospital" title="Erdoğan Hospital">Digfer Hospital</a> on 17 June.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal1997187-77">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a> reported that in the month following the offensive at least 200 civilians had been directly killed by foreign troops.<a href="#cite_note-:38-40">[40]</a> Many Mogadishu residents were deeply disturbed by the effects of heavy weaponry utilized by UN forces in Mogadishu, such as <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_AC-130" title="Lockheed AC-130">AC-130s</a>, helicopter <a href="/wiki/Gunship" title="Gunship">gunships</a>, wire-guided <a href="/wiki/BGM-71_TOW" title="BGM-71 TOW">TOW missiles</a> and rockets.<a href="#cite_note-:7-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Airstrike" title="Airstrike">Airstrikes</a> in particular heavily affected Somali civilians and sparked hostility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006176-33">[33]</a> Each major armed confrontation with UN forces was noted to have the deleterious effect of increasing Aidid's stature with the Somali public.<a href="#cite_note-:8-79">[79]</a> In the view of Professor <a href="/wiki/Mats_Berdal" title="Mats Berdal">Mats Berdal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_War_Studies,_King%27s_College_London" title="Department of War Studies, King's College London">Department of War Studies</a> at <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London" title="King's College London">King's College</a>, the conduct of US armed forces during the conflict demonstrated that the US military was not attuned to the requirements of low-level military operations that <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> required at the time. He would argue that, "[There is] a distinctive <a href="/wiki/Mindset" title="Mindset">mindset</a> and approach to low-intensity operations which had been shaped by the American experience during and after <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam</a>, and by a deeply entrenched belief in the efficacy of technology and firepower as a means of minimizing one’s own casualties. It is an approach that was inappropriate to the particular circumstances of Somalia."<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USCandSNA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/USCandSNA.jpg/220px-USCandSNA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/USCandSNA.jpg/330px-USCandSNA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/USCandSNA.jpg/440px-USCandSNA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>A UNOSOM II propaganda leaflet depicting a white dove of peace being crushed by a fist labelled "USC/SNA" ("United Somali Congress / Somali National Alliance")</figcaption></figure>The UNOSOM offensive had significant negative political consequences for the intervention as it alienated the Somali people, strengthened political support for Aidid, and led to growing criticism of the operation internationally. As a result numerous UNOSOM II contingents began to increasingly push for a more conciliatory and diplomatic approach with the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">SNA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:25-60">[60]</a> Relief agencies and humanitarian organizations publicly distanced themselves from the UN offensive.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal1997190-191-82">[82]</a> The backlash from Somali political and military factions against the offensive was so profound that even groups previously ambivalent or antagonistic towards <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Aidid</a> began to perceive the UN and US forces as foreign oppressors. The escalating UNOSOM offensive resulted in the operation forfeiting potential support from other Somali factions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006179-83">[83]</a> Former Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations, Ramesh Thakur, stated that, "The scale, intensity, and frequency of the <a href="/wiki/Use_of_force" title="Use of force">use of force</a> by UNOSOM after June 1993 bore little resemblance to the <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and expectations of when it was established, nor any recognizable relationship by then to a peacekeeping operation as defined in the UN <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a>."<a href="#cite_note-:11-15">[15]</a> British academic <a href="/wiki/Alex_de_Waal" title="Alex de Waal">Alex de Waal</a> observed that UNOSOM's war against the insurgency set an important legal precedent, as UN forces effectively declared immunity from the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">laws of war</a>. Following a US helicopter attack on <a href="/wiki/Erdo%C4%9Fan_Hospital" title="Erdoğan Hospital">Digfer Hospital</a>, de Waal confronted UN commanders in Mogadishu asking if the operation considered itself bound by the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a>. A UN official had responded in regard to the attack that, "The normal <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">rules of engagement</a> do not apply in this nation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal1997187-77">[77]</a> During this time, UNOSOM forces tried to disarm residents in parts of Mogadishu. Dutch journalist <a href="/wiki/Linda_Polman" title="Linda Polman">Linda Polman</a> reported that US troops shelled the homes of Somalis who resisted surrendering their weapons, resulting in significant civilian casualties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolman200330-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bloody_Monday_raid">Bloody Monday raid</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bloody Monday raid">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abdi_House_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdi House raid">Abdi House raid</a></div> On 12 July 1993, a house where a meeting of clan elders was taking place was attacked by US <a href="/wiki/Bell_AH-1_Cobra" title="Bell AH-1 Cobra">AH-1 Cobra</a> helicopters in what became known to the Somalis as <a href="/wiki/Abdi_House_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdi House raid">Bloody Monday</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:17-57">[57]</a> UNOSOM claimed that they had launched a successful raid on a <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a> command and control center where hardliners had been gathered, an account that is widely disputed by Somalis, foreign journalists and human rights organizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrune199931-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-:334-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-:132-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Globe_and_Mail-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-:582-88">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Howe" title="Jonathan Howe">Johnathan Howe</a> alleged that evidence to back UN claims could not be provided because the cameras recording the raid had jammed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal1997188-89">[89]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement" title="International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">Red Cross</a> claimed that 54 Somalis had been killed, including several notable religious elders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006179-83">[83]</a> According to Dr. Sebastian Kaempf, the <a href="/wiki/Abdi_House_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdi House raid">Abdi House raid</a> represented the single most important event during UNOSOM II, as the consequences of the attack proved disastrous for UNOSOM interests in Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-:9-90">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_Down_(book)" title="Black Hawk Down (book)">Black Hawk Down</a> author <a href="/wiki/Mark_Bowden" title="Mark Bowden">Mark Bowden</a> noted 12 July had been a serious mistake and had the effect of firmly uniting a large portion of <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> behind Aidid.<a href="#cite_note-:18-91">[91]</a> Notable groups and organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_Vision_International" title="World Vision International">World Vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res" title="Médecins Sans Frontières">Doctors Without Borders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> called for UNOSOM to review it policies and course.<a href="#cite_note-:12-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-:333-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-:133-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aldinger-95">[95]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cobra_live_fire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cobra_live_fire.jpg/220px-Cobra_live_fire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cobra_live_fire.jpg/330px-Cobra_live_fire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cobra_live_fire.jpg/440px-Cobra_live_fire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>An AH-1 Cobra firing a missile</figcaption></figure> The raid exposed deep rifts and created dissension amongst the UNOSOM II coalition, which consequently began fraying the cohesion and unity of the operation.<a href="#cite_note-:40-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-98">[98]</a> The head of the UNOSOM II Justice Division would criticize the raid in a memo to head of UNOSOM, US Admiral <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Howe" title="Jonathan Howe">Johnathan Howe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:43-99">[99]</a> Further criticism of the raid came from numerous contributing states such as <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:38-40">[40]</a> but most notably the Italian contingent, who threatened to pull out of the whole operation a few days later citing concerns that the escalation was indicative that relief role of UNOSOM II had been overtaken by an American-led campaign against <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Mohammed Farah Aidid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:27-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-:32-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The Italians, who had ruled <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Somalia as a colonial territory</a> for half a century, believed that the unprecedented attack threatened to widen the civil war and turn the Somalis against the entire UN <a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">peacekeeping</a> force.<a href="#cite_note-:52-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> A Pakistani officer in Mogadishu noted that the clash between the Americans and Italians was destroying the cohesion of UNOSOM II, and that a review of strategy was desperately needed.<a href="#cite_note-:40-96">[96]</a> American envoy to Somalia, <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Oakley" title="Robert B. Oakley">Robert B. Oakley</a>, stated that after the raid countries such as <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, as well as other UNOSOM contingents, ceased their participation in operations against <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Aidid</a> upon receiving orders from their respective governments. This decision weakened the United Nations' already fragile command authority. Additionally, many humanitarian efforts came to a halt, and numerous non-governmental organizations expressed their disapproval of both the United Nations and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-:19-107">[107]</a> Intense diplomatic efforts were consequently made in order to avert a major split in UNOSOM II.<a href="#cite_note-:10-98">[98]</a> The strike also caused an outcry among UN civilian staffers and disenchantment over the direction of UNOSOM II for employees of the humanitarian section.<a href="#cite_note-:14-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-:62-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-war_on_aideed-110">[110]</a> At least nine UN civilian employees in Mogadishu working for the humanitarian sector either resigned or walked away from their posts in protest, including the top UNOSOM Justice Division official in Somalia, <a href="/wiki/Ann_Wright" title="Ann Wright">Ann Wright</a>.<a href="#cite_note-war_on_aideed-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-108">[108]</a> Many of those who stayed would comment to reporters that the United Nations had relinquished its <a href="/wiki/Moral_authority" title="Moral authority">moral authority</a> in its war against Aidid.<a href="#cite_note-war_on_aideed-110">[110]</a> The dissension in the U.N. ranks with the Italians and others over what had occurred on July 12, 1993, led to a significant lull in UNOSOM operations in Mogadishu until the August 8, 1993 killings of American soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-:14-108">[108]</a> The raid would lead to a significant increase in attacks on UNOSOM II troops and American forces in Mogadishu being deliberately targeted by Somali factions for the first times.<a href="#cite_note-:9-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-:25-60">[60]</a> That month night patrols in Mogadishu were halted entirely due to the city becoming to dangerous for foreign troops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006186-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Escalation_of_insurgency_and_deployment_of_Task_Force_Ranger">Escalation of insurgency and deployment of Task Force Ranger</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Escalation of insurgency and deployment of Task Force Ranger">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Gothic_Serpent" title="Operation Gothic Serpent">Operation Gothic Serpent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Battle of Mogadishu (1993)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_Hawk_Down_Super64_over_Mogadishu_coast.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Black_Hawk_Down_Super64_over_Mogadishu_coast.jpg/220px-Black_Hawk_Down_Super64_over_Mogadishu_coast.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Black_Hawk_Down_Super64_over_Mogadishu_coast.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="237" /></a><figcaption>US Black Hawk patrols over Mogadishu following the deployment of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Gothic_Serpent" title="Operation Gothic Serpent">Task Force Ranger</a></figcaption></figure> Somali militias and volunteers increasingly began targeting UNOSOM II and US forces, causing further casualties. Following the <a href="/wiki/Abdi_House_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdi House raid">12 July 1993 raid</a>, firefights between the SNA and UNOSOM began occurring almost daily.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> By September 1993, the <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arab</a> newspaper <a href="/wiki/Al-Hayat" title="Al-Hayat">Al-Hayat</a> reported that several Somali Islamic factions, which had previously remained neutral in the war, had now tacitly allied with the SNA.<a href="#cite_note-:39-113">[113]</a> When the conflict had begun in June 1993 Islamic factions had divided over whether not to fight foreign troops because Aidid had previously been a major threat to them.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> As civilian casualties began mounting in July and August numerous Islamic factions began to launch attacks on UNOSOM forces in Mogadishu after sunset. Independent sources in Mogadishu, corroborated by Al-Hayat, indicated that the majority of night military operations throughout 1993 were coordinated by a variety of Somali <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Courts_Union" title="Islamic Courts Union">Islamic groups within the city</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:39-113">[113]</a> Notably, <a href="/wiki/Al-Itihaad_al-Islamiya" title="Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya">Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya</a>, a prominent Somali <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamist</a> militant organization that had previously been in conflict with Aidid's forces in 1992,<a href="#cite_note-:111-115">[115]</a> also began engaging in the insurgency against the American and UN forces.<a href="#cite_note-Scahill_2013_121–122-7">[7]</a> While Aidid did not overtly claim responsibility for these night operations, <a href="/wiki/Al-Hayat" title="Al-Hayat">Al-Hayat</a> noted that he sought to project the appearance of being the orchestrator for propaganda purposes.<a href="#cite_note-:39-113">[113]</a> As American casualties started to mount in Somalia, domestic backlash in the United States grew. <a href="/wiki/Bipartisanship" title="Bipartisanship">Bipartisan</a> support from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">US senate</a> began to build for a withdrawal. By August 1993, it was evident to the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Bill_Clinton" title="Presidency of Bill Clinton">Clinton administration</a> that a strategy shift was necessary to retain domestic support for US involvement in Somalia. This shift was signalled by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Defense Secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/Les_Aspin" title="Les Aspin">Les Aspin</a> in his 27 August speech, advocating for a decreased military focus in UNOSOM II and urging the UN and the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">OAU</a> to resume negotiations with all parties. Both the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">US Secretary of State</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_security_advisor" title="National security advisor">National Security Advisor</a> pushed for a shift towards <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomacy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:25-60">[60]</a> Certain US officials advocated for a more aggressive response, among them was Ambassador Robert R. Gosende from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">State Department</a>. Gosende had written a cable recommending the deployment of thousands of additional troops and urged the abandonment of all diplomatic engagements with the SNA. Contrarily, General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Hoar" title="Joseph P. Hoar">Joseph P. Hoar</a>, who was at the helm of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Central_Command" title="United States Central Command">CENTCOM</a>, expressed sharp disagreement with Gosende's approach. In a confidential memo, General Hoar articulated his belief that if more American troops were needed, then control of Mogadishu was already lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson2000109-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-:25-60">[60]</a> On 8 August, SNA forces detonated a remote controlled bomb against a U.S. military vehicle and killed American soldiers for the first time. Two weeks later, another bomb injured seven.<a href="#cite_note-bowden34-117">[117]</a> In response, President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> approved the proposal to deploy a special task force composed of 400 US Army Rangers and Delta-force Commandos.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrune199931-85">[85]</a> Despite growing reservations about the effectiveness of UNOSOM military operations against the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a>, the immediate concern of protecting US forces led to the decision to deploy elite forces. In August elite unit, named <a href="/wiki/Task_Force_Ranger" class="mw-redirect" title="Task Force Ranger">Task Force Ranger</a>, consisting of 441 elite US troops was flown into Mogadishu and began a manhunt for <a href="/wiki/Aidid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aidid">Aidid</a> in what became known as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Gothic_Serpent" title="Operation Gothic Serpent">Operation Gothic Serpent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:25-60">[60]</a> On 15 September 1993, US Major Gen. <a href="/wiki/David_C._Meade" title="David C. Meade">David C. Meade</a> conveyed in a confidential memo to his superiors that the campaign against the insurgency was faltering, both tactically and potentially operationally. He cautioned that persisting in the conflict risked catastrophe.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> On October 3, 1993, Task Force Ranger raided a hotel in Mogadishu to capture high ranking SNA personnel. What ensued was the longest, bloodiest and deadliest battle for US and UNOSOM II troops in Somalia. In what later became known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Battle of Mogadishu</a>, eighteen US soldiers were killed. Images of their dead bodies being dragged through the streets were broadcast on internationally, infuriating the American public.<a href="#cite_note-:25-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fallout_of_the_Battle_of_Mogadishu_and_the_end_of_UNOSOM_II">Fallout of the Battle of Mogadishu and the end of UNOSOM II</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Fallout of the Battle of Mogadishu and the end of UNOSOM II">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Battle of Mogadishu (1993)</a></div> On 6 October 1993, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> would personally order General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Hoar" title="Joseph P. Hoar">Joseph P. Hoar</a> to cease all combat operations against <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a>, except in <a href="/wiki/Self-defense" title="Self-defense">self defence</a>. General Hoar would proceed to relay the stand down order to Generals <a href="/wiki/William_F._Garrison" title="William F. Garrison">William F. Garrison</a> of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Gothic_Serpent" title="Operation Gothic Serpent">Task Force Ranger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_M._Montgomery" title="Thomas M. Montgomery">Thomas M. Montgomery</a> of the American <a href="/wiki/Quick_reaction_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Quick reaction force">Quick Reaction Force</a>. The following day on 7 October, Clinton publicly announced a major change in course in the mission.<a href="#cite_note-hirsch-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Substantial U.S. forces would be sent to Somalia as short term reinforcements, but all American forces would be withdrawn from the country by the end of March 1994.<a href="#cite_note-:23-121">[121]</a> He would firmly defend American policy in Somalia but admitted that it had been a mistake for American forces to be drawn into the decision "to personalize the conflict" to Aidid. He would go on to reappoint the former U.S. Special Envoy for Somalia <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Oakley" title="Robert B. Oakley">Robert B. Oakley</a> to signal the administrations return to focusing on political reconciliation.<a href="#cite_note-hirsch-119">[119]</a> The Somali National Alliance perceived the cessation of the military operation as a decisive victory.<a href="#cite_note-:41-73">[73]</a> The stand down order given to U.S. forces in Somalia led other UNOSOM II contingents to effectively avoid any confrontation with the SNA. This led to the majority of patrols in Mogadishu to cease and numerous checkpoints in SNA controlled territory to be abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-hirsch2-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> For the remainder of the operation UNOSOM troops withdrew into entrenched positions and practically disappeared from Mogadishu streets. The <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a> and other factions would retake full position of territory in the city that they had previously conceded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006186-111">[111]</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TanksRoad3a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/TanksRoad3a.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="230" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>An armoured column of M1A1 Abrams Tanks and M2 Bradley IFVs move down a dirt road outside the city of Mogadishu, Somalia. (January 1994).</figcaption></figure>The next month on 16 November 1993, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> instructed <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">Secretary-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Boutros_Boutros-Ghali" title="Boutros Boutros-Ghali">Boutros-Ghali</a> to suspend arrest actions and declared the release of all Somali National Alliance <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners of war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The following day <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Mohamed Farah Aidid</a> announced that the decision had proved that the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">SNA</a> had achieved a victory over the UN.<a href="#cite_note-:20-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-125">[125]</a> After the cessation of <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">hostilities</a> between the SNA and UNOSOM, Acting Special Representative <a href="/wiki/Lansana_Kouyat%C3%A9" title="Lansana Kouyaté">Lansana Kouyate</a> (replacing Adm. <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Howe" title="Jonathan Howe">Johnathan Howe</a>) successfully launched an initiative to normalize relations in March 1994. Numerous points of contention between the respective organizations were discussed at length and understandings were reached, facilitating the normalization of the relationship between the UN and the SNA.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> That same year the UNOSOM II began withdrawing. The withdrawal of UNOSOM forces weakened Aidids prominence within the SNA, as the war had served to unify the alliance around a common foreign enemy.<a href="#cite_note-:6-125">[125]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Port_of_Mogadishu_Checkpoint.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Port_of_Mogadishu_Checkpoint.jpg/280px-Port_of_Mogadishu_Checkpoint.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Port_of_Mogadishu_Checkpoint.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="335" data-file-height="251" /></a><figcaption>A U.S. soldier at the main entrance to the Port of Mogadishu points to identify a <a href="/wiki/Sniper" title="Sniper">sniper</a>'s possible firing position (January 1994).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Withdrawal_and_end_of_UNOSOM_II">Withdrawal and end of UNOSOM II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Withdrawal and end of UNOSOM II">edit</a>]</div> All US forces in Somalia completely withdrew on March 3, 1994.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrune199933-20">[20]</a> All European contingents also decided to withdraw at this time, leaving behind almost exclusively <a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a> forces to man UNOSOM II. Though it was widely feared the less equipped contingents would come under attack from Somali militia following the Western withdrawal, the period was mostly uneventful.<a href="#cite_note-:29-127">[127]</a> Local hostility forced the remaining UNOSOM staff in Somalia to travel by helicopter, even for distances as short as a kilometre. This was in stark contrast to the intervention's onset when the UN personnel could travel via <a href="/wiki/Shuttle_bus" title="Shuttle bus">bus shuttle</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolman200362-128">[128]</a> On November 4, 1994, after peacemaking efforts by the remaining 1,900 UNOSOM II troops failed, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) voted unanimously to withdraw all forces in <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_954" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 954">Resolution 954</a>. Subsequently, on November 16, the UNSC authorized <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_955" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 955">Resolution 955</a>, placing new emphasis on peacemaking and reconstruction and returning to a less reactive role. The withdrawal of <a href="/wiki/Operation_United_Shield" title="Operation United Shield">the remaining UN military and police troops</a> from Somalia was completed on March 28, 1995, thereby ending UNOSOM II's mandate.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Casualties">Casualties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Casualties">edit</a>]</div> UNOSOM II forces suffered a total of 385 casualties, including over 130 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-:36-129">[129]</a> US forces suffered a total of 196 casualties during the operation, including 26 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-:31-130">[130]</a> 7 Nigerian soldiers were killed during a skirmish with the SNA in September 1993.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrysdale1994208-12">[12]</a> Estimates of total UNOSOM II personnel killed vary from 134<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> to 154<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> across the entire operation.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-:36-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> 110 of the deaths are attributed to combat related fatalities.<a href="#cite_note-:37-58">[58]</a> The vast majority, approximately 80, were killed in the course of the operations of 1993.<a href="#cite_note-:36-129">[129]</a> Although the operation's casualties have been surpassed by the more recent <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Multidimensional_Integrated_Stabilization_Mission_in_Mali" title="United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali">MINUSMA</a> operation in <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, UNOSOM II was among the deadliest missions in UN history for <a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">peacekeepers</a>. It stands out for having the highest number of deaths resulting from hostile actions compared to both earlier and subsequent operations.<a href="#cite_note-:36-129">[129]</a> 6,000 to 10,000 Somalis had been estimated to have been killed or wounded during the operation,<a href="#cite_note-:31-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-:35-59">[59]</a> many as a result of helicopter gunship fire.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> According to American foreign correspondent <a href="/wiki/Scott_Peterson_(writer)" title="Scott Peterson (writer)">Scott Peterson</a>, Aidid personally told him a total of 13,000 Somalis had been killed by UNOSOM forces. In Peterson's view, it was unlikely that Somali deaths during UNOSOM II surpassed 2,000. Peterson asserts that nearly two-thirds of the Somali casualties were women and children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson200088-13">[13]</a> According to SNA personnel, an estimated 900 fighters died in the war with UNOSOM, the most significant losses inflicted during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Battle of Mogadishu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:41-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Results_of_1994_UN_Inquiry">Results of 1994 UN Inquiry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Results of 1994 UN Inquiry">edit</a>]</div> The month following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Battle of Mogadishu</a>, the United States urged the United Nations to establish the commission to determine who was responsible for the clashes between UNOSOM II peacekeepers and Aidid's SNA forces. A three-man UN inquiry commission headed by Matthew Nglube, former chief justice of <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, Gen. <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Erskine" title="Emmanuel Erskine">Emmanuel Erskine</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> and Gen. <a href="/wiki/Gustav_H%C3%A4gglund" title="Gustav Hägglund">Gustav Hagglund</a> of <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> was set up by the Security Council. On 30 November 1993 the commission landed in Mogadishu.<a href="#cite_note-preston_wapo-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> The report charged the Gen. Aidid with launching the 5 June 1993, attack which initiated the conflict between the SNA and UNOSOM. Notably, it also heavily criticized U.N. peacekeeping officials for embarking on a campaign of forceful disarmament of Somali factions, an effort that antagonized the Aidid's forces and sharpened tensions. The commission questioned the merit of the aggressive UNOSOM peacekeeping strategy and argued that the U.N. should not have abandoned its neutral role in Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-preston_wapo-136">[136]</a> The inquiry criticized the United States for operating under a separate military command and leading raids against Aidid that were not coordinated with UNOSOM officers. The commission condemned the use of American combat helicopters over the heavily populated neighborhoods of Mogadishu and criticized tactics as "incompatible with basic tenets of peacekeeping". The report recommended financial reparations for Somali civilians who became victims of the fighting.<a href="#cite_note-preston_wapo-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_UNOSOM_II">Criticism of UNOSOM II</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Criticism of UNOSOM II">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Over_emphasis_on_military_operations">Over emphasis on military operations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Over emphasis on military operations">edit</a>]</div> UNOSOM II was widely criticized for placing too much emphasis on military operations. Over 90% of the operations $1.6 billion budget was used for military or security purposes.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-:25-60">[60]</a> In July 1993, UN relief head <a href="/wiki/Jan_Eliasson" title="Jan Eliasson">Jan Eliasson</a> publicly admonished UNOSOM II for spending 10 times as much on military operations in Somalia than it did on aid. At the time he would caution that the original objective of sending troops to Somalia was being forgotten.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Due to the war with the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a> and the insurgency, UNOSOM II would end up spending far more than the allocated $1.6 billion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal1997185-139">[139]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesh_Thakur" title="Ramesh Thakur">Ramesh Thakur</a>, a former <a href="/wiki/Under-Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations">Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations</a>, pointed out that the extent, intensity, and frequency of military force used by UNOSOM II after 5 June 1993, did not align with the principles and definition of a <a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">peacekeeping operation</a> as defined by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:11-15">[15]</a> The day after the Battle of Mogadishu, after being asked by journalists on national news if Malaysia disagreed with any UNOSOM policies, Defence Minister <a href="/wiki/Najib_Razak" title="Najib Razak">Najib Razak</a> would comment: "We find there is too much emphasis on military action, like it was an obsession."<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> This would lead to accusations from some Somalia observers that UNOSOM was helping build up the myth of <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farrah_Aidid" title="Mohamed Farrah Aidid">Aidid</a> by depicting him as the only Somali capable of defying a foreign military presence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006179-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Excessive_force_and_human_rights_abuses">Excessive force and human rights abuses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Excessive force and human rights abuses">edit</a>]</div> UNOSOM II forces were criticized for various instances of human rights abuses, violations of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">excessive force</a> by a wide range of academics, foreign correspondents and <a href="/wiki/Humanitarianism" title="Humanitarianism">humanitarian</a> organizations.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Globe_and_Mail-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res" title="Médecins Sans Frontières">Doctors Without Borders</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:58-144">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-145">[145]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a><a href="#cite_note-:332-23">[23]</a> would all criticize UNOSOM II on these grounds. Africa Rights Watch and Doctors Without Borders would both publish detailed reports of abuses by UN forces during the summer of 1993.<a href="#cite_note-:5-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-146">[146]</a> While conceding UN troops were in a difficult position, the Africa Rights Watch report would conclude that abuses and atrocities carried out by UNOSOM II force stemmed from the highest echelons of the command structure and were not cases of undisciplined actions by individual soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-:5-25">[25]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Alex_de_Waal" title="Alex de Waal">de Waal</a>, on several occasions UNOSOM forces in Mogadishu violated the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal1997188-89">[89]</a> Among the forces responsible for <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> abuses were the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and numerous other UNOSOM contingents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal1997187-77">[77]</a> Some of the most widely criticized events that occurred from 5 June to 3–4 October 1993 include: <ul><li>US forces fired missiles at <a href="/wiki/Digfer_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Digfer Hospital">Digfer Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> on the belief that Aidids forces were hiding in the buildings, resulting in the deaths of nine patients.<a href="#cite_note-:2-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-25">[25]</a> Africa Rights Watch would assert that the incident represented a <a href="/wiki/Prima_facie" title="Prima facie">prima-facie</a> case that UN command in Mogadishu had violated the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Convention</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-25">[25]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1993_UN_killings_of_Somali_protestors" title="June 1993 UN killings of Somali protestors">Pakistani forces fired on two large public demonstrations</a> killing over 20 Somalis, many of whom were women and children.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></li> <li>US <a href="/wiki/Quick_reaction_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Quick reaction force">Quick Reaction Force</a> launched the <a href="/wiki/Abdi_House_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdi House raid">Abdi House raid</a> during a meeting of Somali elders, resulting in the deaths of at least 60 civilians according to <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:33-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aldinger-95">[95]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rony_Brauman" title="Rony Brauman">Rony Brauman</a>, who was then serving as the president of <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res" title="Médecins Sans Frontières">Doctors Without Borders</a>, detailed an incident in which the premises of <a href="/wiki/Action_Against_Hunger" title="Action Against Hunger">Action Against Hunger</a> in Mogadishu, also housing the Doctors Without Borders team, came under attack by UNOSOM forces. Two U.S. <a href="/wiki/Bell_AH-1Z_Viper" title="Bell AH-1Z Viper">AH-1 Cobra</a> helicopters, disregarding the clearly visible <a href="/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement" title="International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">Red Cross</a> flags and emblems of both humanitarian organizations on the building, fired two missiles at the compound before strafing it with machine-gun fire, resulting in the death of one aid worker and injuries to several others. According to <a href="/wiki/Rony_Brauman" title="Rony Brauman">Brauman</a> the incident was triggered by the presence of a vehicle nearby which the attack helicopters had deemed suspicious, but belonged to journalists from the <a href="/wiki/France_2" title="France 2">France 2</a> television channel.<a href="#cite_note-:28-22">[22]</a></li> <li>In mid-September US <a href="/wiki/Bell_AH-1_Cobra" title="Bell AH-1 Cobra">AH-1 Cobra</a> helicopters killed nearly 100 Somalis who were in the vicinity of a clash between the SNA and the <a href="/wiki/10th_Mountain_Division_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="10th Mountain Division (United States)">10th Mountain Division</a> using <a href="/wiki/BGM-71_TOW" title="BGM-71 TOW">TOW missiles</a> and cannon fire.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Children living in the surrounding neighborhood had also been killed by stray helicopter fire.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></li></ul> The UN's response to these events were characterized by a marked lack of transparency and <a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">accountability</a>. Despite possessing internal advice from its own legal and political staff in Somalia, UNOSOM would reportedly disregard their input and criticism. <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> would describe the UN's internal investigatory mechanisms for dealing with human rights violations by its troops in Somalia as highly inadequate and inconsistent with the UN's own standards.<a href="#cite_note-:33-149">[149]</a> In the vast majority of incidents, no UN forces were ever reprimanded or punished.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misleading_claims_and_relationship_with_journalists">Misleading claims and relationship with journalists</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Misleading claims and relationship with journalists">edit</a>]</div> Former <a href="/wiki/Under-Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations">Under-Secretary-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesh_Thakur" title="Ramesh Thakur">Ramesh Thakur</a> would further point out that UNOSOM II consistently undermined its authority by deceiving and misleading journalists. He noted that <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a> correspondents in Mogadishu could recall numerous occasions where UNOSOM officials had lied to reporters.<a href="#cite_note-:11-15">[15]</a> BBC journalist <a href="/wiki/Mark_Doyle_(journalist)" title="Mark Doyle (journalist)">Mark Doyle</a> would note that reporters in Mogadishu often treated the versions of events purported by UNOSOM with as much skepticism as the version of events purported by Aidid. Doyle would claim that information given out by UN officials was sometimes deliberately misleading; and often UNOSOM would only give details of military operations if the reporters already possessed their own leads.<a href="#cite_note-:21-72">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a> Mogadishu correspondent <a href="/wiki/Aidan_Hartley" title="Aidan Hartley">Aidan Hartley</a> would later claim that UN officials, "...toed a line of <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> that was palpably absurd to reporters who went around and saw what was happening."<a href="#cite_note-:22-153">[153]</a> In one incident noted by both <a href="/wiki/Aidan_Hartley" title="Aidan Hartley">Aidan Hartley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ramesh_Thakur" title="Ramesh Thakur">Ramesh Thakur</a>, an American <a href="/wiki/Bell_AH-1Z_Viper" title="Bell AH-1Z Viper">AH-1 Cobra</a> helicopter launched a missile strike into Mogadishu in front of a large crowd of Somalis and foreign correspondents. Witnesses watched and filmed the <a href="/wiki/BGM-71_TOW" title="BGM-71 TOW">TOW missile</a> leave the helicopter and spiral into a tea shop, killing a Somali woman. A press conference was held after, during which the UNOSOM spokesman flatly denied the eyewitness accounts and claimed that no helicopters had launched any attack. Following the denial, a TV cameraman got up and played the tape he had filmed of the helicopter firing the missile. UNOSOM would only admit responsibility after footage of the attack was later broadcast globally.<a href="#cite_note-:11-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-153">[153]</a> In another significant incident, Pakistani UNOSOM troops <a href="/wiki/June_1993_UN_killings_of_Somali_protestors" title="June 1993 UN killings of Somali protestors">opened fire with a machine gun onto a crowd of protesters</a>. Thousands of Somalis citizens and dozens foreign journalists had witnessed the troops open fire, unprovoked, from a rooftop emplacement resulting in the deaths of dozens of civilians, including women and children.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> UNOSOM would claim that <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Alliance" title="Somali National Alliance">Somali National Alliance</a> militia had used the crowd as <a href="/wiki/Human_shield" title="Human shield">human shields</a> to fire on the Pakistanis, who then shot back in <a href="/wiki/Self-defense" title="Self-defense">self defence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:42-155">[155]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>, the UNOSOM account of the shooting was disputed by virtually all witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> According to American war correspondent <a href="/wiki/Scott_Peterson_(writer)" title="Scott Peterson (writer)">Scott Peterson</a>, US forces had censored images of <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">mortars</a> firing from UN bases directly into the city of Mogadishu by confiscating the pictures and arresting the photojournalist who had taken the image. In another incident, <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a> photographer Peter Northall was photographing an American UH-60 Black Hawk purposely "rotor washing" a market in the city, only to then be directly targeted and assaulted with six <a href="/wiki/Stun_grenade" title="Stun grenade">percussion grenades</a> from the helicopter. UNOSOM II press spokesman, US Maj. David Stockwell, would defend the incident stating that Northall posed "a threat to himself".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson2000113-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_and_legacy">Aftermath and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Aftermath and legacy">edit</a>]</div> UNOSOM II is widely regarded as unsuccessful in achieving its main objectives and having ended in failure, largely due to the decision to withdraw without completing its goals following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">Battle of Mogadishu</a> in October 1993.<a href="#cite_note-Utley_2006_105-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Springer-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_University_Press-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Alex_de_Waal" title="Alex de Waal">Alex de Waal</a>, the failure of the operation can only be understood, "...in the context of the routine brutality and impunity of many of the military contingents, which antagonized Somalis who would have otherwise been supportive."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Waal1997186-42">[42]</a> A 1995 <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> report would conclude that the operation had demonstrated a poor record of promoting and protecting <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, which would consequently severely impede its ability to function.<a href="#cite_note-:334-18">[18]</a> UNOSOM II’s complete departure in early 1995 did not result in the eruption of violence that was widely predicted, though the civil war continued to simmer with occasional clashes between factions.<a href="#cite_note-:29-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-:30-159">[159]</a> The withdrawal led to the formation of local administrations gaining momentum throughout Somalia, such as localized <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Courts_Union" title="Islamic Courts Union">Islamic Courts</a> and regional administrations like <a href="/wiki/Puntland" title="Puntland">Puntland</a>, resulting in period of relative stability and economic growth until the early 2000's.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Somali <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a> professor Hussein Adam notes, "With the collapse of UNOSOM-sponsored institutions, more authentic entities, including authoritative local leaders, have emerged. With the distorting effect of UNOSOM no longer present, the process of both political and economic transformation has been facilitated. In certain places, including northern Mogadishu, alternative institutions have emerged without any external support."<a href="#cite_note-:30-159">[159]</a> In the view of Walter Clarke, a high ranking US official involved in Operation Restore Hope, and <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Herbst" title="Jeffrey Herbst">Jeffrey Herbst</a>, Associate Professor at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, "The intervention in Somalia was not an abject failure; an estimated 100,000 lives were saved. But its mismanagement should be an object lesson for peacekeepers...on other such missions."<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> The figure of Somalis saved following the large scale military intervention in December 1992 is disputed by various other academics and organizations. According to an assessment by the <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington</a> based independent <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">NGO</a> Refugee Policy Group, only 10,000 to 25,000 lives of the approximately 100,000 rescued by international assistance had been saved by the <a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">UNITAF</a> and UNOSOM II interventions, though <a href="/wiki/Alex_de_Waal" title="Alex de Waal">de Waal</a> argues the true figure of lives saved may have been even lower.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-147">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Maynes" title="Charles W. Maynes">Charles W. Maynes</a>, an American diplomat and editor of <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Policy" title="Foreign Policy">Foreign Policy</a>, reported that according to private estimates by <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> officials, U.S. troops alone may have been responsible for between 7,000 and 10,000 Somali casualties.<a href="#cite_note-:3-163">[163]</a> Mohamed Sahnoun, former Special Representative of the Secretary General to Somalia claimed 6,000 to 10,000 Somalis had been killed in the war with UNOSOM forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006254-14">[14]</a> This has led to debates about the net impact of UNOSOM II.<a href="#cite_note-:4-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-147">[147]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Somalia" title="Culture of Somalia">Somali culture</a>, the era has become the subject of numerous plays and <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>. As noted by Dr. Ana Ljubinkovic, these works often take the form of sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">dramas</a>, showcasing a critical perspective of UNOSOM's perceived arrogance and misjudgments.<a href="#cite_note-:7-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171016212806/http://www.providingforpeacekeeping.org/2014/04/03/contributor-profile-australia">"Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Australia"</a>. 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Italian Politics. 9: 197–215. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-4946">1086-4946</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45402396">45402396</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Italian+Politics&rft.atitle=The+Italian+Intervention+in+Somalia%3A+A+New+Italian+Foreign+Policy+After+the+Cold+War%3F&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=197-215&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45402396%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1086-4946&rft.aulast=Croci&rft.aufirst=Osvaldo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45402396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:25-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:25_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_60-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_60-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_60-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_60-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_60-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_60-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler2002" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, Nicholas J. 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Retrieved 17 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Opinion+In+Somalia%2C+Machiavelli+Vs.+Rambo&rft.date=1993-07-22&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1993%2F07%2F22%2Fopinion%2Fin-somalia-machiavelli-vs-rambo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/un-tries-to-clear-up-somalia-mess-the-row-with-italy-over-operations-in-mogadishu-is-casting-a-shadow-across-the-future-of-peacekeeping-1485354.html">"UN tries to clear up Somalia mess: The row with Italy over operations"</a>. The Independent. 1993-07-16. Retrieved 2022-04-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=UN+tries+to+clear+up+Somalia+mess%3A+The+row+with+Italy+over+operations&rft.date=1993-07-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fun-tries-to-clear-up-somalia-mess-the-row-with-italy-over-operations-in-mogadishu-is-casting-a-shadow-across-the-future-of-peacekeeping-1485354.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:19-107"><a href="#cite_ref-:19_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOakley1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Oakley" title="Robert B. Oakley">Oakley, Robert B.</a> (1997). 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RIFT, THREATENS RECALL OF SOMALIA TROOPS"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. 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(6 December 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220806013245/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/12/06/in-war-on-aideed-un-battled-itself/a42feae5-4aff-4cd1-b680-8ee67c586a47/">"IN WAR ON AIDEED, U.N. BATTLED ITSELF"</a>. Washington Post. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/12/06/in-war-on-aideed-un-battled-itself/a42feae5-4aff-4cd1-b680-8ee67c586a47/">the original</a> on 6 August 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=IN+WAR+ON+AIDEED%2C+U.N.+BATTLED+ITSELF&rft.date=1993-12-06&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Richburg&rft.aufirst=Keith+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F1993%2F12%2F06%2Fin-war-on-aideed-un-battled-itself%2Fa42feae5-4aff-4cd1-b680-8ee67c586a47%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006186-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006186_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPouligny2006186_111-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPouligny2006">Pouligny 2006</a>, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDefense_Technical_Information_Center2005" class="citation book cs1">Defense Technical Information Center (2005-08-01). 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The Independent. 1993-06-13. Retrieved 2022-09-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=UN+killings+inflame+Somali+crisis%3A+20+demonstrators+shot+dead+in&rft.date=1993-06-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fun-killings-inflame-somali-crisis-20-demonstrators-shot-dead-in-pakistani-revenge-1491496.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:42-155"><a href="#cite_ref-:42_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-06-14-mn-3024-story.html">"Pakistanis Fire on Somali Civilians; U.N. Renews Raids"</a>. Los Angeles Times. 14 June 1993. Retrieved 2022-09-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Pakistanis+Fire+on+Somali+Civilians%3B+U.N.+Renews+Raids&rft.date=1993-06-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1993-06-14-mn-3024-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichburg1993" class="citation news cs1">Richburg, Keith B. (1993-06-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/06/15/un-presses-somalia-attacks-as-new-role-is-questioned/5df4335a-189c-4d73-a4d0-88672fd20dad/">"U.N. PRESSES SOMALIA ATTACKS AS NEW ROLE IS QUESTIONED"</a>. Washington Post. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. Retrieved 2023-02-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=U.N.+PRESSES+SOMALIA+ATTACKS+AS+NEW+ROLE+IS+QUESTIONED&rft.date=1993-06-15&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Richburg&rft.aufirst=Keith+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F1993%2F06%2F15%2Fun-presses-somalia-attacks-as-new-role-is-questioned%2F5df4335a-189c-4d73-a4d0-88672fd20dad%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson2000113-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeterson2000113_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeterson2000">Peterson 2000</a>, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeste2003" class="citation book cs1">Feste, Karen A. (2003). Intervention: Shaping the Global Order. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95942-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95942-5"><bdi>978-0-275-95942-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intervention%3A+Shaping+the+Global+Order&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-275-95942-5&rft.aulast=Feste&rft.aufirst=Karen+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:30-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:30_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:30_159-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/causesofwarconse0000unse">The causes of war and the consequences of peacekeeping in Africa</a>. Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann. 2002. p. 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-325-07062-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-325-07062-9"><bdi>978-0-325-07062-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+causes+of+war+and+the+consequences+of+peacekeeping+in+Africa&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Portsmouth%2C+NH+%3A+Heinemann&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-325-07062-9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcausesofwarconse0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakonyi2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bakonyi, Jutta (17 Apr 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17531055.2013.776278">"Authority and administration beyond the state: local governance in southern Somalia, 1995–2006"</a>. Journal of Eastern African Studies. 7 (2): 272–290. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17531055.2013.776278">10.1080/17531055.2013.776278</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1753-1055">1753-1055</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Eastern+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Authority+and+administration+beyond+the+state%3A+local+governance+in+southern+Somalia%2C+1995%E2%80%932006&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=272-290&rft.date=2013-04-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17531055.2013.776278&rft.issn=1753-1055&rft.aulast=Bakonyi&rft.aufirst=Jutta&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F17531055.2013.776278&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkeHerbst1996" class="citation journal cs1">Clarke, Walter; Herbst, Jeffrey (March 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327125620/http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/51844/walter-clarke-and-jeffrey-herbst/somalia-and-the-future-of-humanitarian-intervention">"Somalia and the Future of Humanitarian Intervention"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a>. 75 (2): 70–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20047489">10.2307/20047489</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20047489">20047489</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/51844/walter-clarke-and-jeffrey-herbst/somalia-and-the-future-of-humanitarian-intervention">the original</a> on 27 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Somalia+and+the+Future+of+Humanitarian+Intervention&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=70-85&rft.date=1996-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20047489&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20047489%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft.au=Herbst%2C+Jeffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2F51844%2Fwalter-clarke-and-jeffrey-herbst%2Fsomalia-and-the-future-of-humanitarian-intervention&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaren1997" class="citation book cs1">Maren, Michael (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J8cnTOZcGAoC">The Road to Hell</a>. Free Press. p. 214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2786-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2786-5"><bdi>978-0-7432-2786-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Hell&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-2786-5&rft.aulast=Maren&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ8cnTOZcGAoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-163"><a href="#cite_ref-:3_163-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming2011" class="citation book cs1">Fleming, James E. (2011). Getting to the Rule of Law : NOMOS L. <a href="/wiki/NYU_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="NYU Press">NYU Press</a>. p. 280. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-2878-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-2878-9"><bdi>978-0-8147-2878-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1164652551">1164652551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Getting+to+the+Rule+of+Law+%3A+NOMOS+L&rft.pages=280&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1164652551&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-2878-9&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrysdale1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Drysdale_(historian)" title="John Drysdale (historian)">Drysdale, John</a> (1994). 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London: HAAN. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-874209-51-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-874209-51-0"><bdi>1-874209-51-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30736422">30736422</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Whatever+happened+to+Somalia%3F+A+Tale+of+Tragic+Blunders&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HAAN&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30736422&rft.isbn=1-874209-51-0&rft.aulast=Drysdale&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPouligny2006" class="citation book cs1">Pouligny, Béatrice (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fXK7QgAACAAJ">Peace operations seen from below : UN missions and local people</a>. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56549-224-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-56549-224-2"><bdi>1-56549-224-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/64486263">64486263</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peace+operations+seen+from+below+%3A+UN+missions+and+local+people&rft.place=Bloomfield%2C+CT&rft.pub=Kumarian+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F64486263&rft.isbn=1-56549-224-2&rft.aulast=Pouligny&rft.aufirst=B%C3%A9atrice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfXK7QgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolman2003" class="citation book cs1">Polman, Linda (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/52233618">We Did Nothing: Why the Truth Doesn't Always Come Out When the UN Goes in</a>. <a href="/wiki/Viking_Press" title="Viking Press">Viking Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780141012902" title="Special:BookSources/9780141012902"><bdi>9780141012902</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52233618">52233618</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Did+Nothing%3A+Why+the+Truth+Doesn%27t+Always+Come+Out+When+the+UN+Goes+in&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52233618&rft.isbn=9780141012902&rft.aulast=Polman&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2F52233618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Waal1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alex_de_Waal" title="Alex de Waal">de Waal, Alex</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/37261123">Famine Crimes: Politics & the Disaster Relief Industry in Africa</a>. Britain: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-21158-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-21158-1"><bdi>0-253-21158-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37261123">37261123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Famine+Crimes%3A+Politics+%26+the+Disaster+Relief+Industry+in+Africa&rft.place=Britain&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F37261123&rft.isbn=0-253-21158-1&rft.aulast=de+Waal&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2F37261123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Scott_Peterson_(writer)" title="Scott Peterson (writer)">Peterson, Scott</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/meagainstmybroth0000pete">Me Against My Brother: At War in Somalia, Sudan, and Rwanda: A Journalist Reports From the Battlefields of Africa</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415921985" title="Special:BookSources/9780415921985"><bdi>9780415921985</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43287853">43287853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Me+Against+My+Brother%3A+At+War+in+Somalia%2C+Sudan%2C+and+Rwanda%3A+A+Journalist+Reports+From+the+Battlefields+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43287853&rft.isbn=9780415921985&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmeagainstmybroth0000pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaempf2018" class="citation book cs1">Kaempf, Sebastian (2018). Saving Soldiers or Civilians? : Casualty Aversion Versus Civilian Protection in Asymmetric Conflicts. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42764-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42764-7"><bdi>978-1-108-42764-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032810239">1032810239</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saving+Soldiers+or+Civilians%3F+%3A+Casualty+Aversion+Versus+Civilian+Protection+in+Asymmetric+Conflicts&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1032810239&rft.isbn=978-1-108-42764-7&rft.aulast=Kaempf&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrune1999" class="citation book cs1">Brune, Lester H. (1999). The United States and Post-Cold War Interventions : Bush and Clinton in Somalia, Haiti, and Bosnia, 1992-1998. Claremont, CA: Regina Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-941690-90-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-941690-90-4"><bdi>978-0-941690-90-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40521220">40521220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+United+States+and+Post-Cold+War+Interventions+%3A+Bush+and+Clinton+in+Somalia%2C+Haiti%2C+and+Bosnia%2C+1992-1998&rft.place=Claremont%2C+CA&rft.pub=Regina+Books&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40521220&rft.isbn=978-0-941690-90-4&rft.aulast=Brune&rft.aufirst=Lester+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiPrizio2002" class="citation book cs1">DiPrizio, Robert C. (2002). Armed Humanitarians : U.S. Interventions from Northern Iraq to Kosovo. Baltimore: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801870675" title="Special:BookSources/9780801870675"><bdi>9780801870675</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48706559">48706559</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armed+Humanitarians+%3A+U.S.+Interventions+from+Northern+Iraq+to+Kosovo&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48706559&rft.isbn=9780801870675&rft.aulast=DiPrizio&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllard1995" class="citation book cs1">Allard, Kenneth (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220808042427/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA286816.pdf">Somalia Operations : Lessons Learned</a> (PDF). Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="National Defense University Press">National Defense University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0160455773" title="Special:BookSources/978-0160455773"><bdi>978-0160455773</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32155661">32155661</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA286816.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 8 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somalia+Operations+%3A+Lessons+Learned&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=National+Defense+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32155661&rft.isbn=978-0160455773&rft.aulast=Allard&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fsti%2Fpdfs%2FADA286816.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayall1996" class="citation book cs1">Mayall, James (1996). The New Interventionism, 1991-1994 : United Nations Experience in Cambodia, Former Yugoslavia, and Somalia. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521551977" title="Special:BookSources/9780521551977"><bdi>9780521551977</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/33047184">33047184</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Interventionism%2C+1991-1994+%3A+United+Nations+Experience+in+Cambodia%2C+Former+Yugoslavia%2C+and+Somalia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33047184&rft.isbn=9780521551977&rft.aulast=Mayall&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrunier1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Prunier" title="Gérard Prunier">Prunier, Gérard</a> (1997). Clarke, Walter; Herbst, Jeffery (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/learningfromsoma00walt/mode/2up">Learning from Somalia : The Lessons of Armed Humanitarian Intervention</a>. Westview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-2793-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-2793-8"><bdi>0-8133-2793-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35849136">35849136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Learning+from+Somalia+%3A+The+Lessons+of+Armed+Humanitarian+Intervention&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35849136&rft.isbn=0-8133-2793-8&rft.aulast=Prunier&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flearningfromsoma00walt%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+Nations+Operation+in+Somalia+II" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.archives.un.org/downloads/united-nations-operation-in-somalia-ii-unosom-ii-2003-2005.pdf">United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) (2003-2005)</a> at the United Nations Archives <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181101084037/https://search.archives.un.org/downloads/united-nations-operation-in-somalia-ii-unosom-ii-2003-2005.pdf">Archived</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/unosomi.htm">UN page of UNOSOM I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060719065833/http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/unosomi.htm">Archived</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/unosom2.htm">UN page of UNOSOM II</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060718153236/http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/unosom2.htm">Archived</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.military.com/NewContent/0,13190,NI_Somalia_0104,00.html">Overview of the US intervention in Somalia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040125234025/http://www.military.com/NewContent/0,13190,NI_Somalia_0104,00.html">Archived</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_United_Nations_peacekeeping_operations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:UN_Peacekeeping_Operations" title="Template:UN Peacekeeping Operations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:UN_Peacekeeping_Operations" title="Template talk:UN Peacekeeping Operations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:UN_Peacekeeping_Operations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:UN Peacekeeping Operations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_United_Nations_peacekeeping_operations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_peacekeeping" title="United Nations peacekeeping">peacekeeping operations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current missions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_for_the_Referendum_in_Western_Sahara" title="United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara">MINURSO</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Organization_Stabilization_Mission_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">MONUSCO</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Interim_Security_Force_for_Abyei" title="United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei">UNISFA</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_South_Sudan" title="United Nations Mission in South Sudan">UNMISS</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Multidimensional_Integrated_Stabilization_Mission_in_the_Central_African_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic">MINUSCA</a> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Inactive</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia & Pacific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Military_Observer_Group_in_India_and_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan">UNMOGIP</a> (1949)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Peacekeeping_Force_in_Cyprus" title="United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus">UNFICYP</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Interim_Administration_Mission_in_Kosovo" title="United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo">UNMIK</a> (1999)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">WestAsia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Truce_Supervision_Organization" title="United Nations Truce Supervision Organization">UNTSO</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Disengagement_Observer_Force" title="United Nations Disengagement Observer Force">UNDOF</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Interim_Force_in_Lebanon" title="United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon">UNIFIL</a> (1978)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past missions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">ONUC</a> (1960–1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Transition_Assistance_Group" title="United Nations Transition Assistance Group">UNTAG</a> (1989–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Angola_Verification_Mission_I" title="United Nations Angola Verification Mission I">UNAVEM I</a> (1989–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Angola_Verification_Mission_II" title="United Nations Angola Verification Mission II">UNAVEM II</a> (1991–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_I" title="United Nations Operation in Somalia I">UNOSOM I</a> (1992–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_Mozambique" title="United Nations Operation in Mozambique">ONUMOZ</a> (1992–1994)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">UNOSOM II</a> (1993–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Observer_Mission_Uganda-Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda">UNOMUR</a> (1993–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Observer_Mission_in_Liberia" title="United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia">UNOMIL</a> (1993–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Assistance_Mission_for_Rwanda" title="United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda">UNAMIR</a> (1993–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Aouzou_Strip_Observer_Group" title="United Nations Aouzou Strip Observer Group">UNASOG</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Angola_Verification_Mission_III" title="United Nations Angola Verification Mission III">UNAVEM III</a> (1995–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Observer_Mission_in_Angola" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Observer Mission in Angola">MONUA</a> (1997–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic">MINURCA</a> (1998–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Observer_Mission_in_Sierra_Leone" title="United Nations Observer Mission in Sierra Leone">UNOMSIL</a> (1998–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Sierra_Leone" title="United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone">UNAMSIL</a> (1999–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Organization_Mission_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">MONUC</a> (1999–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Ethiopia_and_Eritrea" title="United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea">UNMEE</a> (2000–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire" title="United Nations Mission in Côte d'Ivoire">MINUCI</a> (2003–2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Liberia" title="United Nations Mission in Liberia">UNMIL</a> (2003–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_C%C3%B4te_d%E2%80%99Ivoire" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire">UNOCI</a> (2004–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_Burundi" title="United Nations Operation in Burundi">ONUB</a> (2004–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_the_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Mission in the Sudan">UNMIS</a> (2005–2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_the_Central_African_Republic_and_Chad" title="United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad">MINURCAT</a> (2007–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union-United_Nations_Hybrid_Operation_in_Darfur" class="mw-redirect" title="African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur">UNAMID</a> (2007–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Multidimensional_Integrated_Stabilization_Mission_in_Mali" title="United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali">MINUSMA</a> (2013–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Integrated_Transition_Assistance_Mission_in_Sudan" title="United Nations Integrated Transition Assistance Mission in Sudan">UNITAMS</a> (2020-2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DOMREP" title="DOMREP">DOMREP</a> (1965–1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ONUCA" title="ONUCA">ONUCA</a> (1989–1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ONUSAL" title="ONUSAL">ONUSAL</a> (1991–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Haiti" title="United Nations Mission in Haiti">UNMIH</a> (1993–1996)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Support_Mission_in_Haiti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Nations Support Mission in Haiti (page does not exist)">UNSMIH</a> (1996–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Verification_Mission_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala">MINUGUA</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Transition_Mission_in_Haiti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Nations Transition Mission in Haiti (page does not exist)">UNTMIH</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Civilian_Police_Mission_in_Haiti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (page does not exist)">MIPONUH</a> (1997–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Stabilization_Mission_in_Haiti" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti">MINUSTAH</a> (2004–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_for_Justice_Support_in_Haiti" title="United Nations Mission for Justice Support in Haiti">MINUJUSTH</a> (2017–2019)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia & Pacific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Temporary_Executive_Authority" title="United Nations Temporary Executive Authority">UNSF</a> (1962–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_India-Pakistan_Observation_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations India-Pakistan Observation Mission">UNIPOM</a> (1965–1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Good_Offices_Mission_in_Afghanistan_and_Pakistan" title="United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan">UNGOMAP</a> (1988–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Advance_Mission_in_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia">UNAMIC</a> (1991–1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Transitional_Authority_in_Cambodia" title="United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia">UNTAC</a> (1992–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_of_Observers_in_Tajikistan" title="United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan">UNMOT</a> (1994–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_of_Support_to_East_Timor" title="United Nations Mission of Support to East Timor">UNMISET</a> (2002–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Integrated_Mission_in_East_Timor" title="United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor">UNMIT</a> (2006–2012)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Protection_Force" title="United Nations Protection Force">UNPROFOR</a> (1992–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Observer_Mission_in_Georgia" title="United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia">UNOMIG</a> (1993–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Confidence_Restoration_Operation_in_Croatia" title="United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia">UNCRO</a> (1995–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Preventive_Deployment_Force" title="United Nations Preventive Deployment Force">UNPREDEP</a> (1995–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina">UNMIBH</a> (1995–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Transitional_Administration_for_Eastern_Slavonia,_Baranja_and_Western_Sirmium" title="United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium">UNTAES</a> (1996–1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_of_Observers_in_Prevlaka" title="United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka">UNMOP</a> (1996–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Civilian_Police_Support_Group" title="United Nations Civilian Police Support Group">UNCPSG</a> (1996–2002)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">WestAsia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_United_Nations_Emergency_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="First United Nations Emergency Force">UNEF I</a> (1956–1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Observation_Group_in_Lebanon" title="United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon">UNOGIL</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Yemen_Observation_Mission" title="United Nations Yemen Observation Mission">UNYOM</a> (1963–1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_United_Nations_Emergency_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Second United Nations Emergency Force">UNEF II</a> (1973–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Iran-Iraq_Military_Observer_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group">UNIIMOG</a> (1988–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Iraq-Kuwait_Observation_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission">UNIKOM</a> (1991–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Supervision_Mission_in_Syria" title="United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria">UNSMIS</a> (2012)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_Nations_peacekeeping" title="History of United Nations peacekeeping">History of UN peacekeeping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_peacekeeping_missions" title="List of United Nations peacekeeping missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_Nations_peacekeeping_missions" title="Timeline of United Nations peacekeeping missions">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_peacekeeping" title="Canadian peacekeeping">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_involvement_in_international_peacekeeping" title="Latin American involvement in international peacekeeping">Latin American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Department_of_Peace_Operations" title="United Nations Department of Peace Operations">United Nations Department of Peace Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Medal" title="United Nations Medal">United Nations Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Military_Observer" title="United Nations Military Observer">United Nations Military Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Police" title="United Nations Police">United Nations Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_peacekeeping" title="Women in peacekeeping">Women in peacekeeping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_Nations#United_Nations_peacekeeping_missions_and_operations" title="Outline of the United Nations">Outline</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:United_Nations" title="Category:United Nations">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/28px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" 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colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_the_United_Nations" title="Template:Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Nations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_the_United_Nations" title="Template talk:Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Nations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_the_United_Nations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Nations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_the_United_Nations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Medal" title="United Nations Medal">Orders, decorations, and medals</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld_Medal" title="Dag Hammarskjöld Medal">Dag Hammarskjöld Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UN_Captain_Mbaye_Diagne_Medal_for_Exceptional_Courage_ribbon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/UN_Captain_Mbaye_Diagne_Medal_for_Exceptional_Courage_ribbon.svg/35px-UN_Captain_Mbaye_Diagne_Medal_for_Exceptional_Courage_ribbon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/UN_Captain_Mbaye_Diagne_Medal_for_Exceptional_Courage_ribbon.svg/53px-UN_Captain_Mbaye_Diagne_Medal_for_Exceptional_Courage_ribbon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/UN_Captain_Mbaye_Diagne_Medal_for_Exceptional_Courage_ribbon.svg/70px-UN_Captain_Mbaye_Diagne_Medal_for_Exceptional_Courage_ribbon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Captain_Mbaye_Diagne_Medal" title="Captain Mbaye Diagne Medal">Captain Mbaye Diagne Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Peace_Medal" title="United Nations Peace Medal">United Nations Peace Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UN_Medal_UNEF_ribbon_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/UN_Medal_UNEF_ribbon_bar.svg/35px-UN_Medal_UNEF_ribbon_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/UN_Medal_UNEF_ribbon_bar.svg/53px-UN_Medal_UNEF_ribbon_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/UN_Medal_UNEF_ribbon_bar.svg/70px-UN_Medal_UNEF_ribbon_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Emergency_Force_Medal" title="United Nations Emergency Force Medal">United Nations Emergency Force Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:United_Nations_Service_Medal_Korea_ribbon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/United_Nations_Service_Medal_Korea_ribbon.svg/35px-United_Nations_Service_Medal_Korea_ribbon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/United_Nations_Service_Medal_Korea_ribbon.svg/53px-United_Nations_Service_Medal_Korea_ribbon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/United_Nations_Service_Medal_Korea_ribbon.svg/70px-United_Nations_Service_Medal_Korea_ribbon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Korea_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Korea Medal">United Nations Korea Medal</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg/75px-Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg/113px-Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg/150px-Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="436" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Truce_Supervision_Organization" title="United Nations Truce Supervision Organization">UNTSO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Military_Observer_Group_in_India_and_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan">UNMOGIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNTSO_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Observation_Group_in_Lebanon" title="United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon">UNOGIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UN_ONUC_Medal_ribbon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/UN_ONUC_Medal_ribbon.svg/35px-UN_ONUC_Medal_ribbon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/UN_ONUC_Medal_ribbon.svg/53px-UN_ONUC_Medal_ribbon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/UN_ONUC_Medal_ribbon.svg/70px-UN_ONUC_Medal_ribbon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">ONUC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNSF_UNTEA_Medal_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/UNSF_UNTEA_Medal_bar.svg/35px-UNSF_UNTEA_Medal_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/UNSF_UNTEA_Medal_bar.svg/53px-UNSF_UNTEA_Medal_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/UNSF_UNTEA_Medal_bar.svg/70px-UNSF_UNTEA_Medal_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="99" data-file-height="29" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Temporary_Executive_Authority" title="United Nations Temporary Executive Authority">UNTEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNFICYP_Medal_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/UNFICYP_Medal_bar.svg/35px-UNFICYP_Medal_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/UNFICYP_Medal_bar.svg/53px-UNFICYP_Medal_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/UNFICYP_Medal_bar.svg/70px-UNFICYP_Medal_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="60" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Peacekeeping_Force_in_Cyprus" title="United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus">UNFICYP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNMOGIP_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_India-Pakistan_Observation_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations India-Pakistan Observation Mission">UNIPOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNEFME_Ribbon_Bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/UNEFME_Ribbon_Bar.gif/35px-UNEFME_Ribbon_Bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/UNEFME_Ribbon_Bar.gif/53px-UNEFME_Ribbon_Bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/UNEFME_Ribbon_Bar.gif/70px-UNEFME_Ribbon_Bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Emergency_Force_II" title="United Nations Emergency Force II">UNEF II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNDOF_BAR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNDOF_BAR.svg/35px-ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNDOF_BAR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNDOF_BAR.svg/53px-ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNDOF_BAR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNDOF_BAR.svg/70px-ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNDOF_BAR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Disengagement_Observer_Force" title="United Nations Disengagement Observer Force">UNDOF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNIFIL_Ribbon_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/UNIFIL_Ribbon_bar.gif/35px-UNIFIL_Ribbon_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/UNIFIL_Ribbon_bar.gif/53px-UNIFIL_Ribbon_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/UNIFIL_Ribbon_bar.gif/70px-UNIFIL_Ribbon_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Interim_Force_in_Lebanon" title="United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon">UNIFIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNHQ_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/UNHQ_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNHQ_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/UNHQ_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNHQ_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/UNHQ_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNHQ_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Headquarters" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Headquarters">UNHQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNIIMOG_Ribbon_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/UNIIMOG_Ribbon_bar.gif/35px-UNIIMOG_Ribbon_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/UNIIMOG_Ribbon_bar.gif/53px-UNIIMOG_Ribbon_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/UNIIMOG_Ribbon_bar.gif/70px-UNIIMOG_Ribbon_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_Military_Observer_Group" title="United Nations Iran–Iraq Military Observer Group">UNIIMOG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNTAG.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/UNTAG.gif/35px-UNTAG.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/UNTAG.gif/53px-UNTAG.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/UNTAG.gif/70px-UNTAG.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Transition_Assistance_Group" title="United Nations Transition Assistance Group">UNTAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:ONUCA_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/ONUCA_Medal_bar.gif/35px-ONUCA_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/ONUCA_Medal_bar.gif/53px-ONUCA_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/ONUCA_Medal_bar.gif/70px-ONUCA_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/ONUCA" title="ONUCA">ONUCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNAVEM_Medal_ribbon.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/UNAVEM_Medal_ribbon.gif/35px-UNAVEM_Medal_ribbon.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/UNAVEM_Medal_ribbon.gif/53px-UNAVEM_Medal_ribbon.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/UNAVEM_Medal_ribbon.gif/70px-UNAVEM_Medal_ribbon.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Angola_Verification_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Angola Verification Mission">UNAVEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNSSM_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/UNSSM_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNSSM_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/UNSSM_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNSSM_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/UNSSM_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNSSM_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Special_Service_Medal" title="United Nations Special Service Medal">United Nations Special Service Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UN_Medal_MINURSO_ribbon_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UN_Medal_MINURSO_ribbon_bar.svg/35px-UN_Medal_MINURSO_ribbon_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UN_Medal_MINURSO_ribbon_bar.svg/53px-UN_Medal_MINURSO_ribbon_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/UN_Medal_MINURSO_ribbon_bar.svg/70px-UN_Medal_MINURSO_ribbon_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_for_the_Referendum_in_Western_Sahara" title="United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara">MINURSO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNIKOM_BAR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNIKOM_BAR.svg/35px-ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNIKOM_BAR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNIKOM_BAR.svg/53px-ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNIKOM_BAR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNIKOM_BAR.svg/70px-ONZ_Medal_w_S%C5%82u%C5%BCbie_Pokoju_UNIKOM_BAR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Iraq%E2%80%93Kuwait_Observation_Mission" title="United Nations Iraq–Kuwait Observation Mission">UNIKOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNAMIC_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/UNAMIC_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNAMIC_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/UNAMIC_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNAMIC_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/UNAMIC_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNAMIC_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Advance_Mission_in_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia">UNAMIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:ONUSAL_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/ONUSAL_Medal_bar.gif/35px-ONUSAL_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/ONUSAL_Medal_bar.gif/53px-ONUSAL_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/ONUSAL_Medal_bar.gif/70px-ONUSAL_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/ONUSAL" title="ONUSAL">ONUSAL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNTAC_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/UNTAC_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNTAC_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/UNTAC_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNTAC_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/UNTAC_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNTAC_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Transitional_Authority_in_Cambodia" title="United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia">UNTAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNPROFOR_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/UNPROFOR_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNPROFOR_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/UNPROFOR_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNPROFOR_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/UNPROFOR_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNPROFOR_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Protection_Force" title="United Nations Protection Force">UNPROFOR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:United_Nations_Medal,_Operation_in_Somalia_ribbon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/United_Nations_Medal%2C_Operation_in_Somalia_ribbon.svg/35px-United_Nations_Medal%2C_Operation_in_Somalia_ribbon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/United_Nations_Medal%2C_Operation_in_Somalia_ribbon.svg/53px-United_Nations_Medal%2C_Operation_in_Somalia_ribbon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/United_Nations_Medal%2C_Operation_in_Somalia_ribbon.svg/70px-United_Nations_Medal%2C_Operation_in_Somalia_ribbon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="279" /></a> <a href="/wiki/UNOSOM_II" class="mw-redirect" title="UNOSOM II">UNOSOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UN_Medals_for_Haiti_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/UN_Medals_for_Haiti_bar.gif/35px-UN_Medals_for_Haiti_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/UN_Medals_for_Haiti_bar.gif/53px-UN_Medals_for_Haiti_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/UN_Medals_for_Haiti_bar.gif/70px-UN_Medals_for_Haiti_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Haiti" title="United Nations Mission in Haiti">UNMIH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNAMIR_Medal_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/UNAMIR_Medal_bar.svg/35px-UNAMIR_Medal_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/UNAMIR_Medal_bar.svg/53px-UNAMIR_Medal_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/UNAMIR_Medal_bar.svg/70px-UNAMIR_Medal_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="70" data-file-height="20" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Assistance_Mission_for_Rwanda" title="United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda">UNAMIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNPREDEP_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/UNPREDEP_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNPREDEP_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/UNPREDEP_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNPREDEP_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/UNPREDEP_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNPREDEP_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Preventive_Deployment_Force" title="United Nations Preventive Deployment Force">UNPREDEP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNMOP_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/UNMOP_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNMOP_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/UNMOP_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNMOP_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/UNMOP_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNMOP_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_of_Observers_in_Prevlaka" title="United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka">UNMOP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNTAES_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/UNTAES_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNTAES_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/UNTAES_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNTAES_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/UNTAES_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNTAES_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Transitional_Administration_for_Eastern_Slavonia,_Baranja_and_Western_Sirmium" title="United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium">UNTAES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNMIK_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/UNMIK_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNMIK_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" 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href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_East_Timor" title="United Nations Mission in East Timor">UNAMET</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Transitional_Administration_in_East_Timor" title="United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor">UNTAET</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_of_Support_to_East_Timor" title="United Nations Mission of Support to East Timor">UNMISET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:MONUC_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/MONUC_Medal_bar.gif/35px-MONUC_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/MONUC_Medal_bar.gif/53px-MONUC_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/MONUC_Medal_bar.gif/70px-MONUC_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Observer_Mission_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Observer Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">MONUC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNMEE_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/UNMEE_Medal_bar.gif/35px-UNMEE_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/UNMEE_Medal_bar.gif/53px-UNMEE_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/UNMEE_Medal_bar.gif/70px-UNMEE_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Ethiopia_and_Eritrea" title="United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea">UNMEE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNMIL_Ribbon_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/UNMIL_Ribbon_bar.svg/35px-UNMIL_Ribbon_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/UNMIL_Ribbon_bar.svg/53px-UNMIL_Ribbon_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/UNMIL_Ribbon_bar.svg/70px-UNMIL_Ribbon_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="94" data-file-height="27" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Liberia" title="United Nations Mission in Liberia">UNMIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UNOCI_Ribbon_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/UNOCI_Ribbon_bar.svg/35px-UNOCI_Ribbon_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/UNOCI_Ribbon_bar.svg/53px-UNOCI_Ribbon_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/UNOCI_Ribbon_bar.svg/70px-UNOCI_Ribbon_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="94" data-file-height="27" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire" title="United Nations Mission in Côte d'Ivoire">MINUCI</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire" title="United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire">ONUCI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:UN_Medal_MINURCAT_ribbon_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/UN_Medal_MINURCAT_ribbon_bar.svg/35px-UN_Medal_MINURCAT_ribbon_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/UN_Medal_MINURCAT_ribbon_bar.svg/53px-UN_Medal_MINURCAT_ribbon_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/UN_Medal_MINURCAT_ribbon_bar.svg/70px-UN_Medal_MINURCAT_ribbon_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_the_Central_African_Republic_and_Chad" title="United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad">MINURCAT II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:MONUC_Medal_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/MONUC_Medal_bar.gif/35px-MONUC_Medal_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="35" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/MONUC_Medal_bar.gif/53px-MONUC_Medal_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/MONUC_Medal_bar.gif/70px-MONUC_Medal_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="30" /></a> <a href="/wiki/MONUSCO" title="MONUSCO">MONUSCO</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mandated Missions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:ICFY_ribbon_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/ICFY_ribbon_bar.svg/35px-ICFY_ribbon_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/ICFY_ribbon_bar.svg/53px-ICFY_ribbon_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/ICFY_ribbon_bar.svg/70px-ICFY_ribbon_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a> <a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_the_Former_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia">International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Conference_on_the_Former_Yugoslavia_Medal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia Medal (page does not exist)">Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:NATO_Medal_Yugoslavia_ribbon_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/NATO_Medal_Yugoslavia_ribbon_bar.svg/35px-NATO_Medal_Yugoslavia_ribbon_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/NATO_Medal_Yugoslavia_ribbon_bar.svg/53px-NATO_Medal_Yugoslavia_ribbon_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/NATO_Medal_Yugoslavia_ribbon_bar.svg/70px-NATO_Medal_Yugoslavia_ribbon_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="132" data-file-height="36" /></a> <a href="/wiki/NATO_Medal" title="NATO Medal">NATO Medal</a> for <a href="/wiki/Stabilisation_Force_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina">SFOR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:NATO_medal_for_Kosovo_ribbon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/NATO_medal_for_Kosovo_ribbon.svg/35px-NATO_medal_for_Kosovo_ribbon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/NATO_medal_for_Kosovo_ribbon.svg/53px-NATO_medal_for_Kosovo_ribbon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/NATO_medal_for_Kosovo_ribbon.svg/70px-NATO_medal_for_Kosovo_ribbon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="132" data-file-height="36" /></a> <a href="/wiki/NATO_Medal" title="NATO Medal">NATO Medal</a> for <a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Force" title="Kosovo Force">KFOR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:TimorEast.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/TimorEast.png/35px-TimorEast.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/TimorEast.png/53px-TimorEast.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/TimorEast.png/70px-TimorEast.png 2x" data-file-width="682" data-file-height="188" /></a> <a href="/wiki/International_Force_East_Timor" title="International Force East Timor">INTERFET</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Force_East_Timor_Medal" title="International Force East Timor Medal">Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:NATO_Medal_non-article-5_Balkans_ribbon_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/NATO_Medal_non-article-5_Balkans_ribbon_bar.svg/35px-NATO_Medal_non-article-5_Balkans_ribbon_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/NATO_Medal_non-article-5_Balkans_ribbon_bar.svg/53px-NATO_Medal_non-article-5_Balkans_ribbon_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/NATO_Medal_non-article-5_Balkans_ribbon_bar.svg/70px-NATO_Medal_non-article-5_Balkans_ribbon_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="279" /></a> <a href="/wiki/NATO_Medal#Non-Article_5_Medal" title="NATO Medal">NATO Non-Article 5 Medal</a> for the Balkans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:NATO_Medal_ribbon_(Non-Article_5).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/NATO_Medal_ribbon_%28Non-Article_5%29.svg/35px-NATO_Medal_ribbon_%28Non-Article_5%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/NATO_Medal_ribbon_%28Non-Article_5%29.svg/53px-NATO_Medal_ribbon_%28Non-Article_5%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/NATO_Medal_ribbon_%28Non-Article_5%29.svg/70px-NATO_Medal_ribbon_%28Non-Article_5%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="279" /></a> <a href="/wiki/NATO_Medal" title="NATO Medal">NATO Non-Article 5 Medal</a> for <a href="/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force" title="International Security Assistance Force">ISAF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" 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[\"CITEREFCurtis1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeRouenBellamy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_WaalAbdel_SalamSalihMarchal2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDefense_Technical_Information_Center2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiPrizio2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoyle1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrysdale1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEconomides2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElmi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeste2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFleming2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoley2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFunk2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarwin1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeldenhuys2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGier1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartley2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaempf2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaempf2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiley1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoopsMacQueenTardyWilliams2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLjubinkovic2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorch1993\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMaren1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaren1997\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMasland1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayall1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMays2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCoy2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonald2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNews_Wire_Services1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOakley1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOakleyHirsch1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOakleyJohn_L._Hirsch1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOmaarde_Waal1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParmelee1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPick1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPouligny2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrendergast1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPress1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrestonWilliams1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrunier1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrunier1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRegan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRehbei1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenders2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichburg1993\"] = 5,\n [\"CITEREFRuysCortenHofer2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFScahill2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSimons2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSomalia_-_UNOSOM_I\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTesón2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThakur1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrama2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUN_Secretary-General1994\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFUtley2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWatson1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeissHubert2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheeler2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodhouseBruceDando2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFde_Waal1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFder_Lijn2015\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 4,\n [\"Age in years, months, weeks and days\"] = 1,\n [\"Campaignbox United Nations Intervention in Somalia (1992-1995)\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 66,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 18,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 29,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 1,\n [\"Endplainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Flag\"] = 40,\n [\"Flagd\"] = 1,\n [\"Flagicon\"] = 18,\n [\"Flagicon image\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox military conflict\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Nobold\"] = 1,\n [\"Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Nations\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 52,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Startplainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"UN Peacekeeping Operations\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-565d46677b-9bg2c","timestamp":"20241128122426","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"United Nations Operation in Somalia II","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Nations_Operation_in_Somalia_II","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1778229","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1778229","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-10-29T04:19:05Z","dateModified":"2024-09-23T05:54:54Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c6\/NepalesischeUNSoldaten1993.jpg","headline":"second phase of UN Intervention in Somalia after civil war erupted in 1991"}</script> </body> </html>