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id="toc-Influence_of_Greek_and_Roman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_Greek_and_Roman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Influence of Greek and Roman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_Greek_and_Roman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domestic_tragedy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_tragedy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Domestic tragedy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_tragedy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opera" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opera"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Opera</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opera-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-classical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-classical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Neo-classical</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Neo-classical-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Neo-classical subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Neo-classical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Later_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Later development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bourgeois" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bourgeois"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bourgeois</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bourgeois-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Modern development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Theories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aristotle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Aristotle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hegel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hegel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Hegel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hegel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Tragedy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 95 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-95" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">95 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedie" title="Tragedie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tragedie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A9_(%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7)" title="مأساة (دراما) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مأساة (دراما)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D5%B2%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6_(%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80)" title="Ողբերգութիւն (թատրոնի ժանր) – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ողբերգութիւն (թատրոնի ժանր)" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traxedia" title="Traxedia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Traxedia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faci%C9%99_(janr)" title="Faciə (janr) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Faciə (janr)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%98%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="تراژدی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تراژدی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%95" title="বিয়োগান্ত নাটক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিয়োগান্ত নাটক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi-kio%CC%8Dk" title="Pi-kio̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pi-kio̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%80)" title="Трагедия (жанр) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Трагедия (жанр)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Трагедыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Трагедыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Трагедыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Трагедыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trahedya" title="Trahedya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Trahedya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трагедия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Трагедия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedie" title="Tragedie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Tragedie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedija" title="Tragedija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Tragedija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajedienn" title="Trajedienn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Trajedienn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trag%C3%A8dia" title="Tragèdia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tragèdia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trag%C3%A9die" title="Tragédie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Tragédie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedie" title="Tragedie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tragedie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trag%C3%B6die" title="Tragödie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tragödie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trag%C3%B6%C3%B6dia" title="Tragöödia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tragöödia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B3%CF%89%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Τραγωδία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τραγωδία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трагедия – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Трагедия" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedia" title="Tragedia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tragedia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedio" title="Tragedio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tragedio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedia" title="Tragedia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Tragedia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%98%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="تراژدی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تراژدی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trag%C3%A9die" title="Tragédie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tragédie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trageedzje" title="Trageedzje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Trageedzje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-skeeal" title="Doo-skeeal – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Doo-skeeal" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traxedia" title="Traxedia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Traxedia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%82%B2%E5%8A%87" title="悲劇 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="悲劇" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%84%EA%B7%B9" title="비극 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="비극" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D5%B2%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6_(%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80)" title="Ողբերգություն (ժանր) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ողբերգություն (ժանր)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%95" title="दुखान्त नाटक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दुखान्त नाटक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedija" title="Tragedija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tragedija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedio" title="Tragedio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Tragedio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedi" title="Tragedi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tragedi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmleikur" title="Harmleikur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Harmleikur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedia" title="Tragedia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tragedia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%93%D7%99%D7%94" title="טרגדיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טרגדיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B0_%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%95" title="ಗಂಭೀರ ನಾಟಕ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಗಂಭೀರ ನಾಟಕ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ტრაგედია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტრაგედია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трагедия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Трагедия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traj%C3%A9di" title="Trajédi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Trajédi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трагедия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Трагедия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragoedia" title="Tragoedia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Tragoedia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tra%C4%A3%C4%93dija" title="Traģēdija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Traģēdija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedija" title="Tragedija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tragedija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trag%C3%A9dia" title="Tragédia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tragédia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Трагедија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Трагедија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="शोकांतिका – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शोकांतिका" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ტრაგედია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ტრაგედია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="تراجيديا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تراجيديا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedi" title="Tragedi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tragedi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedie_(toneel)" title="Tragedie (toneel) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tragedie (toneel)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%82%B2%E5%8A%87" title="悲劇 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="悲劇" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedie" title="Tragedie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tragedie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedie" title="Tragedie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tragedie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trag%C3%A8dia" title="Tragèdia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tragèdia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragediya" title="Tragediya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tragediya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%80" title="ਤਰਾਸਦੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਤਰਾਸਦੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrajidi" title="Chrajidi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Chrajidi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedia" title="Tragedia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tragedia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trag%C3%A9dia" title="Tragédia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tragédia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedie" title="Tragedie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tragedie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трагедия – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Трагедия" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трагедия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Трагедия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trag%C3%B6die" title="Tragödie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Tragödie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragjedia" title="Tragjedia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Tragjedia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragg%C3%A8dia" title="Traggèdia – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Traggèdia" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_(Greek_theatre)" title="Tragedy (Greek theatre) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tragedy (Greek theatre)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%88" title="الميو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="الميو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trag%C3%A9dia" title="Tragédia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tragédia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedija" title="Tragedija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tragedija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%98%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="تراژیدیا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تراژیدیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Трагедија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Трагедија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedija" title="Tragedija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tragedija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedi" title="Tragedi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Tragedi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedia" title="Tragedia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tragedia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedi" title="Tragedi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tragedi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trahedya" title="Trahedya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Trahedya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="துன்பியல் நாடகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="துன்பியல் நாடகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="โศกนาฏกรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โศกนาฏกรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D2%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0" title="Фоҷиа – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фоҷиа" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajedi" title="Trajedi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Trajedi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Трагедія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Трагедія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%DB%81" title="المیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="المیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Genre of drama based on human suffering</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the genre of drama based on human suffering. For the loss of life, see <a href="/wiki/Tragedy_(event)" title="Tragedy (event)">Tragedy (event)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Tragedy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Tragedy (disambiguation)">Tragedy (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tragedian" redirects here. 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding-bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png/250px-Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png/330px-Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png/500px-Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png 2x" data-file-width="1016" data-file-height="560" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">Oral literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">fable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">fairy tale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_play" title="Folk play">folk play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folksong" class="mw-redirect" title="Folksong">folksong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">heroic epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Oration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">Performance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audiobook" title="Audiobook">audiobook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoken_word" title="Spoken word">spoken word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saying" title="Saying">Saying</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Major written forms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closet_drama" title="Closet drama">closet drama</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_poetry" title="Narrative poetry">narrative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">Prose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_nonsense" title="Literary nonsense">Nonsense</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonsense_verse" title="Nonsense verse">verse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergodic_literature" title="Ergodic literature">Ergodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_literature" title="Electronic literature">Electronic</a></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Long prose fiction</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthology" title="Anthology">Anthology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_(literature)" title="Serial (literature)">Serial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novel</a>/<a href="/wiki/Romance_(prose_fiction)" title="Romance (prose fiction)">romance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Short prose fiction</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">Novella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novelette_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Novelette (literature)">Novelette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">Short story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drabble" title="Drabble">Drabble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sketch_story" title="Sketch story">Sketch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_fiction" title="Flash fiction">Flash fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parable" title="Parable">Parable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_literature" title="Wisdom literature">Wisdom</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Prose genres</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedic_novel" title="Encyclopedic novel">Encyclopedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_fiction" title="Genre fiction">Genre</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_fiction" title="Action fiction">action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventure_fiction" title="Adventure fiction">adventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coming-of-age_story" title="Coming-of-age story">coming-of-age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_fiction" title="Crime fiction">crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_literature" title="Erotic literature">erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">horror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_fiction" title="Military fiction">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal_fiction" title="Paranormal fiction">paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_novel" title="Romance novel">romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural_fiction" title="Supernatural fiction">supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_(genre)" title="Western (genre)">western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realist_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Realist literature">Realist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_fiction" title="Speculative fiction">Speculative</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">Academic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anecdote" title="Anecdote">Anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">Epistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essay" title="Essay">Essay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_(message)" title="Letter (message)">Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_writing" title="Life writing">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_writing" title="Nature writing">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasive_writing" title="Persuasive writing">Persuasive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_literature" title="Travel literature">Travelogue</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Poetry genres</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Narrative_poetry" title="Narrative poetry">Narrative</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_poetry" title="Children's poetry">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verse_drama_and_dramatic_verse" title="Verse drama and dramatic verse">Dramatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verse_novel" title="Verse novel">Verse novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_poetry" title="National poetry">National</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">Lyric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballad" title="Ballad">Ballad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegy" title="Elegy">Elegy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">Epigram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazal" title="Ghazal">Ghazal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haiku" title="Haiku">Haiku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">Hymn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limerick_(poetry)" title="Limerick (poetry)">Limerick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ode" title="Ode">Ode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasida" title="Qasida">Qasida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">Sonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanelle" title="Villanelle">Villanelle</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epic_poems" title="List of epic poems">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poetry_groups_and_movements" title="List of poetry groups and movements">Groups and movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poets" title="List of poets">Poets</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Dramatic genres</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libretto" title="Libretto">Libretto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">Play</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_(theatrical_genre)" title="History (theatrical genre)">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">moral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screenplay" title="Screenplay">Script</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">Tragicomedy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_modernism" title="Literary modernism">Modernist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_literature" title="Postmodern literature">Postmodern</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Lists and outlines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_literature" title="Outline of literature">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_literary_terms" title="Glossary of literary terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_books" title="Lists of books">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_writers" title="Lists of writers">Writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_movements" title="List of literary movements">Movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_cycles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of literary cycles">Cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_awards" title="List of literary awards">Literary awards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poetry_awards" title="List of poetry awards">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_story_collection" title="Short story collection">Short story collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_literary_work" title="Lost literary work">Lost literary work</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lacuna_(manuscripts)" title="Lacuna (manuscripts)">Lacuna</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">Theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">criticism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_magazine" title="Literary magazine">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_(language)" title="Composition (language)">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_feud" title="Literary feud">Feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">Estate</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="display:block; margin-top:0.3em; border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top:0.15em; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/20px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/40px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png 1.5x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Literature" title="Template:Literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Literature" title="Template talk:Literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>tragedy</b> is a genre of <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> based on human <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a> and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a <a href="/wiki/Tragic_hero" title="Tragic hero">main character</a> or cast of characters.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, the intention of tragedy is to invoke an accompanying <a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">catharsis</a>, or a "pain [that] awakens pleasure,” for the audience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanham19981118_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanham19981118-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENietzsche199921§2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENietzsche199921§2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While many cultures have developed forms that provoke this <a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">paradoxical</a> response, the term <i>tragedy</i> often refers to a specific <a href="/wiki/Poetic_tradition" title="Poetic tradition">tradition</a> of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanham19981118_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanham19981118-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams196614–16_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams196614–16-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">cultural identity</a> and historical continuity—"the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Greeks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethans</a>, in one cultural form; <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenes</a> and Christians, in a common activity," as <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Raymond Williams</a> puts it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams196616_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams196616-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heer_Ranjha_painting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Heer_Ranjha_painting.jpg/250px-Heer_Ranjha_painting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Heer_Ranjha_painting.jpg/330px-Heer_Ranjha_painting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Heer_Ranjha_painting.jpg/500px-Heer_Ranjha_painting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1355" data-file-height="1931" /></a><figcaption>The classical Punjabi tragedy of <i><a href="/wiki/Heer_Ranjha" title="Heer Ranjha">Heer Ranjha</a></i>, one of the four classic tragedies of <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_folklore" title="Punjabi folklore">Punjabi folklore</a>; the tragedy's epic form by <a href="/wiki/Waris_Shah" title="Waris Shah">Waris Shah</a> is regarded as one of the greatest pieces of <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_literature" title="Punjabi literature">Punjabi literature</a></figcaption></figure> <p>From its origins in the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">theatre of ancient Greece</a> 2500 years ago, from which there survives only a fraction of the work of <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>, as well as many fragments from other poets, and the later Roman tragedies of <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>; through its singular articulations in the works of <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lope_de_Vega" title="Lope de Vega">Lope de Vega</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Racine" title="Jean Racine">Jean Racine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a> to the more recent <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(theatre)" title="Naturalism (theatre)">naturalistic</a> tragedy of <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen" title="Henrik Ibsen">Henrik Ibsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/August_Strindberg" title="August Strindberg">August Strindberg</a>; <a href="/wiki/Natyaguru" class="mw-redirect" title="Natyaguru">Natyaguru</a> <a href="/wiki/Nurul_Momen" title="Nurul Momen">Nurul Momen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nemesis" title="Nemesis">Nemesis</a>' tragic vengeance & <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernist</a> meditations on death, loss and suffering; <a href="/wiki/Heiner_M%C3%BCller" title="Heiner Müller">Heiner Müller</a> <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernist</a> reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams196613–84_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams196613–84-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004193–209_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004193–209-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A long line of <a href="/wiki/Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers">philosophers</a>—which includes <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Saint Augustine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenjamin1998_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenjamin1998-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a>—have analysed, speculated upon, and criticised the genre.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFelski20081_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFelski20081-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDukore1974_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDukore1974-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlson1993_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlson1993-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the wake of Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i> (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general (where the tragic divides against <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric</a>) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to <a href="/wiki/Comedy_(drama)" title="Comedy (drama)">comedy</a>). In the <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modern</a> era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, <a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">melodrama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">the tragicomic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epic_theatre" title="Epic theatre">epic theatre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlson1993_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlson1993-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPfister1988_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfister1988-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-<a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">generic</a> <a href="/wiki/Deterritorialization" title="Deterritorialization">deterritorialization</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_century_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nineteenth century theatre">mid-19th century</a> onwards. Both <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Boal" title="Augusto Boal">Augusto Boal</a> define their epic theatre projects (<a href="/wiki/Non-Aristotelian_drama" title="Non-Aristotelian drama">non-Aristotelian drama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Oppressed" title="Theatre of the Oppressed">Theatre of the Oppressed</a>, respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004193–209_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004193–209-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word "tragedy" appears to have been used to describe different phenomena at different times. It derives from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τραγῳδία</span></span> "goat song", which comes from τράγος <i>tragos</i> "he-goat" and ᾠδή <i>ōidḗ</i> "singing, ode." Scholars suspect this may be traced to a time when a goat was either the prize<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a competition of <a href="/wiki/Greek_dances" title="Greek dances">choral dancing</a> or was what a <a href="/wiki/Greek_chorus" title="Greek chorus">chorus</a> danced around prior to the animal's <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a> <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">sacrifice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200313_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200313-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another view on the etymology, <a href="/wiki/Athenaeus" title="Athenaeus">Athenaeus</a> of Naucratis (2nd–3rd century CE) says that the original form of the word was <i>trygodia</i> from <i>trygos</i> (grape harvest) and <i>ode</i> (song), because those events were first introduced during grape harvest.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writing in 335 BCE (long after the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Pericles" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Pericles">Golden Age</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">5th-century</a> <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athenian</a> tragedy), <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> provides the earliest surviving explanation for the origin of the dramatic <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">art form</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i>, in which he argues that tragedy developed from the <a href="/wiki/Improvisation" title="Improvisation">improvisations</a> of the leader of <a href="/wiki/Greek_chorus" title="Greek chorus">choral</a> <a href="/wiki/Dithyramb" title="Dithyramb">dithyrambs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a> sung and danced in praise of <a href="/wiki/Dionysos" class="mw-redirect" title="Dionysos">Dionysos</a>, the god of wine and fertility):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200313_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200313-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Anyway, arising from an improvisatory beginning (both tragedy and comedy—tragedy from the leaders of the dithyramb, and comedy from the leaders of the phallic processions which even now continue as a custom in many of our cities), [tragedy] grew little by little, as [the poets] developed whatever [new part] of it had appeared; and, passing through many changes, tragedy came to a halt, since it had attained its own nature. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Poetics</i> IV, 1449a 10–15<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle19876_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle19876-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In the same work, Aristotle attempts to provide a scholastic definition of what tragedy is: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Tragedy is, then, an enactment of a deed that is important and complete, and of [a certain] magnitude, by means of language enriched [with ornaments], each used separately in the different parts [of the play]: it is enacted, not [merely] recited, and through pity and fear it effects relief (<a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">catharsis</a>) to such [and similar] emotions. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Poetics, VI 1449b 2–3<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1449b_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1449b-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>There is some dissent to the dithyrambic origins of tragedy, mostly based on the differences between the shapes of their choruses and styles of dancing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENietzsche1999_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENietzsche1999-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common descent from pre-<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Hellenic</a> fertility and burial rites has been suggested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENietzsche1999_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENietzsche1999-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> discussed the origins of Greek tragedy in his early book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_Tragedy" title="The Birth of Tragedy">The Birth of Tragedy</a></i> (1872). Here, he suggests the name originates in the use of a chorus of goat-like <a href="/wiki/Satyr" title="Satyr">satyrs</a> in the original <a href="/wiki/Dithyramb" title="Dithyramb">dithyrambs</a> from which the tragic genre developed. </p><p> Scott Scullion writes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There is abundant evidence for tragoidia understood as "song for the prize goat". The best-known evidence is Horace, Ars poetica 220-24 ("he who with a tragic song competed for a mere goat"); the earliest is the Parian Marble, a chronicle inscribed about 264/63 BCE, which records, under a date between 538 and 528 BCE: "Thespis is the poet ... first produced ... and as prize was established the billy goat" (FrGHist 239A, epoch 43); the clearest is Eustathius 1769.45: "They called those competing tragedians, clearly because of the song over the billy goat"...<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Greek">Greek</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Greek"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dionysos_mask_Louvre_Myr347.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Dionysos_mask_Louvre_Myr347.jpg/200px-Dionysos_mask_Louvre_Myr347.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Dionysos_mask_Louvre_Myr347.jpg/300px-Dionysos_mask_Louvre_Myr347.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Dionysos_mask_Louvre_Myr347.jpg/400px-Dionysos_mask_Louvre_Myr347.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1370" data-file-height="1480" /></a><figcaption>Mask of <a href="/wiki/Dionysus" title="Dionysus">Dionysus</a>. Greek, <a href="/wiki/Myrina,_Greece" title="Myrina, Greece">Myrina</a>, 2nd century BCE.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greek_tragedy" title="Greek tragedy">Greek tragedy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Pentheus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Pentheus.jpg/250px-Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Pentheus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Pentheus.jpg/330px-Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Pentheus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Pentheus.jpg/500px-Pompeii_-_Casa_dei_Vettii_-_Pentheus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1883" data-file-height="1941" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bacchae" title="The Bacchae">The Bacchae</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_tragedy" title="Greek tragedy">ancient Greek tragedy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELey2007206_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELey2007206-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStyan2000140_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStyan2000140-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004104_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004104-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE (from the end of which it began to spread throughout the Greek world), and continued to be popular until the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200332–3_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200332–3-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown1998444_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998444-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge19973–5,_33_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge19973–5,_33-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No tragedies from the 6th century and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in the 5th century have survived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovacs2005379_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovacs2005379-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> We have complete texts <a href="/wiki/Extant_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant literature">extant</a> by <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aeschylus' <i><a href="/wiki/The_Persians" title="The Persians">The Persians</a></i> is recognized to be the earliest extant Greek tragedy, and as such it is doubly unique among the extant ancient dramas.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Athenian tragedies were performed in late March/early April at an annual state religious festival in honor of Dionysus. The presentations took the form of a contest between three playwrights, who presented their works on three successive days. Each playwright offered a tetralogy consisting of three tragedies and a concluding comic piece called a <a href="/wiki/Satyr_play" title="Satyr play">satyr play</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELucas19547_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELucas19547-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The four plays sometimes featured linked stories. Only one complete trilogy of tragedies has survived, the <i><a href="/wiki/Oresteia" title="Oresteia">Oresteia</a></i> of Aeschylus. The Greek theatre was in the open air, on the side of a hill, and performances of a trilogy and satyr play probably lasted most of the day. Performances were apparently open to all citizens, including women, but evidence is scant.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The theatre of Dionysus at Athens probably held around 12,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELey200733–34_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELey200733–34-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All of the choral parts were sung (to the accompaniment of an <i><a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">aulos</a></i>) and some of the actors' answers to the chorus were sung as well. The play as a whole was composed in various verse metres. All actors were male and wore masks. A <a href="/wiki/Greek_chorus" title="Greek chorus">Greek chorus</a> danced as well as sang, though no one knows exactly what sorts of steps the chorus performed as it sang. Choral songs in tragedy are often divided into three sections: strophe ("turning, circling"), antistrophe ("counter-turning, counter-circling") and epode ("after-song"). </p><p>Many ancient Greek tragedians employed the <i><a href="/wiki/Ekkyklema" title="Ekkyklema">ekkyklêma</a></i> as a theatrical device, which was a platform hidden behind the scene that could be rolled out to display the aftermath of some event which had happened out of sight of the audience. This event was frequently a brutal murder of some sort, an act of violence which could not be effectively portrayed visually, but an action of which the other characters must see the effects for it to have meaning and emotional resonance. A prime example of the use of the <i>ekkyklêma</i> is after the murder of <a href="/wiki/Agamemnon_(play)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agamemnon (play)">Agamemnon</a> in the first play of Aeschylus' <i>Oresteia</i>, when the king's butchered body is wheeled out in a grand display for all to see. Variations on the <i>ekkyklêma</i> are used in tragedies and other forms to this day, as writers still find it a useful and often powerful device for showing the consequences of extreme human actions. Another such device was a crane, the <a href="/wiki/Mechane" title="Mechane">mechane</a>, which served to hoist a god or goddess on stage when they were supposed to arrive flying. This device gave origin to the phrase "<a href="/wiki/Deus_ex_machina" title="Deus ex machina">deus ex machina</a>" ("god out of a machine"), that is, the surprise intervention of an unforeseen external factor that changes the outcome of an event.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman">Roman</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Roman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_-_Casa_del_Centenario_-_Orest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Pompeii_-_Casa_del_Centenario_-_Orest.jpg/250px-Pompeii_-_Casa_del_Centenario_-_Orest.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Pompeii_-_Casa_del_Centenario_-_Orest.jpg/330px-Pompeii_-_Casa_del_Centenario_-_Orest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Pompeii_-_Casa_del_Centenario_-_Orest.jpg/500px-Pompeii_-_Casa_del_Centenario_-_Orest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1388" data-file-height="1784" /></a><figcaption>Scene from the tragedy <i>Iphigenia in Tauris</i> by Euripides. Roman fresco in Pompeii.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Senecan_tragedy" title="Senecan tragedy">Senecan tragedy</a></div> <p>Following the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (509–27 BCE) into several Greek territories between 270 and 240 BCE, Rome encountered <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Greek tragedy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200343_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200343-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the later years of the republic and by means of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (27 BCE-476 CE), theatre spread west across Europe, around the Mediterranean and even reached Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200336,_47_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200336,_47-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Greek tragedy continued to be performed throughout the Roman period, the year 240 BCE marks the beginning of regular <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Roman drama</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200343_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200343-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Livius_Andronicus" title="Livius Andronicus">Livius Andronicus</a> began to write Roman tragedies, thus creating some of the first important works of <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Roman literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200347_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200347-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Five years later, <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Naevius" title="Gnaeus Naevius">Gnaeus Naevius</a> also began to write tragedies (though he was more appreciated for his comedies).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200347_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200347-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No complete early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three other early tragic playwrights—<a href="/wiki/Quintus_Ennius" class="mw-redirect" title="Quintus Ennius">Quintus Ennius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Pacuvius" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Pacuvius">Marcus Pacuvius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Accius" title="Lucius Accius">Lucius Accius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200349_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200349-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the time of the empire, the tragedies of two playwrights survive—one is an unknown author, while the other is the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200350_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200350-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nine of <a href="/wiki/Senecan_tragedy" title="Senecan tragedy">Seneca's tragedies</a> survive, all of which are <i>fabula crepidata</i> (tragedies adapted from Greek originals); his <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedra_(Seneca)" title="Phaedra (Seneca)">Phaedra</a></i>, for example, was based on <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_(play)" title="Hippolytus (play)">Hippolytus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200349–50_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200349–50-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians do not know who wrote the only <a href="/wiki/Extant_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant literature">extant</a> example of the <i>fabula praetexta</i> (tragedies based on Roman subjects), <i><a href="/wiki/Octavia_(play)" title="Octavia (play)">Octavia</a></i>, but in former times it was mistakenly attributed to Seneca due to his appearance as a character in the tragedy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200350_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200350-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seneca's tragedies rework those of all three of the Athenian tragic playwrights whose work has survived. Probably meant to be recited at elite gatherings, they differ from the Greek versions with their long declamatory, narrative accounts of action, their obtrusive moralizing, and their bombastic rhetoric. They dwell on detailed accounts of horrible deeds and contain long reflective <a href="/wiki/Soliloquy" title="Soliloquy">soliloquies</a>. Though the gods rarely appear in these plays, ghosts and witches are abound. Senecan tragedies explore ideas of <a href="/wiki/Revenge_tragedy" title="Revenge tragedy">revenge</a>, the occult, the supernatural, suicide, blood and gore. The Renaissance scholar <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_Scaliger" title="Julius Caesar Scaliger">Julius Caesar Scaliger</a> (1484–1558), who knew both Latin and Greek, preferred Seneca to Euripides. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_of_Greek_and_Roman">Influence of Greek and Roman</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Influence of Greek and Roman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Classical Greek drama was largely forgotten in Western Europe from the Middle Ages to the beginning of the 16th century. <a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Medieval theatre</a> was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Mystery_play" title="Mystery play">mystery plays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">morality plays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farce" title="Farce">farces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miracle_play" class="mw-redirect" title="Miracle play">miracle plays</a>. In Italy, the models for tragedy in the later Middle Ages were Roman, particularly the works of Seneca, interest in which was reawakened by the <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Paduan</a> <a href="/wiki/Lovato_Lovati" title="Lovato Lovati">Lovato de' Lovati</a> (1241–1309).<sup id="cite_ref-lovati_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lovati-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His pupil <a href="/wiki/Albertino_Mussato" title="Albertino Mussato">Albertino Mussato</a> (1261–1329), also of Padua, in 1315 wrote the <a href="/wiki/Latin_verse" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin verse">Latin verse</a> tragedy <i>Eccerinis</i>, which uses the story of the tyrant <a href="/wiki/Ezzelino_III_da_Romano" title="Ezzelino III da Romano">Ezzelino III da Romano</a> to highlight the danger to Padua posed by <a href="/wiki/Cangrande_della_Scala" class="mw-redirect" title="Cangrande della Scala">Cangrande della Scala</a> of <a href="/wiki/Verona" title="Verona">Verona</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-muss_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-muss-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the first secular tragedy written since Roman times, and may be considered the first Italian tragedy identifiable as a Renaissance work. The earliest tragedies to employ purely classical themes are the <i>Achilles</i> written before 1390 by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Loschi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Loschi (page does not exist)">Antonio Loschi</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vicenza" title="Vicenza">Vicenza</a> (c.1365–1441) and the <i>Progne</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venetian</a> <a href="/wiki/Gregorio_Correr" title="Gregorio Correr">Gregorio Correr</a> (1409–1464) which dates from 1428 to 1429.<sup id="cite_ref-eb_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eb-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1515 <a href="/wiki/Gian_Giorgio_Trissino" title="Gian Giorgio Trissino">Gian Giorgio Trissino</a> (1478–1550) of Vicenza wrote his tragedy <i>Sophonisba</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> that would later be called Italian. Drawn from <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>'s account of <a href="/wiki/Sophonisba" title="Sophonisba">Sophonisba</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthaginian</a> princess who drank poison to avoid being taken by the Romans, it adheres closely to classical rules. It was soon followed by the <i>Oreste</i> and <i>Rosmunda</i> of Trissino's friend, the Florentine <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_di_Bernardo_Rucellai" title="Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai">Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai</a> (1475–1525). Both were completed by early 1516 and are based on classical Greek models, <i>Rosmunda</i> on the <i><a href="/wiki/Hecuba_(play)" title="Hecuba (play)">Hecuba</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>, and <i>Oreste</i> on the <i><a href="/wiki/Iphigenia_in_Tauris" title="Iphigenia in Tauris">Iphigenia in Tauris</a></i> of the same author; like <i>Sophonisba</i>, they are in Italian and in blank (unrhymed) <a href="/wiki/Hendecasyllable" title="Hendecasyllable">hendecasyllables</a>. Another of the first of all modern tragedies is <i>A Castro</i>, by Portuguese poet and playwright <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Ferreira_(poet)" title="António Ferreira (poet)">António Ferreira</a>, written around 1550 (but only published in 1587) in polymetric verse (most of it being blank hendecasyllables), dealing with the murder of <a href="/wiki/In%C3%AAs_de_Castro" title="Inês de Castro">Inês de Castro</a>, one of the most dramatic episodes in Portuguese history. Although these three Italian plays are often cited, separately or together, as being the first regular tragedies in modern times, as well as the earliest substantial works to be written in blank hendecasyllables, they were apparently preceded by two other works in the vernacular: <i>Pamfila</i> or <i>Filostrato e Panfila</i> written in 1498 or 1508 by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Cammelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Cammelli (page does not exist)">Antonio Cammelli</a> (Antonio da Pistoia); and a <i>Sophonisba</i> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Galeotto_del_Carretto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Galeotto del Carretto (page does not exist)">Galeotto del Carretto</a> of 1502.<sup id="cite_ref-hallam_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hallam-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gal_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gal-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From about 1500 printed copies, in the original languages, of the works of <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>, as well as comedic writers such as <a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a>, were available in Europe and the next forty years saw <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanists</a> and poets translating and adapting their tragedies. In the 1540s, the European university setting (and especially, from 1553 on, the Jesuit colleges) became host to a Neo-Latin theatre (in Latin) written by scholars. The influence of Seneca was particularly strong in its humanist tragedy. His plays, with their ghosts, lyrical passages and rhetorical oratory, brought a concentration on rhetoric and language over dramatic action to many humanist tragedies. </p><p>The most important sources for French tragic theatre in the Renaissance were the example of <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> and the precepts of <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (and contemporary commentaries by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_Scaliger" title="Julius Caesar Scaliger">Julius Caesar Scaliger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lodovico_Castelvetro" title="Lodovico Castelvetro">Lodovico Castelvetro</a>), although plots were taken from classical authors such as <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Twelve_Caesars" class="mw-redirect" title="Lives of the Twelve Caesars">Suetonius</a>, etc., from the Bible, from contemporary events and from short story collections (Italian, French and Spanish). The Greek tragic authors (<a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>) would become increasingly important as models by the middle of the 17th century. Important models were also supplied by the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Spanish Golden Age</a> playwrights <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Calder%C3%B3n_de_la_Barca" title="Pedro Calderón de la Barca">Pedro Calderón de la Barca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tirso_de_Molina" title="Tirso de Molina">Tirso de Molina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lope_de_Vega" title="Lope de Vega">Lope de Vega</a>, many of whose works were translated and adapted for the French stage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edwin_Austin_Abbey_King_Lear,_Act_I,_Scene_I_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Edwin_Austin_Abbey_King_Lear%2C_Act_I%2C_Scene_I_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/250px-Edwin_Austin_Abbey_King_Lear%2C_Act_I%2C_Scene_I_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Edwin_Austin_Abbey_King_Lear%2C_Act_I%2C_Scene_I_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/330px-Edwin_Austin_Abbey_King_Lear%2C_Act_I%2C_Scene_I_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Edwin_Austin_Abbey_King_Lear%2C_Act_I%2C_Scene_I_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/500px-Edwin_Austin_Abbey_King_Lear%2C_Act_I%2C_Scene_I_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6498" data-file-height="2748" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Austin_Abbey" title="Edwin Austin Abbey">Edwin Austin Abbey</a> (1852–1911) <i><a href="/wiki/King_Lear" title="King Lear">King Lear</a></i>, Cordelia's Farewell </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance theatre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heroic_drama" title="Heroic drama">Heroic drama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy" title="Shakespearean tragedy">Shakespearean tragedy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Revenge_play" title="Revenge play">Revenge play</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background-color:#89CFF0;"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>-era literature</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#89CFF0;;background:#89CFF0;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Overview</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism#Sixteenth_century_and_beyond" title="Renaissance humanism">16th-century Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_during_the_Reformation" title="Propaganda during the Reformation">Reformation-era propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_poetry" title="16th century in poetry">16th century in poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_literature" title="16th century in literature">16th century in literature</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#89CFF0;;background:#89CFF0;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">British</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature#Early_modern_era" title="Scottish literature">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature#The_manuscript_tradition" title="Irish literature">Anglo-Irish</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poets" title="Metaphysical poets">Metaphysical poets</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance theatre</a></li></ul></div><div class="hlist"> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral#Pastoral_plays" title="Pastoral">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_(theatrical_genre)#Early_Modern_Origins" title="History (theatrical genre)">History</a></li></div><div class="hlist"> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Britain">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenge_play" title="Revenge play">Revenge</a></li> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#89CFF0;;background:#89CFF0;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Continental</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_literature#Reformation" title="Czech literature">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_literature#German_Renaissance_and_Reformation" title="German literature">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_literature#Emergence_of_vernacular_literature" title="Swiss literature">Swiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_literature#1500–1650" title="Slovak literature">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_literature" title="Sorbian literature">Sorbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_literature#Beginnings" title="Romanian literature">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohori%C4%8D_alphabet" title="Bohorič alphabet">Bohorič alphabet</a></li></ul> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Renaissance_and_Golden_Age_literature" title="Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature">Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age</a> </p> <a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_Low_Countries#In_folk_tales" title="Folklore of the Low Countries">Folklore of the Low Countries</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#89CFF0;;background:#89CFF0;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Scandinavian</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_literature#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="Danish literature">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_literature#Reformation_era" title="Faroese literature">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_literature#"Four_Hundred_Years_of_Darkness"" title="Norwegian literature">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_literature#Reformation_literature" title="Swedish literature">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_literature#Pre-nineteenth_century" title="Finnish literature">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_literature#Middle_Icelandic_literature" title="Icelandic literature">Icelandic</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Reformation_literature" title="Template talk:Reformation literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Reformation literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Romeo_and_juliet_brown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Romeo_and_juliet_brown.jpg/250px-Romeo_and_juliet_brown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Romeo_and_juliet_brown.jpg/330px-Romeo_and_juliet_brown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Romeo_and_juliet_brown.jpg/500px-Romeo_and_juliet_brown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1119" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i>, the classic tragedy by English playwright <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The common forms are the: </p> <ul><li><i>Tragedy of circumstance</i>: people are born into their situations, and do not choose them; such tragedies explore the consequences of birthrights, particularly but not always for monarchs. (This particular variant of tragedy was the genre's first shift away from stories about characters suffering due to their own faults, but rather due to circumstances out of their control.)</li> <li><i>Tragedy of miscalculation</i>: the <a href="/wiki/Protagonist" title="Protagonist">protagonist</a>'s error of judgement has tragic consequences</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Revenge_play" title="Revenge play">Revenge play</a></i></li></ul> <p>In English, the most famous and most successful tragedies are those of <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan</a> contemporaries. Shakespeare's tragedies include: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Antony_and_Cleopatra" title="Antony and Cleopatra">Antony and Cleopatra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coriolanus" title="Coriolanus">Coriolanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">Hamlet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)" title="Julius Caesar (play)">Julius Caesar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/King_Lear" title="King Lear">King Lear</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Macbeth" title="Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Othello" title="Othello">Othello</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Athens" title="Timon of Athens">Timon of Athens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Titus_Andronicus" title="Titus Andronicus">Titus Andronicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida" title="Troilus and Cressida">Troilus and Cressida</a></i></li></ul> <p>A contemporary of Shakespeare, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe" title="Christopher Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a>, also wrote examples of tragedy in English, notably: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tragical_History_of_Doctor_Faustus" class="mw-redirect" title="The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus">The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tamburlaine_(play)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamburlaine (play)">Tamburlaine the Great</a></i></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Webster" title="John Webster">John Webster</a> (1580?–1635?), also wrote famous plays of the genre: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Duchess_of_Malfi" title="The Duchess of Malfi">The Duchess of Malfi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_White_Devil" title="The White Devil">The White Devil</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_tragedy">Domestic tragedy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Domestic tragedy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Domestic_tragedy" title="Domestic tragedy">Domestic tragedy</a></div> <p>Domestic tragedies are tragedies in which the tragic protagonists are ordinary middle-class or working-class individuals. This subgenre contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassical</a> tragedy, in which the protagonists are of kingly or <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">aristocratic</a> rank and their downfall is an affair of state as well as a personal matter. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> theorist <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> had argued that tragedy should concern only great individuals with great minds and souls, because their catastrophic downfall would be more emotionally powerful to the audience; only comedy should depict middle-class people. Domestic tragedy breaks with Aristotle's precepts, taking as its subjects merchants or citizens whose lives have less consequence in the wider world. </p><p>The advent of the domestic tragedy ushered in the first phase shift of the genre focusing less on the Aristotelian definition of the genre and more on the definition of tragedy on the scale of the drama, where tragedy is opposed to comedy i.e. melancholic stories. Although the utilization of key elements such as suffering, hamartia, morality, and spectacle ultimately ties this variety of tragedy to all the rest. This variant of tragedy noticeably had a larger number of stories that featured characters' downfalls being due to circumstances out of their control - a feature first established by the tragedies of Shakespeare - and less due to their own personal flaws. </p><p>This variant of tragedy has led to the evolution and development of tragedies of the modern era especially those past the mid-1800s such as the works of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Miller" title="Arthur Miller">Arthur Miller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill" title="Eugene O'Neill">Eugene O'Neill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen" title="Henrik Ibsen">Henrik Ibsen</a>. This variant of tragedy is especially popular in the modern age due to its characters being more relatable to mass audiences and is the most common form of tragedy adapted into modern day <a href="/wiki/Television_show" title="Television show">television programs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Books">books</a>, <a href="/wiki/Films" class="mw-redirect" title="Films">films</a>, <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">theatrical plays</a>, etc. Newly dealt with themes that sprang forth from the Domestic tragedy movement include: wrongful convictions and executions, poverty, starvation, <a href="/wiki/Addiction" title="Addiction">addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a>, debt, <a href="/wiki/Structural_abuse" title="Structural abuse">structural abuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">child abuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">social shunning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a>, and loneliness. </p><p>Classical Domestic tragedies include: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arden_of_Faversham" title="Arden of Faversham">Arden of Faversham</a></i> (1592)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Woman_Killed_with_Kindness" title="A Woman Killed with Kindness">A Woman Killed with Kindness</a></i> (1607)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Yorkshire_Tragedy" title="A Yorkshire Tragedy">A Yorkshire Tragedy</a></i> (1608)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Witch_of_Edmonton" title="The Witch of Edmonton">The Witch of Edmonton</a></i> (1621)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opera">Opera</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Opera"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contemporary with Shakespeare, an entirely different approach to facilitating the rebirth of tragedy was taken in Italy. <a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Peri" title="Jacopo Peri">Jacopo Peri</a>, in the preface to his <i><a href="/wiki/Euridice_(Peri)" title="Euridice (Peri)">Euridice</a></i> refers to "the ancient Greeks and Romans (who in the opinion of many sang their staged tragedies throughout in representing them on stage)."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot199122_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot199122-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The attempts of Peri and his contemporaries to recreate ancient tragedy gave rise to the new Italian musical genre of opera. In France, tragic operatic works from the time of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully" title="Jean-Baptiste Lully">Lully</a> to about that of <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck" title="Christoph Willibald Gluck">Gluck</a> were not called opera, but <i>tragédie en musique</i> ("tragedy in music") or some similar name; the <i>tragédie en musique</i> is regarded as a distinct musical genre.<sup id="cite_ref-grove_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grove-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some later operatic composers have also shared Peri's aims: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a>'s concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk" title="Gesamtkunstwerk">Gesamtkunstwerk</a></i> ("integrated work of art"), for example, was intended as a return to the ideal of Greek tragedy in which all the arts were blended in service of the drama.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot1991178_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot1991178-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_Tragedy" title="The Birth of Tragedy">The Birth of Tragedy</a></i> (1872) was to support Wagner in his claims to be a successor of the ancient dramatists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neo-classical">Neo-classical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Neo-classical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Talma_as_Nero_in_Britannicus_by_Racine_-_Delacroix_-_zeno.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Talma_as_Nero_in_Britannicus_by_Racine_-_Delacroix_-_zeno.jpg/190px-Talma_as_Nero_in_Britannicus_by_Racine_-_Delacroix_-_zeno.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Talma_as_Nero_in_Britannicus_by_Racine_-_Delacroix_-_zeno.jpg/285px-Talma_as_Nero_in_Britannicus_by_Racine_-_Delacroix_-_zeno.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Talma_as_Nero_in_Britannicus_by_Racine_-_Delacroix_-_zeno.jpg/380px-Talma_as_Nero_in_Britannicus_by_Racine_-_Delacroix_-_zeno.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2389" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>French actor <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Talma" title="François-Joseph Talma">Talma</a> as Nero in Racine's <i><a href="/wiki/Britannicus_(play)" title="Britannicus (play)">Britannicus</a>.</i></figcaption></figure> <p>For much of the 17th century, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Corneille" title="Pierre Corneille">Pierre Corneille</a>, who made his mark on the world of tragedy with plays like <i><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9d%C3%A9e" title="Médée">Médée</a></i> (1635) and <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Cid" title="Le Cid">Le Cid</a></i> (1636), was the most successful writer of French tragedies. Corneille's tragedies were strangely un-tragic (his first version of <i>Le Cid</i> was even listed as a tragicomedy), for they had happy endings. In his theoretical works on theatre, Corneille redefined both comedy and tragedy around the following suppositions: </p> <ul><li>The stage—in both comedy and tragedy—should feature noble characters (this would eliminate many low-characters, typical of the farce, from Corneille's comedies). Noble characters should not be depicted as vile (reprehensible actions are generally due to non-noble characters in Corneille's plays).</li> <li>Tragedy deals with affairs of the state (wars, dynastic marriages); comedy deals with love. For a work to be tragic, it need not have a tragic ending.</li> <li>Although <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> says that <a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">catharsis</a> (purgation of emotion) should be the goal of tragedy, this is only an ideal. In conformity with the moral codes of the period, plays should not show evil being rewarded or nobility being degraded.</li></ul> <p>Corneille continued to write plays through 1674 (mainly tragedies, but also something he called "heroic comedies") and many continued to be successes, although the "irregularities" of his theatrical methods were increasingly criticised (notably by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_H%C3%A9delin,_abb%C3%A9_d%27Aubignac" title="François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac">François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac</a>) and the success of Jean Racine from the late 1660s signalled the end of his preeminence. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jean_Racine" title="Jean Racine">Jean Racine</a>'s tragedies—inspired by Greek myths, <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>—condensed their plot into a tight set of passionate and duty-bound conflicts between a small group of noble characters, and concentrated on these characters' double-binds and the geometry of their unfulfilled desires and hatreds. Racine's poetic skill was in the representation of <a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">pathos</a> and amorous passion (like <a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A8dre" title="Phèdre">Phèdre</a>'s love for her stepson) and his impact was such that emotional crisis would be the dominant mode of tragedy to the end of the century. Racine's two late plays ("Esther" and "Athalie") opened new doors to biblical subject matter and to the use of theatre in the education of young women. Racine also faced criticism for his irregularities: when his play, <i><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9r%C3%A9nice" title="Bérénice">Bérénice</a></i>, was criticised for not containing any deaths, Racine disputed the conventional view of tragedy. </p><p>For more on French tragedy of the 16th and 17th centuries, see <a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance_literature" title="French Renaissance literature">French Renaissance literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_literature_of_the_17th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="French literature of the 17th century">French literature of the 17th century</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_development">Later development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Later development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Towards the close of the eighteenth century, having studied her predecessors, <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Baillie" title="Joanna Baillie">Joanna Baillie</a> wanted to revolutionise theatre, believing that it could be used more effectively to affect people's lives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColón2007xi_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColón2007xi-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To this end she gave a new direction to tragedy, which she as 'the unveiling of the human mind under the dominion of those strong and fixed passions, which seemingly unprovoked by outward circumstances, will from small beginnings brood within the breast, till all the better dispositions, all the fair gifts of nature are borne down before them'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaillie179838_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaillie179838-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory, she put into practice in her 'Series of Plays on the Passions' in three volumes (commencing in 1798) and in other dramatic works. Her method was to create a series of scenes and incidents intended to capture the audience's inquisitiveness and 'trace the progress of the passion, pointing out those stages in the approach of the enemy, when he might have been combated most successfully; and where the suffering him to pass may be considered as occasioning all the misery that ensues.'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaillie179841_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaillie179841-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bourgeois">Bourgeois</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bourgeois"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_tragedy" title="Bourgeois tragedy">Bourgeois tragedy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustan_drama" title="Augustan drama">Augustan drama</a></div> <p>Bourgeois tragedy, known in German as <i>Bürgerliches Trauerspiel,</i> emerged in 18th-century Europe as a product of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> and the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoise</a>. This genre of tragedy is distinguished by its focus on ordinary citizens as protagonists, deviating from the classical emphasis on nobility. The first true bourgeois tragedy was English playwright, <a href="/wiki/George_Lillo" title="George Lillo">George Lillo</a>'s 1731 play, <i><a href="/wiki/The_London_Merchant" title="The London Merchant">The London Merchant; or, the History of George Barnwell</a>.</i> <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a>'s play <a href="/wiki/Miss_Sara_Sampson" title="Miss Sara Sampson"><i>Miss Sara Sampson</i></a>, which was first produced in 1755, is said to be the earliest <i>Bürgerliches Trauerspiel</i> in Germany. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_development">Modern development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Modern development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Modernist_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist literature">modernist literature</a>, the definition of tragedy has become less precise. The most fundamental change has been the rejection of Aristotle's dictum that true tragedy can only depict those with power and high status. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Miller" title="Arthur Miller">Arthur Miller</a>'s essay "Tragedy and the Common Man" (1949) argues that tragedy may also depict ordinary people in domestic surroundings thus defining Domestic tragedies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1949894_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1949894-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British playwright <a href="/wiki/Howard_Barker" title="Howard Barker">Howard Barker</a> has argued strenuously for the rebirth of tragedy in the contemporary theatre, most notably in his volume <i>Arguments for a Theatre</i>. "You emerge from tragedy equipped against lies. After the musical, you're anybody's fool," he insists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarker198913_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarker198913-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics such as <a href="/wiki/George_Steiner" title="George Steiner">George Steiner</a> have even been prepared to argue that tragedy may no longer exist in comparison with its former manifestations in classical antiquity. In <i>The Death of Tragedy</i> (1961) George Steiner outlined the characteristics of Greek tragedy and the traditions that developed from that period. In the Foreword (1980) to a new edition of his book Steiner concluded that 'the dramas of Shakespeare are not a renascence of or a humanistic variant of the absolute tragic model. They are, rather, a rejection of this model in the light of tragi-comic and "realistic" criteria.' In part, this feature of Shakespeare's mind is explained by his bent of mind or imagination which was 'so encompassing, so receptive to the plurality of diverse orders of experience.' When compared to the drama of Greek antiquity and French classicism Shakespeare's forms are 'richer but hybrid'.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerous books and plays continue to be written in the tradition of tragedy to this day examples include <i><a href="/wiki/Froth_on_the_Daydream" title="Froth on the Daydream">Froth on the Daydream</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Road" title="The Road">The Road</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Fault_in_Our_Stars" title="The Fault in Our Stars">The Fault in Our Stars</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fat_City_(novel)" title="Fat City (novel)">Fat City</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Rabbit_Hole_(play)" title="Rabbit Hole (play)">Rabbit Hole</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Requiem_for_a_Dream_(novel)" title="Requiem for a Dream (novel)">Requiem for a Dream</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Handmaid%27s_Tale" title="The Handmaid's Tale">The Handmaid's Tale</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Defining tragedy is no simple matter, and there are many definitions, some of which are incompatible with each other. Oscar Mandel, in <i>A Definition of Tragedy</i> (1961), contrasted two essentially different means of arriving at a definition. First is what he calls the <i>derivative</i> way, in which the tragedy is thought to be an expression of an ordering of the world; "instead of asking what tragedy expresses, the derivative definition tends to ask what expresses itself through tragedy". The second is the <i>substantive</i> way of defining tragedy, which starts with the work of art which is assumed to <i>contain</i> the ordering of the world. Substantive critics "are interested in the constituent elements of art, rather than its ontological sources". He recognizes four subclasses: a. "definition by formal elements" (for instance the supposed "three unities"); b. "definition by situation" (where one defines tragedy for instance as "exhibiting the fall of a good man"); c. "definition by ethical direction" (where the critic is concerned with the meaning, with the "intellectual and moral effect); and d. "definition by emotional effect" (and he cites Aristotle's "requirement of pity and fear").<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotle">Aristotle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Aristotle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics (Aristotle)</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> wrote in his work <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)"><i>Poetics</i></a> that tragedy is characterised by seriousness and involves a great person who experiences a reversal of <a href="/wiki/Luck" title="Luck">fortune</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Peripeteia" title="Peripeteia">Peripeteia</a></i>). Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">definition</a> can include a change of fortune from bad to good as in the <i><a href="/wiki/The_Eumenides" class="mw-redirect" title="The Eumenides">Eumenides</a></i>, but he says that the change from good to bad as in <i><a href="/wiki/Oedipus_Rex" title="Oedipus Rex">Oedipus Rex</a></i> is preferable because this induces <a href="/wiki/Pity" title="Pity">pity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a> within the spectators. Tragedy results in a <a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">catharsis</a> (emotional cleansing) or healing for the audience through their experience of these emotions in response to the suffering of the characters in the drama. </p><p>According to Aristotle, "the structure of the best tragedy should not be simple but complex and one that represents incidents arousing <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pity" title="Pity">pity</a>—for that is peculiar to this form of art."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1452b_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1452b-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reversal of fortune must be caused by the tragic hero's <i><a href="/wiki/Hamartia" title="Hamartia">hamartia</a></i>, which is often translated as either a <a href="/wiki/Character_flaw" title="Character flaw">character flaw</a>, or as a mistake (since the original Greek etymology traces back to <i>hamartanein</i>, a sporting term that refers to an <a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">archer</a> or <a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">spear</a>-thrower missing his target).<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Aristotle, "The misfortune is brought about not by [general] vice or depravity, but by some [particular] error or frailty."<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The citation is not specific enough to facilitate source verification (September 2022)">not specific enough to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> The reversal is the inevitable but unforeseen result of some action taken by the hero. It is also a misconception that this reversal can be brought about by a higher power (e.g. the law, the gods, <a href="/wiki/Destiny" title="Destiny">fate</a>, or society), but if a character's downfall is brought about by an external cause, Aristotle describes this as a <a href="/wiki/Accident" title="Accident">misadventure</a> and not a tragedy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1135b_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1135b-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, the tragic hero may achieve some revelation or recognition (<a href="/wiki/Anagnorisis" title="Anagnorisis">anagnorisis</a>—"knowing again" or "knowing back" or "knowing throughout") about human fate, destiny, and the will of the gods. Aristotle terms this sort of recognition "a change from ignorance to awareness of a bond of love or hate." </p><p>In <i>Poetics</i>, Aristotle gave the following definition in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> of the word "tragedy" (τραγῳδία):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1449b_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1449b-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is admirable, complete (composed of an introduction, a middle part and an ending), and possesses magnitude; in language made pleasurable, each of its species separated in different parts; performed by actors, not through narration; effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotions.</p></blockquote> <p>Common usage of tragedy refers to any story with a sad ending, whereas to be an <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> tragedy the <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">story</a> must fit the set of requirements as laid out by <i>Poetics</i>. By this definition social drama cannot be tragic because the hero in it is a victim of circumstance and incidents that depend upon the society in which he lives and not upon the inner compulsions—psychological or religious—which determine his progress towards self-knowledge and death.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exactly what constitutes a "tragedy", however, is a frequently debated matter. </p><p>According to Aristotle, there are four species of tragedy: </p> <ol><li>Complex, which involves <a href="/wiki/Peripety" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripety">Peripety</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(fiction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovery (fiction)">Discovery</a></li> <li>Suffering, tragedies of such nature can be seen in the Greek mythological stories of Ajaxes and Ixions</li> <li>Character, a tragedy of moral or ethical character. Tragedies of this nature can be found in Phthiotides and <a href="/wiki/Peleus" title="Peleus">Peleus</a></li> <li>Spectacle, that of a horror-like theme. Examples of this nature are <a href="/wiki/Graeae" title="Graeae">Phorcides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prometheus" title="Prometheus">Prometheus</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hegel">Hegel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hegel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/G.W.F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G.W.F. Hegel">G.W.F. Hegel</a>, the German philosopher most famous for his dialectical approach to <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and history, also applied such a methodology to his theory of tragedy. In his essay "Hegel's Theory of Tragedy," <a href="/wiki/A.C._Bradley" class="mw-redirect" title="A.C. Bradley">A.C. Bradley</a> first introduced the English-speaking world to Hegel's theory, which Bradley called the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragic_collision&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tragic collision (page does not exist)">tragic collision</a>", and contrasted against the Aristotelian notions of the "<a href="/wiki/Tragic_hero" title="Tragic hero">tragic hero</a>" and his or her "hamartia" in subsequent analyses of the Aeschylus' <i>Oresteia</i> trilogy and of Sophocles' <i>Antigone</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley2007114–56_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley2007114–56-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hegel himself, however, in his seminal "<a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a>" argues for a more complicated theory of tragedy, with two complementary branches which, though driven by a single dialectical principle, differentiate Greek tragedy from that which follows Shakespeare. His later lectures formulate such a theory of tragedy as a conflict of ethical forces, represented by characters, in ancient Greek tragedy, but in Shakespearean tragedy the conflict is rendered as one of subject and object, of individual personality which must manifest self-destructive passions because only such passions are strong enough to defend the individual from a hostile and capricious external world: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The heroes of ancient classical tragedy encounter situations in which, if they firmly decide in favor of the one ethical pathos that alone suits their finished character, they must necessarily come into conflict with the equally [<i>gleichberechtigt</i>] justified ethical power that confronts them. Modern characters, on the other hand, stand in a wealth of more accidental circumstances, within which one could act this way or that, so that the conflict is, though occasioned by external preconditions, still essentially grounded in the character. The new individuals, in their passions, obey their own nature... simply because they are what they are. Greek heroes also act in accordance with individuality, but in ancient tragedy such individuality is necessarily... a self-contained ethical pathos... In modern tragedy, however, the character in its peculiarity decides in accordance with subjective desires... such that congruity of character with outward ethical aim no longer constitutes an essential basis of tragic beauty...<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1927567–8_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1927567–8-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Hegel's comments on a particular play may better elucidate his theory: "Viewed externally, Hamlet's death may be seen to have been brought about accidentally... but in Hamlet's soul, we understand that death has lurked from the beginning: the sandbank of finitude cannot suffice his sorrow and tenderness, such grief and nausea at all conditions of life... we feel he is a man whom inner disgust has almost consumed well before death comes upon him from outside."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1927572_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1927572-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_culture.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/P_culture.svg/31px-P_culture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/P_culture.svg/47px-P_culture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/P_culture.svg/62px-P_culture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Theatre" title="Portal:Theatre">Theatre portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trag%C3%A9dies_en_musique" class="mw-redirect" title="Tragédies en musique">Tragédies en musique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She-tragedy" title="She-tragedy">She-tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenge_tragedy" title="Revenge tragedy">Revenge tragedy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> We have seven by Aeschylus, seven by Sophocles, and eighteen by Euripides. In addition, we also have the <i><a href="/wiki/Cyclops_(play)" title="Cyclops (play)">Cyclops</a></i>, a satyr play by Euripides. Some critics since the 17th century have argued that one of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives as Euripides'—<i><a href="/wiki/Rhesus_(play)" title="Rhesus (play)">Rhesus</a></i>—is a 4th-century play by an unknown author; modern scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This uncertainty accounts for Brockett and Hildy's figure of 31 tragedies.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> The theory that <i><a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Bound" title="Prometheus Bound">Prometheus Bound</a></i> was not written by <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a> adds a fourth, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> For more information on the ancient Roman dramatists, see <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_dramatists_and_playwrights" title="Category:Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights">the articles categorised under "Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFConversi2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Conversi, Leonard W. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/tragedy-literature">"Tragedy"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tragedy&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Conversi&rft.aufirst=Leonard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fart%2Ftragedy-literature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanham19981118-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanham19981118_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanham19981118_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBanham1998">Banham 1998</a>, p. 1118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENietzsche199921§2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENietzsche199921§2_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNietzsche1999">Nietzsche 1999</a>, p. 21, §2: 'two-fold mood[…] the strange mixture and duality in the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Dionysus" title="Dionysus">Dionysiac</a> <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Dionysus" title="Cult of Dionysus">enthusiasts</a>, that phenomenon whereby pain awakens pleasure while rejoicing wrings cries of agony from the breast. From highest joy there comes a cry of horror or a yearning lament at some irredeemable loss. In those Greek festivals there erupts what one might call a <a href="/wiki/Sentimentality" title="Sentimentality">sentimental</a> tendency in nature, as if it had cause to sigh over its <a href="/wiki/Sparagmos" title="Sparagmos">dismemberment</a> into <a href="/wiki/Individuation" title="Individuation">individuals</a>'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams196614–16-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams196614–16_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1966">Williams 1966</a>, pp. 14–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams196616-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams196616_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1966">Williams 1966</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams196613–84-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams196613–84_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1966">Williams 1966</a>, pp. 13–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004193–209-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004193–209_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004193–209_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaxidou2004">Taxidou 2004</a>, pp. 193–209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenjamin1998-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenjamin1998_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBenjamin1998">Benjamin 1998</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFelski20081-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFelski20081_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFelski2008">Felski 2008</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDukore1974-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDukore1974_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDukore1974">Dukore 1974</a>: primary material.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlson1993-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlson1993_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlson1993_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarlson1993">Carlson 1993</a>: analysis.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfister1988-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPfister1988_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPfister1988">Pfister 1988</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFElam1980" class="citation book cs1">Elam, Keir (1980). <i>The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama</i>. Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780416720501" title="Special:BookSources/9780416720501"><bdi>9780416720501</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Semiotics+of+Theatre+and+Drama&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=9780416720501&rft.aulast=Elam&rft.aufirst=Keir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, <i>Epistulae</i>, II, 3, 220: "Carmino qui tragico vilem certavit ob hircum".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200313-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200313_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200313_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrockettHildy2003">Brockett & Hildy 2003</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFof_Naucratis" class="citation cs1">of Naucratis, Athenaeus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature.AthV1.p0071&id=Literature.AthV1&isize=M&pview=hide%20"><i>The deipnosophists</i></a>. Wisc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727012240/http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature.AthV1.p0071&id=Literature.AthV1&isize=M&pview=hide%20">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+deipnosophists&rft.pub=Wisc&rft.aulast=of+Naucratis&rft.aufirst=Athenaeus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigicoll.library.wisc.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2FLiterature%2FLiterature-idx%3Ftype%3Dturn%26entity%3DLiterature.AthV1.p0071%26id%3DLiterature.AthV1%26isize%3DM%26pview%3Dhide%2520&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle19876-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle19876_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAristotle1987">Aristotle 1987</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1449b-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1449b_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1449b_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAristotle1932">Aristotle 1932</a>, Section 1449b.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENietzsche1999-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENietzsche1999_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENietzsche1999_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNietzsche1999">Nietzsche 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFScullion2007" class="citation book cs1">Scullion, Scott (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AdTuNrx6z4oC&dq=there%20is%20abundant%20ancient%20evidence&pg=PA29">"Tragedy and Religion: The Problem of Origins"</a>. In Gregory, Justina (ed.). <i>Companion to Greek tragedy</i>. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5205-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5205-1"><bdi>978-1-4051-5205-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/299571432">299571432</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tragedy+and+Religion%3A+The+Problem+of+Origins&rft.btitle=Companion+to+Greek+tragedy&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F299571432&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-5205-1&rft.aulast=Scullion&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAdTuNrx6z4oC%26dq%3Dthere%2520is%2520abundant%2520ancient%2520evidence%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown1998" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Andrew (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/441">"Greece, Ancient"</a>. In Banham, Martin (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Guide to Theatre</i> (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 441. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43437-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43437-8"><bdi>0-521-43437-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Greece%2C+Ancient&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Guide+to+Theatre&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=441&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-43437-8&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeguideto0000banh%2Fpage%2F441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartledge1997" class="citation book cs1">Cartledge, Paul (1997). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Deep Plays': Theatre as Process in Greek Civic Life". In <a href="/wiki/P._E._Easterling" title="P. E. Easterling">Easterling, P. E.</a> (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy</i>. Cambridge Companions to Literature series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42351-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-42351-1"><bdi>0-521-42351-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Deep+Plays%27%3A+Theatre+as+Process+in+Greek+Civic+Life&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Greek+Tragedy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Companions+to+Literature+series&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-42351-1&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldhill1997">Goldhill 1997</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELey2007206-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELey2007206_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLey2007">Ley 2007</a>, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStyan2000140-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStyan2000140_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStyan2000">Styan 2000</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004104-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004104_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaxidou2004">Taxidou 2004</a>, p. 104: "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200332–3-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200332–3_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrockettHildy2003">Brockett & Hildy 2003</a>, pp. 32–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998444-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown1998444_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown1998">Brown 1998</a>, p. 444.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge19973–5,_33-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge19973–5,_33_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCartledge1997">Cartledge 1997</a>, pp. 3–5, 33: [although <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athenians</a> of the 4th century judged <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a> "as the nonpareils of the genre, and regularly honored their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was not merely a 5th-century phenomenon, the product of a short-lived <a href="/wiki/Fifth-century_Athens" title="Fifth-century Athens">golden age</a>. If not attaining the quality and stature of the fifth-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to be written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">democracy</a>—and beyond it".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrockettHildy2003">Brockett & Hildy 2003</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovacs2005379-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKovacs2005379_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKovacs2005">Kovacs 2005</a>, p. 379.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEuripides1997" class="citation book cs1">Euripides (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/playssix0000euri/page/">"Introduction"</a>. <i>Plays VI</i>. Methuen Classical Greek Dramatists. J. Michael Walton, introduction. London: Methuen. pp. viii, xix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-413-71650-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-413-71650-3"><bdi>0-413-71650-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Plays+VI&rft.place=London&rft.series=Methuen+Classical+Greek+Dramatists&rft.pages=viii%2C+xix&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-413-71650-3&rft.au=Euripides&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplayssix0000euri%2Fpage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2019" class="citation book cs1">Harrison, Thomas (2019). <i>The emptiness of Asia : Aeschylus' 'Persians' and the history of the fifth century</i>. London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781350113411" title="Special:BookSources/9781350113411"><bdi>9781350113411</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+emptiness+of+Asia+%3A+Aeschylus%27+%27Persians%27+and+the+history+of+the+fifth+century&rft.place=London&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781350113411&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELucas19547-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELucas19547_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLucas1954">Lucas 1954</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELey200733–34-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELey200733–34_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLey2007">Ley 2007</a>, p. 33–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChondrosMilidonisVitzilaiosVaitsis2013" class="citation journal cs1">Chondros, Thomas G.; Milidonis, Kypros; Vitzilaios, George; Vaitsis, John (1 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094114X13000827">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Deus-Ex-Machina" reconstruction in the Athens theater of Dionysus"</a>. <i>Mechanism and Machine Theory</i>. <b>67</b>: <span class="nowrap">172–</span>191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mechmachtheory.2013.04.010">10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2013.04.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0094-114X">0094-114X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mechanism+and+Machine+Theory&rft.atitle=%22Deus-Ex-Machina%22+reconstruction+in+the+Athens+theater+of+Dionysus&rft.volume=67&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E172-%3C%2Fspan%3E191&rft.date=2013-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mechmachtheory.2013.04.010&rft.issn=0094-114X&rft.aulast=Chondros&rft.aufirst=Thomas+G.&rft.au=Milidonis%2C+Kypros&rft.au=Vitzilaios%2C+George&rft.au=Vaitsis%2C+John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0094114X13000827&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200343-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200343_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200343_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrockettHildy2003">Brockett & Hildy 2003</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200336,_47-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200336,_47_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrockettHildy2003">Brockett & Hildy 2003</a>, pp. 36, 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200347-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200347_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200347_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrockettHildy2003">Brockett & Hildy 2003</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200349-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200349_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrockettHildy2003">Brockett & Hildy 2003</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200350-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200350_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200350_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrockettHildy2003">Brockett & Hildy 2003</a>, pp. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200349–50-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200349–50_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrockettHildy2003">Brockett & Hildy 2003</a>, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lovati-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lovati_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/lovato-de-lovati">"Lovati, Lovato de'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Enciclopedia on line</i> (in Italian). Treccani<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lovati%2C+Lovato+de%27&rft.btitle=Enciclopedia+on+line&rft.pub=Treccani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Flovato-de-lovati&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-muss-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-muss_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/albertino-mussato">"Mussato, Albertino"</a>. <i>Enciclopedia on line</i> (in Italian). Treccani<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mussato%2C+Albertino&rft.btitle=Enciclopedia+on+line&rft.pub=Treccani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Falbertino-mussato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eb-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eb_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Drama". <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Vol. VIII (11th ed.). p. 503.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Drama&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=503&rft.edition=11th&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hallam-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hallam_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHallam1837" class="citation book cs1">Hallam, Henry (1837). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M8JMAAAAcAAJ"><i>Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries</i></a>. Baudry's European Library. p. 212.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Literature+of+Europe+in+the+Fifteenth%2C+Sixteenth%2C+and+Seventeenth+Centuries&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Baudry%27s+European+Library&rft.date=1837&rft.aulast=Hallam&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM8JMAAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gal-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gal_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/del-carretto-galeotto-dei-marchesi-di-savona">"Del Carrétto, Galeotto, dei marchesi di Savona"</a>. <i>Enciclopedia on line</i> (in Italian). Treccani<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Del+Carr%C3%A9tto%2C+Galeotto%2C+dei+marchesi+di+Savona&rft.btitle=Enciclopedia+on+line&rft.pub=Treccani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fdel-carretto-galeotto-dei-marchesi-di-savona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot199122-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot199122_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot1991">Headington, Westbrook & Barfoot 1991</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-grove-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-grove_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSadler2001" class="citation journal cs1">Sadler, Graham (2001). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000044040">"Tragédie en musique"</a></span>. <i>Grove Music Online</i>. <b>1</b>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.44040">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.44040</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"><bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180413032000/http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000044040">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.atitle=Trag%C3%A9die+en+musique&rft.volume=1&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.44040&rft.isbn=978-1-56159-263-0&rft.aulast=Sadler&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fgrovemusic%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.001.0001%2Fomo-9781561592630-e-0000044040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot1991178-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot1991178_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot1991">Headington, Westbrook & Barfoot 1991</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEColón2007xi-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColón2007xi_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFColón2007">Colón 2007</a>, p. xi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaillie179838-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaillie179838_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaillie1798">Baillie 1798</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaillie179841-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaillie179841_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaillie1798">Baillie 1798</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1949894-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1949894_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller1949">Miller 1949</a>, p. 894.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarker198913-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarker198913_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarker1989">Barker 1989</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Steiner, <i>The Death of Tragedy</i> [1961] (Oxford University Press, 1980; Yale University Press, 1996), p. xiii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSteiner2004" class="citation journal cs1">Steiner, George (Winter 2004). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20057818">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Tragedy," Reconsidered"</a></span>. <i>New Literary History</i>. <b>35</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fnlh.2004.0024">10.1353/nlh.2004.0024</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-6087">0028-6087</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20057818">20057818</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201768479">201768479</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220926035926/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20057818">Archived</a> from the original on 26 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Literary+History&rft.atitle=%22Tragedy%2C%22+Reconsidered&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0028-6087&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201768479%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20057818%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fnlh.2004.0024&rft.aulast=Steiner&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20057818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSallis2008" class="citation web cs1">Sallis, James (4 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/style/la-bk-sallis4-2008may04-story.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'The Dead All Have the Same Skin' by Boris Vian"</a>. <i>www.latimes.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190127152626/https://www.latimes.com/style/la-bk-sallis4-2008may04-story.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2019</span>. <q>His great novel, "L'Écume des jours" ("Foam of the Daze"), is a tragedy of young love in which a woman dies of the lily growing in her lung.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.latimes.com&rft.atitle=%27The+Dead+All+Have+the+Same+Skin%27+by+Boris+Vian&rft.date=2008-05-04&rft.aulast=Sallis&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fstyle%2Fla-bk-sallis4-2008may04-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChapple" class="citation web cs1">Chapple, Tobias. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.litro.co.uk/2014/08/books-in-review-froth-on-the-daydream-by-boris-vian/">"Books in Review: Froth on the Daydream by Boris Vian"</a>. <i>www.litro.co.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180405214540/https://www.litro.co.uk/2014/08/books-in-review-froth-on-the-daydream-by-boris-vian/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2019</span>. <q>The characters aren't meant to be real. But it's also devastating when the novel central tragedy strikes – that all too real feeling of an unjust world that takes away as easily as it gives, and of people trying as hard as they can to be happy despite it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.litro.co.uk&rft.atitle=Books+in+Review%3A+Froth+on+the+Daydream+by+Boris+Vian&rft.aulast=Chapple&rft.aufirst=Tobias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.litro.co.uk%2F2014%2F08%2Fbooks-in-review-froth-on-the-daydream-by-boris-vian%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBernier2016" class="citation web cs1">Bernier, Kathy (3 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.offthegridnews.com/extreme-survival/review-the-road-is-a-gripping-prepper-novel-full-of-tragedy-struggle-and-hope/">"REVIEW: 'The Road' Is A Gripping Prepper Novel Full Of Tragedy, Struggle And Hope"</a>. <i>www.offthegridnews.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190223164734/http://www.offthegridnews.com/extreme-survival/review-the-road-is-a-gripping-prepper-novel-full-of-tragedy-struggle-and-hope/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.offthegridnews.com&rft.atitle=REVIEW%3A+%27The+Road%27+Is+A+Gripping+Prepper+Novel+Full+Of+Tragedy%2C+Struggle+And+Hope&rft.date=2016-12-03&rft.aulast=Bernier&rft.aufirst=Kathy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.offthegridnews.com%2Fextreme-survival%2Freview-the-road-is-a-gripping-prepper-novel-full-of-tragedy-struggle-and-hope%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeehan" class="citation web cs1">Meehan, Ryan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2009/9/4/the-frontiers-of-american-tragedy-he/">"The Frontiers of American Tragedy"</a>. <i>www.thecrimson.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809111324/https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2009/9/4/the-frontiers-of-american-tragedy-he/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thecrimson.com&rft.atitle=The+Frontiers+of+American+Tragedy&rft.aulast=Meehan&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecrimson.com%2Farticle%2F2009%2F9%2F4%2Fthe-frontiers-of-american-tragedy-he%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ocregister.com/2009/11/18/young-boys-death-drives-tragedy-of-rabbit-hole/">"Young boy's death drives tragedy of 'Rabbit Hole'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>www.ocregister.com</i>. 18 November 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180711021954/https://www.ocregister.com/2009/11/18/young-boys-death-drives-tragedy-of-rabbit-hole/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ocregister.com&rft.atitle=Young+boy%27s+death+drives+tragedy+of+%27Rabbit+Hole%27&rft.date=2009-11-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ocregister.com%2F2009%2F11%2F18%2Fyoung-boys-death-drives-tragedy-of-rabbit-hole%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBustin" class="citation web cs1">Bustin, Jeremy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.broadwayworld.com/norfolk/article/BWW-Review-Cadence-Theatres-RABBIT-HOLE-Examines-Life-After-Tragedy-20170505">"BWW Review: Cadence Theatre's RABBIT HOLE Examines Life After Tragedy"</a>. <i>www.broadwayworld.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180711021952/https://www.broadwayworld.com/norfolk/article/BWW-Review-Cadence-Theatres-RABBIT-HOLE-Examines-Life-After-Tragedy-20170505">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.broadwayworld.com&rft.atitle=BWW+Review%3A+Cadence+Theatre%27s+RABBIT+HOLE+Examines+Life+After+Tragedy&rft.aulast=Bustin&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.broadwayworld.com%2Fnorfolk%2Farticle%2FBWW-Review-Cadence-Theatres-RABBIT-HOLE-Examines-Life-After-Tragedy-20170505&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown2008" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Sarah (15 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4CMq2Cirr4AC&q=handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA45"><i>Tragedy in Transition</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470691304" title="Special:BookSources/9780470691304"><bdi>9780470691304</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093354/https://books.google.com/books?id=4CMq2Cirr4AC&q=handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA45">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tragedy+in+Transition&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008-04-15&rft.isbn=9780470691304&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4CMq2Cirr4AC%26q%3Dhandmaid%2527s%2Btale%2B%2522tragedy%2522%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2018" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Kevin (21 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kEBvDwAAQBAJ&q=%22handmaid%27s+tale%22+kevin+taylor&pg=PT287"><i>Christ the Tragedy of God: A Theological Exploration of Tragedy</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351607834" title="Special:BookSources/9781351607834"><bdi>9781351607834</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093354/https://books.google.com/books?id=kEBvDwAAQBAJ&q=%22handmaid%27s+tale%22+kevin+taylor&pg=PT287">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christ+the+Tragedy+of+God%3A+A+Theological+Exploration+of+Tragedy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018-09-21&rft.isbn=9781351607834&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkEBvDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522handmaid%2527s%2Btale%2522%2Bkevin%2Btaylor%26pg%3DPT287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKendrick2003" class="citation book cs1">Kendrick, Tom (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cEomBiT6d9IC&q=the+handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA148"><i>Margaret Atwood's Textual Assassinations: Recent Poetry and Fiction</i></a>. Ohio State University Press. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814209295" title="Special:BookSources/9780814209295"><bdi>9780814209295</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093354/https://books.google.com/books?id=cEomBiT6d9IC&q=the+handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA148">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Margaret+Atwood%27s+Textual+Assassinations%3A+Recent+Poetry+and+Fiction&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Ohio+State+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780814209295&rft.aulast=Kendrick&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcEomBiT6d9IC%26q%3Dthe%2Bhandmaid%2527s%2Btale%2B%2522tragedy%2522%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStray2013" class="citation book cs1">Stray, Christopher (16 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jdXUAAAAQBAJ&q=Torn+by+Desire:+Sparagmos+in+Greek+Tragedy+and+Recent+Fiction+%22Handmaid%27s+tale%22&pg=PA78"><i>Remaking the Classics: Literature, Genre and Media in Britain 1800–2000</i></a>. A&C Black. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472538604" title="Special:BookSources/9781472538604"><bdi>9781472538604</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093404/https://books.google.com/books?id=jdXUAAAAQBAJ&q=Torn+by+Desire:+Sparagmos+in+Greek+Tragedy+and+Recent+Fiction+%22Handmaid%27s+tale%22&pg=PA78">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Remaking+the+Classics%3A+Literature%2C+Genre+and+Media+in+Britain+1800%E2%80%932000&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2013-10-16&rft.isbn=9781472538604&rft.aulast=Stray&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjdXUAAAAQBAJ%26q%3DTorn%2Bby%2BDesire%3A%2BSparagmos%2Bin%2BGreek%2BTragedy%2Band%2BRecent%2BFiction%2B%2522Handmaid%2527s%2Btale%2522%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMandel1961" class="citation book cs1">Mandel, Oscar (1961). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/definitionoftrag00mand"><i>A Definition of Tragedy</i></a></span>. New York: New York University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/definitionoftrag00mand/page/10">10–11</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Definition+of+Tragedy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=10-11&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Mandel&rft.aufirst=Oscar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdefinitionoftrag00mand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1452b-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1452b_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAristotle1932">Aristotle 1932</a>, Section 1452b.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRorty1992" class="citation book cs1">Rorty, Amelie Oksenberg (1992). <i>Essays on Aristotle's Poetics</i>. Princeton University Press. p. 178.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+on+Aristotle%27s+Poetics&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Rorty&rft.aufirst=Amelie+Oksenberg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Poetics</i>, Aristotle</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1135b-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAristotle1932Section_1135b_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAristotle1932">Aristotle 1932</a>, Section 1135b.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChiari1965" class="citation book cs1">Chiari, J. (1965). <i>Landmarks of Contemporary Drama</i>. London: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jenkins_(publisher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jenkins (publisher) (page does not exist)">Jenkins</a>. p. 41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Landmarks+of+Contemporary+Drama&rft.place=London&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Jenkins&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Chiari&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley2007114–56-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley2007114–56_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2007">Bradley 2007</a>, pp. 114–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1927567–8-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1927567–8_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHegel1927">Hegel 1927</a>, pp. 567–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1927572-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1927572_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHegel1927">Hegel 1927</a>, p. 572.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1932" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg034.perseus-eng1">"Poetics"</a>. <i>Aristotle in 23 Volumes</i>. Vol. 23. Translated by <a href="/wiki/William_Hamilton_Fyfe" title="William Hamilton Fyfe">Fyfe, W.H.</a> Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131108135501/http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg034.perseus-eng1">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poetics&rft.btitle=Aristotle+in+23+Volumes&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1932&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdata.perseus.org%2Ftexts%2Furn%3Acts%3AgreekLit%3Atlg0086.tlg034.perseus-eng1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1974" class="citation cs1">——— (1974). "Poetics". In Dukore (ed.). <i>Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski</i>. Translated by Butcher, SH. pp. <span class="nowrap">31–</span>55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poetics&rft.btitle=Dramatic+Theory+and+Criticism%3A+Greeks+to+Grotowski&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.date=1974&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1987" class="citation cs1">——— (1987). <i>Poetics with Tractatus Coislinianus, Reconstruction of Poetics II and the Fragments of the On Poets</i>. Translated by Janko, Richard. Cambridge: Hackett. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-033-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87220-033-7"><bdi>0-87220-033-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poetics+with+Tractatus+Coislinianus%2C+Reconstruction+of+Poetics+II+and+the+Fragments+of+the+On+Poets&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-87220-033-7&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaillie1798" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joanna_Baillie" title="Joanna Baillie">Baillie, Joanna</a> (1798). <i>A Series of Plays in which it is attempted to delineate The Stranger Passions of the Mind, Volume 1: Introductory Discourse</i>. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Series+of+Plays+in+which+it+is+attempted+to+delineate+The+Stranger+Passions+of+the+Mind%2C+Volume+1%3A+Introductory+Discourse&rft.place=London&rft.date=1798&rft.aulast=Baillie&rft.aufirst=Joanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBanham1998" class="citation cs1">Banham, Martin, ed. (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh"><i>The Cambridge Guide to Theatre</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43437-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43437-8"><bdi>0-521-43437-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Guide+to+Theatre&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-43437-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeguideto0000banh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarker1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Barker" title="Howard Barker">Barker, Howard</a> (1989). <i>Arguments for a Theatre</i> (3rd ed.). London: John Calder (published 1997). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-5249-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-5249-1"><bdi>0-7190-5249-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arguments+for+a+Theatre&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Calder&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-7190-5249-1&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin1998" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin, Walter</a> (1998) [1928]. <i><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin#The_Origin_of_German_Tragic_Drama" title="Walter Benjamin">The Origin of German Tragic Drama</a></i>. Osborne, John trans. London and New York: Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-899-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-899-0"><bdi>1-85984-899-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+German+Tragic+Drama&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-85984-899-0&rft.aulast=Benjamin&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBradley2007" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._C._Bradley" title="A. C. Bradley">Bradley, AC</a> (2007) [1909]. <i>Oxford Lectures on Poetry</i> (repr ed.). Atlantic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7156-379-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7156-379-1"><bdi>978-81-7156-379-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Lectures+on+Poetry&rft.edition=repr&rft.pub=Atlantic&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-7156-379-1&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrockettHildy2003" class="citation cs1">Brockett, Oscar Gross; Hildy, Franklin Joseph (2003). <i>History of the theatre</i> (9th, ill ed.). Allyn & Bacon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-35878-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-35878-6"><bdi>978-0-205-35878-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+theatre&rft.edition=9th%2C+ill&rft.pub=Allyn+%26+Bacon&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-205-35878-6&rft.aulast=Brockett&rft.aufirst=Oscar+Gross&rft.au=Hildy%2C+Franklin+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCarlson1993" class="citation cs1">Carlson, Marvin (1993). <i>Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present</i> (expanded ed.). Ithaca and London: Cornell UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-8154-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-8154-6"><bdi>0-8014-8154-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+the+Theatre%3A+A+Historical+and+Critical+Survey+from+the+Greeks+to+the+Present&rft.place=Ithaca+and+London&rft.edition=expanded&rft.pub=Cornell+UP&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8014-8154-6&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFColón2007" class="citation cs1">Colón, Christine (2007). Introduction. <i>Six Gothic Dramas</i>. By <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Baillie" title="Joanna Baillie">Baillie, Joanna</a>. Chicago: Valancourd Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9792332-0-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9792332-0-3"><bdi>978-0-9792332-0-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Six+Gothic+Dramas&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Valancourd+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-9792332-0-3&rft.aulast=Col%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDukore1974" class="citation cs1">Dukore, ed. (1974). <i>Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dramatic+Theory+and+Criticism%3A+Greeks+to+Grotowski&rft.date=1974&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFelski2008" class="citation cs1">Felski, Rita, ed. (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rethinkingtraged0000unse"><i>Rethinking Tragedy</i></a></span>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8740-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8740-6"><bdi>978-0-8018-8740-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Tragedy&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+UP&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-8740-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frethinkingtraged0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoldhill1997" class="citation cs1">Goldhill, Simon (2 October 1997). Easterling, P. E. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9780511998928A007/type/book_part">"The audience of Athenian tragedy"</a>. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy</i> (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">54–</span>68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fccol0521412455.003">10.1017/ccol0521412455.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41245-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41245-2"><bdi>978-0-521-41245-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Greek+Tragedy&rft.atitle=The+audience+of+Athenian+tragedy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.date=1997-10-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fccol0521412455.003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-41245-2&rft.aulast=Goldhill&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FCBO9780511998928A007%2Ftype%2Fbook_part&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHeadingtonWestbrookBarfoot1991" class="citation cs1">Headington, Christopher; Westbrook, Roy; Barfoot, Terry (1991). <i>Opera: a History</i>. Arrow. p. 22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opera%3A+a+History&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Arrow&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Headington&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Westbrook%2C+Roy&rft.au=Barfoot%2C+Terry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHegel1927" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel, GWF</a> (1927). "Vorlesungen uber die Asthetik". In Glockner, Hermann (ed.). <i>Samlichte Werke</i>. Vol. 14. Stuttgart: Fromann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vorlesungen+uber+die+Asthetik&rft.btitle=Samlichte+Werke&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=Fromann&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=GWF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKovacs2005" class="citation cs1">Kovacs, David (2005). "Text and Transmission". In Gregory, Justina (ed.). <i>A companion to Greek tragedy</i>. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-0770-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-0770-7"><bdi>1-4051-0770-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56834832">56834832</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Text+and+Transmission&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+Greek+tragedy&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Blackwell+Pub&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56834832&rft.isbn=1-4051-0770-7&rft.aulast=Kovacs&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLey2007" class="citation cs1">Ley, Graham (2007). <i>A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theater</i> (rev ed.). University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-47761-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-47761-9"><bdi>978-0-226-47761-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+Introduction+to+the+Ancient+Greek+Theater&rft.edition=rev&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-47761-9&rft.aulast=Ley&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLucas1954" class="citation book cs1">Lucas, FL (1954). <i>Greek Drama for Everyman</i>. London: JM Dent & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Drama+for+Everyman&rft.place=London&rft.pub=JM+Dent+%26+Sons&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=FL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller1949" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Miller" title="Arthur Miller">Miller, Arthur</a> (27 February 1949). "Tragedy and the Common Man". <i>The New York Times</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Tragedy+and+the+Common+Man&rft.date=1949-02-27&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span> (<a href="#CITEREFDukore1974">Dukore 1974</a>, pp. 894–7).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche1999" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche, Friedrich</a> (1999) [1872]. Geuss, Raymond; Speirs, Ronald (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_Tragedy" title="The Birth of Tragedy">The Birth of Tragedy</a> and Other Writings</i>. Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy. Speirs, Ronald trans. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-63987-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-63987-5"><bdi>0-521-63987-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Tragedy+and+Other+Writings&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Texts+in+the+History+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-521-63987-5&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPfister1988" class="citation cs1">Pfister, Manfred (1988) [1977]. <i>The Theory and Analysis of Drama</i>. European Studies in English Literature. Halliday, John trans. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42383-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-42383-X"><bdi>0-521-42383-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+and+Analysis+of+Drama&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=European+Studies+in+English+Literature&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-521-42383-X&rft.aulast=Pfister&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRehm1992" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rush_Rehm" title="Rush Rehm">Rehm, Rush</a> (1992). <i>Greek Tragic Theatre</i>. Theatre Production Studies. London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-11894-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-11894-8"><bdi>0-415-11894-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Tragic+Theatre&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.series=Theatre+Production+Studies&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-415-11894-8&rft.aulast=Rehm&rft.aufirst=Rush&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchlegel1809" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">Schlegel, August Wilhelm</a> (1809). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7148"><i>Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature</i></a>. Gutenberg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201002134451/https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7148">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+Dramatic+Art+and+Literature&rft.pub=Gutenberg&rft.date=1809&rft.aulast=Schlegel&rft.aufirst=August+Wilhelm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F7148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSorkin2008" class="citation cs1">Sorkin, Nancy (2008). <i>Greek Tragedy</i>. Introductions to the Classical World. Malden, MA: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2161-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2161-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-2161-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Tragedy&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.series=Introductions+to+the+Classical+World&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2161-3&rft.aulast=Sorkin&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStyan2000" class="citation cs1">Styan, J. L. (2000). <i>Drama : a guide to the study of plays</i>. New York: Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8204-4489-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8204-4489-8"><bdi>0-8204-4489-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40856937">40856937</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drama+%3A+a+guide+to+the+study+of+plays&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40856937&rft.isbn=0-8204-4489-8&rft.aulast=Styan&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaxidou2004" class="citation cs1">Taxidou, Olga (2004). <i>Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-1987-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-1987-9"><bdi>0-7486-1987-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tragedy%2C+Modernity+and+Mourning&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+UP&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7486-1987-9&rft.aulast=Taxidou&rft.aufirst=Olga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1966" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams, Raymond</a> (1966). <i>Modern Tragedy</i>. London: Chatto & Windus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7011-1260-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7011-1260-3"><bdi>0-7011-1260-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Tragedy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Chatto+%26+Windus&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=0-7011-1260-3&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tragedy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tragedy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tragedy">Tragedy</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/40px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/60px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/120px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Tragedy" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Tragedy">Tragedy</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tragedy" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:tragedy">tragedy</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005464v">Tragedy</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Toscano" title="Alberto Toscano">Toscano, Alberto</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/literature/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.001.0001/acrefore-9780190201098-e-1100">Tragedy</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Research_Encyclopedia_of_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature">Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature</a></i>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaplinBillings" class="citation web cs1">Taplin, Oliver; Billings, Joshua. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rss.oucs.ox.ac.uk/oxitems/generatersstwo2.php?channel_name=humdiv/tragedy-audio&destination=poau">"What is Tragedy?"</a> (podcast). UK: Oxford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Tragedy%3F&rft.place=UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.aulast=Taplin&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft.au=Billings%2C+Joshua&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frss.oucs.ox.ac.uk%2Foxitems%2Fgeneratersstwo2.php%3Fchannel_name%3Dhumdiv%2Ftragedy-audio%26destination%3Dpoau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation web cs1">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Aristot.+Poet.">"Poetics"</a> (online ed.). Tufts.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Poetics&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Tufts&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fptext%3Flookup%3DAristot.%2BPoet.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATragedy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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aesthetics">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_aesthetic" title="African aesthetic">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_aesthetics" title="Japanese aesthetics">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_art" title="Mathematics and art">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_aesthetics" title="Medieval aesthetics">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_nature" title="Aesthetics of nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science" title="Aesthetics of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_aesthetics" title="Theological aesthetics">Theology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism#Aesthetics" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_Realism" title="Aesthetic Realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy_and_visual_arts" title="Theosophy and visual arts">Theosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Alberti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs" title="Béla Balázs">Balázs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Baumgarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Bell" title="Clive Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Coomaraswamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Danto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fry" title="Roger Fry">Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick" title="Eduard Hanslick">Hanslick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Klee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Langer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Lipps" title="Theodor Lipps">Lipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xie" title="Liu Xie">Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">Orwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pater" title="Walter Pater">Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Tagore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun%27ichir%C5%8D_Tanizaki" title="Jun'ichirō Tanizaki">Tanizaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Vasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Winckelmann</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">Art for art's sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_merit" title="Artistic merit">Artistic merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_beauty_ideal" title="Feminine beauty ideal">Feminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculine_beauty_ideal" title="Masculine beauty ideal">Masculine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_(style)" title="Camp (style)">Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuteness" title="Cuteness">Cuteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depiction" title="Depiction">Depiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">Judgment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imitating_art" title="Life imitating art">Life imitating art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 390 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 335 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Literary_Mind_and_the_Carving_of_Dragons" title="The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons">The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 100)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 500)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1757)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1835)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Critic_as_Artist" title="The Critic as Artist">The Critic as Artist</a>" <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1891)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Shadows" title="In Praise of Shadows">In Praise of Shadows</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1933)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Art_as_Experience" title="Art as Experience">Art as Experience</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a>" <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Avant-Garde_and_Kitsch" title="Avant-Garde and Kitsch">Avant-Garde and Kitsch</a>" <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1939)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_Essays_(Orwell)" title="Critical Essays (Orwell)">Critical Essays</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1946)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Aesthetic_Dimension" title="The Aesthetic Dimension">The Aesthetic Dimension</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1977)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Why_Beauty_Matters" title="Why Beauty Matters">Why Beauty Matters</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(2009)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_aesthetics" title="Applied aesthetics">Applied aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_criticism" title="Arts criticism">Arts criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Psychology of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">Theory of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_aesthetics_articles" title="Index of aesthetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_aesthetics" title="Outline of aesthetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics" title="Category:Aesthetics">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Roman_and_Byzantine_theatre55" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_theatre" title="Template:Roman theatre"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_theatre" title="Template talk:Roman theatre"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_theatre" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman theatre"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roman_and_Byzantine_theatre55" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Roman and Byzantine theatre</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Theatre682" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theatre" title="Template:Theatre"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Theatre" title="Template talk:Theatre"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theatre" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theatre"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Theatre682" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_theatre" title="History of theatre">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Medieval</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">Commedia dell'arte</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age#Lope_de_Vega_and_Spanish_drama" title="Spanish Golden Age">Spanish Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">French Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_comedy" title="Restoration comedy">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustan_drama" title="Augustan drama">Augustan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">Melodrama</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(theatre)" title="Naturalism (theatre)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(theatre)" title="Realism (theatre)">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_theatre" title="Postmodern theatre">Postmodern</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth-century_theatre" title="Nineteenth-century theatre">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth-century_theatre" title="Twentieth-century theatre">20th century</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_twentieth-century_theatre" title="Timeline of twentieth-century theatre">timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_theatre" title="Musical theatre">Musical theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Improvisational_theatre" title="Improvisational theatre">Improvisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballet" title="Ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circus" title="Circus">Circus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_drama" title="Radio drama">Radio drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variety_show" title="Variety show">Variety show</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theater_of_Armenia" title="Theater of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Indonesia" title="Theatre of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Italy" title="Theatre of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Japan" title="Theatre of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_theatre" title="Persian theatre">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Poland" title="Theatre of Poland">Poland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagecraft" title="Stagecraft">Stagecraft</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Scenography" title="Scenography">scenography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cue_(theatrical)" title="Cue (theatrical)">Cue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtain_Call" class="mw-redirect" title="Curtain Call">Curtain Call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehearsal" title="Rehearsal">Rehearsal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stage_(theatre)" title="Stage (theatre)">Stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(structure)" title="Theater (structure)">Theater (structure)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_constraints" title="Theatrical constraints">Theatrical constraints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_superstitions" title="Theatrical superstitions">Theatrical superstitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_rehearsal" title="Technical rehearsal">Technical rehearsal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_week" title="Technical week">Technical week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">Performance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting_design" title="Lighting design">Lighting design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_design" title="Sound design">Sound design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_construction" title="Set construction">Set construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatrical property">Theatrical property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costume_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Costume construction">Costume construction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_theatre_personnel" title="List of theatre personnel">Personnel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stage_management" title="Stage management">Stage management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_director" title="Technical director">Technical director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_management_(theater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Production management (theater)">Production management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Company management">Company management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpenter_(theatre)" title="Carpenter (theatre)">Carpenter (theatre)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrician_(theatre)" title="Electrician (theatre)">Electrician (theatre)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly_crew" title="Fly crew">Fly crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make-up_artist" title="Make-up artist">Make-up artist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_master" title="Property master">Property master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrotechnician" title="Pyrotechnician">Pyrotechnician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Running_crew" title="Running crew">Running crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_operator" title="Spotlight operator">Spotlight operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagehand" title="Stagehand">Stagehand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_Technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatrical Technician">Theatrical Technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_crew" title="Technical crew">Technical crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardrobe_supervisor" title="Wardrobe supervisor">Wardrobe supervisor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Design</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costume_designer" title="Costume designer">Costume designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighting designer">Lighting designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scenic_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Scenic designer">Scenic designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound designer">Sound designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Sound engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_design" title="Video design">Video design</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Running_crew" title="Running crew">Running crew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Call_boy_(theatre)" title="Call boy (theatre)">Call boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_management_(theater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Production management (theater)">Production manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stage_management" title="Stage management">Stage manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagehand" title="Stagehand">Stagehand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_director" title="Technical director">Technical director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_technician" title="Theatrical technician">Theatrical technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpenter_(theatre)" title="Carpenter (theatre)">Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly_crew" title="Fly crew">Fly crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrician_(theatre)" title="Electrician (theatre)">Electrician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_board_operator" title="Light board operator">Light board operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting_technician" title="Lighting technician">Lighting technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_operator" title="Spotlight operator">Spotlight operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A2_(theater)" title="A2 (theater)">A2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound operator">Sound operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_master" title="Property master">Property master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dresser_(theatre)" title="Dresser (theatre)">Dresser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardrobe_supervisor" title="Wardrobe supervisor">Wardrobe supervisor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Musicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musical_ensemble" title="Musical ensemble">Musical ensemble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchestra" title="Orchestra">Orchestra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_orchestra" title="Pit orchestra">Pit orchestra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_theater_terms" title="Glossary of theater terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_troupe" title="Theatrical troupe">Theatrical troupe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/20px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/40px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Theatre" title="Category:Theatre">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Theatre" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Theatre">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wiktionary page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/20px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Theatre" class="extiw" title="wikt:Theatre">Wiktionary</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/20px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/40px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Theatre" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Theatre">WikiProject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/20px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/40px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_theatre" title="Outline of theatre">Outline of theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Death_and_mortality_in_art74" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Death_and_mortality_in_art" title="Template:Death and mortality in art"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Death_and_mortality_in_art" title="Template talk:Death and mortality in art"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Death_and_mortality_in_art" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Death and mortality in art"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Death_and_mortality_in_art74" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Death#Society_and_culture" title="Death">Death</a> and mortality in art</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_flesh_is_grass" title="All flesh is grass">All flesh is grass</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carpe_diem" title="Carpe diem">Carpe diem</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Consolatio" title="Consolatio">Consolatio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Danse_Macabre" title="Danse Macabre">Danse Macabre</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Death_and_the_Maiden_(motif)" title="Death and the Maiden (motif)">Death and the Maiden</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamentation_of_Christ" title="Lamentation of Christ">Lamentation of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macabre" title="Macabre">Macabre</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memento_mori" title="Memento mori">Memento mori</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mono_no_aware" title="Mono no aware">Mono no aware</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sic_transit_gloria_mundi" title="Sic transit gloria mundi">Sic transit gloria mundi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ubi_sunt" title="Ubi sunt">Ubi sunt</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personifications_of_death" title="Personifications of death">Personifications of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanitas" title="Vanitas">Vanitas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_mask" title="Death mask">Death mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funerary_art" title="Funerary art">Funerary art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funerary_text" title="Funerary text">Funerary text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lament" title="Lament">Lament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial" title="Memorial">Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mourning" title="Mourning">Mourning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb" title="Tomb">Tomb</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreath#Funeral_and_memorial_wreaths" title="Wreath">Wreath</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left">Music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dirge" title="Dirge">Dirge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_march" title="Funeral march">Funeral march</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keening" title="Keening">Keening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requiem" title="Requiem">Requiem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threnody" title="Threnody">Threnody</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left">Poetry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_poem" title="Death poem">Death poem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegy" title="Elegy">Elegy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elegiac" title="Elegiac">Elegiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_elegy" title="Pastoral elegy">Pastoral elegy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obituary_poetry" title="Obituary poetry">Obituary poetry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center">Artwork</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left">Architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capuchin_Crypt" title="Capuchin Crypt">Capuchin Crypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Paris" title="Catacombs of Paris">Catacombs of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedlec_Ossuary" title="Sedlec Ossuary">Sedlec Ossuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capuchin_catacombs_of_palermo" class="mw-redirect" title="Capuchin catacombs of palermo">Capuchin catacombs of palermo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left"><a href="/wiki/Category:Films_about_death" title="Category:Films about death">Film</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Seventh_Seal" title="The Seventh Seal">The Seventh Seal</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ars_moriendi" title="Ars moriendi">Ars moriendi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bardo_Thodol" title="Bardo Thodol">Bardo Thodol</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Job" title="Book of Job">Book of Job</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead" title="Book of the Dead">Book of the Dead</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_Ginza" title="Left Ginza">Left Ginza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/To_be,_or_not_to_be" title="To be, or not to be">Hamlet's soliloquy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Masque_of_the_Red_Death" title="The Masque of the Red Death">The Masque of the Red Death</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left"><a href="/wiki/Category:Death_in_music" title="Category:Death in music">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Danse_macabre_(Saint-Sa%C3%ABns)" title="Danse macabre (Saint-Saëns)">Danse macabre</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Death_and_Transfiguration" title="Death and Transfiguration">Death and Transfiguration</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Der_Tod_und_das_M%C3%A4dchen" title="Der Tod und das Mädchen">Der Tod und das Mädchen</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Erlk%C3%B6nig_(Schubert)" title="Erlkönig (Schubert)">Erlkönig</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Totentanz_(Liszt)" title="Totentanz (Liszt)">Totentanz</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left"><a href="/wiki/Category:Paintings_about_death" title="Category:Paintings about death">Painting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Et in Arcadia ego</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Et_in_Arcadia_ego_(Guercino)" title="Et in Arcadia ego (Guercino)">Guercino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Et_in_Arcadia_ego_(Poussin)" title="Et in Arcadia ego (Poussin)">Poussin</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Death_and_Fire" title="Death and Fire">Death and Fire</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Death_and_Life" title="Death and Life">Death and Life</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Death_and_the_Maiden_(Baldung)" title="Death and the Maiden (Baldung)">Death and the Maiden</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Death_and_the_Miser" title="Death and the Miser">Death and the Miser</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gather_Ye_Rosebuds_While_Ye_May_(Waterhouse_painting_1909)" title="Gather Ye Rosebuds While Ye May (Waterhouse painting 1909)">Gather Ye Rosebuds While Ye May</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Calavera_Catrina" title="La Calavera Catrina">La Calavera Catrina</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plague_(painting)" title="Plague (painting)">Plague</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Skulls" title="Pyramid of Skulls">Pyramid of Skulls</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roman_Widow_(Rossetti)" title="Roman Widow (Rossetti)">Roman Widow</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Self-Portrait_with_Death_Playing_the_Fiddle" title="Self-Portrait with Death Playing the Fiddle">Self-Portrait with Death Playing the Fiddle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skull_of_a_Skeleton_with_Burning_Cigarette" title="Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette">Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sleep_and_His_Half-Brother_Death" title="Sleep and His Half-Brother Death">Sleep and His Half-Brother Death</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ambassadors_(Holbein)" title="The Ambassadors (Holbein)">The Ambassadors</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Garden_of_Death" title="The Garden of Death">The Garden of Death</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Shadow_of_Death" title="The Shadow of Death">The Shadow of Death</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Three_Ages_of_Man_and_Death" class="mw-redirect" title="The Three Ages of Man and Death">The Three Ages of Man and Death</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Triumph_of_Death" title="The Triumph of Death">The Triumph of Death</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left"><a href="/wiki/Category:Poems_about_death" title="Category:Poems about death">Poetry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/And_death_shall_have_no_dominion" title="And death shall have no dominion">And death shall have no dominion</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Because_I_could_not_stop_for_Death" title="Because I could not stop for Death">Because I could not stop for Death</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Erlk%C3%B6nig" title="Erlkönig">Erlkönig</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Do_not_go_gentle_into_that_good_night" title="Do not go gentle into that good night">Do not go gentle into that good night</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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