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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1234201967">.mw-parser-output .linguistics-body{max-width:20em}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks linguistics-body"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(linguistics)" title="Internationalism (linguistics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>ethnography of communication</b> (EOC), originally called the <b>ethnography of speaking</b>, is the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a> within the wider context of the social and cultural practices and beliefs of the members of a particular culture or <a href="/wiki/Speech_community" title="Speech community">speech community</a>. It comes from ethnographic research<sup id="cite_ref-Hymes_1964_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hymes_1964-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cameron_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cameron-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a method of <a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">discourse analysis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> that draws on the <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropological</a> field of <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a>. Unlike ethnography proper, though, EOC takes into account both the communicative form, which may include but is not limited to spoken language, and its function within the given culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Cameron_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cameron-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>General aims of this qualitative research method include being able to discern which communication acts and/or <a href="/wiki/Code_(semiotics)" title="Code (semiotics)">codes</a> are important to different groups, what types of meanings groups apply to different communication events, and how group members learn these codes, in order to provide insight into particular communities. This additional insight may be used to enhance communication with group members, make sense of group members’ decisions, and distinguish groups from one another, among other things. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnography_of_communication&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dell_Hymes" title="Dell Hymes">Dell Hymes</a> proposed the ethnography of communication as an approach towards analyzing patterns of language use within speech communities, in order to provide support for his idea of <a href="/wiki/Communicative_competence" title="Communicative competence">communicative competence</a>, which itself was a reaction to <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky's</a> distinction between <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_competence" title="Linguistic competence">linguistic competence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_performance" title="Linguistic performance">linguistic performance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hymes_1976_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hymes_1976-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally coined "<i>ethnography of speaking</i>" in <a href="/wiki/Dell_Hymes" title="Dell Hymes">Dell Hymes'</a> <a href="/wiki/Eponymous" class="mw-redirect" title="Eponymous">eponymous</a> 1962 paper,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was redefined in his 1964 paper, <i>Introduction: Toward Ethnographies of Communication</i> to accommodate for the non-<a href="/wiki/Vocal" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal">vocal</a> and non-<a href="/wiki/Words" class="mw-redirect" title="Words">verbal</a> characteristics of communication,<sup id="cite_ref-Hymes_1964_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hymes_1964-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although most EOC researchers still tend to focus upon speaking as it is generally considered "to be a prominent - even primordial - means of communication."<sup id="cite_ref-Lindlof_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindlof-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "ethnography of communication" is meant to be descriptive of the characteristics that an approach towards language from an anthropological standpoint must take. Namely, according to Dell Hymes, it must 1) "investigate directly the use of language in contexts of situations so as to discern patterns proper to speech activity" and 2) "take as context a community, investigating its communicative habits as a whole."<sup id="cite_ref-Hymes_1964_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hymes_1964-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, rather than divorcing linguistic form from its function, the analysis of a culture's or community's communication, linguistic and otherwise, must occur with respect to the sociocultural context of its use and the functions of the meanings conveyed. As <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Cameron_(linguist)" title="Deborah Cameron (linguist)">Deborah Cameron</a> puts it, "If you are mainly concerned with the way a certain speech event fits into a whole network of cultural beliefs and practices, you will spend more time describing things that are external to the talk itself: who the speakers are, where they are, what beliefs and customs are important in their lives."<sup id="cite_ref-Cameron_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cameron-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage">Usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnography_of_communication&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In their book <i>Qualitative Communication Research Methods</i>, communications scholars Thomas R. Lindlof and Bryan C. Taylor explain, "Ethnography of communication conceptualizes communication as a continuous flow of information, rather than as a segmented exchange of messages."<sup id="cite_ref-Lindlof_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindlof-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Deborah Cameron, EOC can be thought of as the application of ethnographic methods to the communication patterns of a group.<sup id="cite_ref-Cameron_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cameron-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Littlejohn and Foss recall that Dell Hymes suggests that "cultures communicate in different ways, but all forms of communication require a shared code, communicators who know and use the code, a channel, a setting, a message form, a topic, and an event created by transmission of the message."<sup id="cite_ref-Littlejohn_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Littlejohn-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "EOC studies," according to Lindlof and Taylor, "produce highly detailed analysis of communication codes and their moment-to-moment functions in various contexts. In these analyses, speech communities are constituted in local and continuous performances of cultural and moral matters."<sup id="cite_ref-Lindlof_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindlof-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>EOC can be used as a means by which to study the interactions among members of a specific culture or "speech community," which is any group of people that creates and establishes its own speaking codes and norms. <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Philipsen" title="Gerry Philipsen">Gerry Philipsen</a> explained, "Each community has its own cultural values about speaking and these are linked to judgments of situational appropriateness."<sup id="cite_ref-Philipsen_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philipsen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The meaning and the understanding of the presence or absence of speech within different communities will vary. Local cultural patterns and norms must be understood to analyze and interpret the appropriateness of <a href="/wiki/Speech_acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech acts">speech act</a> within specific communities. Thus, "the statement that talk is not anywhere valued equally in all social contexts suggests a research strategy for discovering and describing cultural or subcultural differences in the value of speaking. Speaking is one among other symbolic resources which are allocated and distributed in social situations according to distinctive culture patterns."<sup id="cite_ref-Philipsen_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philipsen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hymes also used EOC to argue against the strong view of the <a href="/wiki/Sapir-Whorf_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapir-Whorf hypothesis">Sapir-Whorf hypothesis</a>, the idea that one's language determines one's cognitive ability. While Hymes believed that one's language affected one's <a href="/wiki/World_view" class="mw-redirect" title="World view">world view</a>, he argued that the extent of that effect depended "on the circumstances of its <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">acquisition</a>, and its place in the linguistic repertoire of a person and a community."<sup id="cite_ref-Hymes_1976_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hymes_1976-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_SPEAKING_model">The SPEAKING model</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnography_of_communication&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The SPEAKING model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dell_Hymes#The_"S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G"_model" title="Dell Hymes">Dell Hymes § The "S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G" model</a></div> <p>A model that Hymes developed as a framework for the analysis of a speech event within its cultural context is the <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> SPEAKING model. The model consists of sixteen components, which Hymes believed were necessary to consider in order to accurately and satisfactorily describe any particular speech event: message form, message content, setting, scene, speaker/sender, addressor, hearer/receiver/audience, addressee, purposes (outcomes), purposes (goals), key, channels, forms of speech, norms of interaction, norms of interpretation, and <a href="/wiki/Genre#Linguistics" title="Genre">genres</a>. These sixteen components are organized into eight divisions to form the <a href="/wiki/Acronym" title="Acronym">acronym</a> SPEAKING.<sup id="cite_ref-Hymes_1976_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hymes_1976-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>S</b> - <i>setting and scene</i>: where the speech event is located in time and space</li> <li><b>P</b> - <i>participants</i>: who takes part in the speech event, and in what role (e.g. speaker, addressee, audience, eavesdropper)</li> <li><b>E</b> - <i>ends</i>: what the purpose of the speech event is, and what its outcome is meant to be</li> <li><b>A</b> - <i>act sequence</i>: what speech acts make up the speech event, and what order they are performed in</li> <li><b>K</b> - <i>key</i>: the tone or manner of performance (serious or joking, sincere or ironic, etc.)</li> <li><b>I</b> - <i>instrumentalities</i>: what channel or medium of communication is used (e.g. speaking, signing, writing, drumming, whistling), and what language/variety is selected from the participants' repertoire</li> <li><b>N</b> - <i>norms of interaction</i>: what the rules are for producing and interpreting speech acts</li> <li><b>G</b> - <i>genres</i>: what 'type' does a speech event belong to (e.g. interview, gossip), and what other pre-existing conventional forms of speech are drawn on or 'cited' in producing appropriate contributions to talk (e.g. do people quote from mythology or poetry or scripture?)<sup id="cite_ref-Cameron_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cameron-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>While the SPEAKING model is a valuable model to EOC, as well as the descriptive framework most commonly used in ethnography of communication, Cameron cautions that Hymes' model should be used more as a guide than a template, because adhering to it too narrowly may create a limiting view of the subject of its study. Ethnography of communication, according to Cameron, should strive not only to "address such 'descriptive' questions as 'what speech events occur in such-and-such a community?' and 'what are the components of speech events X, Y, and Z?'", but also to explain "why particular events occur and why they have particular characteristics."<sup id="cite_ref-Cameron_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cameron-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_studies">Notable studies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnography_of_communication&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Notable studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several research studies have used ethnography of communication as a methodological tool when conducting empirical research. Examples of this work include Philipsen's study, which examined the ways in which blue-collar men living near Chicago spoke or did not speak based on communication context and personal identity relationship status (i.e. whether they were considered to be of symmetrical or asymmetrical social status).<sup id="cite_ref-Philipsen_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philipsen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other examples include Katriel's study of Israeli communication acts involving griping and joking about national and public problems,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as Carbaugh's comparative studies of communication in a variety of intercultural contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These studies not only identify communication acts, codes, rules, functions, and norms, but they also offer different ways in which the method can be applied. Joel Sherzer's <i>Kuna Ways of Speaking</i> investigates the ways of speaking among the <a href="/wiki/Kuna_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuna (people)">Kuna</a> of Panama.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a landmark study that focuses on curing ways, everyday speaking, puberty rites, and gathering house speech-making. It was the first monograph that explicitly took an ethnography of speaking perspective to the whole range of verbal practices among a group of people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnography_of_communication&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Qualitative methods">Qualitative methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Philipsen" title="Gerry Philipsen">Gerry Philipsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_codes_theory" title="Speech codes theory">Speech codes theory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnography_of_communication&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hymes_1964-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hymes_1964_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hymes_1964_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hymes_1964_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHymes1964" class="citation journal cs1">Hymes, Dell (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00010">"Introduction: Toward Ethnographies of Communication"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>66</b> (6): 1–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00010">10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00010</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Toward+Ethnographies+of+Communication&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1-34&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00010&rft.aulast=Hymes&rft.aufirst=Dell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnography+of+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cameron-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cameron_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cameron_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cameron_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cameron_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cameron_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cameron_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameron2001" class="citation book cs1">Cameron, Deborah (2001). <i>Working with spoken discourse</i>. London: Sage Publications. pp. 53–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0761957737" title="Special:BookSources/978-0761957737"><bdi>978-0761957737</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Working+with+spoken+discourse&rft.place=London&rft.pages=53-67&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0761957737&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnography+of+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hymes_1976-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hymes_1976_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hymes_1976_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hymes_1976_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHymes1976" class="citation book cs1">Hymes, Dell (1976). <i>Foundations in sociolinguistics: An ethnographic approach</i> (8th ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812210651" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812210651"><bdi>978-0812210651</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+in+sociolinguistics%3A+An+ethnographic+approach&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0812210651&rft.aulast=Hymes&rft.aufirst=Dell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnography+of+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHymes1962" class="citation book cs1">Hymes, Dell (1962). "The ethnography of speaking". In Gladwin, Thomas; Sturtevant, William C. (eds.). <i>Anthropology and Human Behavior</i>. Washington, D.C.: Anthropology Society of Washington.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+ethnography+of+speaking&rft.btitle=Anthropology+and+Human+Behavior&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Anthropology+Society+of+Washington&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Hymes&rft.aufirst=Dell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnography+of+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindlof-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lindlof_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindlof_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindlof_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindlofTaylor2002" class="citation book cs1">Lindlof, Thomas R.; Taylor, Bryan C. (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind"><i>Qualitative Communication Research Methods</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0761924949" title="Special:BookSources/0761924949"><bdi>0761924949</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Qualitative+Communication+Research+Methods&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0761924949&rft.aulast=Lindlof&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Bryan+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fqualitativecommu00lind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnography+of+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Littlejohn-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Littlejohn_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittlejohnFoss2011" class="citation book cs1">Littlejohn, Stephen W.; Foss, Karen A. (2011). <i>Theories of Human Communication</i> (10th ed.). Long Grove, Ill.: Waveland Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1577667063" title="Special:BookSources/978-1577667063"><bdi>978-1577667063</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+Human+Communication&rft.place=Long+Grove%2C+Ill.&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=Waveland+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1577667063&rft.aulast=Littlejohn&rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&rft.au=Foss%2C+Karen+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnography+of+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Philipsen-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Philipsen_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Philipsen_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Philipsen_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilipsen" class="citation journal cs1">Philipsen, Gerry. "Speaking "like a man" in Teamsterville: Culture patterns of role enactment in an urban neighborhood". <i>Quarterly Journal of Speech</i>. <b>61</b> (1): 13–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00335637509383264">10.1080/00335637509383264</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Speech&rft.atitle=Speaking+%22like+a+man%22+in+Teamsterville%3A+Culture+patterns+of+role+enactment+in+an+urban+neighborhood&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00335637509383264&rft.aulast=Philipsen&rft.aufirst=Gerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnography+of+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatriel1990" class="citation book cs1">Katriel, T. (1990). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Griping' as a verbal ritual in some Israeli discourse". In Carbaugh, D. (ed.). <i>Cultural Communication and Intercultural Contact</i>. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. pp. 99–114.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Griping%E2%80%99+as+a+verbal+ritual+in+some+Israeli+discourse&rft.btitle=Cultural+Communication+and+Intercultural+Contact&rft.place=Hillsdale%2C+NJ&rft.pages=99-114&rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Katriel&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnography+of+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarbaugh2005" class="citation book cs1">Carbaugh, Donal (2005). <i>Cultures in conversation</i>. Mahwah N.J.: L. Erlbaum Assiociates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-5234-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8058-5234-4"><bdi>0-8058-5234-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultures+in+conversation&rft.place=Mahwah+N.J.&rft.pub=L.+Erlbaum+Assiociates&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8058-5234-4&rft.aulast=Carbaugh&rft.aufirst=Donal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnography+of+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherzer1983" class="citation book cs1">Sherzer, Joel (1983). <i>Kuna ways of speaking: An ethnographic perspective</i>. Austin: The University of Texas Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kuna+ways+of+speaking%3A+An+ethnographic+perspective&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=The+University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Sherzer&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnography+of+communication" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnography_of_communication&oldid=997936491">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnography_of_communication&oldid=997936491</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Discourse_analysis" title="Category:Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 2 January 2021, at 23:45<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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