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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buoyant_flight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buoyant_flight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Buoyant flight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buoyant_flight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerodynamic_flight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerodynamic_flight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Aerodynamic flight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerodynamic_flight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unpowered_flight_versus_powered_flight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unpowered_flight_versus_powered_flight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Unpowered flight versus powered flight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unpowered_flight_versus_powered_flight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Animal_flight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animal_flight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Animal flight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animal_flight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Mechanical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Supersonic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supersonic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3.1</span> <span>Supersonic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supersonic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypersonic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypersonic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3.2</span> <span>Hypersonic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypersonic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ballistic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ballistic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Ballistic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ballistic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atmospheric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atmospheric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Atmospheric</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atmospheric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spaceflight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spaceflight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Spaceflight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spaceflight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solid-state_propulsion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solid-state_propulsion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Solid-state propulsion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solid-state_propulsion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aviation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aviation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Aviation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aviation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spaceflight_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spaceflight_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Spaceflight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spaceflight_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Physics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thrust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thrust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Thrust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thrust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Lift</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drag" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drag"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Drag</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drag-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lift-to-drag_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lift-to-drag_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Lift-to-drag ratio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lift-to-drag_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buoyancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buoyancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.5</span> <span>Buoyancy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buoyancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thrust_to_weight_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thrust_to_weight_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.6</span> <span>Thrust to weight ratio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thrust_to_weight_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flight_dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flight_dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Flight dynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flight_dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Energy efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Range" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Range"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Range</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Range-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power-to-weight_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power-to-weight_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Power-to-weight ratio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power-to-weight_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Takeoff_and_landing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Takeoff_and_landing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Takeoff and landing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Takeoff_and_landing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guidance,_navigation_and_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guidance,_navigation_and_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Guidance, navigation and control</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Guidance,_navigation_and_control-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Guidance, navigation and control subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Guidance,_navigation_and_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guidance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guidance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Guidance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guidance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Traffic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traffic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Traffic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traffic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flight_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flight_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Flight safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flight_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Flight</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 59 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-59" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">59 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%82" title="تحليق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تحليق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%86%D9%85%D8%A7" title="اوچما – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اوچما" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="উড্ডয়ন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উড্ডয়ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarabang" title="Tarabang – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Tarabang" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D1%82" title="Палёт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Палёт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Полет – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Полет" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let" title="Let – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Let" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol" title="Vol – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vol" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let" title="Let – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Let" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedfan" title="Hedfan – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hedfan" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fliegen_(Fortbewegung)" title="Fliegen (Fortbewegung) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fliegen (Fortbewegung)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Πτήση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πτήση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuelo" title="Vuelo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vuelo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flugo" title="Flugo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Flugo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="پرواز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پرواز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol_(a%C3%A9ronautique)" title="Vol (aéronautique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vol (aéronautique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleanen" title="Fleanen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fleanen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voo" title="Voo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Voo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%84%ED%96%89" title="비행 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="비행" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Սավառնում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սավառնում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="उड़ान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उड़ान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let" title="Let – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Let" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terbang" title="Terbang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Terbang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flug" title="Flug – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Flug" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volo" title="Volo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Volo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9F" title="ಹಾರಾಟ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹಾರಾಟ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ფრენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფრენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B2l_(ayewodinamik_yo)" title="Vòl (ayewodinamik yo) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Vòl (ayewodinamik yo)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatus" title="Volatus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Volatus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrydis" title="Skrydis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Skrydis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BCl%C3%A9s_(biol%C3%B3gia)" title="Repülés (biológia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Repülés (biológia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bu%C5%8Fi" title="Buŏi – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Buŏi" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A3%9B%E7%BF%94" title="飛翔 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="飛翔" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyging" title="Flyging – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Flyging" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyging" title="Flyging – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Flyging" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%84%E1%9F%87%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%9A" title="ការហោះហើរ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ការហោះហើរ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voo" title="Voo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Voo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zbor" title="Zbor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Zbor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaway" title="Phaway – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Phaway" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%91%D1%82" title="Полёт – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Полёт" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/bahel" title="bahel – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="bahel" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flicht" title="Flicht – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Flicht" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluturimi" title="Fluturimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fluturimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight" title="Flight – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Flight" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%DB%95%DA%B5%D9%81%DA%95%DB%8C%D9%86" title="ھەڵفڕین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ھەڵفڕین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Лет – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Лет" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let" title="Let – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Let" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lent%C3%A4minen" title="Lentäminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lentäminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flygning" title="Flygning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Flygning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%9F" title="ఎగురుట – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఎగురుట" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="การบิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การบิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C3%A7ma" title="Uçma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Uçma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82" title="Політ – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Політ" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay" title="Bay – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bay" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A3%9B" title="飛 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="飛" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paglupad" title="Paglupad – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Paglupad" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A3%9B" title="飛 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="飛" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C4%B1rday%C4%B1%C5%9F" title="Fırdayış – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Fırdayış" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A3%9B%E8%A1%8C" title="飛行 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="飛行" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Movement of an object through air</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Flight_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Flight (disambiguation)">Flight (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juvenile_pelecanus_occidentalis_in_flight.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Juvenile_pelecanus_occidentalis_in_flight.jpg/250px-Juvenile_pelecanus_occidentalis_in_flight.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Juvenile_pelecanus_occidentalis_in_flight.jpg/330px-Juvenile_pelecanus_occidentalis_in_flight.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Juvenile_pelecanus_occidentalis_in_flight.jpg/500px-Juvenile_pelecanus_occidentalis_in_flight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3629" data-file-height="2268" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bird_flight" title="Bird flight">Bird flight</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Brown_pelican" title="Brown pelican">brown pelican</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Jordanian_Airlines_Boeing_787-8_(JY-BAA)_arrives_London_Heathrow_11Apr2015_arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Royal_Jordanian_Airlines_Boeing_787-8_%28JY-BAA%29_arrives_London_Heathrow_11Apr2015_arp.jpg/250px-Royal_Jordanian_Airlines_Boeing_787-8_%28JY-BAA%29_arrives_London_Heathrow_11Apr2015_arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Royal_Jordanian_Airlines_Boeing_787-8_%28JY-BAA%29_arrives_London_Heathrow_11Apr2015_arp.jpg/330px-Royal_Jordanian_Airlines_Boeing_787-8_%28JY-BAA%29_arrives_London_Heathrow_11Apr2015_arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Royal_Jordanian_Airlines_Boeing_787-8_%28JY-BAA%29_arrives_London_Heathrow_11Apr2015_arp.jpg/500px-Royal_Jordanian_Airlines_Boeing_787-8_%28JY-BAA%29_arrives_London_Heathrow_11Apr2015_arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4231" data-file-height="3229" /></a><figcaption>Human-engineered flight: a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Jordanian_Airlines" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Jordanian Airlines">Royal Jordanian Airlines</a> <a href="/wiki/Boeing_787" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing 787">Boeing 787</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Flight</b> or <b>flying</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">object</a> through an <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, or through the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>, without contacting any <a href="/wiki/Planetary_surface" title="Planetary surface">planetary surface</a>. This can be achieved by generating <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_lift" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic lift">aerodynamic lift</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Gliding_flight" title="Gliding flight">gliding</a> or <a href="/wiki/Air_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Air propulsion">propulsive thrust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerostat" title="Aerostat">aerostatically</a> using <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>, or by <a href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">ballistic</a> movement. </p><p>Many things can fly, from <a href="/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals" title="Flying and gliding animals">animal aviators</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, to natural gliders/parachuters such as <a href="/wiki/Patagium" title="Patagium">patagial</a> animals, <a href="/wiki/Anemochorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Anemochorous">anemochorous</a> <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ballistospore" title="Ballistospore">ballistospores</a>, to human inventions like <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">airplanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airship" title="Airship">airships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balloon" title="Balloon">balloons</a>, etc.) and <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a> which may propel <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplanes</a>. </p><p>The engineering aspects of flight are the purview of <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace engineering</a> which is subdivided into <a href="/wiki/Aeronautics" title="Aeronautics">aeronautics</a>, the study of vehicles that travel through the atmosphere, and <a href="/wiki/Astronautics" title="Astronautics">astronautics</a>, the study of vehicles that travel through space, and <a href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">ballistics</a>, the study of the flight of projectiles. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_flight">Types of flight</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types of flight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buoyant_flight">Buoyant flight</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Buoyant flight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aerostat" title="Aerostat">Aerostat</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goodyear-blimp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Goodyear-blimp.jpg/250px-Goodyear-blimp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Goodyear-blimp.jpg/330px-Goodyear-blimp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Goodyear-blimp.jpg/440px-Goodyear-blimp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="458" data-file-height="182" /></a><figcaption>An airship flies because the upward force, from air displacement, is equal to or greater than the force of gravity</figcaption></figure> <p>Humans have managed to construct lighter-than-air vehicles that raise off the ground and fly, due to their <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> in the air. </p><p>An <b>aerostat</b> is a system that remains aloft primarily through the use of <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> to give an aircraft the same overall density as air. Aerostats include <a href="/wiki/Balloon_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balloon (aircraft)">free balloons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airship" title="Airship">airships</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moored_balloon" class="mw-redirect" title="Moored balloon">moored balloons</a>. An aerostat's main structural component is its <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/envelope" class="extiw" title="wikt:envelope">envelope</a>, a lightweight <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a> that encloses a volume of <a href="/wiki/Lifting_gas" title="Lifting gas">lifting gas</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to provide <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>, to which other components are attached. </p><p>Aerostats are so named because they use "aerostatic" lift, a <a href="/wiki/Buoyant" class="mw-redirect" title="Buoyant">buoyant</a> force that does not require lateral movement through the surrounding air mass to effect a lifting force. By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft#Heavier-than-air_–_aerodynes" title="Aircraft">aerodynes</a> primarily use <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic">aerodynamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">lift</a>, which requires the lateral movement of at least some part of the <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> through the surrounding air mass. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aerodynamic_flight">Aerodynamic flight</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Aerodynamic flight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unpowered_flight_versus_powered_flight">Unpowered flight versus powered flight</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Unpowered flight versus powered flight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unpowered_flight" title="Unpowered flight">Unpowered flight</a></div> <p>Some things that fly do not generate propulsive thrust through the air, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Flying_squirrel" title="Flying squirrel">flying squirrel</a>. This is termed <a href="/wiki/Gliding_(flight)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gliding (flight)">gliding</a>. Some other things can exploit rising air to climb such as <a href="/wiki/Bird_of_prey" title="Bird of prey">raptors</a> (when gliding) and <a href="/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)" title="Glider (sailplane)">man-made sailplane gliders</a>. This is termed <a href="/wiki/Lift_(soaring)" title="Lift (soaring)">soaring</a>. However most other birds and all <a href="/wiki/Powered_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Powered aircraft">powered aircraft</a> need a source of <a href="/wiki/Propulsion" title="Propulsion">propulsion</a> to climb. This is termed powered flight. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Animal_flight">Animal flight</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Animal flight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals" title="Flying and gliding animals">Flying and gliding animals</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Female_mallard_flight_-_natures_pics.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Female_mallard_flight_-_natures_pics.jpg/250px-Female_mallard_flight_-_natures_pics.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Female_mallard_flight_-_natures_pics.jpg/330px-Female_mallard_flight_-_natures_pics.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Female_mallard_flight_-_natures_pics.jpg/500px-Female_mallard_flight_-_natures_pics.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Female <a href="/wiki/Mallard" title="Mallard">mallard</a> duck</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tau_Emerald_inflight_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Tau_Emerald_inflight_edit.jpg/250px-Tau_Emerald_inflight_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Tau_Emerald_inflight_edit.jpg/330px-Tau_Emerald_inflight_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Tau_Emerald_inflight_edit.jpg/500px-Tau_Emerald_inflight_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>Tau emerald <a href="/wiki/Dragonfly" title="Dragonfly">dragonfly</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kea_in_Flight_MC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Kea_in_Flight_MC.jpg/250px-Kea_in_Flight_MC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Kea_in_Flight_MC.jpg/330px-Kea_in_Flight_MC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Kea_in_Flight_MC.jpg/500px-Kea_in_Flight_MC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kea" title="Kea">Kea</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The only groups of <a href="/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals" title="Flying and gliding animals">living things that use powered flight</a> are <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a>, while many groups have evolved gliding. The extinct <a href="/wiki/Pterosaur" title="Pterosaur">pterosaurs</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> of reptiles contemporaneous with the <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>, were also very successful flying animals,<sup id="cite_ref-averof_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-averof-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there were apparently some <a href="/wiki/Flying_dinosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Flying dinosaur">flying dinosaurs</a>. Each of these groups' <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a> <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">evolved independently</a>, with insects the first animal group to evolve flight.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wings of the flying vertebrate groups are all based on the forelimbs, but differ significantly in structure; insect wings are hypothesized to be highly modified versions of structures that form gills in most other groups of <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-averof_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-averof-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">Bats</a> are the only <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> capable of sustaining level flight (see <i><a href="/wiki/Bat_flight" title="Bat flight">bat flight</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there are several <a href="/wiki/Flying_squirrel" title="Flying squirrel">gliding mammals</a> which are able to glide from tree to tree using fleshy membranes between their limbs; some can travel hundreds of meters in this way with very little loss in height. <a href="/wiki/Flying_frog" title="Flying frog">Flying frogs</a> use greatly enlarged webbed feet for a similar purpose, and there are <a href="/wiki/Draco_blanfordii" title="Draco blanfordii">flying lizards</a> which fold out their mobile ribs into a pair of flat gliding surfaces. <a href="/wiki/Chrysopelea" title="Chrysopelea">"Flying" snakes</a> also use mobile ribs to flatten their body into an aerodynamic shape, with a back and forth motion much the same as they use on the ground. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Flying_fish" title="Flying fish">Flying fish</a> can glide using enlarged wing-like fins, and have been observed soaring for hundreds of meters. It is thought that this ability was chosen by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> because it was an effective means of escape from underwater predators. The longest recorded flight of a flying fish was 45 seconds.<sup id="cite_ref-aa_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aa-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bird_flight" title="Bird flight">Most birds can fly</a>, with some exceptions. The largest birds, the <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostrich</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Emu" title="Emu">emu</a>, are earthbound <a href="/wiki/Flightless_bird" title="Flightless bird">flightless birds</a>, as were the now-extinct <a href="/wiki/Dodo" title="Dodo">dodos</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Phorusrhacids" class="mw-redirect" title="Phorusrhacids">Phorusrhacids</a>, which were the dominant predators of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> era. The non-flying <a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">penguins</a> have wings adapted for use under water and use the same wing movements for swimming that most other birds use for flight.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Most small flightless birds are native to small islands, and lead a lifestyle where flight would offer little advantage. </p><p>Among living animals that fly, the <a href="/wiki/Wandering_albatross" class="mw-redirect" title="Wandering albatross">wandering albatross</a> has the greatest wingspan, up to 3.5 meters (11 feet); the <a href="/wiki/Great_bustard" title="Great bustard">great bustard</a> has the greatest weight, topping at 21 kilograms (46 pounds).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most species of <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> can fly as adults. <a href="/wiki/Insect_flight" title="Insect flight">Insect flight</a> makes use of either of two basic aerodynamic models: creating a leading edge vortex, found in most insects, and using <a href="/wiki/Clap_and_fling" class="mw-redirect" title="Clap and fling">clap and fling</a>, found in very small insects such as <a href="/wiki/Thrips" title="Thrips">thrips</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many species of <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spider_mite" title="Spider mite">spider mites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">lepidoptera</a> use a technique called <a href="/wiki/Ballooning_(spider)" title="Ballooning (spider)">ballooning</a> to ride <a href="/wiki/Air_current" title="Air current">air currents</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Thermal" title="Thermal">thermals</a>, by exposing their <a href="/wiki/Spider_silk" title="Spider silk">gossamer threads</a> which gets lifted by wind and <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmospheric</a> <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric fields</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mechanical">Mechanical</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mechanical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">Aviation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flight.rob.arp.750pix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flight.rob.arp.750pix.jpg/250px-Flight.rob.arp.750pix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flight.rob.arp.750pix.jpg/330px-Flight.rob.arp.750pix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flight.rob.arp.750pix.jpg/500px-Flight.rob.arp.750pix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="536" /></a><figcaption>Mechanical flight: A <a href="/wiki/Robinson_R22" title="Robinson R22">Robinson R22</a> Beta <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopter</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Mechanical flight</b> is the use of a <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machine</a> to fly. These machines include <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">airplanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glider_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Glider aircraft">gliders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autogyro" title="Autogyro">autogyros</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airship" title="Airship">airships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balloon_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balloon (aircraft)">balloons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ornithopter" title="Ornithopter">ornithopters</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>. <a href="/wiki/Glider_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Glider aircraft">Gliders</a> are capable of unpowered flight. Another form of mechanical flight is para-sailing, where a parachute-like object is pulled by a boat. In an airplane, lift is created by the wings; the shape of the wings of the airplane are designed specially for the type of flight desired. There are different types of wings: tempered, semi-tempered, sweptback, rectangular and elliptical. An aircraft wing is sometimes called an <a href="/wiki/Airfoil" title="Airfoil">airfoil</a>, which is a device that creates lift when air flows across it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Supersonic">Supersonic</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Supersonic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supersonic_speed" title="Supersonic speed">Supersonic speed</a></div> <p>Supersonic flight is flight faster than the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_sound" title="Speed of sound">speed of sound</a>. Supersonic flight is associated with the formation of <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock waves</a> that form a <a href="/wiki/Sonic_boom" title="Sonic boom">sonic boom</a> that can be heard from the ground,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is frequently startling. The creation of this shockwave requires a significant amount of energy; because of this, supersonic flight is generally less efficient than subsonic flight at about 85% of the speed of sound. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Hypersonic">Hypersonic</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hypersonic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hypersonic_speed" title="Hypersonic speed">Hypersonic speed</a></div> <p>Hypersonic flight is very high speed flight where the heat generated by the compression of the air due to the motion through the air causes chemical changes to the air. Hypersonic flight is achieved primarily by reentering spacecraft such as the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz spacecraft">Soyuz</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS_after_STS-117_in_June_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ISS_after_STS-117_in_June_2007.jpg/250px-ISS_after_STS-117_in_June_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ISS_after_STS-117_in_June_2007.jpg/330px-ISS_after_STS-117_in_June_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ISS_after_STS-117_in_June_2007.jpg/500px-ISS_after_STS-117_in_June_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2007" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> in Earth <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ballistic">Ballistic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ballistic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">Ballistics</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Atmospheric">Atmospheric</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Atmospheric"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some things generate little or no lift and move only or mostly under the action of momentum, gravity, air drag and in some cases thrust. This is termed <i>ballistic flight</i>. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Ball" title="Ball">balls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">arrows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bullet" title="Bullet">bullets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firework" class="mw-redirect" title="Firework">fireworks</a> etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Spaceflight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></div> <p>Essentially an extreme form of ballistic flight, spaceflight is the use of <a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">space technology</a> to achieve the flight of <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> into and through <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_missile" title="Ballistic missile">ballistic missiles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">orbital spaceflight</a>, etc. </p><p>Spaceflight is used in <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>, and also in commercial activities like <a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">space tourism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications satellite">satellite telecommunications</a>. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include <a href="/wiki/Space_observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Space observatory">space observatories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">reconnaissance satellites</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite" title="Earth observation satellite">Earth observation satellites</a>. </p><p>A spaceflight typically begins with a <a href="/wiki/Rocket_launch" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket launch">rocket launch</a>, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled and when under propulsion—is covered by the area of study called <a href="/wiki/Astrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrodynamics">astrodynamics</a>. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_reentry" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric reentry">atmospheric reentry</a>, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Solid-state_propulsion">Solid-state propulsion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Solid-state propulsion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2018, researchers at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) managed to fly an aeroplane with no moving parts, powered by an "<a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionic</a> wind" also known as electroaerodynamic thrust.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many human cultures have built devices that fly, from the earliest projectiles such as stones and spears,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">boomerang</a> in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the hot air <a href="/wiki/Kongming_lantern" class="mw-redirect" title="Kongming lantern">Kongming lantern</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kite" title="Kite">kites</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aviation">Aviation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Aviation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_aviation" title="History of aviation">History of aviation</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/George_Cayley" title="George Cayley">George Cayley</a> studied flight scientifically in the first half of the 19th century,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ctie_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ctie-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the second half of the 19th century <a href="/wiki/Otto_Lilienthal" title="Otto Lilienthal">Otto Lilienthal</a> made over 200 gliding flights and was also one of the first to understand flight scientifically. His work was replicated and extended by the <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a> who made gliding flights and finally the first controlled and extended, manned powered flights.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spaceflight_2">Spaceflight</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Spaceflight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">History of spaceflight</a></div> <p>Spaceflight, particularly <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human spaceflight</a> became a reality in the 20th century following theoretical and practical breakthroughs by <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky" title="Konstantin Tsiolkovsky">Konstantin Tsiolkovsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard" title="Robert H. Goddard">Robert H. Goddard</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">first orbital spaceflight</a> was in 1957,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> was carried aboard the first crewed orbital spaceflight in 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physics">Physics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D-LZNT_above_Cologne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/D-LZNT_above_Cologne.jpg/250px-D-LZNT_above_Cologne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/D-LZNT_above_Cologne.jpg/330px-D-LZNT_above_Cologne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/D-LZNT_above_Cologne.jpg/500px-D-LZNT_above_Cologne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Lighter-than-air <a href="/wiki/Airship" title="Airship">airships</a> are able to fly without any major input of energy</figcaption></figure> <p>There are different approaches to flight. If an object has a lower <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> than air, then it is <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyant</a> and is able to <a href="/wiki/Aerostat" title="Aerostat">float in the air</a> without expending energy. A <a href="/wiki/Heavier_than_air" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavier than air">heavier than air</a> craft, known as an <a href="/wiki/Aircraft#Heavier_than_air_.80.93_aerodynes" title="Aircraft">aerodyne</a>, includes flighted animals and insects, <a href="/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft" title="Fixed-wing aircraft">fixed-wing aircraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rotorcraft" title="Rotorcraft">rotorcraft</a>. Because the craft is heavier than air, it must generate <a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">lift</a> to overcome its <a href="/wiki/Weight" title="Weight">weight</a>. The wind resistance caused by the craft moving through the air is called <a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">drag</a> and is overcome by <a href="/wiki/Air_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Air propulsion">propulsive thrust</a> except in the case of <a href="/wiki/Gliding_(flight)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gliding (flight)">gliding</a>. </p><p>Some vehicles also use thrust in the place of lift; for example <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harrier_jump_jet" title="Harrier jump jet">Harrier jump jets</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forces">Forces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forces2.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Forces2.gif/250px-Forces2.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Forces2.gif/330px-Forces2.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Forces2.gif/500px-Forces2.gif 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="299" /></a><figcaption>Main forces acting on a heavier-than-air aircraft</figcaption></figure> <p>Forces relevant to flight are<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Air propulsion">Propulsive thrust</a> (except in gliders)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">Lift</a>, created by the reaction to an airflow</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">Drag</a>, created by aerodynamic <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weight" title="Weight">Weight</a>, created by gravity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">Buoyancy</a>, for lighter than air flight</li></ul> <p>These forces must be balanced for stable flight to occur. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thrust">Thrust</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Thrust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">Thrust</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aeroforces.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Aeroforces.svg/250px-Aeroforces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Aeroforces.svg/330px-Aeroforces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Aeroforces.svg/500px-Aeroforces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="909" data-file-height="417" /></a><figcaption>Forces on an <a href="/wiki/Aerofoil" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerofoil">aerofoil</a> cross section</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft" title="Fixed-wing aircraft">fixed-wing aircraft</a> generates forward thrust when air is pushed in the direction opposite to flight. This can be done in several ways including by the spinning blades of a <a href="/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Propeller (aircraft)">propeller</a>, or a rotating <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_fan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical fan">fan</a> pushing air out from the back of a <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engine</a>, or by ejecting hot gases from a <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The forward thrust is proportional to the <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> of the airstream multiplied by the difference in <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a> of the airstream. Reverse thrust can be generated to aid braking after landing by reversing the pitch of variable-pitch propeller blades, or using a <a href="/wiki/Thrust_reversal" title="Thrust reversal">thrust reverser</a> on a jet engine. <a href="/wiki/Rotary_wing_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotary wing aircraft">Rotary wing aircraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thrust_vectoring" title="Thrust vectoring">thrust vectoring</a> <a href="/wiki/V/STOL" title="V/STOL">V/STOL</a> aircraft use engine thrust to support the weight of the aircraft, and vector sum of this thrust fore and aft to control forward speed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lift">Lift</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Lift"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">Lift (force)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Airfoil_lift_and_drag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Airfoil_lift_and_drag.svg/330px-Airfoil_lift_and_drag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Airfoil_lift_and_drag.svg/500px-Airfoil_lift_and_drag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Airfoil_lift_and_drag.svg/600px-Airfoil_lift_and_drag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="265" /></a><figcaption>Lift is defined as the component of the <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_force" title="Aerodynamic force">aerodynamic force</a> that is perpendicular to the flow direction, and drag is the component that is parallel to the flow direction</figcaption></figure> <p>In the context of an <a href="/wiki/Fluid_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid flow">air flow</a> relative to a flying body, the <b>lift</b> force is the <a href="/wiki/Vector_(geometric)#Vector_components" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (geometric)">component</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_force" title="Aerodynamic force">aerodynamic force</a> that is <a href="/wiki/Perpendicular" title="Perpendicular">perpendicular</a> to the flow direction.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aerodynamic lift results when the wing causes the surrounding air to be deflected - the air then causes a force on the wing in the opposite direction, in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_third_law_of_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's third law of motion">Newton's third law of motion</a>. </p><p>Lift is commonly associated with the <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wing</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft" title="Fixed-wing aircraft">aircraft</a>, although lift is also generated by <a href="/wiki/Helicopter_rotor" title="Helicopter rotor">rotors</a> on <a href="/wiki/Rotorcraft" title="Rotorcraft">rotorcraft</a> (which are effectively rotating wings, performing the same function without requiring that the aircraft move forward through the air). While common meanings of the word "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lift#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:lift">lift</a>" suggest that lift opposes gravity, aerodynamic lift can be in any direction. When an aircraft is <a href="/wiki/Cruise_(flight)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruise (flight)">cruising</a> for example, lift does oppose gravity, but lift occurs at an angle when climbing, descending or banking. On high-speed cars, the lift force is directed downwards (called "down-force") to keep the car stable on the road. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drag">Drag</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Drag"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">Drag (physics)</a></div> <p>For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the <a href="/wiki/Net_force" title="Net force">net</a> <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_force" title="Aerodynamic force">aerodynamic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamics">hydrodynamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> acting opposite to the direction of the movement.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASAdrag_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASAdrag-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, drag opposes the motion of the object, and in a powered vehicle it must be overcome by <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a>. The process which creates lift also causes some drag. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lift-to-drag_ratio">Lift-to-drag ratio</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Lift-to-drag ratio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lift-to-drag_ratio" title="Lift-to-drag ratio">Lift-to-drag ratio</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drag_curves_for_aircraft_in_flight.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Drag_curves_for_aircraft_in_flight.svg/220px-Drag_curves_for_aircraft_in_flight.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Drag_curves_for_aircraft_in_flight.svg/330px-Drag_curves_for_aircraft_in_flight.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Drag_curves_for_aircraft_in_flight.svg/440px-Drag_curves_for_aircraft_in_flight.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="707" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>Speed and drag relationships for a typical aircraft</figcaption></figure> <p>Aerodynamic lift is created by the motion of an aerodynamic object (wing) through the air, which due to its shape and angle deflects the air. For sustained straight and level flight, lift must be equal and opposite to weight. In general, long narrow wings are able deflect a large amount of air at a slow speed, whereas smaller wings need a higher forward speed to deflect an equivalent amount of air and thus generate an equivalent amount of lift. Large cargo aircraft tend to use longer wings with higher angles of attack, whereas supersonic aircraft tend to have short wings and rely heavily on high forward speed to generate lift. </p><p>However, this lift (deflection) process inevitably causes a retarding force called drag. Because lift and drag are both aerodynamic forces, the ratio of lift to drag is an indication of the aerodynamic efficiency of the airplane. The lift to drag ratio is the L/D ratio, pronounced "L over D ratio." An airplane has a high L/D ratio if it produces a large amount of lift or a small amount of drag. The lift/drag ratio is determined by dividing the lift coefficient by the drag coefficient, CL/CD.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The lift coefficient Cl is equal to the lift L divided by the (density r times half the velocity V squared times the wing area A). [Cl = L / (A * .5 * r * V^2)] The lift coefficient is also affected by the compressibility of the air, which is much greater at higher speeds, so velocity V is not a linear function. Compressibility is also affected by the shape of the aircraft surfaces. <sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The drag coefficient Cd is equal to the drag D divided by the (density r times half the velocity V squared times the reference area A). [Cd = D / (A * .5 * r * V^2)] <sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lift-to-drag ratios for practical aircraft vary from about 4:1 for vehicles and birds with relatively short wings, up to 60:1 or more for vehicles with very long wings, such as gliders. A greater angle of attack relative to the forward movement also increases the extent of deflection, and thus generates extra lift. However a greater angle of attack also generates extra drag. </p><p>Lift/drag ratio also determines the glide ratio and gliding range. Since the glide ratio is based only on the relationship of the aerodynamics forces acting on the aircraft, aircraft weight will not affect it. The only effect weight has is to vary the time that the aircraft will glide for – a heavier aircraft gliding at a higher airspeed will arrive at the same touchdown point in a shorter time.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buoyancy">Buoyancy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Buoyancy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">Buoyancy</a></div> <p>Air pressure acting up against an object in air is greater than the pressure above pushing down. The buoyancy, in both cases, is equal to the weight of fluid displaced - <a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle" title="Archimedes' principle">Archimedes' principle</a> holds for air just as it does for water. </p><p>A cubic meter of air at ordinary <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a> and room temperature has a mass of about 1.2 kilograms, so its weight is about 12 <a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newtons</a>. Therefore, any 1-cubic-meter object in air is buoyed up with a force of 12 newtons. If the mass of the 1-cubic-meter object is greater than 1.2 kilograms (so that its weight is greater than 12 newtons), it falls to the ground when released. If an object of this size has a mass less than 1.2 kilograms, it rises in the air. Any object that has a mass that is less than the mass of an equal volume of air will rise in air - in other words, any object less dense than air will rise. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thrust_to_weight_ratio">Thrust to weight ratio</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Thrust to weight ratio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">Thrust-to-weight ratio</a></div> <p><b>Thrust-to-weight ratio</b> is, as its name suggests, the ratio of instantaneous <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a> to <a href="/wiki/Weight" title="Weight">weight</a> (where weight means weight at the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s standard acceleration <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32d13273b9af4564fa2c421c96d039c414db8628" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.163ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g_{0}}" /></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-sutton_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sutton-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a dimensionless parameter characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a> and other jet engines and of vehicles propelled by such engines (typically space <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicles</a> and jet <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>). </p><p>If the <a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">thrust-to-weight ratio</a> is greater than the local gravity strength (expressed in <i>g</i>s), then flight can occur without any forward motion or any aerodynamic lift being required. </p><p>If the thrust-to-weight ratio times the lift-to-drag ratio is greater than local gravity then <a href="/wiki/Takeoff" title="Takeoff">takeoff</a> using aerodynamic lift is possible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flight_dynamics">Flight dynamics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Flight dynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flight_dynamics" title="Flight dynamics">Flight dynamics</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:612px;max-width:612px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aileron_pitch.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Aileron_pitch.gif/250px-Aileron_pitch.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Aileron_pitch.gif/330px-Aileron_pitch.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Aileron_pitch.gif/500px-Aileron_pitch.gif 2x" data-file-width="502" data-file-height="404" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_principal_axes" title="Aircraft principal axes">Pitch</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aileron_yaw.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Aileron_yaw.gif/250px-Aileron_yaw.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Aileron_yaw.gif/330px-Aileron_yaw.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Aileron_yaw.gif/500px-Aileron_yaw.gif 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="403" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Yaw_(rotation)" title="Yaw (rotation)">Yaw</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aileron_roll.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aileron_roll.gif/250px-Aileron_roll.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aileron_roll.gif/330px-Aileron_roll.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Aileron_roll.gif/500px-Aileron_roll.gif 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="407" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Aerobatic_maneuver" title="Aerobatic maneuver">Roll</a></div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dihedral.airliner.arp.750pix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Dihedral.airliner.arp.750pix.jpg/250px-Dihedral.airliner.arp.750pix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Dihedral.airliner.arp.750pix.jpg/330px-Dihedral.airliner.arp.750pix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Dihedral.airliner.arp.750pix.jpg/500px-Dihedral.airliner.arp.750pix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>The upward tilt of the wings and tailplane of an aircraft, as seen on this <a href="/wiki/Boeing_737" title="Boeing 737">Boeing 737</a>, is called dihedral angle</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Flight dynamics</b> is the science of <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">air</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">space</a> vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation in three <a href="/wiki/Dimensions" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimensions">dimensions</a> about the vehicle's <a href="/wiki/Center_of_mass" title="Center of mass">center of mass</a>, known as <i>pitch</i>, <i>roll</i> and <i>yaw</i> (See <a href="/wiki/Tait-Bryan_rotations" class="mw-redirect" title="Tait-Bryan rotations">Tait-Bryan rotations</a> for an explanation). </p><p>The control of these dimensions can involve a <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_stabilizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal stabilizer">horizontal stabilizer</a> (i.e. "a tail"), <a href="/wiki/Ailerons" class="mw-redirect" title="Ailerons">ailerons</a> and other movable aerodynamic devices which control angular stability i.e. flight attitude (which in turn affects <a href="/wiki/Altitude" title="Altitude">altitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_heading" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft heading">heading</a>). Wings are often angled slightly upwards- they have "positive <a href="/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dihedral (aircraft)">dihedral angle</a>" which gives inherent roll stabilization. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_efficiency">Energy efficiency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Energy efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Propulsive_efficiency" title="Propulsive efficiency">Propulsive efficiency</a></div> <p>To create thrust so as to be able to gain height, and to push through the air to overcome the drag associated with lift all takes energy. Different objects and creatures capable of flight vary in the efficiency of their muscles, motors and how well this translates into forward thrust. </p><p>Propulsive efficiency determines how much energy vehicles generate from a unit of fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Range">Range</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Range"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Range_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Range (aircraft)">Range (aircraft)</a></div> <p>The range that powered flight articles can achieve is ultimately limited by their drag, as well as how much energy they can store on board and how efficiently they can turn that energy into propulsion.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For powered aircraft the useful energy is determined by their <a href="/wiki/Fuel_fraction" title="Fuel fraction">fuel fraction</a>- what percentage of the takeoff weight is fuel, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">specific energy</a> of the fuel used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power-to-weight_ratio">Power-to-weight ratio</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Power-to-weight ratio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio" title="Power-to-weight ratio">Power-to-weight ratio</a></div> <p>All animals and devices capable of sustained flight need relatively high power-to-weight ratios to be able to generate enough lift and/or thrust to achieve take off. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Takeoff_and_landing">Takeoff and landing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Takeoff and landing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Takeoff_and_landing" title="Takeoff and landing">Takeoff and landing</a></div> <p>Vehicles that can fly can have different ways to <b>takeoff and land</b>. Conventional aircraft accelerate along the ground until sufficient lift is generated for <a href="/wiki/Takeoff" title="Takeoff">takeoff</a>, and reverse the process for <a href="/wiki/Landing" title="Landing">landing</a>. Some aircraft can take off at low speed; this is called a short takeoff. Some aircraft such as helicopters and <a href="/wiki/Harrier_jump_jet" title="Harrier jump jet">Harrier jump jets</a> can take off and land vertically. Rockets also usually take off and land vertically, but some designs can land horizontally. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Guidance,_navigation_and_control"><span id="Guidance.2C_navigation_and_control"></span>Guidance, navigation and control</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Guidance, navigation and control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Guidance,_navigation,_and_control" title="Guidance, navigation, and control">Guidance, navigation, and control</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navigation">Navigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a> is the systems necessary to calculate current position (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>, <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a>, <a href="/wiki/LORAN" title="LORAN">LORAN</a>, <a href="/wiki/Star_tracker" title="Star tracker">star tracker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inertial_measurement_unit" title="Inertial measurement unit">inertial measurement unit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Altimeter" title="Altimeter">altimeter</a>). </p><p>In aircraft, successful <a href="/wiki/Air_navigation" title="Air navigation">air navigation</a> involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost, breaking the laws applying to aircraft, or endangering the safety of those on board or on the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">ground</a>. </p><p>The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying under the <a href="/wiki/Visual_flight_rules" title="Visual flight rules">visual flight rules</a> (VFR) or the <a href="/wiki/Instrument_flight_rules" title="Instrument flight rules">instrument flight rules</a> (IFR). In the latter case, the <a href="/wiki/Aviator" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviator">pilot</a> will navigate exclusively using <a href="/wiki/Flight_instruments" title="Flight instruments">instruments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation_aid" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio navigation aid">radio navigation aids</a> such as beacons, or as directed under <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> control by <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</a>. In the VFR case, a pilot will largely navigate using <a href="/wiki/Dead_reckoning" title="Dead reckoning">dead reckoning</a> combined with visual observations (known as <a href="/wiki/Pilotage" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilotage">pilotage</a>), with reference to appropriate maps. This may be supplemented using radio navigation aids. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guidance">Guidance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Guidance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Guidance_system" title="Guidance system">Guidance system</a></div> <p>A <b>guidance system</b> is a device or group of devices used in the <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">missile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rocket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a>, or other moving object. Typically, guidance is responsible for the calculation of the vector (i.e., direction, velocity) toward an objective. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control">Control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flight_control_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight control system">Flight control system</a></div> <p>A conventional fixed-wing <b>aircraft flight control system</b> consists of <a href="/wiki/Flight_control_surfaces" title="Flight control surfaces">flight control surfaces</a>, the respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight. <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine_controls" title="Aircraft engine controls">Aircraft engine controls</a> are also considered as flight controls as they change speed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Traffic">Traffic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Traffic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the case of aircraft, air traffic is controlled by <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</a> systems. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Collision_avoidance_(spacecraft)" title="Collision avoidance (spacecraft)">Collision avoidance</a> is the process of controlling spacecraft to try to prevent collisions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flight_safety">Flight safety</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Flight safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aviation_safety" title="Aviation safety">Aviation safety</a></div> <p><b>Air safety</b> is a term encompassing the theory, investigation and categorization of <a href="/wiki/Aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Aviation accidents and incidents">flight failures</a>, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of <a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">air travel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Flight" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Flight">Flight</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitation_(physics)" title="Levitation (physics)">Levitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvection_(flying)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transvection (flying)">Transvection (flying)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backward_flying" title="Backward flying">Backward flying</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Notes</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker 2000, p. 541. Quote: the gas-bag of a balloon or airship.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coulson-Thomas 1976, p. 281. Quote: fabric enclosing gas-bags of airship.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-averof-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-averof_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-averof_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Averof, Michalis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6617/abs/385627a0.html">"Evolutionary origin of insect wings from ancestral gills."</a> <i>Nature</i>, Volume 385, Issue 385, February 1997, pp. 627–630.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEggleton2020" class="citation journal cs1">Eggleton, Paul (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-environ-012420-050035">"The State of the World's Insects"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Environment and Resources</i>. <b>45</b>: <span class="nowrap">61–</span>82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-environ-012420-050035">10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-050035</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Environment+and+Resources&rft.atitle=The+State+of+the+World%27s+Insects&rft.volume=45&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-environ-012420-050035&rft.aulast=Eggleton&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev-environ-012420-050035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>World Book Student.</i> Chicago: World Book. Retrieved: April 29, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aa-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aa_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7410421.stm">"BBC article and video of flying fish."</a> <i>BBC</i>, May 20, 2008. Retrieved: May 20, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trumpeterswansociety.org/id.htm">"Swan Identification."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061031082245/http://www.trumpeterswansociety.org/id.htm">Archived</a> 2006-10-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>The Trumpeter Swan Society.</i> Retrieved: January 3, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWang2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Z._Jane_Wang" title="Z. Jane Wang">Wang, Z. Jane</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physics.emory.edu/~weeks/lab/papers/jwang-arf05.pdf">"Dissecting Insect Flight"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics</i>. <b>37</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">183–</span>210. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AnRFM..37..183W">2005AnRFM..37..183W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.fluid.36.050802.121940">10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.121940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Fluid+Mechanics&rft.atitle=Dissecting+Insect+Flight&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E183-%3C%2Fspan%3E210&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.fluid.36.050802.121940&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005AnRFM..37..183W&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Z.+Jane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physics.emory.edu%2F~weeks%2Flab%2Fpapers%2Fjwang-arf05.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSane,_Sanjay_P.2003" class="citation journal cs1">Sane, Sanjay P. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.washington.edu/homes/diorio/MURI2003/Publications/sane_review.pdf">"The aerodynamics of insect flight"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Journal of Experimental Biology</i>. <b>206</b> (23): <span class="nowrap">4191–</span>4208. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JExpB.206.4191S">2003JExpB.206.4191S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.00663">10.1242/jeb.00663</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14581590">14581590</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17453426">17453426</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Experimental+Biology&rft.atitle=The+aerodynamics+of+insect+flight&rft.volume=206&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4191-%3C%2Fspan%3E4208&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1242%2Fjeb.00663&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17453426%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14581590&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JExpB.206.4191S&rft.au=Sane%2C+Sanjay+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.washington.edu%2Fhomes%2Fdiorio%2FMURI2003%2FPublications%2Fsane_review.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bern, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/talking_point/3207470.stm">"Concorde: You asked a pilot."</a> <i>BBC</i>, October 23, 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpitzmiller2007" class="citation book cs1">Spitzmiller, Ted (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kjVGAAAAYAAJ&q=A+spaceflight+typically+begins+with+a+rocket+launch,+which+provides+the+initial+thrust+to+overcome+the+force+of+gravity"><i>Astronautics: A Historical Perspective of Mankind's Efforts to Conquer the Cosmos</i></a>. Apogee Books. p. 467. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781894959667" title="Special:BookSources/9781894959667"><bdi>9781894959667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronautics%3A+A+Historical+Perspective+of+Mankind%27s+Efforts+to+Conquer+the+Cosmos&rft.pages=467&rft.pub=Apogee+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781894959667&rft.aulast=Spitzmiller&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkjVGAAAAYAAJ%26q%3DA%2Bspaceflight%2Btypically%2Bbegins%2Bwith%2Ba%2Brocket%2Blaunch%2C%2Bwhich%2Bprovides%2Bthe%2Binitial%2Bthrust%2Bto%2Bovercome%2Bthe%2Bforce%2Bof%2Bgravity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaofeng_Xu2018" class="citation news cs1">Haofeng Xu; et al. (2018). "Flight of an aeroplane with solid-state propulsion". Vol. 563. Nature. pp. <span class="nowrap">532–</span>535. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0707-9">10.1038/s41586-018-0707-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Flight+of+an+aeroplane+with+solid-state+propulsion&rft.volume=563&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E532-%3C%2Fspan%3E535&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0707-9&rft.au=Haofeng+Xu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJennifer_Chu2018" class="citation web cs1">Jennifer Chu (21 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.mit.edu/2018/first-ionic-wind-plane-no-moving-parts-1121">"MIT engineers fly first-ever plane with no moving parts"</a>. <i>MIT News</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MIT+News&rft.atitle=MIT+engineers+fly+first-ever+plane+with+no+moving+parts&rft.date=2018-11-21&rft.au=Jennifer+Chu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.mit.edu%2F2018%2Ffirst-ionic-wind-plane-no-moving-parts-1121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/1/14.html">"Archytas of Tar entum."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226181400/http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/1/14.html">Archived</a> December 26, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Technology Museum of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece/</i> Retrieved: May 6, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://automata.co.uk/History%20page.htm">"Ancient history."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021205014113/http://www.automata.co.uk/History%20page.htm">Archived</a> 2002-12-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Automata.</i> Retrieved:May 6, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flyingmachines.org/cayl.html">"Sir George Cayley"</a>. Flyingmachines.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2019</span>. <q>Sir George Cayley is one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many consider him the first true scientific aerial investigator and the first person to understand the underlying principles and forces of flight.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sir+George+Cayley&rft.pub=Flyingmachines.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flyingmachines.org%2Fcayl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ctie-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ctie_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/cayley.html">"The Pioneers: Aviation and Airmodelling"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2009</span>. <q>Sir George Cayley, is sometimes called the 'Father of Aviation'. A pioneer in his field, he is credited with the first major breakthrough in heavier-than-air flight. He was the first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight – weight, lift, drag, and thrust – and their relationship and also the first to build a successful human-carrying glider.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Pioneers%3A+Aviation+and+Airmodelling&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctie.monash.edu.au%2Fhargrave%2Fcayley.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080920052758/http://centennialofflight.gov/essay/Prehistory/Cayley/PH2.htm">"U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission – Sir George Cayley"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Prehistory/Cayley/PH2.htm">the original</a> on 20 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2008</span>. <q>Sir George Cayley, born in 1773, is sometimes called the Father of Aviation. A pioneer in his field, Cayley literally has two great spurts of aeronautical creativity, separated by years during which he did little with the subject. He was the first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight – weight, lift, drag, and thrust and their relationship. He was also the first to build a successful human-carrying glider. Cayley described many of the concepts and elements of the modern aeroplane and was the first to understand and explain in engineering terms the concepts of lift and thrust.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Centennial+of+Flight+Commission+%E2%80%93+Sir+George+Cayley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.centennialofflight.gov%2Fessay%2FPrehistory%2FCayley%2FPH2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shapell.org/btl.aspx?2972360">"Orville Wright's Personal Letters on Aviation."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120611224943/http://www.shapell.org/btl.aspx?2972360">Archived</a> 2012-06-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Shapell Manuscript Foundation</i>, (Chicago), 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/sputorig.html">"Sputnik and the Origins of the Space Age"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sputnik+and+the+Origins+of+the+Space+Age&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2Fsputnik%2Fsputorig.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/sts1/gagarin_anniversary.html">"Gagarin anniversary."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130405064118/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/sts1/gagarin_anniversary.html">Archived</a> 2013-04-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>NASA</i>. Retrieved: May 6, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/forces.html">"Four forces on an aeroplane."</a> <i>NASA.</i> Retrieved: January 3, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19991128055408/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/newton3.html">"Newtons Third Law"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/newton3.html">the original</a> on 1999-11-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Newtons+Third+Law&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.grc.nasa.gov%2FWWW%2Fk-12%2Fairplane%2Fnewton3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lerc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/aerosim/Manual/fsim0020.htm">"Definition of lift."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090203074439/http://www.lerc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/aerosim/Manual/fsim0020.htm">Archived</a> 2009-02-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>NASA.</i> Retrieved: May 6, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French 1970, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/physics.html">"Basic flight physics."</a> <i>Berkeley University.</i> Retrieved: May 6, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASAdrag-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NASAdrag_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/drag1.html">"What is Drag?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100524003905/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/drag1.html">Archived</a> 2010-05-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>NASA.</i> Retrieved: May 6, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/particle/cpe124p2.html">"Motions of particles through fluids."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120425070933/http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/particle/cpe124p2.html">Archived</a> 2012-04-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>lorien.ncl.ac.</i> Retrieved: May 6, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ldrat.html">https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ldrat.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/liftco.html">https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/liftco.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/dragco.html">https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/dragco.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ldrat.html">https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ldrat.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sutton-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sutton_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sutton and Biblarz 2000, p. 442. Quote: "thrust-to-weight ratio F/W<sub>0</sub> is a dimensionless parameter that is identical to the acceleration of the rocket propulsion system (expressed in multiples of g0) if it could fly by itself in a gravity free vacuum."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm">ch10-3 "History."</a> <i>NASA.</i> Retrieved: May 6, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Honicke et al. 1968 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2012)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/thermodynamics/notes/node98.html">"13.3 Aircraft Range: The Breguet Range Equation"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=13.3+Aircraft+Range%3A+The+Breguet+Range+Equation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2F16.unified%2Fwww%2FFALL%2Fthermodynamics%2Fnotes%2Fnode98.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <dl><dt>Bibliography</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Coulson-Thomas, Colin. <i>The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary.</i> Oxford, UK: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1976, First edition 1975, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861118-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861118-9">978-0-19-861118-9</a>.</li> <li>French, A. P. <i>Newtonian Mechanics</i> (The M.I.T. Introductory Physics Series) (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a> Inc., 1970.</li> <li>Honicke, K., R. Lindner, P. Anders, M. Krahl, H. Hadrich and K. Rohricht. <i>Beschreibung der Konstruktion der Triebwerksanlagen.</i> Berlin: Interflug, 1968.</li> <li>Sutton, George P. Oscar Biblarz. <i>Rocket Propulsion Elements.</i> New York: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Interscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiley-Interscience">Wiley-Interscience</a>, 2000 (7th edition). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-32642-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-32642-7">978-0-471-32642-7</a>.</li> <li>Walker, Peter. <i><a href="/wiki/Chambers_Dictionary" title="Chambers Dictionary">Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology</a>.</i> Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd., 2000, First edition 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-550-14110-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-550-14110-1">978-0-550-14110-1</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flight&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/flight" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:flight">flight</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/120px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Flights#Q206021" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Flights">Flights</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/20px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Flight#Q206021" class="extiw" title="voy:Flight">Flight</a> travel guide from Wikivoyage </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPettigrew1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pettigrew, James Bell (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Flight and Flying"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Flight_and_Flying">"Flight and Flying" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). pp. <span class="nowrap">502–</span>519.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Flight+and+Flying&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E502-%3C%2Fspan%3E519&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Pettigrew&rft.aufirst=James+Bell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlight" class="Z3988"></span> History and photographs of early aeroplanes etc.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/84">'Birds in Flight and Aeroplanes' by Evolutionary Biologist and trained Engineer John Maynard-Smith</a> Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q206021#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2193" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q206021#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2193" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q206021#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Flight"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/927291/">FAST</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4017529-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Flight"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85049108">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941326f">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941326f">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="飛行"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563193">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="létání"><a 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