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<span>Description</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Description-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Description subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Settlement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Settlement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Settlement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Settlement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_and_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_and_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Construction and growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction_and_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Features_of_the_ruins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Features_of_the_ruins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Features of the ruins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Features_of_the_ruins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_artefacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_artefacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Notable artefacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_artefacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_research_and_origins_of_the_ruins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_research_and_origins_of_the_ruins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History of research and origins of the ruins</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_research_and_origins_of_the_ruins-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History of research and origins of the ruins subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_research_and_origins_of_the_ruins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-From_Portuguese_traders_to_Karl_Mauch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_Portuguese_traders_to_Karl_Mauch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>From Portuguese traders to Karl Mauch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_Portuguese_traders_to_Karl_Mauch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karl_Mauch_and_the_Queen_of_Sheba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karl_Mauch_and_the_Queen_of_Sheba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Karl Mauch and the Queen of Sheba</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karl_Mauch_and_the_Queen_of_Sheba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carl_Peters_and_Theodore_Bent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carl_Peters_and_Theodore_Bent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Carl Peters and Theodore Bent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carl_Peters_and_Theodore_Bent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Lemba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Lemba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>The Lemba</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Lemba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-David_Randall-MacIver_and_medieval_origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_Randall-MacIver_and_medieval_origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>David Randall-MacIver and medieval origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_Randall-MacIver_and_medieval_origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gertrude_Caton_Thompson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gertrude_Caton_Thompson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Gertrude Caton Thompson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gertrude_Caton_Thompson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-1945_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-1945_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Post-1945 research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-1945_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gokomere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gokomere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Gokomere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gokomere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Recent research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Damage_to_the_ruins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Damage_to_the_ruins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Damage to the ruins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Damage_to_the_ruins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Political implications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Great_Zimbabwe_University" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Great_Zimbabwe_University"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The Great Zimbabwe University</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Great_Zimbabwe_University-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Zimbabwe</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">65 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groot-Zimbabwe" title="Groot-Zimbabwe – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Groot-Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85%D9%89" title="زيمبابوي العظمى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="زيمبابوي العظمى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Zimbabue" title="Gran Zimbabue – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gran Zimbabue" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6y%C3%BCk_Zimbabve" title="Böyük Zimbabve – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Böyük Zimbabve" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%A9%D0%B9%D3%A9%D0%BA_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="Бөйөк Зимбабве – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Бөйөк Зимбабве" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%97%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D1%8D" title="Вялікі Зімбабвэ – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вялікі Зімбабвэ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%97%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D1%8D" title="Вялікі Зымбабвэ – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вялікі Зымбабвэ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="Велико Зимбабве – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Велико Зимбабве" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Zimb%C3%A0bue" title="Gran Zimbàbue – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gran Zimbàbue" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velk%C3%A9_Zimbabwe" title="Velké Zimbabwe – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Velké Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masvingo_eZimbabwe" title="Masvingo eZimbabwe – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Masvingo eZimbabwe" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simbabwe_Fawr" title="Simbabwe Fawr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Simbabwe Fawr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Great Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gro%C3%9F-Simbabwe" title="Groß-Simbabwe – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Groß-Simbabwe" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suur_Zimbabwe" title="Suur Zimbabwe – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Suur Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%B3%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B7_%CE%96%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%AC%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B5" title="Μεγάλη Ζιμπάμπουε – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεγάλη Ζιμπάμπουε" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Zimbabue" title="Gran Zimbabue – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gran Zimbabue" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granda_Zimbabvo" title="Granda Zimbabvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Granda Zimbabvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe_Handia" title="Zimbabwe Handia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zimbabwe Handia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%87_%D8%A8%D8%B2%D8%B1%DA%AF" title="زیمبابوه بزرگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زیمبابوه بزرگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Zimbabwe" title="Grand Zimbabwe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grand Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSiomb%C3%A1ib_Mh%C3%B3r" title="An tSiombáib Mhór – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSiombáib Mhór" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Cimbabue" title="Gran Cimbabue – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gran Cimbabue" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%B8%EB%A0%88%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8_%EC%A7%90%EB%B0%94%EB%B8%8C%EC%9B%A8" title="그레이트 짐바브웨 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="그레이트 짐바브웨" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%AE_%D4%B6%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%BE%D5%A5" title="Մեծ Զիմբաբվե – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մեծ Զիմբաբվե" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veliki_Zimbabve" title="Veliki Zimbabve – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Veliki Zimbabve" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe_Raya" title="Zimbabwe Raya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zimbabwe Raya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_Zimbabwe" title="Grande Zimbabwe – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Grande Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%91%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%94" title="זימבבואה הגדולה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זימבבואה הגדולה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98_%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%95%E1%83%94" title="დიდი ზიმბაბვე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დიდი ზიმბაბვე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="Үлкен Зимбаве – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Үлкен Зимбаве" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe_Kuu" title="Zimbabwe Kuu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Zimbabwe Kuu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Zimbabua" title="Magna Zimbabua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Magna Zimbabua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Did%C5%BEioji_Zimbabv%C4%97" title="Didžioji Zimbabvė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Didžioji Zimbabvė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagy-Zimbabwe_nemzeti_m%C5%B1eml%C3%A9k" title="Nagy-Zimbabwe nemzeti műemlék – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nagy-Zimbabwe nemzeti műemlék" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87" title="ग्रेट जिम्बाब्वे – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="ग्रेट जिम्बाब्वे" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehibe_Zimbaboe" title="Lehibe Zimbaboe – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Lehibe Zimbaboe" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85%D9%89" title="زيمبابوى العظمى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="زيمبابوى العظمى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe_Raya" title="Zimbabwe Raya – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zimbabwe Raya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%87%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%98%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B1%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B7%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ဂရိတ်ဇင်ဘာဘွေမြို့ဟောင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂရိတ်ဇင်ဘာဘွေမြို့ဟောင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groot-Zimbabwe" title="Groot-Zimbabwe – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Groot-Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87" title="ग्रेट जिम्बाब्वे – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ग्रेट जिम्बाब्वे" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B0%E3%83%AC%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B8%E3%83%B3%E3%83%90%E3%83%96%E3%82%A8%E9%81%BA%E8%B7%A1" title="グレート・ジンバブエ遺跡 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="グレート・ジンバブエ遺跡" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store_Zimbabwe" title="Store Zimbabwe – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Store Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store_Zimbabwe" title="Store Zimbabwe – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Store Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Zimbabwe" title="Gran Zimbabwe – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Gran Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wielkie_Zimbabwe" title="Wielkie Zimbabwe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wielkie Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_Zimb%C3%A1bue" title="Grande Zimbábue – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Grande Zimbábue" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Great Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="Большой Зимбабве – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Большой Зимбабве" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Great Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="Велики Зимбабве – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Велики Зимбабве" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veliki_Zimbabve" title="Veliki Zimbabve – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Veliki Zimbabve" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suur-Zimbabwe" title="Suur-Zimbabwe – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Suur-Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stora_Zimbabwe" title="Stora Zimbabwe – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Stora Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%9C%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87" title="பெரிய ஜிம்பாப்வே – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெரிய ஜிம்பாப்வே" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D1%83%D1%80_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="Зур Зимбабве – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Зур Зимбабве" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Zimbabve" title="Büyük Zimbabve – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Büyük Zimbabve" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%97%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="Велике Зімбабве – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Велике Зімбабве" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Zimbabwe" title="Đại Zimbabwe – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đại Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Great Zimbabwe" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%A5%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E9%9F%A6" title="大津巴布韦 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="大津巴布韦" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%A5%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E9%9F%8B" title="大津巴布韋 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="大津巴布韋" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%A5%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E9%9F%A6" title="大津巴布韦 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="大津巴布韦" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q209217#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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location"><span class="latitude">20°16′S</span> <span class="longitude">30°56′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">20.267°S 30.933°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-20.267; 30.933</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ruins of a medieval city in southeast Zimbabwe</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Great Zimbabwe</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Conical_Tower_-_Great_Enclosure_III_(33736918448).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Conical_Tower_-_Great_Enclosure_III_%2833736918448%29.jpg/220px-Conical_Tower_-_Great_Enclosure_III_%2833736918448%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Conical_Tower_-_Great_Enclosure_III_%2833736918448%29.jpg/330px-Conical_Tower_-_Great_Enclosure_III_%2833736918448%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Conical_Tower_-_Great_Enclosure_III_%2833736918448%29.jpg/440px-Conical_Tower_-_Great_Enclosure_III_%2833736918448%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Tower in the Great Enclosure, Great Zimbabwe</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="switcher-container"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zimbabwe_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Great Zimbabwe is located in Zimbabwe"><img alt="Great Zimbabwe is located in Zimbabwe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Zimbabwe_adm_location_map.svg/250px-Zimbabwe_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Zimbabwe_adm_location_map.svg/375px-Zimbabwe_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Zimbabwe_adm_location_map.svg/500px-Zimbabwe_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="832" data-file-height="754" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:66.671%;left:69.693%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Great Zimbabwe"><img alt="Great Zimbabwe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Shown within Zimbabwe</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zimbabwe</span></div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Great Zimbabwe is located in Africa"><img alt="Great Zimbabwe is located in Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Africa_location_map.svg/250px-Africa_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Africa_location_map.svg/375px-Africa_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Africa_location_map.svg/500px-Africa_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1525" data-file-height="1440" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:77.927%;left:67.627%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Great Zimbabwe"><img alt="Great Zimbabwe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Great Zimbabwe (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Masvingo_Province" title="Masvingo Province">Masvingo Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Great_Zimbabwe&params=20_16_S_30_56_E_type:landmark"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">20°16′S</span> <span class="longitude">30°56′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">20.267°S 30.933°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-20.267; 30.933</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data category">Settlement</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Zimbabwe" title="Kingdom of Zimbabwe">Kingdom of Zimbabwe</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area</th><td class="infobox-data">7.22 km<sup>2</sup> (2.79 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Material</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">Granite</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Founded</th><td class="infobox-data">11th century CE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Abandoned</th><td class="infobox-data">15th century CE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Periods</th><td class="infobox-data">Late <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cultures</th><td class="infobox-data">Kingdom of Zimbabwe</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151960987">body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox table{display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox caption{display:table-caption}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><div style="border:4px solid #0177D3; line-height: 1.5; text-align: center;"> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a></div></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.3em;">Official name</th><td class="infobox-data">Great Zimbabwe National Monument</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.3em;"><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site#Selection_criteria" title="World Heritage Site">Criteria</a></th><td class="infobox-data category">Cultural: i, iii, vi</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.3em;">Reference</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/364">364</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.3em;">Inscription</th><td class="infobox-data">1986 (10th <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Committee" title="World Heritage Committee">Session</a>)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Great Zimbabwe</b> is a medieval city in the south-eastern hills of the modern country of <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Lake_Mutirikwe" title="Lake Mutirikwe">Lake Mutirikwe</a> and the town of <a href="/wiki/Masvingo" title="Masvingo">Masvingo</a>. It was the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Zimbabwe" title="Kingdom of Zimbabwe">Kingdom of Zimbabwe</a> from the 13th century, having been settled in the 4th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Construction on the city began in the 11th century and continued until it was abandoned in the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Pikirayi2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pikirayi2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-current_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-current-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MMA_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MMA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The edifices were erected by ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Shona_people" title="Shona people">Shona people</a>, currently located in Zimbabwe and nearby countries.<sup id="cite_ref-livescience.com_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livescience.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stone city spans an area of 7.22 square kilometres (2.79 sq mi) and could have housed up to 18,000 people at its peak, giving it a population density of approximately 2,500 inhabitants per square kilometre (6,500/sq mi). It is recognised as a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>. </p><p>Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as a royal <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palace</a> for the local monarch. As such, it would have been used as the seat of political power. Among the edifice's most prominent features were its walls, some of which are 11 metres (36 ft) high.<sup id="cite_ref-livescience.com_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livescience.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were constructed of "<a href="/wiki/Dry_stone" title="Dry stone">dry stone</a>" (that is, without <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a>). Eventually, the city was abandoned and fell into ruin. </p><p>The earliest document mentioning the Great Zimbabwe ruins was in 1531 by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vicente_Pegado&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vicente Pegado (page does not exist)">Vicente Pegado</a>, captain of the Portuguese garrison of <a href="/wiki/Sofala" title="Sofala">Sofala</a> on the coast of modern-day Mozambique, who recorded it as <i>Symbaoe</i>. The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some later studies of the monument were controversial, as the <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">white</a> government of <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a> pressured archeologists to deny its construction by black Africans.<sup id="cite_ref-Frederikse_1990_10–11_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frederikse_1990_10–11-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Great Zimbabwe has since been adopted as a <a href="/wiki/National_monument" title="National monument">national monument</a> by the Zimbabwean government, and the modern independent state was named after it. </p><p>The word <i>great</i> distinguishes the site from the many smaller ruins, now known as "zimbabwes", spread across the Zimbabwe <a href="/wiki/Highveld" title="Highveld">Highveld</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sibanda_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sibanda-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are 200 such sites in southern Africa, such as <a href="/wiki/Bumbusi_National_Monument" title="Bumbusi National Monument">Bumbusi</a> in Zimbabwe and <a href="/wiki/Manyikeni" title="Manyikeni">Manyikeni</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, with monumental, mortarless walls.<sup id="cite_ref-antiquity_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antiquity-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Name of Zimbabwe">Name of Zimbabwe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conical_tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Conical_tower.jpg/220px-Conical_tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Conical_tower.jpg/330px-Conical_tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Conical_tower.jpg/440px-Conical_tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>The conical tower inside the Great Enclosure at Great Zimbabwe</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Zimbabwe</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Shona_language" title="Shona language">Shona</a> name of the ruins, first recorded in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala. Pegado noted that "The natives of the country call these edifices <i>Symbaoe</i>, which according to their language signifies 'court<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-Newitt_2002_39_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newitt_2002_39-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name contains <span title="Shona-language romanization"><i lang="sn-Latn">dzimba</i></span>, the Shona term for "houses". There are two theories for the etymology of the name. The first proposes that the word is derived from <span title="Shona-language romanization"><i lang="sn-Latn">Dzimba-dze-mabwe</i></span>, translated from Shona as "large houses of stone" (<span title="Shona-language romanization"><i lang="sn-Latn">dzimba</i></span> = plural of <span title="Shona-language romanization"><i lang="sn-Latn">imba</i></span>, "house"; <span title="Shona-language romanization"><i lang="sn-Latn">mabwe</i></span> = plural of <span title="Shona-language romanization"><i lang="sn-Latn">bwe</i></span>, "stone").<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second suggests that Zimbabwe is a contracted form of <span title="Shona-language romanization"><i lang="sn-Latn">dzimba-hwe</i></span>, which means "venerated houses" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona, as usually applied to the houses or graves of chiefs.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great-Zimbabwe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Great-Zimbabwe.jpg/220px-Great-Zimbabwe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Great-Zimbabwe.jpg/330px-Great-Zimbabwe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Great-Zimbabwe.jpg/440px-Great-Zimbabwe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1414" /></a><figcaption>Overview of Great Zimbabwe. The large walled construction is the Great <a href="/wiki/Enclosure_(archaeology)" title="Enclosure (archaeology)">Enclosure</a>. Some remains of the valley complex can be seen in front of it.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:140_of_%27The_Ruined_Cities_of_Mashonaland-_being_a_record_of_excavation_and_exploration_in_1891_..._With_a_chapter_on_the_orientation_and_mensuration_of_the_temples_by_R._M._W._Swan._(With_plates.)%27_(11217936264).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/140_of_%27The_Ruined_Cities_of_Mashonaland-_being_a_record_of_excavation_and_exploration_in_1891_..._With_a_chapter_on_the_orientation_and_mensuration_of_the_temples_by_R._M._W._Swan._%28With_plates.%29%27_%2811217936264%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/140_of_%27The_Ruined_Cities_of_Mashonaland-_being_a_record_of_excavation_and_exploration_in_1891_..._With_a_chapter_on_the_orientation_and_mensuration_of_the_temples_by_R._M._W._Swan._%28With_plates.%29%27_%2811217936264%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/140_of_%27The_Ruined_Cities_of_Mashonaland-_being_a_record_of_excavation_and_exploration_in_1891_..._With_a_chapter_on_the_orientation_and_mensuration_of_the_temples_by_R._M._W._Swan._%28With_plates.%29%27_%2811217936264%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2432" data-file-height="1416" /></a><figcaption>Plan of the complex</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Settlement">Settlement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of scholars believe that it was built by members of the <a href="/wiki/Gokomere" title="Gokomere">Gokomere</a> culture, who were the ancestors of the modern Shona in Zimbabwe.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the 4th century AD. Between the 4th and the 7th centuries, communities of the <a href="/wiki/Gokomere" title="Gokomere">Gokomere</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ziwa" title="Ziwa">Ziwa</a> cultures farmed the valley, and mined and worked iron, but built no stone structures.<sup id="cite_ref-antiquity_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antiquity-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are the earliest <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> settlements in the area identified from archaeological diggings.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction_and_growth">Construction and growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Construction and growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Construction of the stone buildings started in the 11th century and continued for over 300 years.<sup id="cite_ref-MMA_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MMA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures located in Southern Africa, and are the second oldest after nearby <a href="/wiki/Mapungubwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapungubwe">Mapungubwe</a> in South Africa. Its most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has walls as high as 11 m (36 ft) extending approximately 250 m (820 ft). David Beach believes that the city and its proposed state, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Zimbabwe" title="Kingdom of Zimbabwe">Kingdom of Zimbabwe</a>, flourished from 1200 to 1500,<sup id="cite_ref-current_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-current-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 16th century to <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Barros" title="João de Barros">João de Barros</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Barros_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barros-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">climatic change</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe.<sup id="cite_ref-Zambezia_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zambezia-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great-zim-aerial-looking-West.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Great-zim-aerial-looking-West.JPG/220px-Great-zim-aerial-looking-West.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Great-zim-aerial-looking-West.JPG/330px-Great-zim-aerial-looking-West.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Great-zim-aerial-looking-West.JPG/440px-Great-zim-aerial-looking-West.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4672" data-file-height="3104" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of Great Enclosure and Valley Complex, looking west</figcaption></figure> <p>Traditional estimates are that Great Zimbabwe had as many as 18,000 inhabitants at its peak.<sup id="cite_ref-contested_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-contested-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a more recent survey concluded that the population likely never exceeded 10,000.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ruins that survive are built entirely of stone; they span 730 ha (1,800 acres). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Features_of_the_ruins">Features of the ruins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Features of the ruins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1531, Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese Garrison of <a href="/wiki/Sofala" title="Sofala">Sofala</a>, described Zimbabwe thus:<sup id="cite_ref-Newitt_2002_39_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newitt_2002_39-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Among the gold mines of the inland plains between the <a href="/wiki/Limpopo_River" title="Limpopo River">Limpopo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zambezi" title="Zambezi">Zambezi</a> rivers there is a fortress built of stones of marvelous size, and there appears to be no mortar joining them ... This edifice is almost surrounded by hills, upon which are others resembling it in the fashioning of stone and the absence of mortar, and one of them is a tower more than 12 <a href="/wiki/Fathom" title="Fathom">fathoms</a> [22 m] high. The natives of the country call these edifices Symbaoe, which according to their language signifies court. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Vicente Pegado</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastern-enclosure-great-zimbabwe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Eastern-enclosure-great-zimbabwe.jpg/220px-Eastern-enclosure-great-zimbabwe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Eastern-enclosure-great-zimbabwe.jpg/330px-Eastern-enclosure-great-zimbabwe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Eastern-enclosure-great-zimbabwe.jpg/440px-Eastern-enclosure-great-zimbabwe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>View west from the Eastern Enclosure of the Hill Complex, showing the <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a> boulder that resembles the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Bird" title="Zimbabwe Bird">Zimbabwe Bird</a> and the balcony.</figcaption></figure> <p>The ruins form three distinct architectural groups. They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and the Great Enclosure. The Hill Complex is the oldest, and was occupied from the 11th to 13th centuries. The Great Enclosure was occupied from the 13th to 15th centuries, and the Valley Complex from the 14th to 16th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-antiquity_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antiquity-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable features of the <i>Hill Complex</i> include the Eastern Enclosure, in which it is thought the <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Bird" title="Zimbabwe Bird">Zimbabwe Birds</a> stood, a high balcony enclosure overlooking the Eastern Enclosure, and a huge boulder in a shape similar to that of the Zimbabwe Bird.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Great Enclosure</i> is composed of an inner wall, encircling a series of structures and a younger outer wall. The Conical Tower, 5.5 m (18 ft) in diameter and 9 m (30 ft) high, was constructed between the two walls.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Valley Complex</i> is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-antiquity_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antiquity-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great-zim-aerial-looking-SE.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Great-zim-aerial-looking-SE.JPG/220px-Great-zim-aerial-looking-SE.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Great-zim-aerial-looking-SE.JPG/330px-Great-zim-aerial-looking-SE.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Great-zim-aerial-looking-SE.JPG/440px-Great-zim-aerial-looking-SE.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4672" data-file-height="3104" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view looking southeast, Hill Complex in foreground</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ASC_Leiden_-_Rietveld_Collection_-_East_Africa_1975_-_05_-_037_-_Detail_of_a_Great_Zimbabwe_wall_with_lichen_-_Masvingo,_Zimbabwe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/ASC_Leiden_-_Rietveld_Collection_-_East_Africa_1975_-_05_-_037_-_Detail_of_a_Great_Zimbabwe_wall_with_lichen_-_Masvingo%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg/220px-ASC_Leiden_-_Rietveld_Collection_-_East_Africa_1975_-_05_-_037_-_Detail_of_a_Great_Zimbabwe_wall_with_lichen_-_Masvingo%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/ASC_Leiden_-_Rietveld_Collection_-_East_Africa_1975_-_05_-_037_-_Detail_of_a_Great_Zimbabwe_wall_with_lichen_-_Masvingo%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg/330px-ASC_Leiden_-_Rietveld_Collection_-_East_Africa_1975_-_05_-_037_-_Detail_of_a_Great_Zimbabwe_wall_with_lichen_-_Masvingo%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/ASC_Leiden_-_Rietveld_Collection_-_East_Africa_1975_-_05_-_037_-_Detail_of_a_Great_Zimbabwe_wall_with_lichen_-_Masvingo%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg/440px-ASC_Leiden_-_Rietveld_Collection_-_East_Africa_1975_-_05_-_037_-_Detail_of_a_Great_Zimbabwe_wall_with_lichen_-_Masvingo%2C_Zimbabwe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6550" data-file-height="4280" /></a><figcaption>Detail of the wall with lichen, 1975.</figcaption></figure> <p>There are different archaeological interpretations of these groupings. It has been suggested that the complexes represent the work of successive kings: some of the new rulers founded a new residence.<sup id="cite_ref-current_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-current-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The focus of power moved from the Hill Complex in the 12th century, to the Great Enclosure, the Upper Valley and finally the Lower Valley in the early 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-antiquity_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antiquity-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alternative "structuralist" interpretation holds that the different complexes had different functions: the Hill Complex as an area for <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">rituals</a>, perhaps related to rain making, the Valley complex was for the citizens, and the Great Enclosure was used by the king. Structures that were more elaborate were probably built for the kings, although it has been argued that the dating of finds in the complexes does not support this interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Dhaka pits</i> were <a href="/wiki/Depression_(geology)" title="Depression (geology)">closed depressions</a> utilized by inhabitants of Great Zimbabwe as sources of water management in the form of <a href="/wiki/Reservoirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoirs">reservoirs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">wells</a> and springs. Dhaka pits may have been in use since the mid-2nd millennium CE and the system could hold more than 18,000 m<sup>3</sup> of water storage.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_artefacts">Notable artefacts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notable artefacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zim-bird.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Zim-bird.jpg/220px-Zim-bird.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="403" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Zim-bird.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="538" /></a><figcaption>Copy of Zimbabwe Bird soapstone sculpture</figcaption></figure> <p>The most important artefacts recovered from the Monument are the eight <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Bird" title="Zimbabwe Bird">Zimbabwe Birds</a>. These were carved from a micaceous <a href="/wiki/Schist" title="Schist">schist</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soapstone" title="Soapstone">soapstone</a>) on the tops of <a href="/wiki/Monolith" title="Monolith">monoliths</a> the height of a person.<sup id="cite_ref-Garlake_2002_158_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garlake_2002_158-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slots in a platform in the Eastern Enclosure of the Hill Complex appear designed to hold the monoliths with the Zimbabwe birds, but as they were not found in situ, the original location of each monolith and bird within the enclosure cannot be determined .<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other artefacts include soapstone figurines (one of which is in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), pottery, iron gongs, elaborately worked <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>, iron and copper wire, iron hoes, bronze spearheads, copper ingots and crucibles, and gold beads, bracelets, pendants and sheaths.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glass beads and porcelain from China and Persia<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> among other foreign artefacts were also found, attesting the international trade linkages of the Kingdom. In the extensive stone ruins of the great city, which still remain today, include eight, monolithic birds carved in soapstone. It is thought that they represent the <a href="/wiki/Bateleur" title="Bateleur">bateleur eagle</a> – a good omen, protective spirit and messenger of the gods in Shona culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Nelson_2019_10_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson_2019_10-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade">Trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a centre for trading, with artefacts<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggesting that the city formed part of a trade network linked to <a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Kisiwani" title="Kilwa Kisiwani">Kilwa</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and extending as far as <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. Copper coins found at <a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Kisiwani" title="Kilwa Kisiwani">Kilwa Kisiwani</a> appear to be of the same pure ore found on the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_coast" title="Swahili coast">Swahili coast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sutton_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sutton-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This international trade was mainly in gold and <a href="/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">ivory</a>. That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important.<sup id="cite_ref-Zambezia_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zambezia-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large cattle herd that supplied the city moved seasonally and was managed by the court.<sup id="cite_ref-Garlake_2002_158_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garlake_2002_158-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese pottery shards, coins from Arabia, glass beads and other non-local items have been excavated at Zimbabwe. Despite these strong international trade links, there is no evidence to suggest exchange of architectural concepts between Great Zimbabwe and centres such as Kilwa.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The causes for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the site around 1450 have been suggested as due to a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change.<sup id="cite_ref-Zambezia_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zambezia-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-environment_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-environment-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mutapa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutapa">Mutapa</a> state arose in the 15th century from the northward expansion of the Great Zimbabwe tradition,<sup id="cite_ref-Pwiti2004_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pwiti2004-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> having been founded by <a href="/wiki/Nyatsimba_Mutota" title="Nyatsimba Mutota">Nyatsimba Mutota</a> from Great Zimbabwe after he was sent to find new sources of salt in the north;<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (this supports the belief that Great Zimbabwe's decline was due to a shortage of resources). Great Zimbabwe also predates the <a href="/wiki/Khami" title="Khami">Khami</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nyanga,_Zimbabwe" title="Nyanga, Zimbabwe">Nyanga</a> cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_research_and_origins_of_the_ruins">History of research and origins of the ruins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History of research and origins of the ruins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cefala_Manich_Simbaoe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Cefala_Manich_Simbaoe.png/220px-Cefala_Manich_Simbaoe.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Cefala_Manich_Simbaoe.png/330px-Cefala_Manich_Simbaoe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Cefala_Manich_Simbaoe.png/440px-Cefala_Manich_Simbaoe.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>Great Zimbabwe appears on <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius" title="Abraham Ortelius">Abraham Ortelius</a>' 1570 map <i><a href="/wiki/Africae_Tabula_Nova" title="Africae Tabula Nova">Africae Tabula Nova</a></i>, rendered "Simbaoe".</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_Portuguese_traders_to_Karl_Mauch">From Portuguese traders to Karl Mauch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: From Portuguese traders to Karl Mauch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first European visit may have been made by the Portuguese traveler António Fernandes in 1513–1515, who crossed twice and reported in detail the region of present-day Zimbabwe (including the Shona kingdoms) and also fortified centers in stone without mortar. However, passing en route a few kilometres north and about 56 km (35 mi) south of the site, he did not make a reference to Great Zimbabwe.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Portuguese traders heard about the remains of the medieval city in the early 16th century, and records survive of interviews and notes made by some of them, linking Great Zimbabwe to gold production and long-distance trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaarsholm-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two of those accounts mention an inscription above the entrance to Great Zimbabwe, written in characters not known to the Arab merchants who had seen it.<sup id="cite_ref-Barros_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barros-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1506, the explorer Diogo de Alcáçova described the edifices in a letter to <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal" title="Manuel I of Portugal">Manuel I of Portugal</a>, writing that they were part of the larger kingdom of Ucalanga (presumably Karanga, a dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Shona_people" title="Shona people">Shona people</a> spoken mainly in Masvingo and Midlands provinces of Zimbabwe).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Barros" title="João de Barros">João de Barros</a> left another such description of Great Zimbabwe in 1538, as recounted to him by <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moorish</a> traders who had visited the area and possessed knowledge of the hinterland. He indicates that the edifices were locally known as <i>Symbaoe</i>, which meant "royal court" in the vernacular.<sup id="cite_ref-Pikirayi_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pikirayi-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As to the actual identity of the builders of Great Zimbabwe, de Barros writes:<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When and by whom, these edifices were raised, as the people of the land are ignorant of the art of writing, there is no record, but they say they are the work of the devil,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for in comparison with their power and knowledge it does not seem possible to them that they should be the work of man. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>João de Barros</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Additionally, with regard to the purpose of the Great Zimbabwe ruins, de Barros asserted that: "in the opinion of the Moors who saw it [Great Zimbabwe] it is very ancient and was built to keep possessions of the mines, which are very old, and no gold has been extracted from them for years, because of the wars ... it would seem that some prince who has possession of these mines ordered it to be built as a sign thereof, which he afterwards lost in the course of time and through their being so remote from his kingdom".<sup id="cite_ref-Pikirayi_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pikirayi-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>De Barros further remarked that <i>Symbaoe</i> "is guarded by a nobleman, who has charge of it, after the manner of a chief alcaide, and they call this officer Symbacayo ... and there are always some of Benomotapa's wives therein of whom Symbacayo takes care." Thus, Great Zimbabwe appears to have still been inhabited as recently as the early 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Pikirayi_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pikirayi-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Karl_Mauch_and_the_Queen_of_Sheba">Karl Mauch and the Queen of Sheba</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Karl Mauch and the Queen of Sheba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The ruins were rediscovered during a hunting trip in 1867 by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Render" title="Adam Render">Adam Render</a>, a German-American hunter, prospector and trader in southern Africa,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who in 1871 showed the ruins to <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mauch" title="Karl Mauch">Karl Mauch</a>, a German explorer and geographer of Africa. Karl Mauch recorded the ruins 3 September 1871, and immediately speculated about a possible Biblical association with King <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Sheba" title="Queen of Sheba">Queen of Sheba</a>, an explanation which had been suggested by earlier writers such as the Portuguese João dos Santos. Mauch went so far as to favour a legend that the structures were built to replicate the palace of the Queen of Sheba in Jerusalem,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and claimed a wooden lintel at the site must be <a href="/wiki/Cedrus_libani" title="Cedrus libani">Lebanese cedar</a>, brought by <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sheba legend, as promoted by Mauch, became so pervasive in the white settler community as to cause the later scholar <a href="/wiki/James_Theodore_Bent" title="James Theodore Bent">James Theodore Bent</a> to say, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The names of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba were on everybody's lips, and have become so distasteful to us that we never expect to hear them again without an involuntary shudder.<sup id="cite_ref-Tyson_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyson-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carl_Peters_and_Theodore_Bent">Carl Peters and Theodore Bent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Carl Peters and Theodore Bent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alloes-valley-great-zimbabwe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alloes-valley-great-zimbabwe.jpg/220px-Alloes-valley-great-zimbabwe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alloes-valley-great-zimbabwe.jpg/330px-Alloes-valley-great-zimbabwe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alloes-valley-great-zimbabwe.jpg/440px-Alloes-valley-great-zimbabwe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>The Valley Complex</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Carl_Peters" title="Carl Peters">Carl Peters</a> collected a ceramic <a href="/wiki/Ushabti" title="Ushabti">ushabti</a> in 1905. <a href="/wiki/Flinders_Petrie" title="Flinders Petrie">Flinders Petrie</a> examined it and identified a <a href="/wiki/Cartouche" title="Cartouche">cartouche</a> on its chest as belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt">18th Dynasty</a> Egyptian Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> and suggested that it was a statuette of the king and cited it as proof of commercial ties between rulers in the area and the ancient Egyptians during the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> (c. 1550–1077 BC), if not a relic of an old Egyptian station near the local gold mines.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Johann Heinrich Schäfer later appraised the statuette, and argued that it belonged to a well-known group of forgeries. After having received the ushabti, <a href="/wiki/Felix_von_Luschan" title="Felix von Luschan">Felix von Luschan</a> suggested that it was of more recent origin than the New Kingdom. He asserted that the figurine instead appeared to date to the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a> era (c. 323–30 BC), when <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>-based Greek merchants would export Egyptian antiquities and pseudo-antiquities to southern Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/James_Theodore_Bent" title="James Theodore Bent">J. Theodore Bent</a> undertook a season at Zimbabwe with <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes" title="Cecil Rhodes">Cecil Rhodes</a>'s patronage and funding from the Royal Geographical Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science. This, and other excavations undertaken for Rhodes, resulted in a book publication that introduced the ruins to English readers. Bent had no formal archaeological training, but had travelled very widely in <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. He was aided by the expert cartographer and surveyor <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aim25.com/cgi-bin/vcdf/detail?coll_id=6569&inst_id=10">Robert M. W. Swan</a> (1858–1904), who also visited and surveyed a host of related stone ruins nearby. Bent stated in the first edition of his book <i>The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland</i> (1892) that the ruins revealed either the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> as builders, and he favoured the possibility of great antiquity for the fortress. By the third edition of his book (1902) he was more specific, with his primary theory being "a Semitic race and of Arabian origin" of "strongly commercial" traders living within a client African city. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exterior_of_great_enclosure,G.Zimbabwe.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Exterior_of_great_enclosure%2CG.Zimbabwe.JPG/220px-Exterior_of_great_enclosure%2CG.Zimbabwe.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Exterior_of_great_enclosure%2CG.Zimbabwe.JPG/330px-Exterior_of_great_enclosure%2CG.Zimbabwe.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Exterior_of_great_enclosure%2CG.Zimbabwe.JPG/440px-Exterior_of_great_enclosure%2CG.Zimbabwe.JPG 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption>Exterior wall of the Great Enclosure. Picture taken by David Randall-MacIver in 1906.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Lemba">The Lemba</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Lemba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The construction of Great Zimbabwe is also claimed by the <a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a>, as documented by William Bolts in 1777 (to the Austrian Habsburg authorities), and by an A.A. Anderson (writing about his travels north of the <a href="/wiki/Limpopo_River" title="Limpopo River">Limpopo River</a> in the 19th century).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Lemba speak the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> spoken by their geographic neighbours and resemble them physically, but they have some religious practices and beliefs similar to those in <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, which they claim were transmitted by oral tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-VanWarmelo_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanWarmelo-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="David_Randall-MacIver_and_medieval_origin">David Randall-MacIver and medieval origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: David Randall-MacIver and medieval origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first scientific <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">archaeological excavations</a> at the site were undertaken by <a href="/wiki/David_Randall-MacIver" title="David Randall-MacIver">David Randall-MacIver</a> for the British Association in 1905–1906. In <i>Medieval Rhodesia</i>, he rejected the claims made by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Render" title="Adam Render">Adam Render</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Peters" title="Carl Peters">Carl Peters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mauch" title="Karl Mauch">Karl Mauch</a>, and instead wrote of the existence in the site of objects that were of Bantu origin. Randall-MacIver concluded that all available evidence led him to believe that the Zimbabwe structures were constructed by the ancestors of the Shona people.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More importantly he suggested a wholly medieval date for the walled fortifications and temple. This claim was not immediately accepted, partly due to the relatively short and undermanned period of excavation he was able to undertake. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gertrude_Caton_Thompson">Gertrude Caton Thompson</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Gertrude Caton Thompson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Zimbabwe_Ruins2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Great_Zimbabwe_Ruins2.jpg/220px-Great_Zimbabwe_Ruins2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Great_Zimbabwe_Ruins2.jpg/330px-Great_Zimbabwe_Ruins2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Great_Zimbabwe_Ruins2.jpg/440px-Great_Zimbabwe_Ruins2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>The Hill Complex</figcaption></figure><p> In mid-1929 <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Caton_Thompson" title="Gertrude Caton Thompson">Gertrude Caton Thompson</a> concluded, after a twelve-day visit of a three-person team and the digging of several trenches, that the site was indeed created by Bantu. She had first sunk three test pits into what had been refuse heaps on the upper terraces of the hill complex, producing a mix of unremarkable pottery and ironwork. She then moved to the Conical Tower and tried to dig under the tower, arguing that the ground there would be undisturbed, but nothing was revealed. Some further test trenches were then put down outside the lower Great Enclosure and in the Valley Ruins, which unearthed domestic ironwork, glass beads, and a gold bracelet. Caton Thompson immediately announced her Bantu origin theory to a meeting of the British Association in Johannesburg.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Examination of all the existing evidence, gathered from every quarter, still can produce not one single item that is not in accordance with the claim of Bantu origin and medieval date<sup id="cite_ref-Tyson_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyson-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Caton Thompson's claim was not immediately favoured, although it had strong support among some scientific archaeologists due to her modern methods. Her most important contribution was in helping to confirm the theory of a medieval origin for the masonry work of the 14th and 15th centuries. By 1931, she had modified her Bantu theory somewhat, allowing for a possible Arabian influence for the towers through the imitation of buildings or art seen at coastal Arabian trading cities. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-1945_research">Post-1945 research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Post-1945 research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the 1950s, there has been consensus among archaeologists as to the African origins of Great Zimbabwe.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artefacts and <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> indicate settlement in at least the 5th century, with continuous settlement of Great Zimbabwe between the 12th and 15th centuries<sup id="cite_ref-Garlake-dates_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garlake-dates-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the bulk of the finds from the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-SAAB_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SAAB-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The radiocarbon evidence is a suite of 28 measurements, for which all but the first four, from the early days of the use of that method and now viewed as inaccurate, support the 12th-to-15th-centuries chronology.<sup id="cite_ref-Garlake-dates_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garlake-dates-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huffman2009_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huffman2009-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970s, a beam that produced some of the anomalous dates in 1952 was reanalysed and gave a 14th-century date.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dated finds such as Chinese, Persian and Syrian artefacts also support the 12th- and 15th-century dates.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gokomere">Gokomere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Gokomere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Archaeologists generally agree that the builders probably spoke one of the <a href="/wiki/Shona_language" title="Shona language">Shona languages</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based upon evidence of pottery,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> oral traditions<sup id="cite_ref-SAAB_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SAAB-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and anthropology<sup id="cite_ref-current_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-current-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and recent scholarship supports the construction of Great Zimbabwe (and the origin of its culture) by Shona and Venda peoples,<sup id="cite_ref-Ndoro,_W_19972_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ndoro,_W_19972-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Beach,_D._N._19942_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beach,_D._N._19942-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huffman20092_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huffman20092-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nelson_2019_102_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson_2019_102-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who were probably descended from the <a href="/wiki/Gokomere" title="Gokomere">Gokomere</a> culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Huffman2009_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huffman2009-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Gokomere culture, an eastern Bantu subgroup, existed in the area from around 200 AD and flourished from 500 AD to about 800 AD. Archaeological evidence indicates that it constitutes an early phase of the Great Zimbabwe culture.<sup id="cite_ref-antiquity_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antiquity-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SAAB_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SAAB-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chikuhwa2013_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chikuhwa2013-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Gokomere culture likely gave rise to both the modern <a href="/wiki/Shona_people" title="Shona people">Mashona</a> people,<sup id="cite_ref-Copson2006_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copson2006-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an ethnic cluster comprising distinct sub-ethnic groups such as the local Karanga clan<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Rozwi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rozwi">Rozwi</a> culture, which originated as several <a href="/wiki/Shona_people" title="Shona people">Shona</a> states.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gokomere peoples were probably also related to certain nearby early Bantu groups like the <a href="/wiki/Mapungubwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapungubwe">Mapungubwe</a> civilisation of neighbouring North eastern South Africa, which is believed to have been an early Venda-speaking culture, and to the nearby Sotho. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_research">Recent research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Recent research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_zimbabwe_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Great_zimbabwe_2.jpg/220px-Great_zimbabwe_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Great_zimbabwe_2.jpg/330px-Great_zimbabwe_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Great_zimbabwe_2.jpg/440px-Great_zimbabwe_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Passageway in the Great Enclosure</figcaption></figure> <p>More recent archaeological work has been carried out by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Garlake" title="Peter Garlake">Peter Garlake</a>, who has produced the comprehensive descriptions of the site,<sup id="cite_ref-Garlake_2002_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garlake_2002-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/David_Beach_(historian)" title="David Beach (historian)">David Beach</a><sup id="cite_ref-current_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-current-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huffman" title="Thomas Huffman">Thomas Huffman</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-SAAB_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SAAB-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who have worked on the chronology and development of Great Zimbabwe and <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Pwiti" title="Gilbert Pwiti">Gilbert Pwiti</a>, who has published extensively on trade links.<sup id="cite_ref-Zambezia_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zambezia-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pwiti2004_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pwiti2004-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, the most recent consensus appears to attribute the construction of Great Zimbabwe to the Shona people.<sup id="cite_ref-Ndoro,_W_1997_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ndoro,_W_1997-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Beach,_D._N._1994_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beach,_D._N._1994-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some evidence also suggests an early influence from the probably <a href="/wiki/Venda_people" title="Venda people">Venda</a>-speaking peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Mapungubwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapungubwe">Mapungubwe</a> civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-Huffman2009_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huffman2009-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Damage_to_the_ruins">Damage to the ruins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Damage to the ruins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Damage to the ruins has taken place throughout the last century. The removal of gold and artefacts in amateurist diggings by early colonial antiquarians caused widespread damage,<sup id="cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaarsholm-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> notably diggings by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Nicklin_Hall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Nicklin Hall (page does not exist)">Richard Nicklin Hall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tyson_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyson-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More extensive damage was caused by the mining of some of the ruins for gold.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaarsholm-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reconstruction attempts since 1980 caused further damage, leading to alienation of the local communities from the site.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another source of damage to the ruins has been due to the site being open to visitors with many cases of people climbing the walls, walking over archaeological deposits, and the over-use of certain paths all have had major impacts on the structures at the site.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are in conjunction with damages due to the natural weathering that occurs over time due to vegetation growth, the foundations settling, and erosion from the weather.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_implications">Political implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Political implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Zimbabwe_Closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Great_Zimbabwe_Closeup.jpg/220px-Great_Zimbabwe_Closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Great_Zimbabwe_Closeup.jpg/330px-Great_Zimbabwe_Closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Great_Zimbabwe_Closeup.jpg/440px-Great_Zimbabwe_Closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="270" /></a><figcaption> A closeup of Great Zimbabwe ruins, 2006</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Hall_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Hall (academic)">Martin Hall</a> writes that the history of <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> research south of the <a href="/wiki/Zambezi" title="Zambezi">Zambezi</a> shows the prevalent influence of colonial ideologies, both in the earliest speculations about the nature of the African past and in the adaptations that have been made to contemporary archaeological methodologies.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preben Kaarsholm writes that both colonial and black nationalist groups invoked Great Zimbabwe's past to support their vision of the country's present, through the media of popular history and of fiction. Examples of such popular history include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Wilmot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander Wilmot (page does not exist)">Alexander Wilmot</a>'s <i>Monomotapa (Rhodesia)</i> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ken_Mufuka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ken Mufuka (page does not exist)">Ken Mufuka</a>'s <i>Dzimbahwe: Life and Politics in the Golden Age</i>; examples from fiction include <a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Smith" title="Wilbur Smith">Wilbur Smith</a>'s <i>The Sunbird</i> and <a href="/wiki/Stanlake_Samkange" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanlake Samkange">Stanlake Samkange</a>'s <i>Year of the Uprising</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaarsholm-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When white colonialists like Cecil Rhodes first saw the ruins, they saw them as a sign of the great riches that the area would yield to its new masters.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaarsholm-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Innocent_Pikirayi" title="Innocent Pikirayi">Pikirayi</a> and Kaarsholm suggest that this presentation of Great Zimbabwe was partly intended to encourage settlement and investment in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaarsholm-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Caton-Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="Gertrude Caton-Thompson">Gertrude Caton-Thompson</a> recognised that the builders were indigenous Africans, but she characterised the site as the "product of an infantile mind" built by a subjugated society.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Garlake_2002_23_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garlake_2002_23-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The official line in <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a> during the 1960s and 1970s was that the structures were built by non-blacks. Archaeologists who disputed the official statement were censored by the government.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Paul Sinclair, interviewed for <i>None But Ourselves</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-Frederikse_1990_10–11_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frederikse_1990_10–11-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I was the archaeologist stationed at Great Zimbabwe. I was told by the then-director of the Museums and Monuments organisation to be extremely careful about talking to the press about the origins of the [Great] Zimbabwe state. I was told that the museum service was in a difficult situation, that the government was pressurising them to withhold the correct information. Censorship of guidebooks, museum displays, school textbooks, radio programmes, newspapers and films was a daily occurrence. Once a member of the Museum Board of Trustees threatened me with losing my job if I said publicly that blacks had built Zimbabwe. He said it was okay to say the yellow people had built it, but I wasn't allowed to mention radio carbon dates ... It was the first time since Germany in the thirties that archaeology has been so directly censored.</p></blockquote> <p>This suppression of archaeology culminated in the departure from the country of prominent archaeologists of Great Zimbabwe, including <a href="/wiki/Peter_Garlake" title="Peter Garlake">Peter Garlake</a>, Senior Inspector of Monuments for Rhodesia, and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Summers" title="Roger Summers">Roger Summers</a> of the National Museum.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/220px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/330px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/440px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The Zimbabwe Bird, depicted on Zimbabwe's flag</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Southern_Rhodesia_(1924%E2%80%931980).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coat_of_arms_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931980%29.svg/220px-Coat_of_arms_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coat_of_arms_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931980%29.svg/330px-Coat_of_arms_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coat_of_arms_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931980%29.svg/440px-Coat_of_arms_of_Southern_Rhodesia_%281924%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="532" data-file-height="548" /></a><figcaption>The Zimbabwe Bird, depicted on Rhodesia's coat of arms</figcaption></figure> <p>To black nationalist groups, Great Zimbabwe became an important symbol of achievement by Africans: reclaiming its history was a major aim for those seeking majority rule. In 1980 the new internationally recognised <a href="/wiki/History_of_Zimbabwe#Majority_rule" title="History of Zimbabwe">independent</a> country was renamed for the site, and its famous <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe_Bird" title="Zimbabwe Bird">soapstone bird carvings</a> were retained from the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Rhodesia" title="Flag of Rhodesia">Rhodesian flag</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Rhodesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of Rhodesia">Coat of Arms</a> as a national symbol and depicted in the new <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Zimbabwe" title="Flag of Zimbabwe">Zimbabwean flag</a>. After the creation of the modern state of <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> in 1980, Great Zimbabwe has been employed to mirror and legitimise shifting policies of the ruling regime. At first it was argued that it represented a form of pre-colonial "African socialism" and later the focus shifted to stressing the natural evolution of an accumulation of wealth and power within a ruling elite.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of the former is Ken Mufuka's booklet,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the work has been heavily criticised.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaarsholm-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A tower of the Great Zimbabwe is also depicted on the coat of arms of Zimbabwe. </p><p>Some of the carvings had been taken from Great Zimbabwe around 1890 and sold to <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes" title="Cecil Rhodes">Cecil Rhodes</a>, who was intrigued and had copies made which he gave to friends. Most of the carvings have now been returned to Zimbabwe, but one remains at Rhodes' old home, <a href="/wiki/Groote_Schuur" title="Groote Schuur">Groote Schuur</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Great_Zimbabwe_University">The Great Zimbabwe University</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The Great Zimbabwe University"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe_University" title="Great Zimbabwe University">Great Zimbabwe University</a></div> <p>In the early 21st century, the government of Zimbabwe endorsed the creation of a university in the vicinity of the ruins. This university is an arts and culture based university which draws from the rich history of the monuments. The university main site is near the monuments with other campuses in the City centre and Mashava. The campuses include Herbet Chitepo Law School, Robert Mugabe School of Education, Gary Magadzire School of Agriculture and Natural Science, Simon Muzenda School of Arts, and Munhumutapa School of Commerce. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Zimbabwe_(Donjon).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Conical Tower Wood carving at the entrance of the Great Zimbabwe"><img alt="The Conical Tower Wood carving at the entrance of the Great Zimbabwe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Great_Zimbabwe_%28Donjon%29.jpg/133px-Great_Zimbabwe_%28Donjon%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Great_Zimbabwe_%28Donjon%29.jpg/200px-Great_Zimbabwe_%28Donjon%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Great_Zimbabwe_%28Donjon%29.jpg/266px-Great_Zimbabwe_%28Donjon%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2700" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The Conical Tower<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wood_Carving_in_Zimbabwe_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Wood_Carving_in_Zimbabwe_01.jpg/220px-Wood_Carving_in_Zimbabwe_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Wood_Carving_in_Zimbabwe_01.jpg/330px-Wood_Carving_in_Zimbabwe_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Wood_Carving_in_Zimbabwe_01.jpg/440px-Wood_Carving_in_Zimbabwe_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3120" data-file-height="4160" /></a><figcaption>Wood carving at the entrance of the Great Zimbabwe</figcaption></figure></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zimbabwe_wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Great Enclosure"><img alt="The Great Enclosure" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Zimbabwe_wall.jpg/200px-Zimbabwe_wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Zimbabwe_wall.jpg/300px-Zimbabwe_wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Zimbabwe_wall.jpg/400px-Zimbabwe_wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1343" data-file-height="882" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Great Enclosure</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_of_the_great_enclosure,_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Great Enclosure (close)"><img alt="The Great Enclosure (close)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Wall_of_the_great_enclosure%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG/200px-Wall_of_the_great_enclosure%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Wall_of_the_great_enclosure%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG/300px-Wall_of_the_great_enclosure%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Wall_of_the_great_enclosure%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG/400px-Wall_of_the_great_enclosure%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Great Enclosure (close)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_of_the_great_enclosure_(far),_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Great Enclosure (far)"><img alt="The Great Enclosure (far)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wall_of_the_great_enclosure_%28far%29%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG/200px-Wall_of_the_great_enclosure_%28far%29%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wall_of_the_great_enclosure_%28far%29%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG/300px-Wall_of_the_great_enclosure_%28far%29%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wall_of_the_great_enclosure_%28far%29%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG/400px-Wall_of_the_great_enclosure_%28far%29%2C_Great_Zimbabwe.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Great Enclosure (far)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Great-Zimbabwe-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Hill Complex from the Valley"><img alt="The Hill Complex from the Valley" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Great-Zimbabwe-3.jpg/200px-Great-Zimbabwe-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Great-Zimbabwe-3.jpg/300px-Great-Zimbabwe-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Great-Zimbabwe-3.jpg/400px-Great-Zimbabwe-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="561" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Hill Complex from the Valley</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zimbabwe_wooden_lintel.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wooden lintel in doorway"><img alt="Wooden lintel in doorway" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Zimbabwe_wooden_lintel.jpg/132px-Zimbabwe_wooden_lintel.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Zimbabwe_wooden_lintel.jpg/198px-Zimbabwe_wooden_lintel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Zimbabwe_wooden_lintel.jpg/264px-Zimbabwe_wooden_lintel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="1350" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Wooden lintel in doorway</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Other ruins in Zimbabwe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bumbusi_National_Monument" title="Bumbusi National Monument">Bumbusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danangombe" class="mw-redirect" title="Danangombe">Danangombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naletale" title="Naletale">Naletale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khami" title="Khami">Khami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziwa" title="Ziwa">Ziwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopard%27s_Kopje" title="Leopard's Kopje">Leopard's Kopje</a></li></ul></li> <li>Related ruins outside Zimbabwe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manyikeni" title="Manyikeni">Manyikeni</a> – a Mozambiquean archaeological site believed to be part of the Great Zimbabwe tradition of architecture</li></ul></li> <li>Similar ruins outside Zimbabwe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blaauboschkraal_stone_ruins" title="Blaauboschkraal stone ruins">Blaauboschkraal stone ruins</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mpumalanga" title="Mpumalanga">Mpumalanga</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BaKoni_ruins" class="mw-redirect" title="BaKoni ruins">Machadodorp baKoni Ruins</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mpumalanga" title="Mpumalanga">Mpumalanga</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaruka" title="Engaruka">Engaruka</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arusha_Region" title="Arusha Region">Arusha Region</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kweneng%27_Ruins" title="Kweneng' Ruins">Kweneng' Ruins</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gauteng" title="Gauteng">Gauteng</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapungubwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapungubwe">Mapungubwe</a> in <a href="/wiki/Limpopo" title="Limpopo">Limpopo</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thimlich_Ohinga" title="Thimlich Ohinga">Thimlich Ohinga stone ruins</a> in <a href="/wiki/Migori_County" title="Migori County">Migori County</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megaliths" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaliths">Megaliths</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPikirayi2013" class="citation journal cs1">Pikirayi, Innocent (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287608347">"Great Zimbabwe in Historical Archaeology: Reconceptualizing Decline, Abandonment, and Reoccupation of an Ancient Polity, A.D. 1450–1900"</a>. <i>Historical Archaeology</i>. <b>47</b>: 26–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03376887">10.1007/BF03376887</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2263%2F59176">2263/59176</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59380130">59380130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Great+Zimbabwe+in+Historical+Archaeology%3A+Reconceptualizing+Decline%2C+Abandonment%2C+and+Reoccupation+of+an+Ancient+Polity%2C+A.D.+1450%E2%80%931900&rft.volume=47&rft.pages=26-37&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2263%2F59176&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59380130%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF03376887&rft.aulast=Pikirayi&rft.aufirst=Innocent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F287608347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pikirayi2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pikirayi2_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPikirayiSulasChirikureChikumbirike2023" class="citation journal cs1">Pikirayi, Innocent; Sulas, Federica; Chirikure, Shadreck; Chikumbirike, Joseph; Sagiya, Munyaradzi Elton (January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/abs/10.1484/J.JUA.5.133452">"The Conundrum of Great Zimbabwe"</a>. <i>Journal of Urban Archaeology</i>. <b>7</b>: 95–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1484%2FJ.JUA.5.133452">10.1484/J.JUA.5.133452</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2736-2426">2736-2426</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Urban+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Conundrum+of+Great+Zimbabwe&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=95-114&rft.date=2023-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1484%2FJ.JUA.5.133452&rft.issn=2736-2426&rft.aulast=Pikirayi&rft.aufirst=Innocent&rft.au=Sulas%2C+Federica&rft.au=Chirikure%2C+Shadreck&rft.au=Chikumbirike%2C+Joseph&rft.au=Sagiya%2C+Munyaradzi+Elton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brepolsonline.net%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1484%2FJ.JUA.5.133452&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-current-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-current_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-current_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-current_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-current_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-current_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeach1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Beach_(historian)" title="David Beach (historian)">Beach, David</a> (1998). "Cognitive Archaeology and Imaginary History at Great Zimbabwe". <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>39</b>: 47–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F204698">10.1086/204698</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143970768">143970768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Cognitive+Archaeology+and+Imaginary+History+at+Great+Zimbabwe&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=47-72&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F204698&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143970768%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Beach&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MMA-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MMA_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MMA_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/zimb/hd_zimb.htm">"Great Zimbabwe (11th–15th century) – Thematic Essay"</a>. The Metropolitan Museum of Art<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Great+Zimbabwe+%2811th%E2%80%9315th+century%29+%E2%80%93+Thematic+Essay&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fzimb%2Fhd_zimb.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-livescience.com-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-livescience.com_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-livescience.com_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/58200-great-zimbabwe.html">"Great Zimbabwe: African City of Stone"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Live_Science" title="Live Science">Live Science</a></i>. 10 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=Great+Zimbabwe%3A+African+City+of+Stone&rft.date=2017-03-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F58200-great-zimbabwe.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleminger2008" class="citation book cs1">Fleminger, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pp2VcW9_Z4QC&q=white+great+zimbabwe&pg=PA61"><i>Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape</i></a>. 30 Degrees South. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9584891-5-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9584891-5-7"><bdi>978-0-9584891-5-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mapungubwe+Cultural+Landscape&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=30+Degrees+South&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-9584891-5-7&rft.aulast=Fleminger&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dpp2VcW9_Z4QC%26q%3Dwhite%2Bgreat%2Bzimbabwe%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frederikse_1990_10–11-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frederikse_1990_10–11_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frederikse_1990_10–11_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrederikse1990" class="citation book cs1">Frederikse, Julie (1990) [1982]. "(1) Before the war". <i>None But Ourselves</i>. Biddy Partridge (photographer). Harare: Oral Traditions Association of Zimbabwe with Anvil Press. pp. 10–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7974-0961-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7974-0961-0"><bdi>0-7974-0961-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%281%29+Before+the+war&rft.btitle=None+But+Ourselves&rft.place=Harare&rft.pages=10-11&rft.pub=Oral+Traditions+Association+of+Zimbabwe+with+Anvil+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-7974-0961-0&rft.aulast=Frederikse&rft.aufirst=Julie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sibanda-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sibanda_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Sibanda, H. Moyana et al. 1992. <i>The African Heritage. History for Junior Secondary Schools. Book 1</i>. Zimbabwe Publishing House. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-908300-00-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-908300-00-6">978-0-908300-00-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-antiquity-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-antiquity_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-antiquity_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-antiquity_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-antiquity_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-antiquity_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-antiquity_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShadreck_ChirikureInnocent_Pikirayi2008" class="citation journal cs1">Shadreck Chirikure; Innocent Pikirayi (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003598X00097726">"Inside and outside the dry stone walls: revisiting the material culture of Great Zimbabwe"</a>. <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>82</b> (318): 976–993. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003598X00097726">10.1017/S0003598X00097726</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=Inside+and+outside+the+dry+stone+walls%3A+revisiting+the+material+culture+of+Great+Zimbabwe&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=318&rft.pages=976-993&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003598X00097726&rft.au=Shadreck+Chirikure&rft.au=Innocent+Pikirayi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0003598X00097726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newitt_2002_39-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newitt_2002_39_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newitt_2002_39_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewitt2002" class="citation book cs1">Newitt, M. D. D. (2002). <i>East Africa</i>. Vol. 2. Ashgate. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0754601811" title="Special:BookSources/0754601811"><bdi>0754601811</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Africa&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0754601811&rft.aulast=Newitt&rft.aufirst=M.+D.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichel_Lafon1994" class="citation journal cs1">Michel Lafon (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Journal%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Zimbabwe/vol21n1/juz021001005.pdf">"Shona Class 5 revisited: a case against *ri as Class 5 nominal prefix"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Zambezia</i>. <b>21</b>: 51–80.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zambezia&rft.atitle=Shona+Class+5+revisited%3A+a+case+against+%2Ari+as+Class+5+nominal+prefix&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=51-80&rft.date=1994&rft.au=Michel+Lafon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.lib.msu.edu%2FDMC%2FAfrican%2520Journals%2Fpdfs%2FJournal%2520of%2520the%2520University%2520of%2520Zimbabwe%2Fvol21n1%2Fjuz021001005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span>. See also <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_J._Vale1999" class="citation journal cs1">Lawrence J. Vale (1999). "Mediated monuments and national identity". <i>Journal of Architecture</i>. <b>4</b> (4): 391–408. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F136023699373774">10.1080/136023699373774</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Architecture&rft.atitle=Mediated+monuments+and+national+identity&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=391-408&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F136023699373774&rft.au=Lawrence+J.+Vale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (1973) 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFbatanai2022" class="citation web cs1">batanai (12 April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://batanai.co.za/origin-of-shona-and-their-art/">"ORIGIN OF SHONA AND THEIR ART | Batanai"</a>. <i>batanai.co.za</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=batanai.co.za&rft.atitle=ORIGIN+OF+SHONA+AND+THEIR+ART+%7C+Batanai&rft.date=2022-04-12&rft.au=batanai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbatanai.co.za%2Forigin-of-shona-and-their-art%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pikirayi (2001) p129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Summers (1970) p163</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barros-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barros_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barros_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCall-Theal,_G.1900" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">McCall-Theal, G. (1900). <i>Records of South-eastern Africa</i>. Vol. VI (book 10). Cape Town: Cape Colony Printers. pp. 264–273.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Records+of+South-eastern+Africa&rft.place=Cape+Town&rft.pages=264-273&rft.pub=Cape+Colony+Printers&rft.date=1900&rft.au=McCall-Theal%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuffman2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huffman" title="Thomas Huffman">Huffman, Thomas N.</a> (2008). 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Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 135–170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-13124-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-13124-1"><bdi>978-0-299-13124-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contested+monuments%3A+the+politics+of+archaeology+in+southern+Africa&rft.btitle=Colonial+situations%3A+essays+on+the+contextualization+of+ethnographic+knowledge&rft.pages=135-170&rft.pub=Univ+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-299-13124-1&rft.aulast=Kuklick&rft.aufirst=Henrika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChirikure,_S.2017" class="citation journal cs1">Chirikure, S.; et al. 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Kristiansen; Shadreck Chirikure & Tendai Musindo (2022). "Climate-smart harvesting and storing of water: The legacy of dhaka pits at Great Zimbabwe". <i>Anthropocene</i>. <b>40</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ancene.2022.100357">10.1016/j.ancene.2022.100357</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2263%2F90394">2263/90394</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254533491">254533491</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropocene&rft.atitle=Climate-smart+harvesting+and+storing+of+water%3A+The+legacy+of+dhaka+pits+at+Great+Zimbabwe&rft.volume=40&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2263%2F90394&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A254533491%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ancene.2022.100357&rft.aulast=Innocent&rft.aufirst=Pikirayi&rft.au=Federica+Sulas&rft.au=Bongumenzi+Nxumalo&rft.au=Munyaradzi+Elton+Sagiya&rft.au=David+Stott&rft.au=S%C3%B8ren+M.+Kristiansen&rft.au=Shadreck+Chirikure&rft.au=Tendai+Musindo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garlake_2002_158-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Garlake_2002_158_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garlake_2002_158_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (2002) 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (1973) 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=596305&partId=1&place=16737&plaA=16737-3-1&pag">"figure"</a>. <i>British Museum</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Museum&rft.atitle=figure&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fresearch%2Fcollection_online%2Fcollection_object_details.aspx%3FobjectId%3D596305%26partId%3D1%26place%3D16737%26plaA%3D16737-3-1%26pag&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (2002) 159–162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Summers (1970) p166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/364">"Great Zimbabwe National Monument"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Great+Zimbabwe+National+Monument&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F364&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nelson_2019_10-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nelson_2019_10_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2019" class="citation book cs1">Nelson, Jo (2019). <i>Historium</i>. 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E. G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210924022553/https://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/amcdouga/Hist446/readings/kilwa_sutton.pdf">"The southern Swahili harbour and town on Kilwa island, 800-1800 AD: a chronology of boom and slumps"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>artsrn.ualberta.ca</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/amcdouga/Hist446/readings/kilwa_sutton.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 24 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=artsrn.ualberta.ca&rft.atitle=The+southern+Swahili+harbour+and+town+on+Kilwa+island%2C+800-1800+AD%3A+a+chronology+of+boom+and+slumps&rft.aulast=Sutton&rft.aufirst=J.+E.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.artsrn.ualberta.ca%2Famcdouga%2FHist446%2Freadings%2Fkilwa_sutton.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (2002) 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-environment-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-environment_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmgrenÖberg2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karin_Holmgren" title="Karin Holmgren">Holmgren, Karin</a>; Öberg, Helena (2006). "Climate Change in Southern and Eastern Africa during the past millennium and its implications for societal development". <i>Environment, Development and Sustainability</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 1573–2975. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006EDSus...8..185H">2006EDSus...8..185H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10668-005-5752-5">10.1007/s10668-005-5752-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153415627">153415627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environment%2C+Development+and+Sustainability&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+in+Southern+and+Eastern+Africa+during+the+past+millennium+and+its+implications+for+societal+development&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1573-2975&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153415627%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10668-005-5752-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006EDSus...8..185H&rft.aulast=Holmgren&rft.aufirst=Karin&rft.au=%C3%96berg%2C+Helena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pwiti2004-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pwiti2004_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pwiti2004_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert_Pwiti2004" class="citation journal cs1">Gilbert Pwiti (2004). "Economic change, ideology and the development of cultural complexity in northern Zimbabwe". <i>Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa</i>. <b>39</b>: 265–282. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00672700409480403">10.1080/00672700409480403</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161890031">161890031</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Azania%3A+Archaeological+Research+in+Africa&rft.atitle=Economic+change%2C+ideology+and+the+development+of+cultural+complexity+in+northern+Zimbabwe&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=265-282&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00672700409480403&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161890031%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Gilbert+Pwiti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver,_RolandAnthony_Atmore1975" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, Roland; Anthony Atmore (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory04fage/page/738"><i>Medieval Africa 1250–1800</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory04fage/page/738">738</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20413-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20413-5"><bdi>0-521-20413-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Africa+1250%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=738&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-521-20413-5&rft.au=Oliver%2C+Roland&rft.au=Anthony+Atmore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgehistory04fage%2Fpage%2F738&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuffman1972" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huffman" title="Thomas Huffman">Huffman, Thomas</a> (1972). "The rise and fall of Zimbabwe". <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>13</b> (3): 353–366. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700011683">10.1017/S0021853700011683</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162369023">162369023</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+rise+and+fall+of+Zimbabwe&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=353-366&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700011683&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162369023%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Huffman&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rhodesia.nl/rhodesiana/volume19.pdf">"The Pioneer Head"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Rhodesiana</i> (19). December 1968.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rhodesiana&rft.atitle=The+Pioneer+Head&rft.issue=19&rft.date=1968-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rhodesia.nl%2Frhodesiana%2Fvolume19.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver, Roland & Anthony Atmore (1975). Medieval Africa 1250–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 738</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaarsholm-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaarsholm_42-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaarsholm1992" class="citation journal cs1">Kaarsholm, Preben (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/4213/1/Preben_Kaarsholm_-_The_past_as_battlefield_in_Rhodesia_and_Zimbabwe.pdf">"The past as battlefield in Rhodesia and Zimbabwe"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Collected Seminar Papers. Institute of Commonwealth Studies</i>. <b>42</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Collected+Seminar+Papers.+Institute+of+Commonwealth+Studies&rft.atitle=The+past+as+battlefield+in+Rhodesia+and+Zimbabwe&rft.volume=42&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Kaarsholm&rft.aufirst=Preben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsas-space.sas.ac.uk%2F4213%2F1%2FPreben_Kaarsholm_-_The_past_as_battlefield_in_Rhodesia_and_Zimbabwe.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCall-Theal,_G.1900" class="citation book cs1">McCall-Theal, G. (1900). <i>Records of South-eastern Africa</i>. Vol. III. Cape Town: Cape Colony Printers. pp. 55, 129.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Records+of+South-eastern+Africa&rft.place=Cape+Town&rft.pages=55%2C+129&rft.pub=Cape+Colony+Printers&rft.date=1900&rft.au=McCall-Theal%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandles1981" class="citation book cs1">Randles, W. G. L. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=68pBAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Empire of Monomotapa: From the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century</i></a>. Mambo Press. p. 5<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Empire+of+Monomotapa%3A+From+the+Fifteenth+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Mambo+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Randles&rft.aufirst=W.+G.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D68pBAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pikirayi-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pikirayi_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pikirayi_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pikirayi_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPikirayi" class="citation web cs1">Pikirayi, Innocent. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160809041616/http://www.msu.ac.zw/elearning/material/1299833592Decline%20of%20Great%20Zimbabwe.pdf">"The Demise of Great Zimbabwe, ad 1420–1550"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Post-Med Archaeology. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msu.ac.zw/elearning/material/1299833592Decline%20of%20Great%20Zimbabwe.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Demise+of+Great+Zimbabwe%2C+ad+1420%E2%80%931550&rft.pub=Post-Med+Archaeology&rft.aulast=Pikirayi&rft.aufirst=Innocent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.msu.ac.zw%2Felearning%2Fmaterial%2F1299833592Decline%2520of%2520Great%2520Zimbabwe.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBöhmer-Bauer2000" class="citation book cs1">Böhmer-Bauer, Kunigunde (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V9EwAQAAIAAJ"><i>Great Zimbabwe: eine ethnologische Untersuchung</i></a>. R. Köppe. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/389645210X" title="Special:BookSources/389645210X"><bdi>389645210X</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Zimbabwe%3A+eine+ethnologische+Untersuchung&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=R.+K%C3%B6ppe&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=389645210X&rft.aulast=B%C3%B6hmer-Bauer&rft.aufirst=Kunigunde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV9EwAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: double translations (local language to Portuguese to English) should be taken cautiously and not literally.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenthal1966" class="citation book cs1">Rosenthal, Eric (1966). <i>Southern African Dictionary of National Biography</i>. London: Frederick Warne. p. 308. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/390499">390499</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southern+African+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=308&rft.pub=Frederick+Warne&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F390499&rft.aulast=Rosenthal&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Vast Ruins in South Africa- The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. 18 December 1892. p. 19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Vast+Ruins+in+South+Africa-+The+Ruined+Cities+of+Mashonaland&rft.pages=19&rft.date=1892-12-18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pikirayi (2001) p9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tyson-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tyson_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tyson_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tyson_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Tyson" class="citation web cs1">Peter Tyson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/israel/zimbabwe.html">"Mystery of Great Zimbabwe"</a>. 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(1997). Marketing the past: The Shona village at Great Zimbabwe. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 2(3): 3–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beach,_D._N._19942-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beach,_D._N._19942_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beach, D. N. (1994). A Zimbabwean past: Shona dynastic histories and oral traditions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huffman20092-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Huffman20092_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuffman2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huffman" title="Thomas Huffman">Huffman, Thomas N.</a> (2009). 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Big Picture Press. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historium&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Big+Picture+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Jo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Summers (1970) p35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chikuhwa2013-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chikuhwa2013_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChikuhwa2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Chikuhwa" title="Jacob Chikuhwa">Chikuhwa, Jacob W.</a> (October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zQ49AQAAQBAJ&pg=PR19"><i>Zimbabwe: The End of the First Republic</i></a>. Author House. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4918-7967-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4918-7967-2"><bdi>978-1-4918-7967-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zimbabwe%3A+The+End+of+the+First+Republic&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Author+House&rft.date=2013-10&rft.isbn=978-1-4918-7967-2&rft.aulast=Chikuhwa&rft.aufirst=Jacob+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzQ49AQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Copson2006-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Copson2006_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCopson2006" class="citation book cs1">Copson, Raymond W. (1 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2AM7XUBrrqkC&pg=PA43"><i>Zimbabwe: Background and Issues</i></a>. Nova Publishers. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60021-176-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60021-176-8"><bdi>978-1-60021-176-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zimbabwe%3A+Background+and+Issues&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-60021-176-8&rft.aulast=Copson&rft.aufirst=Raymond+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2AM7XUBrrqkC%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isichei, Elizabeth Allo, <i>A History of African Societies to 1870</i> Cambridge University Press, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521455992" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521455992">978-0521455992</a> page 435</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garlake_2002-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Garlake_2002_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (1973)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (1982)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beach, David N. (1990) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Journal%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Zimbabwe/vol17n2/juz017002006.pdf">"Publishing the Past: Progress in the 'Documents from the Portuguese' Series"</a>. Zambezia, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1990, pp. 175–183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beach, David N. (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Journal%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Zimbabwe/vol26n1/juz026001003.pdf">"Pre-colonial History, Demographic Disaster and the University"</a>. Zambezia, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1999, pp. 5–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huffman, Thomas N. (05-1985) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sfu.ca/~wwl10/huffman%20soapstone%20birds.pdf">"The Soapstone Birds from Great Zimbabwe."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120705173410/http://www.sfu.ca/~wwl10/huffman%20soapstone%20birds.pdf">Archived</a> 5 July 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> African Arts, Vol. 18, No. 3, May 1985, pp. 68–73 & 99–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pwiti, Gilbert (1996). Continuity and change: an archaeological study of farming communities in northern Zimbabwe AD 500–1700. Studies in African Archaeology, No.13, Department of Archaeology, Uppsala University, Uppsala:.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ndoro,_W_1997-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ndoro,_W_1997_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Webber_Ndoro" title="Webber Ndoro">Ndoro, W.</a>, and Pwiti, G. (1997). Marketing the past: The Shona village at Great Zimbabwe. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 2(3): 3–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beach,_D._N._1994-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beach,_D._N._1994_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beach, D. N. (1994). A Zimbabwean past: Shona dynastic histories and oral traditions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebber_Ndoro1994" class="citation journal cs1">Webber Ndoro (1994). "The preservation and presentation of Great Zimbabwe". <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>68</b> (260): 616–623. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003598X00047128">10.1017/S0003598X00047128</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161099034">161099034</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+preservation+and+presentation+of+Great+Zimbabwe&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=260&rft.pages=616-623&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003598X00047128&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161099034%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Webber+Ndoro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoost_Fontein2006" class="citation journal cs1">Joost Fontein (2006). "Closure at Great Zimbabwe: Local Narratives of Desecration and Alienation". <i>Journal of Southern African Studies</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 771–794. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03057070600995723">10.1080/03057070600995723</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143105508">143105508</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Closure+at+Great+Zimbabwe%3A+Local+Narratives+of+Desecration+and+Alienation&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=771-794&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03057070600995723&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143105508%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Joost+Fontein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1984" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Hall_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Hall (academic)">Hall, Martin</a> (1984). "The Burden of Tribalism: The Social Context of Southern African Iron Age Studies". <i>American Antiquity</i>. <b>49</b> (3): 455–467. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F280354">10.2307/280354</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/280354">280354</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153807869">153807869</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+Burden+of+Tribalism%3A+The+Social+Context+of+Southern+African+Iron+Age+Studies&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=455-467&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153807869%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F280354%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F280354&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pikirayi (2001) p11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaton-Thompson1931" class="citation book cs1">Caton-Thompson (1931). <i>The Zimbabwe Culture: ruins and reactions</i>. Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Zimbabwe+Culture%3A+ruins+and+reactions&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1931&rft.au=Caton-Thompson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garlake_2002_23-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Garlake_2002_23_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (2002) 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ucko (1995) 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (2002) 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Baets2002" class="citation book cs1">De Baets, Antoon (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327114818/http://arts.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/publications/general/Historical/2002/debaets_zimbabwe/zimbabwe.pdf"><i>Censorship of Historical Thought: a World Guide 1945–2000</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: Greenwood Press. pp. 621–625. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31193-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-31193-5"><bdi>0-313-31193-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arts.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/publications/general/Historical/2002/debaets_zimbabwe/zimbabwe.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Censorship+of+Historical+Thought%3A+a+World+Guide+1945%E2%80%932000&rft.place=London&rft.pages=621-625&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-313-31193-5&rft.aulast=De+Baets&rft.aufirst=Antoon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farts.eldoc.ub.rug.nl%2FFILES%2Fpublications%2Fgeneral%2FHistorical%2F2002%2Fdebaets_zimbabwe%2Fzimbabwe.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garlake (2002) 23–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._Nyamayaro_MufukaK._MuzvidzwaJ._Nemerai1983" class="citation book cs1">K. Nyamayaro Mufuka; K. Muzvidzwa; J. Nemerai (1983). <i>Dzimbahwe: Life and Politics in the Golden Age, 1100–1500 A.D</i>. Harare Publishing House. p. 58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dzimbahwe%3A+Life+and+Politics+in+the+Golden+Age%2C+1100%E2%80%931500+A.D.&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Harare+Publishing+House&rft.date=1983&rft.au=K.+Nyamayaro+Mufuka&rft.au=K.+Muzvidzwa&rft.au=J.+Nemerai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarlake1984" class="citation journal cs1">Garlake, Peter (1984). "Ken Mufuka and Great Zimbabwe". <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>58</b>: 121–23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=Ken+Mufuka+and+Great+Zimbabwe&rft.volume=58&rft.pages=121-23&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Garlake&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarlake1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Garlake" title="Peter Garlake">Garlake, Peter</a> (1973). <i>Great Zimbabwe: New Aspects of Archaeology</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8128-1599-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8128-1599-3"><bdi>978-0-8128-1599-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Zimbabwe%3A+New+Aspects+of+Archaeology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-8128-1599-3&rft.aulast=Garlake&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarlake1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Garlake" title="Peter Garlake">Garlake, Peter</a> (1982). <i>Great Zimbabwe</i>. Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-949932-18-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-949932-18-1"><bdi>978-0-949932-18-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Zimbabwe&rft.place=Harare&rft.pub=Zimbabwe+Publishing+House&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-949932-18-1&rft.aulast=Garlake&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarlake2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Garlake" title="Peter Garlake">Garlake, Peter</a> (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlyartarchitec00garl"><i>Early Art and Architecture of Africa</i></a></span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-284261-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-284261-7"><bdi>0-19-284261-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Art+and+Architecture+of+Africa&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-19-284261-7&rft.aulast=Garlake&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlyartarchitec00garl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatenga2008" class="citation book cs1">Matenga, Edward (2008). <i>Soapstone Birds of Great Zimbabwe: Symbols of a Nation</i>. Harare: African Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-77901-135-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-77901-135-0"><bdi>978-1-77901-135-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soapstone+Birds+of+Great+Zimbabwe%3A+Symbols+of+a+Nation&rft.place=Harare&rft.pub=African+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-77901-135-0&rft.aulast=Matenga&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPikirayi2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Innocent_Pikirayi" title="Innocent Pikirayi">Pikirayi, Innocent</a> (2001). <i>The Zimbabwe culture: origins and decline of southern Zambezian states</i>. Rowman Altamira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0091-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0091-6"><bdi>978-0-7591-0091-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Zimbabwe+culture%3A+origins+and+decline+of+southern+Zambezian+states&rft.pub=Rowman+Altamira&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0091-6&rft.aulast=Pikirayi&rft.aufirst=Innocent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSummers1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Summers" title="Roger Summers">Summers, Roger</a> (1970). "The Rhodesian Iron Age". In J.D. Fage; Roland Oliver (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/papersinafricanp0000fage"><i>Papers in African Prehistory</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09566-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09566-2"><bdi>978-0-521-09566-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Rhodesian+Iron+Age&rft.btitle=Papers+in+African+Prehistory&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09566-2&rft.aulast=Summers&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpapersinafricanp0000fage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUcko1995" class="citation book cs1">Ucko, Peter J. (1995). <i>Theory in Archaeology: A World Perspective</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-97328-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-97328-8"><bdi>978-0-203-97328-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+in+Archaeology%3A+A+World+Perspective&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-203-97328-8&rft.aulast=Ucko&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Zimbabwe" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe#Q209217" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greatzimbabweruins.com">Great Zimbabwe Ruins</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=364">Great Zimbabwe entry</a> on the UNESCO 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Masvingo_Province" title="Template:Masvingo Province"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Masvingo_Province" title="Template talk:Masvingo Province"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Masvingo_Province" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Masvingo Province"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Masvingo_Province" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Masvingo_Province" title="Masvingo Province">Masvingo Province</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Business centres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maranda,_Zimbabwe" title="Maranda, Zimbabwe">Maranda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwenezi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mwenezi">Mwenezi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neshuro" title="Neshuro">Neshuro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutenga" title="Rutenga">Rutenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mupandawana" title="Mupandawana">Mupandawana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerera (page does not exist)">Jerera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivi_District" title="Chivi District">Chivi</a> (Chibi)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaka_District" title="Zaka District">Zaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndanga" title="Ndanga">Ndanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashava" title="Mashava">Mashava</a> (Mashaba)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Madamombe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Madamombe (page does not exist)">Madamombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngundu" title="Ngundu">Ngundu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Musume&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Musume (page does not exist)">Musume</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Malipati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Malipati (page does not exist)">Malipati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurajena" title="Gurajena">Gurajena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwengwerere" title="Gwengwerere">Gwengwerere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Towns and cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutu" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutu">Gutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiredzi" title="Chiredzi">Chiredzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangle,_Zimbabwe" title="Triangle, Zimbabwe">Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masvingo" title="Masvingo">Masvingo</a> (Fort Victoria)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Districts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chivi_District" title="Chivi District">Chivi</a> (Chibi)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikita_District" title="Bikita District">Bikita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaka_District" title="Zaka District">Zaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutu_District" title="Gutu District">Gutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiredzi_District" title="Chiredzi District">Chiredzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwenezi_District" title="Mwenezi District">Mwenezi</a> (Nuanetsi)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masvingo_District" title="Masvingo District">Masvingo</a> (Victoria)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Noteworthy places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_Valley_Estate" title="Hippo Valley Estate">Hippo Valley</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Great Zimbabwe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangle_Estate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangle Estate (page does not exist)">Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonarezhou_National_Park" title="Gonarezhou National Park">Gonarezhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Mutirikwe" title="Lake Mutirikwe">Lake Mutirikwe</a> (Lake Kyle)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manyuchi_Dam" title="Manyuchi Dam">Manyuchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaths_Mine" title="Gaths Mine">Gaths Mine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q209217#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q209217#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q209217#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/316429346">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1896838/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85057020">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX451715">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007540905605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/322739224">Pleiades</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&oldid=1260331872">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Zimbabwe&oldid=1260331872</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Great_Zimbabwe" title="Category:Great Zimbabwe">Great 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