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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prehistory_(before_6000–3500_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory_(before_6000–3500_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Prehistory (before 6000–3500 BC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory_(before_6000–3500_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-Kerma;_A-Group_(3500-3000_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Kerma;_A-Group_(3500-3000_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Pre-Kerma; A-Group (3500-3000 BC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Kerma;_A-Group_(3500-3000_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Upper_Nubia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upper_Nubia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Upper Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upper_Nubia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lower_Nubia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lower_Nubia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Lower Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lower_Nubia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt_in_Nubia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt_in_Nubia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Egypt in Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt_in_Nubia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Kerma_(3000–2400_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Kerma_(3000–2400_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Early Kerma (3000–2400 BC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Kerma_(3000–2400_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Kerma;_C-Group_(2400–1550_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Kerma;_C-Group_(2400–1550_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Early Kerma; C-Group (2400–1550 BC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Kerma;_C-Group_(2400–1550_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Upper_Nubia_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upper_Nubia_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Upper Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upper_Nubia_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lower_Nubia_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lower_Nubia_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Lower Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lower_Nubia_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt_in_Nubia_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt_in_Nubia_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 Egypt in Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt_in_Nubia_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kerma;_Egyptian_Empire_(1550–1100_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kerma;_Egyptian_Empire_(1550–1100_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Kerma; Egyptian Empire (1550–1100 BC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kerma;_Egyptian_Empire_(1550–1100_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Upper_Nubia_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upper_Nubia_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.1 Upper Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upper_Nubia_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lower_Nubia_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lower_Nubia_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.2 Lower Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lower_Nubia_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt_in_Nubia_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt_in_Nubia_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.3 Egypt in Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt_in_Nubia_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Napatan_Empire_(750–542_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Napatan_Empire_(750–542_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Napatan Empire (750–542 BC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Napatan_Empire_(750–542_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nubia_in_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nubia_in_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6.1 Nubia in Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nubia_in_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meroitic_(542_BC–400_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meroitic_(542_BC–400_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Meroitic (542 BC–400 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meroitic_(542_BC–400_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Achaemenid_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Achaemenid_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.1 Achaemenid period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Achaemenid_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ptolemaic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemaic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.2 Ptolemaic period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemaic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.3 Roman period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_Nubia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_Nubia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Christian Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_Nubia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_Nubia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_Nubia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Islamic Nubia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_Nubia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st-century_archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st-century_archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 21st-century archaeology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st-century_archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Contemporary issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Ancient DNA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nubian_Images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nubian_Images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Nubian Images </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nubian_Images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Nubia</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 78 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-78" aria-hidden="true" > 78 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubi%C3%AB" title="Nubië – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Nubië" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="النوبة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="النوبة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubiya" title="Nubiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nubiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="নুবিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নুবিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Нубія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нубія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Нубія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Нубія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нубия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нубия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubija" title="Nubija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nubija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAbia" title="Núbia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Núbia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Нуби – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Нуби" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAbie" title="Núbie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Núbie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubhia" title="Nubhia – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Nubhia" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubien" title="Nubien – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nubien" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubien" title="Nubien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nubien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuubia" title="Nuubia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nuubia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B2%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Νουβία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νουβία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubio" title="Nubio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nubio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%87_(%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D9%87)" title="نوبه (منطقه) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نوبه (منطقه)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubie" title="Nubie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nubie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%88%84%EB%B9%84%EC%95%84" title="누비아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="누비아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A2%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Նուբիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նուբիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="नुबिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नुबिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubija" title="Nubija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nubija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAb%C3%ADa" title="Núbía – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Núbía" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%94" title="נוביה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נוביה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ნუბია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნუბია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нубия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Нубия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нубия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Нубия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C5%ABbija" title="Nūbija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nūbija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubija" title="Nubija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nubija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAbia" title="Núbia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Núbia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Нубија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нубија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobia" title="Nobia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Nobia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ნუბია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნუბია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%87" title="بلاد النوبه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بلاد النوبه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubi%C3%AB" title="Nubië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nubië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8C%E3%83%93%E3%82%A2" title="ヌビア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヌビア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuubien" title="Nuubien – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Nuubien" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubiya" title="Nubiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Nubiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAbia" title="Núbia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Núbia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нубия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нубия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAbia" title="Núbia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Núbia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubija" title="Nubija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nubija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Нубија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нубија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubija" title="Nubija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nubija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubien" title="Nubien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nubien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="நூபியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நூபியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="นิวเบีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="นิวเบีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCbye" title="Nübye – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nübye" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нубия – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Нубия" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Нубія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нубія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%81" title="نوبہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نوبہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Nubia" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8A%AA%E6%AF%94%E4%BA%9A" title="努比亚 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="努比亚" data-language-autonym="吴语" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Region in northern Sudan and southern Egypt</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the region in Africa. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Nubia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Nubia (disambiguation)">Nubia (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:262px;max-width:262px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Nubia</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:260px;max-width:260px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:210px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Rulers_of_Kush,_Kerma_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/258px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="258" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/387px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/516px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4295" data-file-height="3506" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Statues of several Nubian rulers of the late <a href="/wiki/25th_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="25th Dynasty">25th Dynasty</a>–early <a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napatan period</a>, 7th century BC. From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> (rear), <a href="/wiki/Senkamanisken" title="Senkamanisken">Senkamanisken</a>, again <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a> (rear), <a href="/wiki/Aspelta" title="Aspelta">Aspelta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anlamani" title="Anlamani">Anlamani</a>, again <a href="/wiki/Senkamanisken" title="Senkamanisken">Senkamanisken</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kerma_Museum" title="Kerma Museum">Kerma Museum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></div></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:260px;max-width:260px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:399px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Outline_of_Nubia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Outline_of_Nubia.png/258px-Outline_of_Nubia.png" decoding="async" width="258" height="400" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Outline_of_Nubia.png 1.5x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="542" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Outline of Nubia</div></div></div></div></div> Nubia (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈnjuːbiə/</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nobiin_language" title="Nobiin language">Nobiin</a>: Nobīn,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: النُوبَة, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: an-Nūba) is a region along the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> river encompassing the confluence of the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Nile" title="Blue Nile">Blue</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_Nile" title="White Nile">White</a> Niles (in <a href="/wiki/Khartoum" title="Khartoum">Khartoum</a> in central <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>), and the area between the <a href="/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">first cataract of the Nile</a> (south of <a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>) or more strictly, <a href="/wiki/Al_Dabbah,_Sudan" title="Al Dabbah, Sudan">Al Dabbah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> It was the seat of one of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Civilizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilizations">civilizations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient">ancient</a> <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kerma_culture" title="Kerma culture">Kerma culture</a>, which lasted from around 2500 BC until its conquest by the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a> under <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a> around 1500 BC, whose heirs ruled most of Nubia for the next 400 years. Nubia was home to several <a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">empires</a>, most prominently the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a>, which conquered Egypt in the eighth century BC during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> and ruled the country as its <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">25th Dynasty</a>. From the 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD, northern Nubia was invaded and annexed to Egypt, ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a>. This territory was known in the Greco-Roman world as <a href="/wiki/Dodekaschoinos" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodekaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a>. Kush's collapse in the fourth century AD was preceded by an invasion from the Ethiopian <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a> and the rise of three Christian kingdoms: <a href="/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a>. Makuria and Alodia lasted for roughly a millennium. Their eventual decline started not only the partition of Nubia, which was split into the northern half conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a> and the southern half by the <a href="/wiki/Sennar_(sultanate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sennar (sultanate)">Sennar sultanate</a>, in the sixteenth century, but also a rapid <a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a> and partial <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nubian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubian people">Nubian people</a>. Nubia was reunited with the <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate of Egypt</a> in the nineteenth century. Today, the region of Nubia is split between Egypt and Sudan. The primarily <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> science dealing with ancient Nubia is called <a href="/wiki/Nubiology" title="Nubiology">Nubiology</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#f0e4ae;;padding-top:0.4em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Nubia" title="Category:History of Nubia">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#f0e4ae;;line-height:1.2em;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#History">History of Nubia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" decoding="async" width="95" height="58" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="95" data-file-height="58" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f0e4ae;;border:1px solid #f0e4ae;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_names_of_Nubia" title="Historical names of Nubia">Names of Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sudan" title="History of Sudan">History of Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Nubia" title="Military of ancient Nubia">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f0e4ae;;border:1px solid #f0e4ae;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa#North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">Kingdoms</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture#Existence_of_the_B-Group" title="A-Group culture">B-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-Group_culture" title="C-Group culture">C-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerma_culture" title="Kerma culture">Kerma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_al-Abwab" title="Kingdom of al-Abwab">Kingdom of al-Abwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funj_Sultanate" title="Funj Sultanate">Kingdom of Sennar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medjay" title="Medjay">Medja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-Group_culture" title="X-Group culture">X-Group</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f0e4ae;;border:1px solid #f0e4ae;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;;width:1%">Titles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">Kandake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qore_(title)" title="Qore (title)">Qore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">Viceroy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kerma" title="List of monarchs of Kerma">Monarchs of Kerma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kush" title="List of monarchs of Kush">Monarchs of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Makuria" title="List of rulers of Makuria"> Monarchs of Makuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandake#List_of_ruling_kandakes" title="Kandake">Queens of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Kush" title="Viceroy of Kush">Viceroy of Kush</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f0e4ae;;border:1px solid #f0e4ae;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_sites_in_Sudan" title="Category:Archaeological sites in Sudan">Locations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Meragh" title="Al-Meragh">Al-Meragh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amara,_Nubia" title="Amara, Nubia">Amara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aniba_(Nubia)" title="Aniba (Nubia)">Aniba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askut" title="Askut">Askut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballana" title="Ballana">Ballana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigeh" title="Bigeh">Bigeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Bahari" title="Deir el-Bahari">Deir el-Bahari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debeira" title="Debeira">Debeira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triakontaschoinos" title="Triakontaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dongola" title="Old Dongola">Dongola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dotawo" title="Dotawo">Dotawo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Hobagi" title="El-Hobagi">El-Hobagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Kurru" title="El-Kurru">El-Kurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadrus" title="Fadrus">Fadrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faras" title="Faras">Faras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamadab" title="Hamadab">Hamadab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gala_Abu_Ahmed" title="Gala Abu Ahmed">Gala Abu Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebel_Adda" title="Gebel Adda">Jebel Adda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Dosha" title="Jebel Dosha">Jebel Dosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadero_(archaeological_site)" title="Kadero (archaeological site)">Kadero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kageras" title="Kageras">Kageras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawa,_Sudan" title="Kawa, Sudan">Kawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulb" title="Kulb">Kulb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kulubnarti" title="Kulubnarti">Kulubnarti</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumma_(Nubia)" title="Kumma (Nubia)">Kumma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisht" title="Lisht">Lisht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meinarti" title="Meinarti">Meinarti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_Desert" title="Nubian Desert">Nubian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%AF_(island)" title="Saï (island)">Saï Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalfak" title="Shalfak">Shalfak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singa,_Sudan" title="Singa, Sudan">Singa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soba_(city)" title="Soba (city)">Soba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soleb" title="Soleb">Soleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Ruweim" title="Umm Ruweim">Umm Ruweim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wad_ban_Naqa" title="Wad ban Naqa">Wad ban Naqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuma,_Sudan" title="Zuma, Sudan">Zuma</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f0e4ae;;border:1px solid #f0e4ae;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes#Language" title="Blemmyes">Blemmye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Meroitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroitic alphabet">Meroitic alphabet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Nubian" title="Old Nubian">Old Nubian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f0e4ae;;border:1px solid #f0e4ae;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushite_religion" title="Kushite religion">Kushite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f0e4ae;;border:1px solid #f0e4ae;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Deities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li>A</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Aman</a></li> <li>Amanete</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amesemi" title="Amesemi">Amesemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anhur" title="Anhur">Anhur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuket" title="Anuket">Anaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apedemak" title="Apedemak">Apedemak</a></li> <li>Aqedise</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arensnuphis" title="Arensnuphis">Arensnuphis</a></li> <li>Ariten</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hathor" title="Hathor">Atari</a></li> <li>B</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastet" title="Bastet">Bastet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bes" title="Bes">Bes</a></li> <li>Breith</li> <li>D</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedun" title="Dedun">Dedun</a></li> <li>H</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heka_(god)" title="Heka (god)">Heka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemen" title="Hemen">Hemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a></li> <li>K</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khnum" title="Khnum">Khenmu</a></li> <li>J</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a></li> <li>M</li> <li>Makedeke</li> <li>Mash</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehit" title="Mehit">Mehit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhit" title="Menhit">Menhit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandulis" title="Mandulis">Merul</a></li> <li>Miket</li> <li>N</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nu_(mythology)" title="Nu (mythology)">Nu</a></li> <li>R</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a></li> <li>S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satis_(goddess)" title="Satis (goddess)">Satis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebiumeker" title="Sebiumeker">Sabomakal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobek" title="Sobek">Sobek</a></li> <li>T</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoth" title="Thoth">Thoth</a></li> <li>W</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Wusa</a></li> <li>Y</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f0e4ae;;border:1px solid #f0e4ae;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Temples</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faras_Cathedral" title="Faras Cathedral">Faras Cathedral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulubnarti_church" title="Kulubnarti church">Kulubnarti church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastery_in_Ghazali" title="Monastery in Ghazali">Monastery in Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philae_temple_complex" title="Philae temple complex">Philae temple complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Qasr Ibrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qustul" title="Qustul">Qustul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semna_(Nubia)" title="Semna (Nubia)">Semna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Amun,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Amun (Jebel Barkal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabo_(Nubia)" title="Tabo (Nubia)">Temple of Amun (Tabo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra#Lion_Temple" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Temple of Apedemak (Lion Temple)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Dendur" title="Temple of Dendur">Temple of Dendur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Mut,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Mut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throne_Hall_of_Dongola" title="Throne Hall of Dongola">Throne Hall of Dongola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombos_(Nubia)" title="Tombos (Nubia)">Tombos</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f0e4ae;;border:1px solid #f0e4ae;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Sudan" title="Architecture of Sudan">Architecture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monumental_depictions_of_Amanitore" title="Monumental depictions of Amanitore">Monumental depictions of Amanitore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Nubian architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Nubian pyramids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_vault" title="Nubian vault">Nubian vault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramids_of_Mero%C3%AB" title="Pyramids of Meroë">Pyramids of Meroë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedeinga_pyramids" title="Sedeinga pyramids">Sedeinga pyramids</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f0e4ae;;border:1px solid #f0e4ae;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Technology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafir" title="Hafir">Hafir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Nubia" title="Category:History of Nubia">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Nubia" title="Template:History of Nubia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:History_of_Nubia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:History of Nubia (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Nubia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Nubia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistics">Linguistics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Linguistics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian languages</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="font-size:100%; width:300px; border-collapse:collapse; border:1px solid #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]]; background: #FFFFDE [[Category:Egypt portal]]; color: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]]; line-height:inherit;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; background-color: #FFE39B [[Category:Egypt portal]]"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Nubia in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="vertical-align:middle; background-color: #FFFFDE [[Category:Egypt portal]]; color: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]]; border: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]] 1px solid; padding: 0.4em;"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N17.png?35167" height="6" title="N17" alt="N17" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_Aa32.png?719d1" height="38" title="Aa32" alt="Aa32" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="11" title="X1" alt="X1" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N18.png?7c664" height="8" title="N18" alt="N18" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table><a href="#cite_note-E118-7">[7]</a> Ta-seti T3-stj Curved land<a href="#cite_note-E118-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="vertical-align:middle; background-color: #FFFFDE [[Category:Egypt portal]]; color: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]]; border: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]] 1px solid; padding: 0.4em;"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_O34.png?63e15" height="6" title="O34" alt="O34" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="11" title="X1" alt="X1" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_Aa32.png?719d1" height="38" title="Aa32" alt="Aa32" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N18.png?7c664" height="8" title="N18" alt="N18" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="16" title="N25" alt="N25" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_A1.png?f2968" height="31" title="A1" alt="A1" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_Z2.png?805ea" height="8" title="Z2" alt="Z2" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table><a href="#cite_note-L697-8">[8]</a> Setiu Stjw Curved land of the Nubians<a href="#cite_note-L697-8">[8]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="vertical-align:middle; background-color: #FFFFDE [[Category:Egypt portal]]; color: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]]; border: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]] 1px solid; padding: 0.4em;"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="5" title="N35" alt="N35" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_V28.png?f1179" height="38" title="V28 [H]" alt="H" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_O34.png?63e15" height="6" title="O34 [z]" alt="z" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="11" title="X1 [t]" alt="t" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="16" title="N25" alt="N25" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="vertical-align:middle; background-color: #FFFFDE [[Category:Egypt portal]]; color: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]]; border: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]] 1px solid; padding: 0.4em;"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G21.png?9ce3d" height="38" title="G21" alt="G21" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_V28.png?f1179" height="38" title="V28 [H]" alt="H" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_S29.png?58979" height="38" title="S29 [s]" alt="s" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_M17.png?2e70b" height="38" title="M17" alt="M17" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_M17.png?2e70b" height="38" title="M17" alt="M17" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G43.png?6eb40" height="38" title="G43" alt="G43" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_A13.png?af91d" height="38" title="A13" alt="A13" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="vertical-align:middle; background-color: #FFFFDE [[Category:Egypt portal]]; color: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]]; border: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]] 1px solid; padding: 0.4em;"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N35.png?fcc27" height="4" title="N35" alt="N35" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G21.png?9ce3d" height="35" title="G21" alt="G21" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_V28.png?f1179" height="38" title="V28 [H]" alt="H" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_S29.png?58979" height="38" title="S29 [s]" alt="s" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_Z4.png?dbdf8" height="14" title="Z4" alt="Z4" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_T14.png?183d0" height="38" title="T14" alt="T14" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_A2.png?be01e" height="38" title="A2" alt="A2" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> Nehset / Nehsyu / Nehsi Nḥst / Nḥsyw / Nḥsj Nubia / Nubians</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="vertical-align:top; background-color: #EEEECD [[Category:Egypt portal]]; border: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]] 1px solid;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nubia_NASA-WW_places_german.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Nubia_NASA-WW_places_german.jpg/250px-Nubia_NASA-WW_places_german.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="383" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Nubia_NASA-WW_places_german.jpg/375px-Nubia_NASA-WW_places_german.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Nubia_NASA-WW_places_german.jpg 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> Nubia</td></tr></tbody></table> Historically, the people of Nubia spoke at least two varieties of <a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian languages</a>, a subfamily that includes <a href="/wiki/Nobiin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobiin">Nobiin</a> (the descendant of Old Nubian), <a href="/wiki/Dongolawi_language" title="Dongolawi language">Dongolawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midob_people" title="Midob people">Midob</a> and several related varieties in the northern part of the <a href="/wiki/Nuba_Mountains" title="Nuba Mountains">Nuba Mountains</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Kordofan" title="South Kordofan">South Kordofan</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Birgid_language" title="Birgid language">Birgid language</a> was spoken north of <a href="/wiki/Nyala,_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyala, Sudan">Nyala</a> in <a href="/wiki/Darfur" title="Darfur">Darfur</a>, but became extinct as late as 1970. However, the linguistic identity of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Kerma_culture" title="Kerma culture">Kerma culture</a> of southern and central Nubia (also known as <a href="/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a>), is uncertain; some research suggests that it belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic languages</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Bechaus-Gerst-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lbant-10">[10]</a> while more recent studies indicate that the Kerma culture belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Sudanic">Eastern Sudanic</a> branch of Nilo-Saharan languages instead, and that other peoples of northern or <a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a> north of Kerma (such as the <a href="/wiki/C-Group_culture" title="C-Group culture">C-Group culture</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a>) spoke Cushitic languages before the spread of Eastern Sudanic languages from southern or <a href="/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rilly2010-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rilly200162-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rilly2008-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooper-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aethiopia" title="Aethiopia">Aethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_expeditions_to_Nubia" title="Archaeological expeditions to Nubia">Archaeological expeditions to Nubia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nile_boat" title="Nile boat">Nile boat</a></div> Nubia was divided into three major regions: Upper, Middle, and Lower Nubia, in reference to their locations along the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>. "Lower" referred to regions downstream (further north) and "upper" to regions upstream (further south). <a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a> lay between the First and the Second <a href="/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">Cataracts</a> within the current borders of Egypt, Middle Nubia lay between the Second and the Third Cataracts, and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a> lay south of the Third Cataract.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory_(before_6000–3500_BC)">Prehistory (before 6000–3500 BC)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prehistory (before 6000–3500 BC)">edit</a>]</div> Archaeological evidence attests to long histories of fishing-hunting-gathering, and later herding, throughout the Nile Valley.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Affad_23" class="mw-redirect" title="Affad 23">Affad 23</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">archaeological site</a> located in the <a href="/wiki/Affad_Basin" title="Affad Basin">Affad</a> region of southern Dongola Reach in northern <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Osypiński-17">[17]</a> which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest open-air <a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">hut</a> in the world) and diverse <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">gathering</a> loci some 50,000 years old".<a href="#cite_note-Osypiński_II-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Osypińska-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Osypińska_II-20">[20]</a> In southern Nubia (near modern Khartoum) from the ninth to the sixth millennia cal BC, Khartoum Mesolithic fisher-hunter-gatherers produced sophisticated pottery.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> By 5000 BC, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia participated in the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>. The Sahara became drier and people began to domesticate sheep, goats, and cattle.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a> Saharan <a href="/wiki/Sabu-Jaddi" title="Sabu-Jaddi">rock reliefs</a> depict scenes that have been thought to suggest the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Cattle_cult" class="mw-redirect" title="Cattle cult">cattle cult</a>, typical of those seen throughout parts of Eastern Africa and the Nile Valley even to this day.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Nubian rock art depicts hunters using bows and arrows in the Neolithic period, which is a precursor to Nubian archer culture in later times. Megaliths discovered at <a href="/wiki/Nabta_Playa" title="Nabta Playa">Nabta Playa</a> are early examples of what seems to be one of the world's first <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomical</a> devices, predating <a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> by almost 2,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> This complexity as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom of Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> American anthropologist, Joseph Vogel wrote that: <blockquote>"The period when <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> was most influential in Egypt was a time when neither Egypt, as we understand it culturally, nor the Sahara, as we understand it geographically, existed. Populations and cultures now found south of the desert roamed far to the north. The culture of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>, which became dynastic Egyptian civilization, could fairly be called a Sudanese transplant."<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></blockquote> British Africanist <a href="/wiki/Basil_Davidson" title="Basil Davidson">Basil Davidson</a> outlined that "The ancient Egyptians belonged, that is, not to any specific Egyptian region or Near Eastern heritage but to that wide community of peoples who lived between the Red Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, shared a common "Saharan-Sudanese culture", and drew their reinforcements from the same great source, even though, as time went by, they also absorbed a number of wanderers from the Near East".<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological anthropologists</a> Shomarka Keita and A.J. Boyce have stated that the "Studies of crania from <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">southern predynastic Egypt</a>, from the formative period (4000-3100 B.C.), show them usually to be more similar to the crania of ancient Nubians, Kushites, Saharans, or modern groups from the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> than to those of dynastic northern Egyptians or ancient or modern southern Europeans."<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late Pleistocene era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Several scholars have argued that the African origins of the Egyptian civilization derived from pastoral communities which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese regions of the Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-academia.edu-31">[31]</a> Dietrich Wildung (2018) examined Eastern Saharan pottery styles and Sudanese stone sculptures and suggested these artefacts were transmitted across the Nile Valley and influenced the pre-dynastic Egyptian culture in the Neolithic period.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Kerma;_A-Group_(3500-3000_BC)">Pre-Kerma; A-Group (3500-3000 BC)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pre-Kerma; A-Group (3500-3000 BC)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nubian_A_group.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Nubian_A_group.jpg/220px-Nubian_A_group.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Nubian_A_group.jpg/330px-Nubian_A_group.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Nubian_A_group.jpg/440px-Nubian_A_group.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2381" data-file-height="976" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Nubian_A-Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubian A-Group">A-Group</a>" style, Nubian pottery, <a href="/wiki/Musee_du_Louvre" class="mw-redirect" title="Musee du Louvre">Musee du Louvre</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Upper_Nubia">Upper Nubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Upper Nubia">edit</a>]</div> The poorly known "<a href="/wiki/Pre-Kerma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Kerma">pre-Kerma</a>" culture existed in Upper (Southern) Nubia on a stretch of fertile farmland just south of the <a href="/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile#The_Six_Cataracts" title="Cataracts of the Nile">Third Cataract</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lower_Nubia">Lower Nubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lower Nubia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qustul_Incense_Burner,_Qustal,_Nubia,_Cemetery_L,_tomb_24,_A-Group,_3200-3000_BC,_limestone_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum,_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC08007.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Qustul_Incense_Burner%2C_Qustal%2C_Nubia%2C_Cemetery_L%2C_tomb_24%2C_A-Group%2C_3200-3000_BC%2C_limestone_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum%2C_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC08007.JPG/150px-Qustul_Incense_Burner%2C_Qustal%2C_Nubia%2C_Cemetery_L%2C_tomb_24%2C_A-Group%2C_3200-3000_BC%2C_limestone_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum%2C_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC08007.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Qustul_Incense_Burner%2C_Qustal%2C_Nubia%2C_Cemetery_L%2C_tomb_24%2C_A-Group%2C_3200-3000_BC%2C_limestone_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum%2C_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC08007.JPG/225px-Qustul_Incense_Burner%2C_Qustal%2C_Nubia%2C_Cemetery_L%2C_tomb_24%2C_A-Group%2C_3200-3000_BC%2C_limestone_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum%2C_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC08007.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Qustul_Incense_Burner%2C_Qustal%2C_Nubia%2C_Cemetery_L%2C_tomb_24%2C_A-Group%2C_3200-3000_BC%2C_limestone_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum%2C_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC08007.JPG/300px-Qustul_Incense_Burner%2C_Qustal%2C_Nubia%2C_Cemetery_L%2C_tomb_24%2C_A-Group%2C_3200-3000_BC%2C_limestone_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum%2C_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC08007.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2589" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Qustul" title="Qustul">Qustul</a> incense burner, 3200–3000 BC</figcaption></figure> Nubia has one of the oldest civilizations in the world. This history is often intertwined with Egypt to the north.<a href="#cite_note-Haynes-33">[33]</a>: 16  Around 3500 BC, the second "Nubian" culture, termed the Early <a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group culture</a>, arose in Lower Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> They were sedentary agriculturalists,<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 6  traded with the Egyptians and exported gold.<a href="#cite_note-Emberling-35">[35]</a> This trade is supported archaeologically by large amounts of Egyptian commodities deposited in the A-Group graves. The imports consisted of gold objects, copper tools, <a href="/wiki/Faience" title="Faience">faience</a> amulets and beads, seals, slate palettes, stone vessels, and a variety of pots.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> During this time, the Nubians began creating distinctive black topped, red pottery. The A-Group population have been described as ethnically “very similar” to the pre-dynastic <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> in physical characteristics.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Around 3100 BC, the A-group transitioned from the Early to Classical phases. "Arguably royal burials are known only at Qustul and possibly Sayala."<a href="#cite_note-Emberling-35">[35]</a>: 8  During this period, the wealth of A-group kings rivaled Egyptian kings. Royal A-group graves contained gold and richly decorated pottery.<a href="#cite_note-Haynes-33">[33]</a>: 19  Some scholars believe Nubian A-Group rulers and early Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaohs</a> used related royal symbols; similarities in A-Group Nubia and Upper Egypt rock art support this position. Scholars from the University of Chicago Oriental Institute excavated at <a href="/wiki/Qustul" title="Qustul">Qustul</a> (near Abu Simbel in Sudan), in 1960–64, and found artifacts which incorporated images associated with Egyptian pharaohs. Archeologist Bruce Williams studied the artifacts and concluded that "Egypt and Nubia A-Group culture shared the same official culture", "participated in the most complex dynastic developments", and "Nubia and Egypt were both part of the great East African substratum".<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Williams also wrote that Qustul "could well have been the seat of Egypt's founding dynasty".<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> David O'Connor wrote that the Qustul incense burner provides evidence that the A-group Nubian culture in Qustul marked the "pivotal change" from <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">predynastic</a> to dynastic "Egyptian monumental art".<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> However, "most scholars do not agree with this hypothesis",<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> as more recent finds in Egypt indicate that this iconography originated in Egypt instead of Nubia, and that the Qustul rulers adopted or emulated the symbols of Egyptian pharaohs.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/David_Wengrow" title="David Wengrow">David Wengrow</a>, the A-Group polity of the late 4th millenninum BCE is poorly understood since most of the archaeological remains are submerged underneath Lake Nasser.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frank_Yurco" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Yurco">Frank Yurco</a> also remarked that depictions of pharonic iconography such as the royal crowns, Horus falcons and victory scenes were concentrated in the Upper Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Naqada_culture" title="Naqada culture">Naqada culture</a> and A-Group Nubia. He further elaborated that "Egyptian writing arose in Naqadan <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> and A-Group Nubia, and not in the Delta cultures, where the direct <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asian</a> contact was made, further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument".<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The archaeological cemeteries at Qustul are no longer available for excavations since the flooding of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Nasser" title="Lake Nasser">Lake Nasser</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The earliest representations of pharaonic iconography have been excavated from Nag el-Hamdulab in <a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a>, the extreme southern region of Egypt which borders the Sudan, with an estimated dating range between 3200 and 3100 BC.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egypt_in_Nubia">Egypt in Nubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Egypt in Nubia">edit</a>]</div> Writing developed in Egypt around 3300 BC. In their writings, Egyptians referred to Nubia as "<a href="/wiki/Ta-Seti" title="Ta-Seti">Ta-Seti</a>", or "The Land of the Bow," as the Nubians were known to be expert archers.<a href="#cite_note-Emberling_2011_8-51">[51]</a> More recent and broader studies have determined that the distinct pottery styles, differing burial practices, different grave goods, and site distribution all indicate that the Naqada people and the Nubian A-Group people were from different cultures. <a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Bard" class="mw-redirect" title="Kathryn Bard">Kathryn Bard</a> states that "Naqada cultural burials contain very few Nubian craft goods, which suggests that while Egyptian goods were exported to Nubia and were buried in A-Group graves, A-Group goods were of little interest further north."<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> According to anthropologist Jane Hill, there is no evidence that the pharaohs of the <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty of Egypt</a> buried at <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a> were of Nubian origin.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> However, several <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">biological anthropological</a> studies have shown the Badarian and Naqada people to be closely related to the Nubian and other, <a href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">tropical</a> African populations.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Also, the proto-dynastic kings emerged from the Naqada region.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Kerma_(3000–2400_BC)">Early Kerma (3000–2400 BC)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early Kerma (3000–2400 BC)">edit</a>]</div> A uniform culture of nomadic herders, called the <a href="/wiki/Gash_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Gash group">Gash group</a>, existed from 3000 to 1500 BC to the east and west of Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 8  In Lower Nubia, the A-group moved from the Classical to Terminal phase. At this time, kings at Qustul likely ruled all of Lower Nubia and demonstrated the political centralization of Nubian society.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 21  The A-Group culture came to an end sometime between 3100 and 2900 BC, when it was apparently destroyed by the First Dynasty rulers of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-OrientInst-62">[62]</a> There are no records of settlement in Lower Nubia for the next 600 years. Old Kingdom Egyptian dynasties (4th to 6th) controlled uninhabited Lower Nubia and raided Upper Nubia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Kerma;_C-Group_(2400–1550_BC)">Early Kerma; C-Group (2400–1550 BC)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early Kerma; C-Group (2400–1550 BC)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Upper_Nubia_2">Upper Nubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Upper Nubia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kerma_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Kerma_1.jpg/220px-Kerma_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Kerma_1.jpg/330px-Kerma_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Kerma_1.jpg/440px-Kerma_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1788" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption>Kerma style pottery (2500–1500 BC)</figcaption></figure> The pre-Kerma developed into the Middle phase Kerma group. Some A-group people (transitioning to C-group) settled the area and co-existed with the pre-Kerma group.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 25  Like other Nubian groups, the two groups made an abundance of red pottery with black tops, though each group made different shapes.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 29  Traces of the C-group in Upper Nubia vanish by 2000 BC and Kerma culture began to dominate Upper Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 25  The power of an independent Upper Nubia increased around 1700 BC and Upper Nubia dominated Lower Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 25  An Egyptian official, Harkhuf, mentions that Irtjet, Setjet, and Wawat all combined under a single ruler. By 1650 BC, Egyptian texts started to refer to only two kingdoms in Nubia: Kush and Shaat.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 32, 38  Kush was centered at Kerma and Shaat was centered on Sai island.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 38  Bonnet posits that Kush actually ruled all of Upper Nubia, since "royal" graves were much larger in Kush than Shaat and Egyptian texts other than the Execration lists only refer to Kush (and not Shaat).<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 38–39  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lower_Nubia_2">Lower Nubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Lower Nubia">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/C-Group_culture" title="C-Group culture">C-group Nubians</a> resettled Lower Nubia by 2400 BC.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 25  As trade between Egypt and Nubia increased, so did wealth and stability. Nubia was divided into a series of small kingdoms. There is debate over whether the C-group people,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> who flourished from 2500 BC to 1500 BC, were another internal evolution or invaders. O'Connor states "a transition from A group into a later culture, the C-group, can be traced" and the C-group culture was typical of Lower Nubia from 2400 to 1650 BC.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 25  Although they lived in close proximity to each other, Nubians did not acculturate much to Egyptian culture. Notable exceptions include C-group Nubians during the 15th Dynasty, isolated Nubian communities in Egypt, and some bowmen communities.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 56  C-Group pottery is characterized by all-over incised geometric lines with white infill and impressed imitations of basketry. Lower Nubia was controlled by Egypt from 2000 to 1700 BC and Upper Nubia from 1700 to 1525 BC. From 2200 to 1700 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Pan_Grave_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan Grave culture">Pan Grave culture</a> appeared in Lower Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-Haynes-33">[33]</a>: 20  Some of the people were likely the <a href="/wiki/Medjay" title="Medjay">Medjay</a> (mḏꜣ,<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>) arriving from the desert east of the Nile river. One feature of Pan Grave culture was shallow grave burial. The Pan Grave and C-Group definitely interacted: Pan Grave pottery is characterized by more limited incised lines than the C-Group's and generally have interspersed undecorated spaces within the geometric schemes.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egypt_in_Nubia_2">Egypt in Nubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Egypt in Nubia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nubian_Archers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Nubian_Archers.jpg/220px-Nubian_Archers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Nubian_Archers.jpg/330px-Nubian_Archers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Nubian_Archers.jpg/440px-Nubian_Archers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/11th_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="11th Dynasty">11th Dynasty</a> model of Nubian archers in the Egyptian army, from a tomb in <a href="/wiki/Asyut" title="Asyut">Asyut</a> (c. 2130–1991 BC).</figcaption></figure> In 2300 BC, Nubia was first mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a> Egyptian accounts of trade missions. The Egyptians referred to Lower Nubia as Wawat, Irtjet, and Setju, while they referred to Upper Nubia as Yam. Some authors believe that Irtjet and Setju could also have been in Upper Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 32  They referred to Nubians dwelling near the river as Nehasyu.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 26  From <a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a>, the southern limit of Egyptian control at the time, Egyptians imported gold, incense, ebony, copper, ivory, and exotic animals from tropical Africa through Nubia. Relations between the Egyptians and Nubians showed peaceful cultural interchange, cooperation, and mixed marriages. Nubian bowmen that settled at Gebelein during the First Intermediate Period married Egyptian women, were buried in Egyptian style, and eventually could not be distinguished from Egyptians.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 56  Older scholarship noted that some Egyptian pharaohs may have had Nubian ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-The_making_of_Egypt-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Richard Loban expressed the view that <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a> of the 11th Dynasty "was quite possibly of Nubian origin" and cited historical evidence which mentioned that <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhet I</a>, founder of the 12th Dynasty, "had a Ta Seti or Nubian mother".<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rowman_&_Littlefield-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Dietrich Wildung has argued that Nubian features were common in Egyptian iconography since the pre-dynastic era and that several pharaohs such as <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a> were represented with these Nubian features.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Frank Yurco wrote that "Egyptian rulers of Nubian ancestry had become Egyptians culturally; as pharaohs, they exhibited typical Egyptian attitudes and adopted typical Egyptian policies". Yurco noted that some Middle Kingdom rulers, particularly some pharaohs of the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty</a> had strong Nubian features, due to the origin of the dynasty in the Aswan region of southern Egypt. He also identified the pharaoh Sequenre Tao of the <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth Dynasty</a>, as having Nubian features.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Many scholars in recent years have argued that the mother of Amenemhat I, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty</a> was of Nubian origin.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rowman_&_Littlefield-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morris-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> After a period of withdrawal, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a> conquered Lower Nubia from 2000 to 1700 BC.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 8, 25  By 1900 BC, King Sesostris I began building a series of towns below the Second Cataract with heavy fortresses that had enclosures and drawbridges.<a href="#cite_note-Haynes-33">[33]</a>: 19  <a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Sesotris III</a> relentlessly expanded his kingdom into Nubia (from 1866 to 1863 BC) and erected massive river forts including <a href="/wiki/Buhen" title="Buhen">Buhen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semna_(Nubia)" title="Semna (Nubia)">Semna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shalfak" title="Shalfak">Shalfak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toshka" class="mw-redirect" title="Toshka">Toshka</a> at <a href="/wiki/Uronarti" title="Uronarti">Uronarti</a> to gain more control over the trade routes in Lower Nubia. They also provided direct access to trade with Upper Nubia, which was independent and increasingly powerful during this time. These Egyptian garrisons seemed to peacefully coexist with the local Nubian people, though they did not interact much with them.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Medjay was the name given by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> to nomadic desert dwellers from east of the Nile River. The term was used variously to describe a location, the Medjay people, or their role/job in the kingdom. They became part of the Egyptian military as scouts and minor workers before being incorporated into the Egyptian army.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the army, the Medjay served as garrison troops in Egyptian fortifications in Nubia and patrolled the deserts as a kind of <a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">gendarmerie</a>,<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> or elite paramilitary police force,<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-81">[81]</a> to prevent their fellow Medjay tribespeople from further attacking Egyptian assets in the region.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-81">[81]</a> The Medjay were often used to protect valuable areas, especially royal and religious complexes. Although they are most notable for their protection of the royal palaces and tombs in <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a> and the surrounding areas, the Medjay were deployed throughout Upper and Lower Egypt; they were even used during <a href="/wiki/Kamose" title="Kamose">Kamose</a>'s campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a> and became instrumental in turning the Egyptian state into a military power.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period of Egypt</a>, the Medjay district was no longer mentioned in written records.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kerma;_Egyptian_Empire_(1550–1100_BC)">Kerma; Egyptian Empire (1550–1100 BC)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Kerma; Egyptian Empire (1550–1100 BC)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Upper_Nubia_3">Upper Nubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Upper Nubia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kerma_culture" title="Kerma culture">Kerma culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Deffufa_-_Kerma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Western_Deffufa_-_Kerma.jpg/220px-Western_Deffufa_-_Kerma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Western_Deffufa_-_Kerma.jpg/330px-Western_Deffufa_-_Kerma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Western_Deffufa_-_Kerma.jpg/440px-Western_Deffufa_-_Kerma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>The Western Deffufa of Sudan</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daggers_of_bone_and_copper,_1750-1450_BCE,_Kerma,_British_Museum_EA55442.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Daggers_of_bone_and_copper%2C_1750-1450_BCE%2C_Kerma%2C_British_Museum_EA55442.jpg/220px-Daggers_of_bone_and_copper%2C_1750-1450_BCE%2C_Kerma%2C_British_Museum_EA55442.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Daggers_of_bone_and_copper%2C_1750-1450_BCE%2C_Kerma%2C_British_Museum_EA55442.jpg/330px-Daggers_of_bone_and_copper%2C_1750-1450_BCE%2C_Kerma%2C_British_Museum_EA55442.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Daggers_of_bone_and_copper%2C_1750-1450_BCE%2C_Kerma%2C_British_Museum_EA55442.jpg/440px-Daggers_of_bone_and_copper%2C_1750-1450_BCE%2C_Kerma%2C_British_Museum_EA55442.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4173" data-file-height="2782" /></a><figcaption>Daggers of bone and copper, 1750–1450 BC, Kerma, British Museum EA55442</figcaption></figure> From the Middle Kerma phase, the first Nubian kingdom to unify much of the region arose. The Classic Kerma culture, named for its royal capital at <a href="/wiki/Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a>, was one of the earliest urban centers in the Nile region and oldest city in Africa outside of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 50–51  The Kerma group spoke either languages of the <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a> branch<a href="#cite_note-Bechaus-Gerst-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lbant-10">[10]</a> or, according to more recent research, <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nilo-Saharan">Nilo-Saharan</a> languages of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Sudanic">Eastern Sudanic</a> branch.<a href="#cite_note-Rilly2010-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rilly200162-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rilly2008-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooper-14">[14]</a> By 1650 BC (Classic Kerma phase), the kings of Kerma were powerful enough to organize the labor for monumental town walls and large mud brick structures, such as the Eastern and Western Deffufas (50 by 25 by 18 meters). They also had rich tombs with possessions for the afterlife and large <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifices</a>. <a href="/wiki/George_Andrew_Reisner" title="George Andrew Reisner">George Andrew Reisner</a> excavated sites at the royal city of Kerma and found distinctive <a href="/wiki/Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Nubian architecture</a>, such as large pebble covered tombs (90 meters in diameter), a large circular dwelling, and a palace-like structure.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 41  Classic Kerma rulers employed "a good many Egyptians", according to the Egyptian Execration texts.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 57  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exposition_Nubia,_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period,_1700-1550_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg/220px-Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg/330px-Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg/440px-Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5804" data-file-height="4097" /></a><figcaption>Mirror. Kerma Period, 1700–1550 BC.</figcaption></figure> Kerma culture was militaristic, as attested by many archers' burials and bronze daggers/swords found in their graves.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 31  Other signs of Nubia's military prowess are the frequent use of Nubians in Egypt's military and Egypt's need to construct numerous fortresses to defend their southern border from the Nubians.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 31  Despite assimilation, the Nubian elite remained rebellious during Egyptian occupation. There were numerous rebellions and "military conflict occurred almost under every reign until the 20th dynasty".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 102–103  At one point, Kerma came very close to conquering Egypt: Egypt suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> According to Davies, head of the joint <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> and Egyptian archaeological team, the attack was so devastating that, if the Kerma forces had chosen to stay and occupy Egypt, they might have permanently eliminated the Egyptians and brought the nation to extinction. During Egypt's Second Intermediate period, the Kushites reached the height of their Bronze Age power and completely controlled southern trade with Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 41  They maintained diplomatic ties with the Thebans and Hyksos until the New Kingdom pharaohs brought all of Nubia under Egyptian rule from 1500 to 1070 BC.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 41  After 1070 BC, there were continued hostilities with Egypt, which led Nubians to concentrate in Upper Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 58  Within 200 years, a fully formed Kushite state, based at Napata, began to exert its influence on Upper (Southern) Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 58–59  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lower_Nubia_3">Lower Nubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Lower Nubia">edit</a>]</div> When the Middle Kingdom Egyptians pulled out of the Napata region around 1700 BC, they left a lasting legacy that was merged with indigenous C-group customs. Egyptians remaining at the garrison towns started to merge with the C-group Nubians in Lower Nubia. The C-group quickly adopted Egyptian customs and culture, as attested by their graves, and lived together with the remaining Egyptians in garrison towns.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 41  After Upper Nubia annexed Lower Nubia around 1700 BC, the Kingdom of Kush began to control the area. At this point, C-group Nubians and Egyptians began to proclaim their allegiance to the Kushite King in their inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 41  Egypt conquered Lower and Upper Nubia from 1500 to 1070 BC. However, the Kingdom of Kush survived longer than Egypt. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egypt_in_Nubia_3">Egypt in Nubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Egypt in Nubia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut,_18th_dynasty,_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg/220px-Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg/330px-Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg/440px-Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Nubian Prince <a href="/wiki/Heqanefer" title="Heqanefer">Heqanefer</a> bringing tribute for King <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a>, 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy. Circa 1342 – c. 1325 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TurinPapyrus1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/TurinPapyrus1.jpg/220px-TurinPapyrus1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/TurinPapyrus1.jpg/330px-TurinPapyrus1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/TurinPapyrus1.jpg/440px-TurinPapyrus1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2846" data-file-height="1121" /></a><figcaption>The Turin Papyrus Map, dating to about 1160 BC</figcaption></figure> After the Theban 17th Dynasty <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a> (c. 1532–1070 BC) expelled the Canaanite Hyksos from Egypt, they turned their imperial ambitions to Nubia. By the end of <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a>'s reign (1520 BC), all of Lower Nubia had been annexed. After a long campaign, Egypt also conquered the Kingdom of Kerma in Upper Nubia and held both areas until 1070 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 101–102 <a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 25  The Egyptian empire expanded into the Fourth Cataract, and a new administrative center was built at <a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a>, which became a <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and incense production area.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Egypt became a prime source of gold in the Middle East. The primitive working conditions for the slaves are recorded by <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> One of the oldest maps known is of a gold mine in Nubia: the <a href="/wiki/Turin_Papyrus_Map" title="Turin Papyrus Map">Turin Papyrus Map</a> dating to about 1160 BC; it is also one of the earliest characterized road maps in existence.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Nubians were an integral part of New Kingdom Egyptian society. Some scholars state that Nubians were included in the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">18th Dynasty of Egypt</a>'s royal family.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmose-Nefertari" title="Ahmose-Nefertari">Ahmose-Nefertari</a>, "arguably the most venerated woman in Egyptian history",<a href="#cite_note-gestoso-94">[94]</a> was thought by some scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Flinders_Petrie" title="Flinders Petrie">Flinders Petrie</a> to be of Nubian origin because she is most often depicted with black skin.<a href="#cite_note-The_making_of_Egypt-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mokhtar_1990_1–118-95">[95]</a>: 17 <a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The mummy of <a href="/wiki/Ahmose-Nefertari" title="Ahmose-Nefertari">Ahmose-Nefertari</a>'s father, <a href="/wiki/Seqenenre_Tao" title="Seqenenre Tao">Seqenenre Tao</a>, has been described as presenting "tightly curled, woolly hair", with "a slight build and strongly Nubian features".<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Some modern scholars also believe that in some depictions, her skin color is indicative of her role as a goddess of resurrection, since black is both the color of the fertile land of Egypt and that of the underworld.<a href="#cite_note-gitton81-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tyldesley-99">[99]</a>: 90 <a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-gestoso-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-dh-101">[101]</a>: 125  However, there is no known depiction of her painted during her lifetime (she is represented with the same light skin as other represented individuals in tomb TT15, before her deification); the earliest black skin depiction appears in tomb TT161, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150 years after her death.: 11–12, 23, 74–5 <a href="#cite_note-dh-101">[101]</a>: 125  Egyptologist Barbara Lesko wrote in 1996 that Ahmose-Nefertari was "sometimes portrayed by later generations as having been black, although her coffin portrait gives her the typical light yellow skin of women."<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> In 2009, Egyptologist Elena Vassilika, noting that in a wooden statuette of the queen (now at the <a href="/wiki/Museo_Egizio" title="Museo Egizio">Museo Egizio</a>) the face is painted black but the arms and feet are light in color, argued that the reason for the black coloring in that case was religious and not genetic.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a>: 78–9  In 1098–1088 BC, Thebes was "the scene of a civil war-like conflict between the High Priest of Amun of Thebes Amenhotep and the Viceroy of Kush <a href="/wiki/Pinehesy" title="Pinehesy">Panehesy</a> (= the Nubian)". It was chaotic and many tombs were plundered. Instead of sending soldiers to restore order, <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a> put Panehesy in control of that area's military and appointed him Director of Granaries. Panehesy stationed his troops in Thebes to protect the city from thieves, but it resembled a military occupation of Thebes to the High Priest, which later led to the Civil war in Thebes.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 104–105  By 1082 BC, Ramesses XI finally sent help to the High Priest. Panehesy continued his revolt and the city of Thebes suffered from "war, famine, and plunderings".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 106  Panehesy initially succeeded and the High Priest fled Thebes. Panehesy pursued the High Priest as far as Middle Egypt before Egyptian forces pushed Panehesy and his troops out of Egypt and into Lower Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 106  Ramesses sent new leadership to Thebes: <a href="/wiki/Herihor" title="Herihor">Herihor</a> was named the new High Priest of Thebes (and effectively King of Southern Egypt) and Paiankh was named the new Viceroy of Kush. Paiankh recaptured former Egyptian holdings in Lower Nubia as far as the second Nile cataract, but could not defeat Panehesy in Lower Nubia, who ruled the area until his death.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 106  Herihor's descendants became rulers of Egypt's 21st and 22nd Dynasties. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Napatan_Empire_(750–542_BC)">Napatan Empire (750–542 BC)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Napatan Empire (750–542 BC)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyramids_of_Nuri_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption>Pyramids of Kushite rulers at <a href="/wiki/Nuri" title="Nuri">Nuri</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyramid_of_Taharqa_at_Nuri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Pyramid_of_Taharqa_at_Nuri.jpg/220px-Pyramid_of_Taharqa_at_Nuri.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Pyramid_of_Taharqa_at_Nuri.jpg/330px-Pyramid_of_Taharqa_at_Nuri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Pyramid_of_Taharqa_at_Nuri.jpg/440px-Pyramid_of_Taharqa_at_Nuri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1514" /></a><figcaption>Pyramid of Taharqa at Nuri , 51.75m in side length and possibly as much as 50m high, was the largest built in Sudan.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.academia.edu/37204924/Taharqa_Routed_by_Assarhaddon_Memphis_Sacked_Kush_Ethiopia_Driven_from_Lower_Egypt_Part_VIII_2010_">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg/170px-Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg/255px-Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg/340px-Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a><figcaption>Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK</figcaption></figure> There are competing theories on the origins of the Kushite kings of the 25th Dynasty:<a href="#cite_note-:0-104">[104]</a> some scholars believe they were Nubian officials that learned "state level organization" by administering Egyptian-held Nubia from 1500 to 1070 BC,<a href="#cite_note-OConnor-22">[22]</a>: 59  such as the rebel Viceroy of Kush, Panehesy, who ruled Upper Nubia and some of Lower Nubia after Egyptian forces withdrew.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 110  Other scholars believe they are descended from families of the Egyptianized Nubian elite supported by Egyptian priests or settlers.<a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-104">[104]</a> Children of elite Nubian families were sent to be educated in Egypt then returned to Kush to be appointed in bureaucratic positions to ensure their loyalty. During the Egyptian occupation of Nubia, there were temple towns with Egyptian cults, but "production and redistribution" was based mostly on indigenous social structures.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 111  The El Kurru chiefdom likely played a major role in the development of the Kingdom of Kush due to its access to gold producing areas, control of caravan routes,<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 112  more arable land, and participation in international trade.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 121  "There can be no doubt that el-Kurru was the burial place of the ancestors of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty."<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 112  The early el-Kurru burials resemble Nubian Kerma/C-group traditions (contracted body, circular stone structures, burial on a bed).<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 121  However, by 880–815 BC, Nubian burials at el-Kurru became more Egyptian in style with "mastabas, or pyramid on mastabas, chapels, and rectangular enclosures".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 117, 121–122  Alara, the first el-Kurru prince, and his successor, <a href="/wiki/Kashta" title="Kashta">Kashta</a>, were buried at el-Kurru.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 123  Later documents mention Alara as the 25th Dynasty's founder and "central to a myth of the origins of the kingdom".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 124–126  Alara's sister was the priestess of Amun, which created a system of royal secession and an "ideology of royal power in which Kushite concepts and practice were united with contemporary Egyptian concepts of kingship".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 144  Later, Kashta's daughter, the Kushite princess Amenirdis, was installed as God's Wife of Amun Elect and later Divine Adoratrice (effectively governor of Upper Egypt), which signaled the Kushite conquest of Egyptian territories.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 148  The Napatan Empire ushered in the age of Egyptian archaism, or a return to a historical past, which was embodied by a concentrated effort at religious renewal and restoration of Egypt's holy places.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 169  <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> expanded the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Amun,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal</a><a href="#cite_note-Emberling-35">[35]</a> by adding "an immense colonnaded forecourt".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 163–164  <a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a> restored the great Egyptian monuments and temples, "unlike his Libyan predecessors".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 167–169  <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> enriched Thebes on a monumental scale."<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a> At Karnak, the Sacred Lake structures, the kiosk in the first court, and the colonnades at the temple entrance are all built by Taharqa and Mentuemhet. In addition to architecture, the Kingdom of Kush was deeply influenced by Egyptian culture.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> By 780 BC, <a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a> was the main god of Kush and "intense contacts with Thebes" were maintained.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 144  Kush used the methods of Egyptian art and writing.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The Nubian elite adopted many Egyptian customs and gave their children Egyptian names. Although some Nubian customs and beliefs (e.g. burial practices) continued to be practiced,<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 111  Egyptianization dominated in ideas, practices, and iconography.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The cultural Egyptianization of Nubia was at its highest levels at the times of both Kashta and Piye.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nubia_in_Egypt">Nubia in Egypt</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Nubia in Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg/220px-Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg/330px-Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg/440px-Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2294" /></a><figcaption>Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a>, circa 700 BC.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg/220px-Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg/330px-Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg/440px-Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Taharqa's <a href="/wiki/Kiosk" title="Kiosk">kiosk</a> and column, Karnak temple</figcaption></figure> Kashta peacefully became King of Upper and Lower Egypt with his daughter Amendiris as Divine Adoratrice of Amun in Thebes.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 144–146  Rulers of the 23rd Dynasty withdrew from Thebes to Heracleopolis, which avoided conflict with the new Kushite rulers of Thebes. Under Kashta's reign, the Kushite elite and professional classes became significantly Egyptianized. The city-state of <a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a> was the spiritual capital of Kush and it was from there that <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> (spelled Piankhi or Piankhy in older works) invaded and took control of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Piye personally led the attack on Egypt and recorded his victory in a lengthy hieroglyphic filled <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</a> called the "<a href="/wiki/Stele_of_Piye" title="Stele of Piye">Stele of Victory</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 166  Piye's success in achieving the double kingship after generations of Kushite planning resulted from "Kushite ambition, political skill, and the Theban decision to reunify Egypt in this particular way", and not Egypt's utter exhaustion, "as frequently suggested in Egyptological studies."<a href="#cite_note-Emberling-35">[35]</a> Due to archaism, Piye mostly used the royal titulary of Tuthmosis III, but changed the Horus name from "Strong bull appearing (crowned) in Thebes" to "Strong bull appearing in Napata" to announce that the Kushites had reversed history and conquered their former Thebaid Egyptian conquerors.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 154  He also revived one of the greatest features of the Old and Middle Kingdoms: pyramid construction. As an energetic builder, he constructed the oldest known pyramid at the royal burial site of <a href="/wiki/El-Kurru" title="El-Kurru">El-Kurru</a>. According to the revised chronology, <a href="/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a> "brought the entire Nile Valley as far as the Delta under the empire of Kush and is 'reputed' to have had Bocchoris, dynast of Sais, burnt to death".<a href="#cite_note-Mokhtar1-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 166–167  <a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a> "transferred the capital to Memphis".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 166  Shebitku's successor, <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a>, was crowned in Memphis in 690 BC<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Haynes-33">[33]</a> and ruled Upper and Lower Egypt as Pharaoh from Tanis in the Delta.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mokhtar1-117">[117]</a> Excavations at el-Kurru and studies of horse skeletons indicate the finest horses used in Kushite and Assyrian warfare were bred in and exported from Nubia. Horses and chariots were key to the Kushite war machine.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 157–158  Taharqa's reign was a prosperous time in the empire with a particularly large Nile river flood and abundant crops and wine.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a> Taharqa's inscriptions indicate that he gave large amounts of gold to the temple of Amun at Kawa.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> His army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities" from the Mut temple at Karnak and "conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)" from Sanam temple inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a> László Török mentions the military success was due to Taharqa's efforts to strengthen the army through daily training in long-distance running and Assyria's preoccupation with Babylon and Elam.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a> Taharqa also built military settlements at the Semna and Buhen forts and the fortified site of Qasr Ibrim.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a> Imperial ambitions of the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian">Mesopotamian</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Empire">Assyrian Empire</a> made war with the 25th Dynasty inevitable. Taharqa conspired with Levantine kingdoms against Assyria:<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> in 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aided <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a> and King <a href="/wiki/Hezekiah" title="Hezekiah">Hezekiah</a> in withstanding a siege by King <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).<a href="#cite_note-Aubin-122">[122]</a> There are various theories (Taharqa's army,<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender, Herodotus' mice theory) as to why the Assyrians failed to take Jerusalem and withdrew to Assyria.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Sennacherib's annals record Judah was forced into tribute after the siege and Sennacherib became the ruler of the region.<a href="#cite_note-Roux-125">[125]</a> However, this is contradicted by Khor's frequent utilization of an Egyptian system of weights for trade and the twenty-year cessation in Assyria's pattern of repeatedly invading Khor (as Assyrians had before 701 and after Sennacherib's death).<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> In 681 BC, Sennacherib was murdered by his own sons in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>. In 679 BC, Sennacherib's successor, King <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a>, campaigned in Khor, destroyed Sidon, and forced Tyre into tribute in 677–676 BC. Esarhaddon invaded Egypt proper in 674 BC, but according to Babylonian records, Taharqa and his army outright defeated the Assyrians.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> In 672 BC, Taharqa brought reserve troops from Kush, as mentioned in rock inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a> Taharqa's Egypt still had influence in Khor during this period as Tyre's King Ba'lu "put his trust upon his friend Taharqa". Further evidence was <a href="/wiki/Ashkelon" title="Ashkelon">Ashkelon</a>'s alliance with Egypt and Esarhaddon's inscription asking "if the Kushite-Egyptian forces 'plan and strive to wage war in any way' and if the Egyptian forces will defeat Esarhaddon at Ashkelon".<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> However, Taharqa was defeated in Egypt in 671 BC when Esarhaddon conquered Northern Egypt, captured Memphis, and imposed tribute before withdrawing.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a> Pharaoh Taharqa escaped to the south, but Esarhaddon captured the Pharaoh's family, including "Prince Nes-Anhuret and the royal wives",<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a> and sent them to Assyria. In 669 BC, Taharqa reoccupied Memphis and the Delta, and recommenced intrigues with the king of Tyre.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a> Esarhaddon led his army to Egypt again and, after his death in 668 BC, command passed to <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>. Ashurbanipal and the Assyrians defeated Taharqa again and advanced as far south as Thebes, but direct Assyrian control was not established.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a> The rebellion was stopped and Ashurbanipal appointed <a href="/wiki/Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a>, who had been king of the city <a href="/wiki/Sais,_Egypt" title="Sais, Egypt">Sais</a>, as his vassal ruler in Egypt. Necho's son, <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a>, was educated at the Assyrian capital of <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> during Esarhaddon's reign.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] As late as 665 BC, the vassal rulers of Sais, Mendes, and Pelusium were still making <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/overture" class="extiw" title="wikt:overture">overtures</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[a]</a> to Taharqa in Kush.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a> The vassals' plot was uncovered by Ashurbanipal and all rebels but Necho of Sais were executed.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a> Taharqa's successor, <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a>, sailed north from Napata with a large army to Thebes, where he was "ritually installed as the king of Egypt".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 185  From Thebes, Tantamani began his reconquest and regained control of Egypt as far north as Memphis.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 185 <a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a> Tantamani's dream stele states that he restored order from the chaos, where royal temples and cults were not being maintained.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 185  After conquering Sais and killing Assyria's vassal, Necho I, in Memphis, "some local dynasts formally surrendered, while others withdrew to their fortresses".<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a>: 185  The Kushites had influence over their northern neighbors for nearly 100 years until they were repelled by the invading Assyrians. The Assyrians installed the native <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">26th Dynasty of Egypt</a> under <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a> and they permanently forced the Kushites out of Egypt around 590 BC.<a href="#cite_note-David-131">[130]</a>: 121–122  The heirs of the Kushite empire established their new capital at <a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a>, which was also sacked by the Egyptians in 592 BC. The Kushite kingdom survived for another 900 years after being pushed south to <a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a>. The Egyptianized culture of Nubia grew increasingly Africanized after the fall of the 25th Dynasty until Queen <a href="/wiki/Amanishakheto" title="Amanishakheto">Amanishakhete</a> acceded in 45 BC.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] She temporarily arrested the loss of Egyptian culture, but then it continued unchecked.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meroitic_(542_BC–400_AD)">Meroitic (542 BC–400 AD)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Meroitic (542 BC–400 AD)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_2001.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_2001.JPG/220px-Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_2001.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_2001.JPG/330px-Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_2001.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_2001.JPG/440px-Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_2001.JPG 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view at <a href="/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Nubian pyramids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meroe" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroe">Meroe</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114987.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114987.jpg/220px-Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114987.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114987.jpg/330px-Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114987.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114987.jpg/440px-Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114987.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4416" data-file-height="3312" /></a><figcaption>Apedemak Temple at <a href="/wiki/Naqa" title="Naqa">Naqa</a></figcaption></figure> Due to pressure from Assyrians and Egyptians, <a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a> (800 BC – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 350 AD) became the southern capital of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Torok-86">[86]</a> According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, the name of the city was Medewi or Bedewi. Meroë was in southern Nubia by the east bank of the Nile, about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi, Sudan, and about 200 km northeast of <a href="/wiki/Khartoum" title="Khartoum">Khartoum</a>. Meroë is mentioned in first-century AD <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a>: "farther inland, in the country towards the west, there lies a city called Meroe". In fifth-century BC, Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> described it as "a great city...said to be the mother city of the other Ethiopians."<a href="#cite_note-Herodotus1949-132">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Connah1987-133">[132]</a> Together, <a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naqa" title="Naqa">Naqa</a>, and Meroë formed the Island of Meroe. The town's importance gradually increased from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">the beginning of the Meroitic Period</a>, especially from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Arakamani" title="Arakamani">Arakamani</a> (c. 280 BC) when the royal burial ground was transferred to Meroë from <a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a>). Excavations revealed evidence of important, high ranking Kushite burials, from the Napatan Period (c. 800 – c. 280 BC) in the vicinity of the settlement called the Western cemetery. They buried their kings in small pyramids with steeply sloped sides that were based on New Kingdom Viceroy designs.<a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-105">[105]</a> At its peak, the rulers of Meroë controlled the Nile Valley over a north–south straight-line distance of more than 1,000 km (620 mi).<a href="#cite_note-Adams1977-134">[133]</a> People of the Meroitic period preserved many ancient Egyptian customs but were unique in many respects. The <a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic language</a> was spoken in Meroë and Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BC) before becoming extinct around 400 AD. They developed their own form of writing by using Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> before switching to a cursive alphabetic script with 23 signs.<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> It was split into two types: Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a <a href="/wiki/Stylus" title="Stylus">stylus</a> and used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity of <a href="/wiki/Bilingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual">bilingual</a> texts.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180 and 170 BC. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of Queen <a href="/wiki/Shanakdakhete" title="Shanakdakhete">Shanakdakhete</a>. Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and is read from right to left like all Semitic orthographies.<a href="#cite_note-Howf-136">[135]</a> The Meroitic people worshiped the Egyptian gods as well as their own, such as <a href="/wiki/Apedemak" title="Apedemak">Apedemak</a> and the lion-son of <a href="/wiki/Sekhmet" title="Sekhmet">Sekhmet</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Bast_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bast (mythology)">Bast</a>). Meroë was the base of a flourishing kingdom whose wealth was centered around a strong <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> industry and international trade with <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> Metalworking is believed to have happened in Meroë, possibly through <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomeries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a> The centralized control of production within the Meroitic empire and distribution of certain crafts and manufactures may have been politically important. Other important sites were Musawwarat es-Sufra and Naqa. <a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a>, which is now a UNESCO <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>, was constructed in sandstone. Its main features were the Great Enclosure, the Lion Temple of <a href="/wiki/Apedemak" title="Apedemak">Apedemak</a> (14×9×5 meters), and the Great Reservoir. The Great Enclosure is the main structure of the site. Much of the large labyrinth-like building complex, which covers approximately 45,000 m2, was erected in third-century BC.<a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> The scheme of the site is, so far, without parallel in Nubia and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>. According to Hintze, "the complicated ground plan of this extensive complex of buildings is without parallel in the entire Nile valley".<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> The maze of <a href="/wiki/Courtyard" title="Courtyard">courtyards</a> includes three (possible) temples, passages, low walls that prevent any contact with the outside world, about 20 columns, ramps and two reservoirs.<a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bradt-142">[141]</a> There is some debate about the purpose of the buildings, with earlier suggestions including a college, a hospital, and an elephant-training camp.<a href="#cite_note-unesco-143">[142]</a> The Lion Temple was constructed by <a href="/wiki/Arnekhamani" title="Arnekhamani">Arnekhamani</a> and bears inscriptions in Egyptian hieroglyphs, representations of elephants and lions on the rear inside wall, and reliefs of Apedemak depicted as a three-headed god on the outside walls.<a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a> The Great Reservoir is a <a href="/wiki/Hafir" title="Hafir">hafir</a> to retain as much as possible of the rainfall of the short, wet season. It is 250 m in diameter and 6.3 m deep.<a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">Kandake</a>, often Latinised as Candace, was the <a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic</a> term for the sister of the king of Kush who, due to <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">matrilineal</a> succession, would bear the next heir, making her a <a href="/wiki/Queen_mother" title="Queen mother">queen mother</a>. According to scholar <a href="/wiki/Basil_Davidson" title="Basil Davidson">Basil Davidson</a>, at least four <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kushite</a> queens — <a href="/wiki/Amanirenas" title="Amanirenas">Amanirenas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amanishakheto" title="Amanishakheto">Amanishakheto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nawidemak" title="Nawidemak">Nawidemak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amanitore" title="Amanitore">Amanitore</a> — probably spent part of their lives in Musawwarat es-Sufra.<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a> writes that the "Queen of the <a href="/wiki/Aethiopia" title="Aethiopia">Ethiopians</a>" bore the title Candace, and indicates that the Ethiopians had conquered ancient <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Turner480482-147">[146]</a> In 25 BC the Kush kandake <a href="/wiki/Amanirenas" title="Amanirenas">Amanirenas</a>, as reported by <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, attacked the city of Syene (known as <a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a> today) within the territory of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>; Emperor <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus Caesar">Augustus</a> destroyed the city of Napata in retaliation.<a href="#cite_note-Fluehr-Lobban1998-148">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Budge1911-149">[148]</a> In the New Testament biblical account, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_eunuch" title="Ethiopian eunuch">a treasury official</a> of "Candace, queen of the Ethiopians", returning from a trip to <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, met with <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Evangelist" title="Philip the Evangelist">Philip the Evangelist</a> and was baptized.<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Achaemenid_period">Achaemenid period</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Achaemenid period">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_detail_Ethiopian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Xerxes_detail_Ethiopian.jpg/220px-Xerxes_detail_Ethiopian.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Xerxes_detail_Ethiopian.jpg/330px-Xerxes_detail_Ethiopian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Xerxes_detail_Ethiopian.jpg/440px-Xerxes_detail_Ethiopian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="983" /></a><figcaption>Kušiya soldier of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid army">Achaemenid army</a>, circa 480 BC. <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> tomb relief.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marble_head_of_Nubian_denizen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Marble_head_of_Nubian_denizen.jpg/150px-Marble_head_of_Nubian_denizen.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Marble_head_of_Nubian_denizen.jpg/225px-Marble_head_of_Nubian_denizen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Marble_head_of_Nubian_denizen.jpg/300px-Marble_head_of_Nubian_denizen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1069" /></a><figcaption>Marble portrait of a Nubian ca. 120–100 BC</figcaption></figure> The Achaemenids occupied the Kushan kingdom, possibly from the time of <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 530 BC), and more probably from the time of <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> (550–486 BC), who mentions the conquest of Kush (Kušiya) in his inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> mentioned an invasion of Kush by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> ruler Cambyses II, however, he mentions that "his expedition failed miserably in the desert".<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 65–66  Derek Welsby states "scholars have doubted that this Persian expedition ever took place, but... archaeological evidence suggests that the fortress of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dorginarti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dorginarti (page does not exist)">Dorginarti</a> near the second cataract served as Persia's southern boundary."<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 65–66  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ptolemaic_period">Ptolemaic period</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ptolemaic period">edit</a>]</div> The Greek <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> under <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> invaded Nubia in 275 BC and annexed the northern twelve miles of this territory, subsequently known as the <a href="/wiki/Dodekaschoinos" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodekaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a> ('twelve-mile land').<a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> Throughout the 160s and 150s BC, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy VI">Ptolemy VI</a> has also reasserted Ptolemaic control over the northern part of Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-G325-156">[155]</a> There is no record of conflict between the Kushites and Ptolemies. However, there was a serious revolt at the end of Ptolemy IV's reign and the Kushites likely tried to interfere in Ptolemaic affairs.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 67  It is suggested that this led to Ptolemy V defacing the name of Arqamani on inscriptions at Philae.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 67  "Arqamani constructed a small entrance hall to the temple built by Ptolemy IV at Pselchis and constructed a temple at Philae to which Ptolemy contributed an entrance hall."<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 66  There is evidence of Ptolemaic occupation as far south as the Second Cataract, but recent finds at Qasr Ibrim, such as "the total absence of Ptolemaic pottery", have cast doubts on the effectiveness of the occupation.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 67  Dynastic struggles led to the Ptolemies abandoning the area, so "the Kushites reasserted their control...with Qasr Ibrim occupied" (by the Kushites) and other locations perhaps garrisoned.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 67  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_period">Roman period</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Roman period">edit</a>]</div> According to Welsby, after the Romans assumed control of Egypt, they negotiated with the Kushites at Philae and drew the southern border of Roman Egypt at Aswan.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 67  <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Mommsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore Mommsen">Theodore Mommsen</a> and Welsby state the Kingdom of Kush became a client Kingdom, which was similar to the situation under Ptolemaic rule of Egypt. Kushite ambition and excessive Roman taxation are two theories for a revolt supported by Kushite armies.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 67–68  The ancient historians, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> and Pliny, give accounts of the conflict with Roman Egypt. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies,_Meroitic,_beginning_of_first_century_AD,_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG/170px-Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG/255px-Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG/340px-Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2752" data-file-height="2419" /></a><figcaption>Meroitic prince smiting his enemies (early first century AD)</figcaption></figure>Strabo describes a war with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> in first-century BC. He stated that the Kushites "sacked Aswan with an army of 30,000 men and destroyed imperial statues...at Philae."<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 68  A "fine over-life-size bronze head of the emperor Augustus" was found buried in Meroe in front of a temple.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 68  After the initial victories of <a href="/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">Kandake</a> (or "Candace") <a href="/wiki/Amanirenas" title="Amanirenas">Amanirenas</a> against Roman Egypt, the Kushites were defeated and <a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a> was sacked.<a href="#cite_note-afraf.oxfordjournals.org-157">[156]</a> Napata's fall was not a crippling blow to the Kushites and did not frighten Candace enough to prevent her from again engaging in combat with the Roman military. In 22 BC, a large Kushite force moved northward with the intention of attacking Qasr Ibrim.<a href="#cite_note-jackson2002-158">[157]</a> Alerted to the advance, Petronius again marched south and managed to reach Qasr Ibrim and bolster its defences before the invading Kushites arrived. Welsby states after a Kushite attack on Primis (Qasr Ibrim),<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 69–70  the Kushites sent ambassadors to negotiate a peace settlement with Petronius, which succeeded on favourable terms.<a href="#cite_note-afraf.oxfordjournals.org-157">[156]</a> Trade between the two nations increased and the Roman Egyptian border being extended to "Hiera Sykaminos (Maharraqa)."<a href="#cite_note-jackson2002-158">[157]</a>: 149 <a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 70  This arrangement "guaranteed peace for most of the next 300 years" and there is "no definite evidence of further clashes."<a href="#cite_note-Welsby-118">[118]</a>: 70  During this time, different parts of the region divided into smaller groups with individual leaders (or generals), each commanding small armies of mercenaries. They fought for control of what is now Nubia and its surrounding territories, leaving the entire region weak and vulnerable to attack. Meroë would eventually be defeated by the new rising <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a> to their south ruled by <a href="/wiki/Ezana_of_Axum" title="Ezana of Axum">King Ezana</a>. A stele of <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a> of an unnamed ruler of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a> thought to be Ezana was found at the site of Meroë. From his description, in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, he was "King of the <a href="/wiki/Aksumite" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksumite">Aksumites</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite">Omerites</a>" (i.e. of <a href="/wiki/Aksum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksum">Aksum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Himyar" title="Himyar">Himyar</a>). It is likely this king ruled sometime around 330 AD. While some authorities interpret these inscriptions as proof that the Axumites destroyed the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Meroe" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroe">Meroe</a>, others note that archeological evidence points to an economic and political decline in Meroe around 300.<a href="#cite_note-Munro-Hay1991-159">[158]</a> Moreover, some view the stele as military aid from Aksum to Meroe to quell the revolt and rebellion. From then on, the Romans referred to the area as <a href="/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_Nubia">Christian Nubia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Christian Nubia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nobadia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobadia">Nobadia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Autor_nieznany,_Biskup_Marianos_pod_opiek%C4%85_Chrystusa_i_Matki_Boskiej._Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Autor_nieznany%2C_Biskup_Marianos_pod_opiek%C4%85_Chrystusa_i_Matki_Boskiej._Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne.jpg/170px-Autor_nieznany%2C_Biskup_Marianos_pod_opiek%C4%85_Chrystusa_i_Matki_Boskiej._Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Autor_nieznany%2C_Biskup_Marianos_pod_opiek%C4%85_Chrystusa_i_Matki_Boskiej._Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne.jpg/255px-Autor_nieznany%2C_Biskup_Marianos_pod_opiek%C4%85_Chrystusa_i_Matki_Boskiej._Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Autor_nieznany%2C_Biskup_Marianos_pod_opiek%C4%85_Chrystusa_i_Matki_Boskiej._Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne.jpg/340px-Autor_nieznany%2C_Biskup_Marianos_pod_opiek%C4%85_Chrystusa_i_Matki_Boskiej._Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1848" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Wall painting from <a href="/wiki/Faras" title="Faras">Faras</a>, first half of 11th c CE, <a href="/wiki/National_Museum,_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum, Warsaw">National Museum in Warsaw</a></figcaption></figure> Around 350 AD, the area was invaded by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a> and the Meroitic kingdom collapsed. Three smaller <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> kingdoms replaced it: the northernmost was <a href="/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a> (capital Pachoras; now modern-day <a href="/wiki/Faras,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Faras, Egypt">Faras, Egypt</a>) between the first and second cataract of the <a href="/wiki/Nile_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile River">Nile River</a>; in the middle was <a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a> (capital <a href="/wiki/Old_Dongola" title="Old Dongola">Old Dongola</a>), and southernmost was <a href="/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a> (capital Soba). King Silky of Nobatia defeated the <a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a> and recorded his victory in a <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> inscription carved in the wall of the temple of Talmis (modern <a href="/wiki/Kalabsha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalabsha">Kalabsha</a>) around 500 AD. <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> had been introduced to the region by the fourth century: Bishop <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius of Alexandria</a> consecrated Marcus as bishop of <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a> before his death in 373 AD. <a href="/wiki/John_of_Ephesus" title="John of Ephesus">John of Ephesus</a> records that a <a href="/wiki/Miaphysite" class="mw-redirect" title="Miaphysite">Miaphysite</a> priest named Julian converted the king and his nobles of Nobatia around 545 AD. He also writes that the kingdom of Alodia was converted around 569. However, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Biclarum" class="mw-redirect" title="John of Biclarum">John of Biclarum</a> wrote that the kingdom of Makuria converted to <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a> the same year, suggesting that John of Ephesus might be mistaken. Further doubt is cast on John's[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] testimony by an entry in the chronicle of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria">Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria</a> <a href="/wiki/Eutychius_of_Alexandria" title="Eutychius of Alexandria">Eutychius of Alexandria</a>, which states that in 719 AD the church of Nubia transferred its allegiance from the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Greek</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria">Coptic Orthodox Church</a>. After the official Christianization of Nubia, the Isis cult of Philae remained for the sake of the Nubians. The edict of Theodosius I (390 AD) was not enforced at Philae. Later attempts to suppress the cult of Isis led to armed clashes between the Nubians and Romans. Finally, in 453 AD, a treaty recognizing the traditional religious rights of Nubians at Philae was signed. By the seventh century, Makuria expanded and became the dominant power in the region. It was strong enough to halt the southern expansion of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> had taken Egypt. After several failed invasions the new Muslim rulers agreed to a treaty with Dongola, called <a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a>, to allow peaceful coexistence and trade, contingent on the Nubians making an annual payment consisting of slaves and other tributes to the Islamic Governor at Aswan; it guaranteed that any runaway slaves were returned to Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-Adams1993-160">[159]</a> The treaty was kept for six hundred years.<a href="#cite_note-Adams1993-160">[159]</a> Throughout this period, Nubia's main exports were dates and slaves, though ivory and gold were also exchanged for Egyptian ceramics, textiles, and glass.<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a> Over time the influx of Arab traders introduced Islam to Nubia and it gradually supplanted <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. After an interruption in the annual tribute of slaves, the Egyptian Mamluk ruler invaded in 1272 and declared himself sovereign over half of Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-Adams1993-160">[159]</a> While there are records of a bishop <a href="/wiki/Timothy_of_Faras" title="Timothy of Faras">Timothy</a> at <a href="/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Qasr Ibrim</a> in 1372, his see included Faras. It is also clear that the cathedral of Dongola had been converted to a mosque in 1317.<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a> The influx of <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> and Nubians to Egypt and Sudan had contributed to the suppression of the Nubian identity following the collapse of the last Nubian kingdom around 1504. A vast majority of the Nubian population is currently Muslim, and the Arabic language is their main medium of communication in addition to their indigenous Nubian language. The unique characteristic of Nubian is shown in their culture (dress, dances, traditions, and music). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_Nubia">Islamic Nubia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Islamic Nubia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization of Sudan">Islamization of Sudan</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Turco-Egyptian_conquest_of_Sudan_(1820%E2%80%931824)#Invasion_of_Nubia" title="Turco-Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824)">Turco-Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824) § Invasion of Nubia</a></div> In the fourteenth century, the Dongolan government collapsed and the region was divided and dominated by Arabs. Several Arab invasions into the region and the establishment of smaller kingdoms occurred over the next few centuries. Northern Nubia was brought under Egyptian control, while the south was controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sennar" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Sennar">Kingdom of Sennar</a> in the sixteenth century. The entire region came under Egyptian control during <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali</a>'s rule in the early nineteenth century, and later became a joint Anglo-Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Condominium_(international_law)" title="Condominium (international law)">condominium</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st-century_archaeology">21st-century archaeology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: 21st-century archaeology">edit</a>]</div> The paleo-demography of Nubians from the upper paleolithic to late 16th century BC were analyzed by Aleksandra Pudlo. Mesolithic period inhabitants were characterized as robust and tall, with strong alveolar prognathism. During the Neolithic, Nubians were less robust and shorter, retaining some prognathism, but having facial shape changes and a narrower nasal index. Over a period of 8,500 years, the features had shifted a considerable degree. The variety of morphological forms which occurred was considered a result of the combination of two distinct traits, with Pudlo concluding: "Nubians were hardly a homogeneous population. Neither the climate nor the specific geographic conditions in the region they inhabited were conducive of such homogeneity." The populations were possibly influenced by migration waves coming from the north, but these movements did not prevent repeated contacts of the people of Nubia with other regions further south in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> Findings were recorded in 2016 on Nubian remains over a period of 11,000 years: "Taken together, our results suggest a dramatic shift in cranial morphology between the Mesolithic and the A-group cultural group, with little perceptible change in cranial shape between A-group and the later farming groups. In the case of the mandible, we observe the largest morphological change between the Mesolithic and the A-group, but also see morphological differentiation between the early farmers (A and C-group) and the later farming groups (Pharaonic and Meroitic specimens)." Changes were attributed to factors such as in situ adaptation or influxes of people, as well as migration of farmers. Nonetheless, authors concluded further studies with larger samples and a combination of morphometric analyses and ancient DNA are needed.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> In 2003, archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet_(archeologist)" title="Charles Bonnet (archeologist)">Charles Bonnet</a> led a team of Swiss archaeologists to excavate near <a href="/wiki/Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a> and discovered a cache of monumental black granite statues of the Pharaohs of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">25th Dynasty of Egypt</a>, now displayed at the <a href="/wiki/Kerma_Museum" title="Kerma Museum">Kerma Museum</a>. Among the sculptures are ones belonging to the dynasty's last two pharaohs, <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanoutamon</a>, whose statues are described as "masterpieces that rank among the greatest in art history".<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> Craniometric analysis of Kerma fossils that compared them to various other early populations inhabiting the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> found that they were morphologically close to <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Predynastic Egyptians</a> from <a href="/wiki/Naqada_culture" title="Naqada culture">Naqada</a> (4000–3200 BC).<a href="#cite_note-MML-166">[165]</a> Dental trait analysis of Kerma fossils found affinities with various populations inhabiting the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Africa" title="Northeast Africa">Northeast Africa</a>, especially to other ancient populations from the central and northern Sudan. Among the sampled populations, the Kerma people were overall nearest to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a> populations in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group culture</a> bearers of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/People_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="People of Ethiopia">Ethiopians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_issues">Contemporary issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Contemporary issues">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nubian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubian people">Nubian people</a></div> Nubia was divided between Egypt and Sudan after colonialism ended and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Egypt">Republic of Egypt</a> was <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revolution_of_1952" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Revolution of 1952">established</a> in 1953, and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Sudan">Republic of Sudan</a> seceded from Egypt in 1956. In the early-1970s, many Egyptian and Sudanese Nubians were forcibly relocated to make room for <a href="/wiki/Lake_Nasser" title="Lake Nasser">Lake Nasser</a> after <a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">dams</a> were constructed at <a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NubianFoundation-168">[167]</a> Nubian villages can be found north of Aswan on the west bank of the Nile and on <a href="/wiki/Elephantine_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Elephantine Island">Elephantine Island</a>. Many Nubians now live in large cities like <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khartoum" title="Khartoum">Khartoum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NubianFoundation-168">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_DNA">Ancient DNA</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Ancient DNA">edit</a>]</div> In 2014, a male infant skeleton was recovered during an excavation in what is present-day Wadi Halfa from the Christian Period (500-1400 C.E.), located near the Second Cataract of the Nile in the Republic of the Sudan. The results from the Principal component analysis (PCA) had the individual placed between African and European clusters. Furthermore, the individual was assigned to L5a1a, a branch of the ancient L5 haplogroup with origins in East Africa.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> Another analysis in 2015 studied a Nubian individual from an archeological site in Kulubnarti. The geographic ancestry of the individual was estimated to be closer to Middle Eastern, and Central and South Asians, rather than to any African populations.<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> Sirak et al. 2021 obtained and analyzed the whole genomes of 66 individuals from the site of <a href="/wiki/Kulubnarti" title="Kulubnarti">Kulubnarti</a> situated in northern Nubia between the 2nd and 3rd cataract, near the modern Egyptian border, and dated to the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sudan" title="Christianity in Sudan">Christian period</a> between 650 and 1000 CE. The samples were obtained from two cemeteries. The samples' genetic profile was found to be a mixture between <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">West Eurasian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub Saharan</a> <a href="/wiki/Dinka_people" title="Dinka people">Dinka</a>-related ancestries, with ~60% West Eurasian related ancestry that likely came from ancient Egyptians but ultimately resembles that found in <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze</a> or <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levantines</a>, and ~40% Dinka-related ancestry. The two cemeteries showed minimal differences in their West Eurasian/Dinka ancestry proportions. These findings in addition to multiple cross cemetery relatives that the analyses have revealed indicate that people of both the R and S cemeteries were part of the same population despite the archaeological and anthropological differences between the two burials showing social stratification. Modern Nubians, despite their superficial resemblance to the Kulubnarti Nubians on the PCA, were not found to be descended from Kulubnarti Nubians without additional later admixtures. Modern Nubians were found to have an increase in Sub-Saharan ancestry along with a change in their west Eurasian ancestry from that which was found in the ancient samples.<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> A sample from historic Lower Nubia, in the Nubian site of Sayala during the 3rd-6th Century AD, belonged to mtDNA haplogroup J1c.<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> In 2022, DNA was sequenced from the hair of a Kerma period individual (4000 BP), and the results revealed close genetic affinity to early pastoralists from the Rift Valley in eastern Africa during the <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_Neolithic" title="Pastoral Neolithic">Pastoral Neolithic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nubian_Images">Nubian Images</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Nubian Images">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nubian._Female_Figurine,_ca._3500-3100_B.C.E.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nubian terracotta female figurine from the Neolithic period ca. 3500–3100 BC Brooklyn Museum"><img alt="Nubian terracotta female figurine from the Neolithic period ca. 3500–3100 BC Brooklyn Museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Nubian._Female_Figurine%2C_ca._3500-3100_B.C.E.jpg/87px-Nubian._Female_Figurine%2C_ca._3500-3100_B.C.E.jpg" decoding="async" width="87" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Nubian._Female_Figurine%2C_ca._3500-3100_B.C.E.jpg/131px-Nubian._Female_Figurine%2C_ca._3500-3100_B.C.E.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Nubian._Female_Figurine%2C_ca._3500-3100_B.C.E.jpg/175px-Nubian._Female_Figurine%2C_ca._3500-3100_B.C.E.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1121" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Nubian <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> female figurine from the Neolithic period ca. 3500–3100 BC <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nubian_king_with_bow,_Buhen_Fortress.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nubian king with bow, Buhen Fortress, 1650 BC, Univ. of Chicago Museum"><img alt="Nubian king with bow, Buhen Fortress, 1650 BC, Univ. of Chicago Museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Nubian_king_with_bow%2C_Buhen_Fortress.jpg/90px-Nubian_king_with_bow%2C_Buhen_Fortress.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Nubian_king_with_bow%2C_Buhen_Fortress.jpg/135px-Nubian_king_with_bow%2C_Buhen_Fortress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Nubian_king_with_bow%2C_Buhen_Fortress.jpg/180px-Nubian_king_with_bow%2C_Buhen_Fortress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Nubian king with bow, Buhen Fortress, 1650 BC, Univ. of Chicago Museum</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nubian_Tribute_Presented_to_King_Tutankhamun,_Tomb_of_Huy_MET_DT221112.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nubian Tribute Presented to the King, Tomb of Huy MET DT221112"><img alt="Nubian Tribute Presented to the King, Tomb of Huy MET DT221112" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Nubian_Tribute_Presented_to_King_Tutankhamun%2C_Tomb_of_Huy_MET_DT221112.jpg/120px-Nubian_Tribute_Presented_to_King_Tutankhamun%2C_Tomb_of_Huy_MET_DT221112.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Nubian_Tribute_Presented_to_King_Tutankhamun%2C_Tomb_of_Huy_MET_DT221112.jpg/180px-Nubian_Tribute_Presented_to_King_Tutankhamun%2C_Tomb_of_Huy_MET_DT221112.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Nubian_Tribute_Presented_to_King_Tutankhamun%2C_Tomb_of_Huy_MET_DT221112.jpg/240px-Nubian_Tribute_Presented_to_King_Tutankhamun%2C_Tomb_of_Huy_MET_DT221112.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3811" data-file-height="2857" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Nubian Tribute Presented to the King, Tomb of Huy MET DT221112</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nubians_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut,_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nubians bringing tribute for King Tut, Tomb of Huy"><img alt="Nubians bringing tribute for King Tut, Tomb of Huy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Nubians_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg/120px-Nubians_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Nubians_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg/180px-Nubians_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Nubians_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg/240px-Nubians_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Nubians bringing tribute for King Tut, Tomb of Huy</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gebel_Barkal_Amun_temple_(B500).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal"><img alt="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Gebel_Barkal_Amun_temple_%28B500%29.JPG/90px-Gebel_Barkal_Amun_temple_%28B500%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Gebel_Barkal_Amun_temple_%28B500%29.JPG/135px-Gebel_Barkal_Amun_temple_%28B500%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Gebel_Barkal_Amun_temple_%28B500%29.JPG/181px-Gebel_Barkal_Amun_temple_%28B500%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2120" data-file-height="2816" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nubia-_2008-_Piramidi_Khartoum-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Entrance to Great Enclosure, Musawwarat es-Sufra"><img alt="Entrance to Great Enclosure, Musawwarat es-Sufra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Nubia-_2008-_Piramidi_Khartoum-2.jpg/120px-Nubia-_2008-_Piramidi_Khartoum-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Nubia-_2008-_Piramidi_Khartoum-2.jpg/180px-Nubia-_2008-_Piramidi_Khartoum-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Nubia-_2008-_Piramidi_Khartoum-2.jpg/240px-Nubia-_2008-_Piramidi_Khartoum-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1733" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Entrance to Great Enclosure, <a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114985.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Column and elephant – part of temple complex in Musawwarat es-Sufra"><img alt="Column and elephant – part of temple complex in Musawwarat es-Sufra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114985.jpg/120px-Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114985.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114985.jpg/180px-Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114985.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114985.jpg/240px-Archaeological_Sites_of_the_Island_of_Meroe-114985.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4416" data-file-height="3312" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Column and elephant – part of temple complex in <a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:A_great_pyramid_at_Meroe_in_1821.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pyramid of Amanishakheto"><img alt="Pyramid of Amanishakheto" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/A_great_pyramid_at_Meroe_in_1821.jpg/120px-A_great_pyramid_at_Meroe_in_1821.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/A_great_pyramid_at_Meroe_in_1821.jpg/180px-A_great_pyramid_at_Meroe_in_1821.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/A_great_pyramid_at_Meroe_in_1821.jpg/240px-A_great_pyramid_at_Meroe_in_1821.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7368" data-file-height="5563" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pyramid of Amanishakheto</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Amanishakheto_Jewellery_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewelry of Kandake Amanishakheto"><img alt="Jewelry of Kandake Amanishakheto" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Amanishakheto_Jewellery_03.jpg/120px-Amanishakheto_Jewellery_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Amanishakheto_Jewellery_03.jpg/180px-Amanishakheto_Jewellery_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Amanishakheto_Jewellery_03.jpg/240px-Amanishakheto_Jewellery_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2002" data-file-height="1471" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Jewelry of <a href="/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">Kandake</a> <a href="/wiki/Amanishakheto" title="Amanishakheto">Amanishakheto</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_temple_relief,_Naga_(Sudan).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Copy of relief from Naqa depicting Amanitore (second from left), Natakamani (second from right) and two princes approaching a three-headed Apedemak."><img alt="Copy of relief from Naqa depicting Amanitore (second from left), Natakamani (second from right) and two princes approaching a three-headed Apedemak." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Lion_temple_relief%2C_Naga_%28Sudan%29.jpg/120px-Lion_temple_relief%2C_Naga_%28Sudan%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Lion_temple_relief%2C_Naga_%28Sudan%29.jpg/180px-Lion_temple_relief%2C_Naga_%28Sudan%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Lion_temple_relief%2C_Naga_%28Sudan%29.jpg/240px-Lion_temple_relief%2C_Naga_%28Sudan%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="715" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Copy of relief from <a href="/wiki/Naqa" title="Naqa">Naqa</a> depicting <a href="/wiki/Amanitore" title="Amanitore">Amanitore</a> (second from left), <a href="/wiki/Natakamani" title="Natakamani">Natakamani</a> (second from right) and two princes approaching a three-headed <a href="/wiki/Apedemak" title="Apedemak">Apedemak</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Archer_King,_National_Museum_of_Sudan,_Khartoum,_Sudan,_North-East_Africa_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. National Museum of Sudan."><img alt="The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. National Museum of Sudan." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg/50px-The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg/76px-The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg/101px-The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1472" data-file-height="3481" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Sudan" title="National Museum of Sudan">National Museum of Sudan</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nieznany_-_Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne_-_Biskup_Petros_pod_opiek%C4%85_%C5%9Aw._Piotra-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bishop Petros, Christian Nubia"><img alt="Bishop Petros, Christian Nubia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Nieznany_-_Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne_-_Biskup_Petros_pod_opiek%C4%85_%C5%9Aw._Piotra-1.jpg/59px-Nieznany_-_Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne_-_Biskup_Petros_pod_opiek%C4%85_%C5%9Aw._Piotra-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="59" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Nieznany_-_Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne_-_Biskup_Petros_pod_opiek%C4%85_%C5%9Aw._Piotra-1.jpg/89px-Nieznany_-_Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne_-_Biskup_Petros_pod_opiek%C4%85_%C5%9Aw._Piotra-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Nieznany_-_Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne_-_Biskup_Petros_pod_opiek%C4%85_%C5%9Aw._Piotra-1.jpg/119px-Nieznany_-_Malowid%C5%82o_%C5%9Bcienne_-_Biskup_Petros_pod_opiek%C4%85_%C5%9Aw._Piotra-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1980" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Bishop Petros, Christian Nubia</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jebel_Sheikh_Suleiman.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Relief of Gebel Sheikh Suleiman probably shows the victory of an early Pharaoh, possibly Djer, over A-Group Nubians circa 3000 BC."><img alt="The Relief of Gebel Sheikh Suleiman probably shows the victory of an early Pharaoh, possibly Djer, over A-Group Nubians circa 3000 BC." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Jebel_Sheikh_Suleiman.jpg/120px-Jebel_Sheikh_Suleiman.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Jebel_Sheikh_Suleiman.jpg/180px-Jebel_Sheikh_Suleiman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Jebel_Sheikh_Suleiman.jpg/240px-Jebel_Sheikh_Suleiman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1392" data-file-height="426" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Relief_of_Gebel_Sheikh_Suleiman" title="Relief of Gebel Sheikh Suleiman">Relief of Gebel Sheikh Suleiman</a> probably shows the victory of an early Pharaoh, possibly <a href="/wiki/Djer" title="Djer">Djer</a>, over A-Group Nubians circa 3000 BC.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_wall_painting_from_Kalabsha,_Nubia.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Now gone Christian Nubian wall painting in the Temple of Kalabsha"><img alt="Now gone Christian Nubian wall painting in the Temple of Kalabsha" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Christian_wall_painting_from_Kalabsha%2C_Nubia.png/120px-Christian_wall_painting_from_Kalabsha%2C_Nubia.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Christian_wall_painting_from_Kalabsha%2C_Nubia.png/180px-Christian_wall_painting_from_Kalabsha%2C_Nubia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Christian_wall_painting_from_Kalabsha%2C_Nubia.png/240px-Christian_wall_painting_from_Kalabsha%2C_Nubia.png 2x" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="559" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Now gone Christian Nubian wall painting in the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Kalabsha" title="Temple of Kalabsha">Temple of Kalabsha</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doukki_Gel" title="Doukki Gel">Doukki Gel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerma_culture" title="Kerma culture">Kerma culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kerma" title="List of monarchs of Kerma">List of monarchs of Kerma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kush" title="List of monarchs of Kush">List of monarchs of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">Kandake</a>, Queens of Meroe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Nubia" title="Military of ancient Nubia">Military of ancient Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Nubian pyramids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubiology" title="Nubiology">Nubiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merowe_Dam" title="Merowe Dam">Merowe Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aethiopia" title="Aethiopia">Aethiopia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFElshazly" class="citation web cs1">Elshazly, Hesham. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3714044">"Kerma and the royal cache"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kerma+and+the+royal+cache&rft.aulast=Elshazly&rft.aufirst=Hesham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3714044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinisch1879" class="citation book cs1">Reinisch, Leo (1879). Die Nuba-Sprache. Wien. p. 271.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Nuba-Sprache&rft.place=Wien&rft.pages=271&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Reinisch&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-3"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppiahGates2005" class="citation book cs1">Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&q=nubia+%22historical+region%22&pg=RA3-PA257">Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517055-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517055-9"><bdi>978-0-19-517055-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africana%3A+The+Encyclopedia+of+the+African+and+African+American+Experience&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517055-9&rft.aulast=Appiah&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Gates%2C+Henry+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTMZMAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnubia%2B%2522historical%2Bregion%2522%26pg%3DRA3-PA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-4"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanice_KamrinAdela_Oppenheim" class="citation web cs1">Janice Kamrin; Adela Oppenheim. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-met/curatorial-departments/egyptian-art/temple-of-dendur-50/nubia">"The Land of Nubia"</a>. www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2020-07-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.metmuseum.org&rft.atitle=The+Land+of+Nubia&rft.au=Janice+Kamrin&rft.au=Adela+Oppenheim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fabout-the-met%2Fcuratorial-departments%2Fegyptian-art%2Ftemple-of-dendur-50%2Fnubia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-5"><a href="#cite_ref-:3_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sudanhistory.org?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&q=nubia+%22historical+region%22&pg=RA3-PA257">"SudanHistory.org"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SudanHistory.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsudanhistory.org%3Fid%3DTMZMAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnubia%2B%2522historical%2Bregion%2522%26pg%3DRA3-PA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaue2019" class="citation book cs1">Raue, Dietrich (2019-06-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mXWcDwAAQBAJ&q=%22nubia%22+%22cataract%22+%22region%22+%22extending%22&pg=PA39">Handbook of Ancient Nubia</a>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-042038-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-042038-8"><bdi>978-3-11-042038-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ancient+Nubia&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2019-06-04&rft.isbn=978-3-11-042038-8&rft.aulast=Raue&rft.aufirst=Dietrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmXWcDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522nubia%2522%2B%2522cataract%2522%2B%2522region%2522%2B%2522extending%2522%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-E118-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-E118_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-E118_7-1">b</a> Elmar Edel: Zu den Inschriften auf den Jahreszeitenreliefs der "Weltkammer" aus dem Sonnenheiligtum des Niuserre, Teil 2. In: Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Nr. 5. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1964, pp. 118–119. </li> <li id="cite_note-L697-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L697_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L697_8-1">b</a> Christian Leitz et al.: Lexikon der ägyptischen Götter und Götterbezeichnungen, Bd. 6: H̱-s. Peeters, Leuven 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-429-1151-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-429-1151-4">90-429-1151-4</a>, p. 697. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bechaus-Gerst-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bechaus-Gerst_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bechaus-Gerst_9-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBechaus-GerstBlench2014" class="citation book cs1">Bechaus-Gerst, Marianne; Blench, Roger (2014). Kevin MacDonald (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-t5QAwAAQBAJ">The Origins and Development of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Ethnography – "Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of livestock in Sudan" (2000)</a>. Routledge. p. 453. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135434168" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135434168"><bdi>978-1135434168</bdi></a>. 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Kinship and relationship between Meroites and Nubians (Noba)"</a>. Polish Centre for Mediterranean Archaeology. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31338%2Fuw.9788323533269.pp.211-226">10.31338/uw.9788323533269.pp.211-226</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788323533269" title="Special:BookSources/9788323533269"><bdi>9788323533269</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Polish+Centre+for+Mediterranean+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Enemy+brothers.+Kinship+and+relationship+between+Meroites+and+Nubians+%28Noba%29&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31338%2Fuw.9788323533269.pp.211-226&rft.isbn=9788323533269&rft.aulast=Rilly&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F36487671&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cooper-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooper_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooper_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2017" class="citation journal cs1">Cooper J (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200523123606/https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:7d8a387b-f850-4d56-8105-f84a30bf121a/download_file?file_format=pdf&safe_filename=Cooper%252C%2BToponymic%2BStrata%2Bin%2BAncient%2BNubian%2BPlacenames%252C%2BDotawo%2B4.pdf&type_of_work=Journal+article">"Toponymic Strata in Ancient Nubian placenames in the Third and Second Millennium BCE: a view from Egyptian Records"</a>. Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies. 4. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:7d8a387b-f850-4d56-8105-f84a30bf121a/download_file?file_format=pdf&safe_filename=Cooper%252C%2BToponymic%2BStrata%2Bin%2BAncient%2BNubian%2BPlacenames%252C%2BDotawo%2B4.pdf&type_of_work=Journal+article">the original</a> on 2020-05-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dotawo%3A+A+Journal+of+Nubian+Studies&rft.atitle=Toponymic+Strata+in+Ancient+Nubian+placenames+in+the+Third+and+Second+Millennium+BCE%3A+a+view+from+Egyptian+Records&rft.volume=4&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fora.ox.ac.uk%2Fobjects%2Fuuid%3A7d8a387b-f850-4d56-8105-f84a30bf121a%2Fdownload_file%3Ffile_format%3Dpdf%26safe_filename%3DCooper%25252C%252BToponymic%252BStrata%252Bin%252BAncient%252BNubian%252BPlacenames%25252C%252BDotawo%252B4.pdf%26type_of_work%3DJournal%2Barticle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2004" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, David (2004). The Nubian Past. Oxon: Routledge. pp. 2, 90, 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415369886" title="Special:BookSources/9780415369886"><bdi>9780415369886</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Past&rft.place=Oxon&rft.pages=2%2C+90%2C+106&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780415369886&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcea2020" class="citation journal cs1">Garcea, Elena A.A. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-47185-9">"The Prehistory of the Sudan"</a>. 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Journal of African Archaeology. 9 (2): 177–188. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3213%2F2191-5784-10186">10.3213/2191-5784-10186</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1612-1651">1612-1651</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135549">43135549</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7787802958">7787802958</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161078189">161078189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Affad+23%2C+a+Late+Middle+Palaeolithic+Site+With+Refitted+Lithics+and+Animal+Remains+in+the+Southern+Dongola+Reach%2C+Sudan&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E177-%3C%2Fspan%3E188&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43135549%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3213%2F2191-5784-10186&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7787802958&rft.issn=1612-1651&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161078189%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Osypi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft.au=Osypi%C5%84ska%2C+Marta&rft.au=Gautier%2C+Achilles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43135549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osypiński_II-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Osypiński_II_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsypiński2020" class="citation web cs1">Osypiński, Piotr (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://projekty.ncn.gov.pl/opisy/480275-en.pdf">"Unearthing Pan-African crossroad? Significance of the middle Nile valley in prehistory"</a> (PDF). National Science Centre.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unearthing+Pan-African+crossroad%3F+Significance+of+the+middle+Nile+valley+in+prehistory&rft.pub=National+Science+Centre&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Osypi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fprojekty.ncn.gov.pl%2Fopisy%2F480275-en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osypińska-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Osypińska_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsypińska2021" class="citation book cs1">Osypińska, Marta (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"Animals in the history of the Middle Nile"</a> (PDF). From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan. 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OUP Oxford. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191604621" title="Special:BookSources/9780191604621"><bdi>9780191604621</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2016-05-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2003-10-23&rft.isbn=9780191604621&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-h4gJAlx8o0C%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Wengrow2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Wengrow" title="David Wengrow">D. 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Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313325014" title="Special:BookSources/9780313325014"><bdi>9780313325014</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2016-05-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+of+the+Nubians&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780313325014&rft.aulast=Bianchi&rft.aufirst=Robert+Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUi9Qwtp-LV4C%26q%3DQustul%2Bburner%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWengrow2023" class="citation book cs1">Wengrow, David (2023). "Ancient Egypt and Nubian: Kings of Flood and Kings of Rain" in Great Kingdoms of Africa, John Parker (eds). 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Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, School of Archaeology, University College Dublin, Ireland.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Department+of+Anthropology%2C+Emory+University%2C+Atlanta%2C+School+of+Archaeology%2C+University+College+Dublin%2C+Ireland&rft.atitle=No+longer+the+1%25%3A+Optimizing+ancient+DNA+yield+from+Saharan+African+samples&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Sirak&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Fernandes%2C+D.&rft.au=Connell%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Pinhasi%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F275031861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSirakFernandesLipsonMallick2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sirak, Kendra A.; Fernandes, Daniel M.; Lipson, Mark; Mallick, Swapan; Mah, Matthew; Olalde, Iñigo; Ringbauer, Harald; Rohland, Nadin; Hadden, Carla S.; Harney, Éadaoin; Adamski, Nicole; Bernardos, Rebecca; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Callan, Kimberly; Ferry, Matthew; Lawson, Ann Marie; Michel, Megan; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Stewardson, Kristin; Zalzala, Fatma; Patterson, Nick; Pinhasi, Ron; Thompson, Jessica C.; Van Gerven, Dennis; Reich, David (14 December 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8671435">"Social stratification without genetic differentiation at the site of Kulubnarti in Christian Period Nubia"</a>. Nature Communications. 12 (1): 7283. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatCo..12.7283S">2021NatCo..12.7283S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-021-27356-8">10.1038/s41467-021-27356-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8671435">8671435</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34907168">34907168</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Social+stratification+without+genetic+differentiation+at+the+site+of+Kulubnarti+in+Christian+Period+Nubia&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7283&rft.date=2021-12-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8671435%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34907168&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-021-27356-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021NatCo..12.7283S&rft.aulast=Sirak&rft.aufirst=Kendra+A.&rft.au=Fernandes%2C+Daniel+M.&rft.au=Lipson%2C+Mark&rft.au=Mallick%2C+Swapan&rft.au=Mah%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Olalde%2C+I%C3%B1igo&rft.au=Ringbauer%2C+Harald&rft.au=Rohland%2C+Nadin&rft.au=Hadden%2C+Carla+S.&rft.au=Harney%2C+%C3%89adaoin&rft.au=Adamski%2C+Nicole&rft.au=Bernardos%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Broomandkhoshbacht%2C+Nasreen&rft.au=Callan%2C+Kimberly&rft.au=Ferry%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Lawson%2C+Ann+Marie&rft.au=Michel%2C+Megan&rft.au=Oppenheimer%2C+Jonas&rft.au=Stewardson%2C+Kristin&rft.au=Zalzala%2C+Fatma&rft.au=Patterson%2C+Nick&rft.au=Pinhasi%2C+Ron&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Jessica+C.&rft.au=Van+Gerven%2C+Dennis&rft.au=Reich%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8671435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoufouma_MbouakaGambleWurstJäger2021" class="citation journal cs1">Loufouma Mbouaka, Alvie; Gamble, Michelle; Wurst, Christina; Jäger, Heidi Yoko; Maixner, Frank; Zink, Albert; Noedl, Harald; Binder, Michaela (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8202054">"The elusive parasite: comparing macroscopic, immunological, and genomic approaches to identifying malaria in human skeletal remains from Sayala, Egypt (third to sixth centuries AD)"</a>. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 13 (7): 115. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ArAnS..13..115L">2021ArAnS..13..115L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12520-021-01350-z">10.1007/s12520-021-01350-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1866-9557">1866-9557</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8202054">8202054</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34149953">34149953</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeological+and+Anthropological+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+elusive+parasite%3A+comparing+macroscopic%2C+immunological%2C+and+genomic+approaches+to+identifying+malaria+in+human+skeletal+remains+from+Sayala%2C+Egypt+%28third+to+sixth+centuries+AD%29&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=115&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8202054%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021ArAnS..13..115L&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34149953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12520-021-01350-z&rft.issn=1866-9557&rft.aulast=Loufouma+Mbouaka&rft.aufirst=Alvie&rft.au=Gamble%2C+Michelle&rft.au=Wurst%2C+Christina&rft.au=J%C3%A4ger%2C+Heidi+Yoko&rft.au=Maixner%2C+Frank&rft.au=Zink%2C+Albert&rft.au=Noedl%2C+Harald&rft.au=Binder%2C+Michaela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8202054&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangBleasdaleLe_MoyneFreund2022" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Ke; Bleasdale, Madeleine; Le Moyne, Charles; Freund, Cacilia; Krause, Johannes; Boivin, Nicole; Schiffels, Stephan (2022-12-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9719486">"4000-year-old hair from the Middle Nile highlights unusual ancient DNA degradation pattern and a potential source of early eastern Africa pastoralists"</a>. Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 20939. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022NatSR..1220939W">2022NatSR..1220939W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-022-25384-y">10.1038/s41598-022-25384-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9719486">9719486</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36463384">36463384</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=4000-year-old+hair+from+the+Middle+Nile+highlights+unusual+ancient+DNA+degradation+pattern+and+a+potential+source+of+early+eastern+Africa+pastoralists&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20939&rft.date=2022-12-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9719486%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022NatSR..1220939W&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36463384&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-022-25384-y&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Ke&rft.au=Bleasdale%2C+Madeleine&rft.au=Le+Moyne%2C+Charles&rft.au=Freund%2C+Cacilia&rft.au=Krause%2C+Johannes&rft.au=Boivin%2C+Nicole&rft.au=Schiffels%2C+Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9719486&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Adams, William Y. (1977): Nubia: Corridor to Africa, London.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1980" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Adams, William Y. (February–March 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000074755&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_5f9b266d-d651-4d81-bff4-4e38018bc57e%3F_%3D074755engo.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000074755/PDF/074755engo.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A151%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D">"Nubia's corridor of time: From the kingdom of Kush to the triumph of Islam"</a> (PDF). UNESCO Courrier. Victory in Nubia: The greatest archaeological rescue operation of all time: 25–29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+Courrier&rft.atitle=Nubia%27s+corridor+of+time%3A+From+the+kingdom+of+Kush+to+the+triumph+of+Islam&rft.volume=Victory+in+Nubia%3A+The+greatest+archaeological+rescue+operation+of+all+time&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=1980-02%2F1980-03&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=William+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fin%2FdocumentViewer.xhtml%3Fv%3D2.1.196%26id%3Dp%3A%3Ausmarcdef_0000074755%26file%3D%2Fin%2Frest%2FannotationSVC%2FDownloadWatermarkedAttachment%2Fattach_import_5f9b266d-d651-4d81-bff4-4e38018bc57e%253F_%253D074755engo.pdf%26locale%3Den%26multi%3Dtrue%26ark%3D%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000074755%2FPDF%2F074755engo.pdf%23%255B%257B%2522num%2522%253A151%252C%2522gen%2522%253A0%257D%252C%257B%2522name%2522%253A%2522XYZ%2522%257D%252Cnull%252Cnull%252C0%255D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bell, Herman (2009): Paradise Lost: Nubia before the 1964 Hijra, DAL Group.</li> <li>"Black Pharaohs", National Geographic, Feb 2008</li> <li>Bulliet et al. (2001): Nubia, The Earth and Its Peoples, pp. 70–71, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.</li> <li>Drower M. (1970): Nubia A Drowning Land, London: Longmans.</li> <li>Emberling, Geoff (2011): Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World.</li> <li>Fisher, Marjorie, et al. (2012): Ancient Nubia: African Kingdoms on the Nile. The American University in Cairo Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrainger2010" class="citation book cs1">Grainger, John D. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/syrianwars00grai">The Syrian Wars</a>. Brill. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/syrianwars00grai/page/n299">281</a>–328. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004180505" title="Special:BookSources/9789004180505"><bdi>9789004180505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syrian+Wars&rft.pages=281-328&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9789004180505&rft.aulast=Grainger&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsyrianwars00grai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hassan, Yusuf Fadl (1973): The Arabs and the Sudan, Khartoum.</li> <li>Jennings, Anne (1995) The Nubians of West Aswan: Village Women in the Midst of Change, Lynne Reinner Publishers.</li> <li>O'Connor, David (1993): Ancient Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa, Philadelphia, The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaue2019" class="citation book cs1">Raue, Dietrich (2019). Elephantine und Nubien vom 4.-2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110501056" title="Special:BookSources/9783110501056"><bdi>9783110501056</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elephantine+und+Nubien+vom+4.-2.+Jahrtausend+v.+Chr.&rft.place=Berlin%2FBoston&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9783110501056&rft.aulast=Raue&rft.aufirst=Dietrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANubia" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Thelwall, Robin (1982) 'Linguistic Aspects of Greater Nubian History', in Ehret, C. & Posnansky, M. (eds.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050403072826/http://thenubian.net/aspect.php">The Archeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History</a>. Berkeley/Los Angeles, 39–56.</li> <li>Török, László (1997): The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Brill Academic Publishers.</li> <li>Valbelle, Dominique, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet_(archeologist)" title="Charles Bonnet (archeologist)">Bonnet, Charles</a> (2006): The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_2">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Definition 3 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nubia&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nubia" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nubia">Nubia</a> at Wikimedia Commons <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Nubia" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nubia">Nubia</a>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190519102901/http://www.africankingdoms.com/">African Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051027005838/http://www.ancientsudan.org/">Ancient Sudan Website</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi1/1_retel1.htm">Racism and the Rediscovery of Ancient Nubia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medievalsaiproject.wordpress.com/">Medieval Sai Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2550">"Journey to Ethiopia, Eastern Sudan, and Nigritia"</a> was written by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Tr%C3%A9maux" title="Pierre Trémaux">Pierre Trémaux</a> in 1862–63. It features extensive descriptions and drawings of Nubia.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.aucegypt.edu/cdm/ref/collection/p15795coll11/id/3125">1960s Nubia Scrapbook</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nubianfoundation.org/">Nubian Foundation for Preserving a Cultural Heritage</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Nubia426" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0e4ae"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Nubia_footer" title="Template:History of Nubia footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Nubia_footer" title="Template talk:History of Nubia footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Nubia_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Nubia footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Nubia426" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#History">History of Nubia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Nubia" title="Category:Nubia">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_names_of_Nubia" title="Historical names of Nubia">Names of Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sudan" title="History of Sudan">History of Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Nubia" title="Military of ancient Nubia">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" decoding="async" width="95" height="58" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="95" data-file-height="58" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa#North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">Kingdoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture#Existence_of_the_B-Group" title="A-Group culture">B-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-Group_culture" title="C-Group culture">C-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerma_culture" title="Kerma culture">Kerma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_al-Abwab" title="Kingdom of al-Abwab">Kingdom of al-Abwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funj_Sultanate" title="Funj Sultanate">Kingdom of Sennar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medjay" title="Medjay">Medja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-Group_culture" title="X-Group culture">X-Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f4ebc4;;width:1%">Titles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">Kandake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qore_(title)" title="Qore (title)">Qore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">Viceroy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f4ebc4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kerma" title="List of monarchs of Kerma">Monarchs of Kerma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kush" title="List of monarchs of Kush">Monarchs of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Makuria" title="List of rulers of Makuria"> Monarchs of Makuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandake#List_of_ruling_kandakes" title="Kandake">Queens of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Kush" title="Viceroy of Kush">Viceroy of Kush</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_sites_in_Sudan" title="Category:Archaeological sites in Sudan">Locations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Meragh" title="Al-Meragh">Al-Meragh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amara,_Nubia" title="Amara, Nubia">Amara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aniba_(Nubia)" title="Aniba (Nubia)">Aniba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askut" title="Askut">Askut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballana" title="Ballana">Ballana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigeh" title="Bigeh">Bigeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Bahari" title="Deir el-Bahari">Deir el-Bahari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debeira" title="Debeira">Debeira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triakontaschoinos" title="Triakontaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dongola" title="Old Dongola">Dongola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dotawo" title="Dotawo">Dotawo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Hobagi" title="El-Hobagi">El-Hobagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Kurru" title="El-Kurru">El-Kurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadrus" title="Fadrus">Fadrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faras" title="Faras">Faras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamadab" title="Hamadab">Hamadab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gala_Abu_Ahmed" title="Gala Abu Ahmed">Gala Abu Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebel_Adda" title="Gebel Adda">Jebel Adda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butana" title="Butana">Island of Meroë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Dosha" title="Jebel Dosha">Jebel Dosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadero_(archaeological_site)" title="Kadero (archaeological site)">Kadero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kageras" title="Kageras">Kageras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawa,_Sudan" title="Kawa, Sudan">Kawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulb" title="Kulb">Kulb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kulubnarti" title="Kulubnarti">Kulubnarti</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumma_(Nubia)" title="Kumma (Nubia)">Kumma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisht" title="Lisht">Lisht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meinarti" title="Meinarti">Meinarti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_Desert" title="Nubian Desert">Nubian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%AF_(island)" title="Saï (island)">Saï Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalfak" title="Shalfak">Shalfak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singa,_Sudan" title="Singa, Sudan">Singa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soba_(city)" title="Soba (city)">Soba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soleb" title="Soleb">Soleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Ruweim" title="Umm Ruweim">Umm Ruweim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wad_ban_Naqa" title="Wad ban Naqa">Wad ban Naqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuma,_Sudan" title="Zuma, Sudan">Zuma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes#Language" title="Blemmyes">Blemmye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Meroitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroitic alphabet">Meroitic alphabet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Nubian" title="Old Nubian">Old Nubian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f4ebc4;;width:1%">Religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushite_religion" title="Kushite religion">Kushite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f4ebc4;;width:1%">Deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>A</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Aman</a></li> <li>Amanete</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amesemi" title="Amesemi">Amesemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anhur" title="Anhur">Anhur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuket" title="Anuket">Anaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apedemak" title="Apedemak">Apedemak</a></li> <li>Aqedise</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arensnuphis" title="Arensnuphis">Arensnuphis</a></li> <li>Ariten</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hathor" title="Hathor">Atari</a></li> <li>B</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastet" title="Bastet">Bastet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bes" title="Bes">Bes</a></li> <li>Breith</li> <li>D</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedun" title="Dedun">Dedun</a></li> <li>H</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heka_(god)" title="Heka (god)">Heka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemen" title="Hemen">Hemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a></li> <li>K</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khnum" title="Khnum">Khenmu</a></li> <li>J</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a></li> <li>M</li> <li>Makedeke</li> <li>Mash</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehit" title="Mehit">Mehit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhit" title="Menhit">Menhit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandulis" title="Mandulis">Merul</a></li> <li>Miket</li> <li>N</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nu_(mythology)" title="Nu (mythology)">Nu</a></li> <li>R</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a></li> <li>S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satis_(goddess)" title="Satis (goddess)">Satis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebiumeker" title="Sebiumeker">Sabomakal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobek" title="Sobek">Sobek</a></li> <li>T</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoth" title="Thoth">Thoth</a></li> <li>W</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Wusa</a></li> <li>Y</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f4ebc4;;width:1%">Temples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faras_Cathedral" title="Faras Cathedral">Faras Cathedral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulubnarti_church" title="Kulubnarti church">Kulubnarti church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastery_in_Ghazali" title="Monastery in Ghazali">Monastery in Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philae_temple_complex" title="Philae temple complex">Philae temple complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Qasr Ibrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qustul" title="Qustul">Qustul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semna_(Nubia)" title="Semna (Nubia)">Semna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Amun,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Amun (Jebel Barkal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra#Lion_Temple" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Temple of Apedemak (Lion Temple)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabo_(Nubia)" title="Tabo (Nubia)">Temple of Amun (Tabo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Dendur" title="Temple of Dendur">Temple of Dendur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Mut,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Mut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throne_Hall_of_Dongola" title="Throne Hall of Dongola">Throne Hall of Dongola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombos_(Nubia)" title="Tombos (Nubia)">Tombos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Sudan" title="Architecture of Sudan">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monumental_depictions_of_Amanitore" title="Monumental depictions of Amanitore">Monumental depictions of Amanitore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Nubian architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Nubian pyramids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_vault" title="Nubian vault">Nubian vault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramids_of_Mero%C3%AB" title="Pyramids of Meroë">Pyramids of Meroë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedeinga_pyramids" title="Sedeinga pyramids">Sedeinga pyramids</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafir" title="Hafir">Hafir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0e4ae"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Nubia" title="Category:History of Nubia">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kushite_monarchs_and_rulers220" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#F0E4AE"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kushite_Monarchs_footer" title="Template:Kushite Monarchs footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kushite_Monarchs_footer" title="Template talk:Kushite Monarchs footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kushite_Monarchs_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kushite Monarchs footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kushite_monarchs_and_rulers220" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Kushite monarchs and rulers</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kush" title="List of monarchs of Kush"> Main article</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qore_(title)" title="Qore (title)">Qore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">Kandake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Kush" title="Viceroy of Kush">Viceroy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" decoding="async" width="95" height="58" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="95" data-file-height="58" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Viceroys at <a href="/wiki/Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmose_called_Si-Tayit" title="Ahmose called Si-Tayit">Si-Tayit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmose_called_Turo" title="Ahmose called Turo">Turo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seni" title="Seni">Seni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penre" title="Penre">Penre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inebny" title="Inebny">Amenemnekhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nehi_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Nehi (Viceroy of Kush)">Nehi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usersatet" title="Usersatet">Usersatet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Amenhotep (Viceroy of Kush)">Amenhotep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merymose" title="Merymose">Merymose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_(viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Thutmose (viceroy of Kush)">Tuthmose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_called_Huy" title="Amenhotep called Huy">Amenhotep called Huy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paser_I" title="Paser I">Paser I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenemopet_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Amenemopet (Viceroy of Kush)">Amenemopet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuny_(viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Yuny (viceroy of Kush)">Yuny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heqanakht" title="Heqanakht">Heqanakht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paser_II" title="Paser II">Paser II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huy_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Huy (Viceroy of Kush)">Huy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Setau" title="Setau">Setau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anhotep" title="Anhotep">Anhotep</a></li> <li>Mernudjem</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaemtir" title="Khaemtir">Khaemtir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messuy" title="Messuy">Messuy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seti_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Seti (Viceroy of Kush)">Seti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hori_I_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Hori I (Viceroy of Kush)">Hori I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hori_II_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Hori II (Viceroy of Kush)">Hori II</a></li> <li>Siese</li> <li>Nahihor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wentawat" title="Wentawat">Wentawat</a></li> <li>Ramessesnakht</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinehesy" title="Pinehesy">Pinehesy</a></li> <li>Setmose</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piankh" title="Piankh">Piankh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herihor" title="Herihor">Herihor</a></li> <li>Akheperre</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neskhons" title="Neskhons">Neskhons</a></li> <li>Pamiu I</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Napatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Napatan">Napatan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alara_of_Kush" title="Alara of Kush">Alara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashta" title="Kashta">Kashta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanersa" title="Atlanersa">Atlanersa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senkamanisken" title="Senkamanisken">Senkamanisken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anlamani" title="Anlamani">Anlamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspelta" title="Aspelta">Aspelta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Early Meroitic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramatle-qo" title="Aramatle-qo">Aramatle-qo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malonaqen" title="Malonaqen">Malonaqen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analmaye" title="Analmaye">Analmaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amaninatakilebte" title="Amaninatakilebte">Amaninatakilebte</a></li> <li>Piankhariten</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karkamani" title="Karkamani">Karkamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amaniastabarqa" title="Amaniastabarqa">Amaniastabarqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siaspiqa" title="Siaspiqa">Siaspiqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasakhma" title="Nasakhma">Nasakhma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malewiebamani" title="Malewiebamani">Malewiebamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talakhamani" title="Talakhamani">Talakhamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanineteyerike" title="Amanineteyerike">Amanineteyerike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baskakeren" title="Baskakeren">Baskakeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsiotef" title="Harsiotef">Harsiotef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhraten" title="Akhraten">Akhraten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanibakhi" title="Amanibakhi">Amanibakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastasen" title="Nastasen">Nastasen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktisanes" title="Aktisanes">Aktisanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryamani" title="Aryamani">Aryamani</a></li> <li>Kash(...)amani</li> <li>Arikepiankhiqo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabrakamani" title="Sabrakamani">Sabrakamani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Late Meroitic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arakamani" title="Arakamani">Arakamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanislo" title="Amanislo">Amanislo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amantekha" title="Amantekha">Amantekha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnekhamani" title="Arnekhamani">Arnekhamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arqamani" title="Arqamani">Arqamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adikhalamani" title="Adikhalamani">Adikhalamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabirqo" title="Tabirqo">Tabirqo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahirqo" title="Nahirqo">Nahirqo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanyidamani" title="Tanyidamani">Tanyidamani</a></li> <li>Pakhedateqo</li> <li>Naqyrinsan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teriteqas" title="Teriteqas">Teriteqas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanirenas" title="Amanirenas">Amanirenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanishakheto" title="Amanishakheto">Amanishakheto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanakdakhete" title="Shanakdakhete">Shanakdakhete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawidemak" title="Nawidemak">Nawidemak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanikhabale" title="Amanikhabale">Amanikhabale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natakamani" title="Natakamani">Natakamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanitore" title="Amanitore">Amanitore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shorkaror" title="Shorkaror">Shorkaror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanikhareqerem" title="Amanikhareqerem">Amanikhareqerem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanitenmemide" title="Amanitenmemide">Amanitenmemide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanikhatashan" title="Amanikhatashan">Amanikhatashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarekeniwal" title="Tarekeniwal">Tarekeniwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanikhalika" title="Amanikhalika">Amanikhalika</a></li> <li>Aritenyesbokhe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanitaraqide" title="Amanitaraqide">Amanitaraqide</a></li> <li>Amanikhedolo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takideamani" title="Takideamani">Takideamani</a></li> <li>Mashadakhel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teqorideamani" title="Teqorideamani">Teqorideamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamelerdeamani" title="Tamelerdeamani">Tamelerdeamani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talakhidamani" title="Talakhidamani">Talakhidamani</a></li> <li>Aryesbokhe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yesebokheamani" title="Yesebokheamani">Yesebokheamani</a></li> <li>Patrapeamani</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amanipilade" title="Amanipilade">Amanipilade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#F0E4AE"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Nubia" title="Category:History of Nubia">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kushite_religion326" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#F0E4AE"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kushite_religion_footer" title="Template:Kushite religion footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Kushite_religion_footer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Kushite religion footer (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kushite_religion_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kushite religion footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kushite_religion326" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Kushite_religion" title="Kushite religion">Kushite religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kushite_religion#History" title="Kushite religion">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_afterlife_beliefs" title="Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Christian_Nubia">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_creation_myths" title="Ancient Egyptian creation myths">Creation myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_of_Ra" title="Eye of Ra">Eye of Ra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">Flooding of the Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maat" title="Maat">Maat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Neferti" title="Prophecy of Neferti">Prophecy of Neferti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_concept_of_the_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul">Soul</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" decoding="async" width="95" height="58" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="95" data-file-height="58" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medjay#Pan-graves" title="Medjay">Burials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execration_texts" title="Execration texts">Execration texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary practices">Funerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortuary_temple" title="Mortuary temple">Mortuary temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Pyramids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Veneration of the dead</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Elephantine#Elephantine_triad" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anuket" title="Anuket">Anaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khnum" title="Khnum">Khenmu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satis_(goddess)" title="Satis (goddess)">Satis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amesemi#The_Temples_of_Naqa" title="Amesemi">Naqa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Aman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amesemi" title="Amesemi">Amesemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apedemak" title="Apedemak">Apedemak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>A</li> <li>Amanete</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anhur" title="Anhur">Anhur</a></li> <li>Aqedise</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arensnuphis" title="Arensnuphis">Arensnuphis</a></li> <li>Ariten</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hathor" title="Hathor">Atari</a></li> <li>B</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastet" title="Bastet">Bastet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bes" title="Bes">Bes</a></li> <li>Breith</li> <li>D</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedun" title="Dedun">Dedun</a></li> <li>H</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heka_(god)" title="Heka (god)">Heka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemen" title="Hemen">Hemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a></li> <li>M</li> <li>Makedeke</li> <li>Mash</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehit" title="Mehit">Mehit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhit" title="Menhit">Menhit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandulis" title="Mandulis">Merul</a></li> <li>Miket</li> <li>N</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nu_(mythology)" title="Nu (mythology)">Nu</a></li> <li>R</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a></li> <li>S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebiumeker" title="Sebiumeker">Sabomakal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobek" title="Sobek">Sobek</a></li> <li>T</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoth" title="Thoth">Thoth</a></li> <li>W</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Wusa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush#History" title="Kingdom of Kush">Cultures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture#Existence_of_the_B-Group" title="A-Group culture">B-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-Group_culture" title="C-Group culture">C-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerma_culture" title="Kerma culture">Kerma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_al-Abwab" title="Kingdom of al-Abwab">Kingdom of al-Abwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medjay" title="Medjay">Medja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-Group_culture" title="X-Group culture">X-Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Locations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aniba_(Nubia)" title="Aniba (Nubia)">Aniba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballana" title="Ballana">Ballana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigeh" title="Bigeh">Bigeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Bahari" title="Deir el-Bahari">Deir el-Bahari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triakontaschoinos" title="Triakontaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dotawo" title="Dotawo">Dotawo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawa,_Sudan" title="Kawa, Sudan">Kawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisht" title="Lisht">Lisht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philae_temple_complex" title="Philae temple complex">Philae temple complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Qasr Ibrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qustul" title="Qustul">Qustul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semna_(Nubia)" title="Semna (Nubia)">Semna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Amun,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Amun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Dendur" title="Temple of Dendur">Temple of Dendur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Mut,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Mut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throne_Hall_of_Dongola" title="Throne Hall of Dongola">Throne Hall of Dongola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombos_(Nubia)" title="Tombos (Nubia)">Tombos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Sacred animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abtu" title="Abtu">Abtu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_lion" title="Barbary lion">Barbary lion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_in_religion_and_mythology#Nubia" title="Cattle in religion and mythology">Cattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falcon" title="Falcon">Falcon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieracosphinx" title="Hieracosphinx">Hieracosphinx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medjed_(fish)" title="Medjed (fish)">Medjed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_crocodile" title="Nile crocodile">Nile crocodile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_elephant#History" title="North African elephant">North African elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_ibex" title="Nubian ibex">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpopard" title="Serpopard">Serpopard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphinx" title="Sphinx">Sphinx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taweret" title="Taweret">Taweret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uraeus" title="Uraeus">Uraeus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Symbols & objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ankh" title="Ankh">Ankh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atef" title="Atef">Atef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartouche_(hieroglyph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartouche (hieroglyph)">Cartouche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">Christian cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crook_and_flail" title="Crook and flail">Crook and flail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_justification" title="Crown of justification">Crown of justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deshret" title="Deshret">Deshret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djed" title="Djed">Djed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_obelisk" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian obelisk">Egyptian obelisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pool" title="Egyptian pool">Egyptian pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_of_Horus" title="Eye of Horus">Eye of Horus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_of_Ra" title="Eye of Ra">Eye of Ra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold#History" title="Gold">Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafir" title="Hafir">Hafir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedjet" title="Hedjet">Hedjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemhem_crown" title="Hemhem crown">Hemhem crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hennu" title="Hennu">Hennu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horus_on_the_Crocodiles" title="Horus on the Crocodiles">Horus on the Crocodiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocephalus" title="Hypocephalus">Hypocephalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imiut_fetish" title="Imiut fetish">Imiut fetish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khepresh" title="Khepresh">Khepresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kneph" title="Kneph">Kneph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menat" title="Menat">Menat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebu" title="Nebu">Nebu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemes" title="Nemes">Nemes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pschent" title="Pschent">Pschent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarab_(artifact)" title="Scarab (artifact)">Scarab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serekh" title="Serekh">Serekh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_ring" title="Shen ring">Shen ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_barque" title="Solar barque">Solar barque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyet" title="Tyet">Tyet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ushabti" title="Ushabti">Ushabti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulture_crown" title="Vulture crown">Vulture crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Was-sceptre" title="Was-sceptre">Was-sceptre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes#Language" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Meroitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroitic alphabet">Meroitic alphabet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Nubian" title="Old Nubian"> Nubian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#F0E4AE"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Category:Kingdom of Kush">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q135028#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata943" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q135028#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata943" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q135028#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/127854022">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJcBYqftDRB3bXCfJH3vpP">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4042734-1">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n81103291">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/1zcfd96k5hlp46n">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007555181905171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027243656">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Earth&#039;s_primary_regions_and_subregions550" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Regions_of_the_world" title="Template:Regions of the world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li 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<li><a href="/wiki/Down_Under" title="Down Under">Down Under</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-world_model" title="Three-world model">Three/Four Worlds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_World" title="First World">First World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_World" title="Second World">Second World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_World" title="Fourth World">Fourth World</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hemispheres_of_Earth" title="Hemispheres of Earth">Hemispheres</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hemisphere" title="Eastern Hemisphere">Eastern Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_and_water_hemispheres" title="Land and water hemispheres">Land Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_and_water_hemispheres" title="Land and water hemispheres">Water Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landmass" title="Landmass">Landmasses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Africa-Eurasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Australia" title="Mainland Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Submerged_continent" title="Submerged continent">submerged</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plates">Tectonic plates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Continents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Saharan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">Western</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Antarctica" title="East Antarctica">East Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Plateau" title="Antarctic Plateau">Antarctic Plateau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transantarctic_Mountains" title="Transantarctic Mountains">Transantarctic Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Antarctica" title="West Antarctica">West Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia%E2%80%93Pacific" title="Asia–Pacific">Asia–Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aralkum_Desert" title="Aralkum Desert">Aralkum Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Central_Asia" title="Greater Central Asia">Greater Central Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia" title="Northeast Asia">Northeastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Asia" title="Pacific Asia">Pacific Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_(region)" title="Ural (region)">Ural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Himalayan_states" title="Himalayan states">Himalayan states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of South Asia">Subregions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Sea" title="Levantine Sea">Levantine Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Russia" title="Southern Russia">Southern Russia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Europe" title="Northwestern Europe">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Peninsula" title="Scandinavian Peninsula">Scandinavian Peninsula</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">South-eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkan Peninsula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">South-western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Europe" title="Atlantic Europe">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Europe" title="Northwestern Europe">Northwestern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic-speaking_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic-speaking Europe">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance-speaking_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance-speaking Europe">Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aridoamerica" title="Aridoamerica">Aridoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_America_(Americas)" title="Middle America (Americas)">Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_America" title="Northern America">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appalachia" title="Appalachia">Appalachia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Belt" title="Bible Belt">Bible Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_region" title="Great Lakes region">Great Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_states" title="Mountain states">Mountain states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_South_Central_states" title="West South Central states">West South Central United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">Atlantic Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Prairies" title="Canadian Prairies">Canadian Prairies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Canada" title="Central Canada">Central Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canada" title="Eastern Canada">Eastern Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Canada" title="Northern Canada">Northern Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canada" title="Western Canada">Western Canada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mexico" title="Northern Mexico">Northern Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-America" title="Anglo-America">Anglo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_America" title="French America">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibero-America" title="Ibero-America">Ibero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Hispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_America" title="Portuguese America">Portuguese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Australia" title="Mainland Australia">Mainland Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Island_Melanesia" title="Island Melanesia">Island Melanesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote Oceania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon Plain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin_(sedimentary_basin)" title="Amazon Basin (sedimentary basin)">Amazon Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon Rainforest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Community" title="Andean Community">Andean States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Highlands" title="Brazilian Highlands">Brazilian Highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_South_America" title="Caribbean South America">Caribbean South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Guianas" title="The Guianas">The Guianas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cone" title="Southern Cone">Southern Cone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_islands" title="Lists of islands">Islands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Africa" title="List of islands of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_islands_of_the_Americas" title="Lists of islands of the Americas">America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_North_America" title="List of islands of North America">North America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_islands" title="List of Caribbean islands">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Central_America" title="List of islands of Central America">Central America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_South_America" title="List of islands of South America">South America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_and_subantarctic_islands" title="List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of islands of Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Europe" title="List of islands of Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_islands_by_area" title="List of European islands by area">by area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_islands_by_population" title="List of European islands by population">by population</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Pacific_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Pacific Ocean">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Australia" title="List of islands of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_New_Zealand" title="List of islands of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Arctic_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Atlantic_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Baltic_Sea" title="List of islands in the Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Black_Sea" title="List of islands in the Black Sea">Black Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_islands" title="List of Caribbean islands">Caribbean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Irish_Sea" title="List of islands in the Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Mediterranean" title="List of islands in the Mediterranean">Mediterranean Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Adriatic" title="List of islands in the Adriatic">Adriatic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Aegean_Islands" title="List of Aegean Islands">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Islands" title="Ionian Islands">Ionian Sea</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Persian_Gulf" title="List of islands in the Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Pacific_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_East_China_Sea" title="List of islands in the East China Sea">East China Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_South_China_Sea" title="List of islands in the South China Sea">South China Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_and_subantarctic_islands" title="List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands">Southern Ocean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Convergence" title="Antarctic Convergence">Antarctic Convergence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Fire" title="Ring of Fire">Ring of Fire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean#World_Ocean" title="Ocean">World Ocean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">waterbodies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes" title="List of lakes">Lakes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_lakes" title="Lists of lakes">lists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rivers" title="Lists of rivers">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_seas_on_Earth" title="List of seas on Earth">Seas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Rim_regions" title="Category:Rim regions">Rim</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Rim" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Rim">Atlantic Rim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Mediterranean" title="Indo-Mediterranean">Indo-Mediterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Rim" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Ocean Rim">Indian Ocean Rim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Rim" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Rim">Mediterranean Rim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Rim" title="Pacific Rim">Pacific Rim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polar_regions_of_Earth" title="Polar regions of Earth">Polar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Global_regions" title="Category:Global regions">Global</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_East" title="Global East">Global East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Geographical_Pivot_of_History#The_Heartland" title="The Geographical Pivot of History">Global Heartland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">Global North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia" title="Northeast Asia">Global Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Northwest" title="Global Northwest">Global Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">Global South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Southeast" title="Global Southeast">Global Southeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Southwest" title="Global Southwest">Global Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Global West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" 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