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</div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relationship_to_science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Relationship to science subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scientific_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Scientific method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Falsifiability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Falsifiability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Falsifiability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Falsifiability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mertonian_norms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mertonian_norms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Mertonian norms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mertonian_norms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Refusal_to_acknowledge_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refusal_to_acknowledge_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Refusal to acknowledge problems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refusal_to_acknowledge_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_the_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_the_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Criticism of the term</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_the_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Alternative definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indicators_of_possible_pseudoscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indicators_of_possible_pseudoscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Indicators of possible pseudoscience</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Indicators_of_possible_pseudoscience-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Indicators of possible pseudoscience subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Indicators_of_possible_pseudoscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Use_of_vague,_exaggerated_or_untestable_claims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_of_vague,_exaggerated_or_untestable_claims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Use of vague, exaggerated or untestable claims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_of_vague,_exaggerated_or_untestable_claims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Improper_collection_of_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Improper_collection_of_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Improper collection of evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Improper_collection_of_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lack_of_openness_to_testing_by_other_experts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lack_of_openness_to_testing_by_other_experts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Lack of openness to testing by other experts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lack_of_openness_to_testing_by_other_experts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absence_of_progress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absence_of_progress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Absence of progress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absence_of_progress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personalization_of_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personalization_of_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Personalization of issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personalization_of_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_of_misleading_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_of_misleading_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Use of misleading language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_of_misleading_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevalence_of_pseudoscientific_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevalence_of_pseudoscientific_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Prevalence of pseudoscientific beliefs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevalence_of_pseudoscientific_beliefs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prevalence of pseudoscientific beliefs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prevalence_of_pseudoscientific_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Racism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Explanations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Explanations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Explanations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_and_scientific_literacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_scientific_literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Education and scientific literacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_and_scientific_literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boundaries_with_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boundaries_with_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Boundaries with science</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Boundaries_with_science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Boundaries with science subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Boundaries_with_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics,_health,_and_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics,_health,_and_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Politics, health, and education</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Politics,_health,_and_education-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Politics, health, and education subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Politics,_health,_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Political implications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_and_education_implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_and_education_implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Health and education implications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_and_education_implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pseudoscience</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 81 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-81" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">81 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudowetenskap" title="Pseudowetenskap – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Pseudowetenskap" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%81" title="علم زائف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم زائف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudociencia" title="Pseudociencia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Pseudociencia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seudociencia" title="Seudociencia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Seudociencia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yalan_elml%C9%99r" title="Yalan elmlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yalan elmlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="অপবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অপবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%AE-s%C5%AB_kho-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Gî-sū kho-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gî-sū kho-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%9E%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Псеўданавука – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Псеўданавука" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%9E%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Псэўданавука – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Псэўданавука" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seudosiyensya" title="Seudosiyensya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Seudosiyensya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Псевдонаука – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Псевдонаука" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudonauka" title="Pseudonauka – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Pseudonauka" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoci%C3%A8ncia" title="Pseudociència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pseudociència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudov%C4%9Bda" title="Pseudověda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pseudověda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffugwyddoniaeth" title="Ffugwyddoniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffugwyddoniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudovidenskab" title="Pseudovidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pseudovidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B5_%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="صيونص د بلعاني – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="صيونص د بلعاني" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudowissenschaft" title="Pseudowissenschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pseudowissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoteadus" title="Pseudoteadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pseudoteadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7" title="Ψευδοεπιστήμη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ψευδοεπιστήμη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudociencia" title="Pseudociencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pseudociencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pse%C5%ADdoscienco" title="Pseŭdoscienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pseŭdoscienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasizientzia" title="Sasizientzia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sasizientzia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="شبه‌علم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شبه‌علم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudov%C3%ADsindi" title="Pseudovísindi – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Pseudovísindi" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pseudoscience" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudowittenskip" title="Pseudowittenskip – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Pseudowittenskip" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudociencia" title="Pseudociencia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pseudociencia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%9B%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8" title="છદ્મવિજ્ઞાન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="છદ્મવિજ્ઞાન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%82%AC%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="유사과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유사과학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="छद्म विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="छद्म विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoznanost" title="Pseudoznanost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pseudoznanost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_semu" title="Ilmu semu – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu semu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscientia" title="Pseudoscientia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Pseudoscientia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hj%C3%A1fr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Hjáfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hjáfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscienza" title="Pseudoscienza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Pseudoscienza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%95%D7%93%D7%95-%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2" title="פסאודו-מדע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פסאודו-מדע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC" title="Псевдоғылым – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Псевдоғылым" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayansi_bandia" title="Sayansi bandia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Sayansi bandia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia_falsa" title="Scientia falsa – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scientia falsa" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseidozin%C4%81tne" title="Pseidozinātne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pseidozinātne" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomokslas" title="Pseudomokslas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pseudomokslas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudosiensa" title="Pseudosiensa – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Pseudosiensa" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ltudom%C3%A1ny" title="Áltudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Áltudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Псевдонаука – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Псевдонаука" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="കപടശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കപടശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="छद्म विज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="छद्म विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudosains" title="Pseudosains – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pseudosains" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudovakadidike" title="Pseudovakadidike – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Pseudovakadidike" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudowetenschap" title="Pseudowetenschap – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Pseudowetenschap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%96%91%E4%BC%BC%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="疑似科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="疑似科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudovitenskap" title="Pseudovitenskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pseudovitenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudovitskap" title="Pseudovitskap – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Pseudovitskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soxta_fan" title="Soxta fan – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Soxta fan" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਮਿਥਿਆ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਿਥਿਆ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudonauka" title="Pseudonauka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pseudonauka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoci%C3%AAncia" title="Pseudociência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pseudociência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo%C8%99tiin%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Pseudoștiință – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Pseudoștiință" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanqa_hamut%27ay" title="Yanqa hamut'ay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yanqa hamut'ay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Псевдонаука – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Псевдонаука" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Псевдонаука – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Псевдонаука" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoshkenca" title="Pseudoshkenca – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Pseudoshkenca" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%A7_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%96%E0%B6%BD_%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9C%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B8_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%84_%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B4" title="නවීන විද්‍යාවට අනුකූල නොවන දැණුම සහ ශිල්ප – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නවීන විද්‍යාවට අනුකූල නොවන දැණුම සහ ශිල්ප" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pseudoscience" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoveda" title="Pseudoveda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pseudoveda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psevdoznanost" title="Psevdoznanost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Psevdoznanost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DA%95%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="زڕزانست – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زڕزانست" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Псеудонаука – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Псеудонаука" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudonauka" title="Pseudonauka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pseudonauka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A4enn%C3%A4istiede" title="Näennäistiede – Finnish" lang="fi" 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typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Unscientific claims wrongly presented as scientific</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phrenological_organs,_1887_Wellcome_L0001965.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Phrenological_organs%2C_1887_Wellcome_L0001965.jpg/300px-Phrenological_organs%2C_1887_Wellcome_L0001965.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Phrenological_organs%2C_1887_Wellcome_L0001965.jpg/450px-Phrenological_organs%2C_1887_Wellcome_L0001965.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Phrenological_organs%2C_1887_Wellcome_L0001965.jpg/600px-Phrenological_organs%2C_1887_Wellcome_L0001965.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5151" data-file-height="5536" /></a><figcaption>A typical 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a> chart: During the 1820s, phrenologists claimed the mind was located in areas of the brain, and were attacked for doubting that mind came from the nonmaterial soul. Their idea of reading "bumps" in the skull to predict personality traits was later discredited.<sup id="cite_ref-bowler_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bowler-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dtg6e_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dtg6e-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phrenology was first termed a pseudoscience in 1843 and continues to be considered so.<sup id="cite_ref-Magendie1843_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magendie1843-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Paranormal" title="Category:Paranormal">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;padding:0 0.2em 0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#ebebeb;;color: var(--color-base)">Main articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astral_projection" title="Astral projection">Astral projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aura_(paranormal)" title="Aura (paranormal)">Aura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilocation" title="Bilocation">Bilocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inedia" title="Inedia">Breatharianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clairvoyance" title="Clairvoyance">Clairvoyance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_encounter" title="Close encounter">Close encounter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_spot_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold spot (paranormal)">Cold spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_gazing" title="Crystal gazing">Crystal gazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evocation" title="Evocation">Conjuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession" title="Spirit possession">Demonic possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doppelg%C3%A4nger" title="Doppelgänger">Doppelgänger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectoplasm_(paranormal)" title="Ectoplasm (paranormal)">Ectoplasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon" title="Electronic voice phenomenon">Electronic voice phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">Exorcism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrasensory_perception" title="Extrasensory perception">Extrasensory perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forteana" class="mw-redirect" title="Forteana">Forteana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortune-telling" title="Fortune-telling">Fortune-telling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_hunting" title="Ghost hunting">Ghost hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations" title="List of reportedly haunted locations">Haunted locations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_India" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Reportedly haunted locations in the United Kingdom">UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reportedly_haunted_locations_in_the_United_States" title="List of reportedly haunted locations in the United States">US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">Occult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orb_(optics)#Paranormal_claims" class="mw-redirect" title="Orb (optics)">Orb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouija" title="Ouija">Ouija</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal_fiction" title="Paranormal fiction">Paranormal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal_television" title="Paranormal television">Paranormal television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precognition" title="Precognition">Precognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preternatural" title="Preternatural">Preternatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychic" title="Psychic">Psychic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychic_reading" title="Psychic reading">Psychic reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometry_(paranormal)" title="Psychometry (paranormal)">Psychometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_viewing" title="Remote viewing">Remote viewing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrocognition" title="Retrocognition">Retrocognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">Spirit photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession" title="Spirit possession">Spirit possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_world_(Spiritualism)" title="Spirit world (Spiritualism)">Spirit world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone Tape">Stone Tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telekinesis" title="Telekinesis">Telekinesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telepathy" title="Telepathy">Telepathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table-turning" title="Table-turning">Table-turning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ufology" title="Ufology">Ufology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#ebebeb;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">Cold reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debunker" title="Debunker">Debunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">Magical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prizes_for_evidence_of_the_paranormal" title="List of prizes for evidence of the paranormal">Prizes for evidence of the paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoskepticism" title="Pseudoskepticism">Pseudoskepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">Scientific literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#ebebeb;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalous_experiences" title="Anomalous experiences">Anomalous experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apparitional_experience" title="Apparitional experience">Apparitional experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empath" title="Empath">Empath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_awakening" title="False awakening">False awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnosis" title="Hypnosis">Hypnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideomotor_phenomenon" title="Ideomotor phenomenon">Ideomotor phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-of-body_experience" title="Out-of-body experience">Out-of-body experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronicity" title="Synchronicity">Synchronicity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#ebebeb;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistics" title="Anomalistics">Anomalistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">Argument from ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_reinforcement" title="Communal reinforcement">Communal reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnosis" title="Hypnosis">Hypnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">Junk science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">Superstition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legend" title="Urban legend">Urban legend</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Paranormal" title="Template:Paranormal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Paranormal" title="Template talk:Paranormal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Paranormal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Paranormal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Pseudoscience</b> consists of statements, <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a>, or practices that claim to be both <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> and factual but are incompatible with the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pseudoscience is often characterized by contradictory, exaggerated or <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">unfalsifiable claims</a>; reliance on <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a> rather than rigorous attempts at refutation; lack of openness to <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">evaluation by other experts</a>; absence of systematic practices when developing <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>; and continued adherence long after the pseudoscientific hypotheses have been experimentally discredited.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_section_SciPse_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_section_SciPse-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not the same as <a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">junk science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">demarcation between science and pseudoscience</a> has <a href="/wiki/Scientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific">scientific</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophical" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical">philosophical</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political" class="mw-redirect" title="Political">political</a> implications.<sup id="cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imre-Lakatos-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosophers debate the nature of science and the general criteria for drawing the line between <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theories</a> and pseudoscientific beliefs, but there is widespread agreement "that <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">homeopathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirlian_photography" title="Kirlian photography">Kirlian photography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dowsing" title="Dowsing">dowsing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ufology" title="Ufology">ufology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts" title="Ancient astronauts">ancient astronaut theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Velikovsky" title="Immanuel Velikovsky">Velikovskian catastrophism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">climate change denialism</a> are pseudosciences."<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford-Demarcations_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-Demarcations-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are implications for <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a>, the use of <a href="/wiki/Expert_witness" title="Expert witness">expert testimony</a>, and weighing <a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy" title="Environmental policy">environmental policies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford-Demarcations_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-Demarcations-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent empirical research has shown that individuals who indulge in pseudoscientific beliefs generally show lower evidential criteria, meaning they often require significantly less evidence before coming to conclusions. This can be coined as a 'jump-to-conclusions' bias that can increase the spread of pseudoscientific beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Addressing pseudoscience is part of <a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">science education</a> and developing scientific literacy.<sup id="cite_ref-Hurd_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurd-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pseudoscience can have dangerous effects. For example, pseudoscientific <a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_activism" title="Anti-vaccine activism">anti-vaccine activism</a> and promotion of homeopathic remedies as alternative disease treatments can result in people forgoing important medical treatments with demonstrable health benefits, leading to ill-health and deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-FKGbU_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FKGbU-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bxgBg_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bxgBg-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mav9B_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mav9B-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, people who refuse legitimate medical treatments for contagious diseases may put others at risk. Pseudoscientific theories about <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">racial</a> and ethnic classifications have led to <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>. </p><p>The term <i>pseudoscience</i> is often considered <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a>, particularly by its purveyors, because it suggests something is being presented as science inaccurately or even deceptively. Therefore, practitioners and advocates of pseudoscience frequently dispute the characterization.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_section_SciPse_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_section_SciPse-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Freitsch_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freitsch-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The word <i>pseudoscience</i> is derived from the Greek root <i>pseudo</i> meaning "false"<sup id="cite_ref-WYabu_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WYabu-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ipDIt_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ipDIt-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the English word <i>science</i>, from the Latin word <i>scientia</i>, meaning "knowledge". Although the term has been in use since at least the late 18th century (e.g., in 1796 by <a href="/wiki/James_Pettit_Andrews" title="James Pettit Andrews">James Pettit Andrews</a> in reference to <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a><sup id="cite_ref-BocQl_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BocQl-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrewsHenry179687_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewsHenry179687-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), the concept of pseudoscience as distinct from real or proper science seems to have become more widespread during the mid-19th century. Among the earliest uses of "pseudo-science" was in an 1844 article in the <i>Northern Journal of Medicine</i>, issue 387: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>That opposite kind of innovation which pronounces what has been recognized as a branch of science, to have been a pseudo-science, composed merely of so-called facts, connected together by misapprehensions under the disguise of principles.</p></blockquote> <p>An earlier use of the term was in 1843 by the French physiologist <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie" title="François Magendie">François Magendie</a>, that refers to <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a> as "<i>a pseudo-science of the present day</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-Magendie1843_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magendie1843-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-u5Ez4_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-u5Ez4-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 20th century, the word was used pejoratively to describe explanations of phenomena which were claimed to be scientific, but which were not in fact supported by reliable experimental evidence. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Dismissing the separate issue of intentional fraud – such as the <a href="/wiki/Fox_sisters" title="Fox sisters">Fox sisters</a>' "rappings" in the 1850s<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott2012_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott2012-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – the pejorative label pseudoscience distinguishes the scientific <span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span><i><b>us</b></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>, at one extreme, from the pseudo-scientific <span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span><i><b>them</b></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>, at the other, and asserts that <span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span><i><b>our</b></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span> beliefs, practices, theories, etc., by contrast with that of <span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span><i><b>the others</b></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>, are scientific. There are four criteria:<br />     (a) the '<i><b>pseudoscientific'</b></i> group asserts that its beliefs, practices, theories, etc., are <span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span><i><b>scientific</b></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>;<br />     (b) the <span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span><i><b>pseudoscientific</b></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span> group claims that its allegedly established facts are justified true beliefs;<br />     (c) the <span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span><i><b>pseudoscientific</b></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span> group asserts that its <span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span><i><b>established facts</b></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span> have been justified by genuine, rigorous, scientific method; and<br />     (d) this assertion is false or deceptive: "it is not simply that subsequent evidence overturns established conclusions, but rather that <i><b>the conclusions were never warranted in the first place</b></i>"<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>From time to time, however, the usage of the word occurred in a more formal, technical manner in response to a perceived threat to individual and institutional security in a social and cultural setting.<sup id="cite_ref-Still_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Still-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_science">Relationship to science</h2></div> <p>Pseudoscience is differentiated from science because – although it usually claims to be science – pseudoscience does not adhere to scientific standards, such as the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability of claims</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mertonian_norms" title="Mertonian norms">Mertonian norms</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_method">Scientific method</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Scientific_Method_(simple).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_Scientific_Method_%28simple%29.png/220px-The_Scientific_Method_%28simple%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_Scientific_Method_%28simple%29.png/330px-The_Scientific_Method_%28simple%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_Scientific_Method_%28simple%29.png/440px-The_Scientific_Method_%28simple%29.png 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="437" /></a><figcaption>The scientific method is a continuous cycle of observation, questioning, hypothesis, experimentation, analysis and conclusion.</figcaption></figure> <p>A number of basic principles are accepted by scientists as standards for determining whether a body of knowledge, method, or practice is scientific. Experimental results should be <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducible</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability" title="Intersubjective verifiability">verified</a> by other researchers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch20033–5_ff_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch20033–5_ff-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These principles are intended to ensure experiments can be reproduced measurably given the same conditions, allowing further investigation to determine whether a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a> related to given <a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a> is <a href="/wiki/Validity_(statistics)" title="Validity (statistics)">valid</a> and reliable. Standards require the scientific method to be applied throughout, and <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">bias</a> to be controlled for or eliminated through <a href="/wiki/Randomized_experiment" title="Randomized experiment">randomization</a>, fair sampling procedures, <a href="/wiki/Double_blind" class="mw-redirect" title="Double blind">blinding</a> of studies, and other methods. All gathered data, including the experimental or environmental conditions, are expected to be documented for scrutiny and made available for <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a>, allowing further experiments or studies to be conducted to confirm or falsify results. Statistical quantification of <a href="/wiki/Statistical_significance" title="Statistical significance">significance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">confidence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Margin_of_error" title="Margin of error">error</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are also important tools for the scientific method. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></div> <p>During the mid-20th century, the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> emphasized the criterion of <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a> to distinguish <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> from <a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">non-science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Popper_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Statements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a> have falsifiability or refutability if there is the inherent possibility that they can be proven <a href="/wiki/False_(logic)" title="False (logic)">false</a>, that is, if it is possible to conceive of an observation or an argument that negates them. Popper used astrology and <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a> as examples of pseudoscience and Einstein's <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a> as an example of science. He subdivided non-science into philosophical, mathematical, mythological, religious and metaphysical formulations on one hand, and pseudoscientific formulations on the other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper196343–86_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper196343–86-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another example which shows the distinct need for a claim to be falsifiable was stated in <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a>'s publication <i><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World</a></i> when he discusses an invisible <a href="/wiki/Dragon" title="Dragon">dragon</a> that he has in his garage. The point is made that there is no physical test to refute the claim of the presence of this dragon. Whatever test one thinks can be devised, there is a reason why it does not apply to the invisible dragon, so one can never prove that the initial claim is wrong. Sagan concludes; "Now, what's the difference between an invisible, incorporeal, floating dragon who spits heatless fire and no dragon at all?". He states that "your inability to invalidate my hypothesis is not at all the same thing as proving it true",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagan1994171_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagan1994171-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> once again explaining that even if such a claim were true, it would be outside the realm of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific inquiry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mertonian_norms">Mertonian norms</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mertonian_norms" title="Mertonian norms">Mertonian norms</a></div> <p>During 1942, <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> identified a set of five "norms" which characterize real science. If any of the norms were violated, Merton considered the enterprise to be non-science. His norms were: </p> <ul><li>Originality: The tests and research done must present something new to the scientific community.</li> <li>Detachment: The scientists' reasons for practicing this science must be simply for the expansion of their knowledge. The scientists should not have personal reasons to expect certain results.</li> <li>Universality: No person should be able to more easily obtain the information of a test than another person. Social class, religion, ethnicity, or any other personal factors should not be factors in someone's ability to receive or perform a type of science.</li> <li>Skepticism: Scientific facts must not be based on faith. One should always question every case and argument and constantly check for errors or invalid claims.</li> <li>Public accessibility: Any scientific knowledge one obtains should be made available to everyone. The results of any research should be published and shared with the scientific community.<sup id="cite_ref-Paradigms_Lost_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paradigms_Lost-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Refusal_to_acknowledge_problems">Refusal to acknowledge problems</h3></div> <p>In 1978, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Thagard" title="Paul Thagard">Paul Thagard</a> proposed that pseudoscience is primarily distinguishable from science when it is less progressive than alternative theories over a long period of time, and its proponents fail to acknowledge or address problems with the theory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1978223_ff_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThagard1978223_ff-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1983, <a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a> suggested the categories of "belief fields" and "research fields" to help distinguish between pseudoscience and science, where the former is primarily personal and subjective and the latter involves a certain systematic method.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983a_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983a-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2018 book about <a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">scientific skepticism</a> by <a href="/wiki/Steven_Novella" title="Steven Novella">Steven Novella</a>, et al. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptics%27_Guide_to_the_Universe_(book)" title="The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe (book)">The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe</a></i> lists hostility to criticism as one of the major features of pseudoscience.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_of_the_term">Criticism of the term</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a> has suggested pseudoscience has no scientific meaning and is mostly used to describe human emotions: "If we would stand up and be counted on the side of reason, we ought to drop terms like 'pseudo-science' and 'unscientific' from our vocabulary; they are just hollow phrases which do only emotive work for us".<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Richard_McNally" title="Richard McNally">Richard McNally</a> states, "The term 'pseudoscience' has become little more than an inflammatory buzzword for quickly dismissing one's opponents in media sound-bites" and "When therapeutic entrepreneurs make claims on behalf of their interventions, we should not waste our time trying to determine whether their interventions qualify as pseudoscientific. Rather, we should ask them: How do you know that your intervention works? What is your evidence?"<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_definition">Alternative definition</h3></div> <p>For philosophers <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Funtowicz" title="Silvio Funtowicz">Silvio Funtowicz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerome_R._Ravetz" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerome R. Ravetz">Jerome R. Ravetz</a> "pseudo-science may be defined as one where the uncertainty of its inputs must be suppressed, lest they render its outputs totally indeterminate". The definition, in the book <i><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_and_Quality_in_Science_for_Policy" title="Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy">Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-PNS0_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNS0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> alludes to the loss of craft skills in handling quantitative information, and to the bad practice of achieving precision in prediction (inference) only at the expenses of ignoring uncertainty in the input which was used to formulate the prediction. This use of the term is common among practitioners of <a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal science</a>. Understood in this way, pseudoscience can be fought using good practices to assess uncertainty in quantitative information, such as <a href="/wiki/NUSAP" title="NUSAP">NUSAP</a> and – in the case of mathematical modelling – <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_auditing" title="Sensitivity auditing">sensitivity auditing</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience" title="History of pseudoscience">History of pseudoscience</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Venice_ast_sm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Venice_ast_sm.jpg/220px-Venice_ast_sm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Venice_ast_sm.jpg/330px-Venice_ast_sm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Venice_ast_sm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>The astrological signs of the zodiac</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of pseudoscience is the study of pseudoscientific theories over time. A pseudoscience is a set of ideas that presents itself as science, while it does not meet the criteria to be properly called such.<sup id="cite_ref-G0Dqe_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-G0Dqe-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ySdig_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ySdig-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Distinguishing between proper science and pseudoscience is sometimes difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-rpjTm_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rpjTm-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One proposal for demarcation between the two is the falsification criterion, attributed most notably to the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bRxUN_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bRxUN-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience" title="History of pseudoscience">history of pseudoscience</a> it can be especially difficult to separate the two, because some sciences developed from pseudosciences. An example of this transformation is the science of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, which traces its origins to the pseudoscientific or <a href="/wiki/Prescientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescientific">pre-scientific</a> study of <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>. </p><p>The vast diversity in pseudosciences further complicates the history of science. Some modern pseudosciences, such as <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">acupuncture</a>, originated before the scientific era. Others developed as part of an ideology, such as <a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a>, or as a response to perceived threats to an ideology. Examples of this ideological process are <a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">creation science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a>, which were developed in response to the scientific theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GMUjf_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GMUjf-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indicators_of_possible_pseudoscience">Indicators of possible pseudoscience</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhustox.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Rhustox.jpg/170px-Rhustox.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Rhustox.jpg/255px-Rhustox.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Rhustox.jpg 2x" data-file-width="261" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Homeopathic preparation <i>Rhus toxicodendron</i>, derived from <a href="/wiki/Toxicodendron_radicans" title="Toxicodendron radicans">poison ivy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A topic, practice, or body of knowledge might reasonably be termed pseudoscientific when it is presented as consistent with the norms of scientific research, but it demonstrably fails to meet these norms.<sup id="cite_ref-Cover_Curd_1998_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cover_Curd_1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983b_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983b-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_of_vague,_exaggerated_or_untestable_claims"><span id="Use_of_vague.2C_exaggerated_or_untestable_claims"></span>Use of vague, exaggerated or untestable claims</h3></div> <ul><li>Assertion of scientific claims that are vague rather than precise, and that lack specific measurements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003211_ff(Probability,_"Common_Blunders")_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003211_ff(Probability,_"Common_Blunders")-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Assertion of a claim with little or no explanatory power.<sup id="cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper,_Karl_1963-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Failure to make use of <a href="/wiki/Operational_definition" title="Operational definition">operational definitions</a> (i.e., publicly accessible definitions of the variables, terms, or objects of interest so that persons other than the definer can measure or test them independently)<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See also: <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Reproducibility</a>).</li> <li>Failure to make reasonable use of the principle of <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">parsimony</a>, i.e., failing to seek an explanation that requires the fewest possible additional assumptions when multiple viable explanations are possible (<i>See: <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003269_ff"Parsimony_and_Efficiency"_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003269_ff"Parsimony_and_Efficiency"-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Lack of boundary conditions: Most well-supported scientific theories possess well-articulated limitations under which the predicted phenomena do and do not apply.<sup id="cite_ref-Hines1988_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hines1988-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Lack of effective <a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">controls</a> in experimental design, such as the use of <a href="/wiki/Placebos" class="mw-redirect" title="Placebos">placebos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Double-blinding" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-blinding">double-blinding</a>.</li> <li>Lack of understanding of basic and established principles of physics and engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-OsPUp_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OsPUp-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Improper_collection_of_evidence">Improper collection of evidence</h3></div> <ul><li>Assertions that do not allow the logical possibility that they can be shown to be false by observation or physical experiment (See also: <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Popper_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lakatos_1970_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lakatos_1970-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Assertion of claims that a theory predicts something that it has not been shown to predict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003178_ff(Deductive_Logic,_"Fallacies")_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003178_ff(Deductive_Logic,_"Fallacies")-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003211_ff(Probability,_"Common_Blunders")_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003211_ff(Probability,_"Common_Blunders")-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific claims that do not confer any predictive power are considered at best "conjectures", or at worst "pseudoscience" (e.g., <i><a href="/wiki/Ignoratio_elenchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignoratio elenchi">ignoratio elenchi</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Vtd7w_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vtd7w-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Assertion that claims which have not been proven false must therefore be true, and vice versa (<i>See: <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">Argument from ignorance</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-T3iJ6_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-T3iJ6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Over-reliance on testimonial, <a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">anecdotal evidence</a>, or personal experience: This evidence may be useful for the context of discovery (i.e., hypothesis generation), but should not be used in the context of <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of justification">justification</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">statistical hypothesis testing</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983a381_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983a381-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Use of <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">religious texts</a> as if they were fact, or basing evidence on readings of such texts.<sup id="cite_ref-coker_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coker-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Use of concepts and scenarios from <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> as if they were fact. This technique appeals to the familiarity that many people already have with science fiction tropes through the popular media.<sup id="cite_ref-cokerSF_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cokerSF-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Presentation of data that seems to support claims while suppressing or refusing to consider data that conflict with those claims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1978227–228_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThagard1978227–228-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is an example of <a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">selection bias</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">cherry picking</a>, a distortion of evidence or data that arises from the way that the data are collected. It is sometimes referred to as the selection effect.</li> <li>Repeating excessive or untested claims that have been previously published elsewhere, and promoting those claims as if they were facts; an accumulation of such uncritical secondary reports, which do not otherwise contribute their own empirical investigation, is called the <a href="/wiki/Woozle_effect" title="Woozle effect">Woozle effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gambrill2012_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gambrill2012-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_absence" title="Evidence of absence">Reversed burden of proof</a>: science places the burden of proof on those making a claim, not on the critic. "Pseudoscientific" arguments may neglect this principle and demand that <a href="/wiki/Skeptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptic">skeptics</a> demonstrate beyond a reasonable doubt that a claim (e.g., an assertion regarding the efficacy of a novel therapeutic technique) is false. It is essentially impossible to prove a universal negative, so this tactic incorrectly places the burden of proof on the skeptic rather than on the claimant.<sup id="cite_ref-Lilienfeld_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lilienfeld-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Appeals to <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holism</a> as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a> to dismiss negative findings: proponents of pseudoscientific claims, especially in organic medicine, alternative medicine, naturopathy and mental health, often resort to the "mantra of holism" .<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuscio2002_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuscio2002-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lack_of_openness_to_testing_by_other_experts">Lack of openness to testing by other experts</h3></div> <ul><li>Evasion of peer review before publicizing results (termed "<a href="/wiki/Science_by_press_conference" title="Science by press conference">science by press conference</a>"):<sup id="cite_ref-Lilienfeld_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lilienfeld-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58lDT_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58lDT-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some proponents of ideas that contradict accepted scientific theories avoid subjecting their ideas to <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a>, sometimes on the grounds that peer review is biased towards established paradigms, and sometimes on the grounds that assertions cannot be evaluated adequately using standard scientific methods. By remaining insulated from the peer review process, these proponents forgo the opportunity of corrective feedback from informed colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuscio2002_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuscio2002-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Some agencies, institutions, and publications that fund scientific research require authors to <a href="/wiki/Data_sharing_(Science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data sharing (Science)">share data</a> so others can evaluate a paper independently. Failure to provide adequate information for other researchers to reproduce the claims contributes to a lack of openness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003124_ff_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003124_ff-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Appealing to the need for secrecy or proprietary knowledge when an <a href="/wiki/Independent_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent review">independent review</a> of data or methodology is requested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003124_ff_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003124_ff-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Substantive debate on the evidence by knowledgeable proponents of all viewpoints is not encouraged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagan1994210_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagan1994210-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Absence_of_progress">Absence of progress</h3></div> <ul><li>Failure to progress towards additional evidence of its claims.<sup id="cite_ref-Lakatos_1970_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lakatos_1970-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fredb_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fredb-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Terence_Hines" title="Terence Hines">Terence Hines</a> has identified astrology as a subject that has changed very little in the past two millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1978223_ff_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThagard1978223_ff-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hines1988_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hines1988-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Lack of self-correction: scientific research programmes make mistakes, but they tend to reduce these errors over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuscio2002120_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuscio2002120-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, ideas may be regarded as pseudoscientific because they have remained unaltered despite contradictory evidence. The work <i>Scientists Confront Velikovsky</i> (1976) Cornell University, also delves into these features in some detail, as does the work of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>, e.g., <i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i> (1962) which also discusses some of the items on the list of characteristics of pseudoscience.</li> <li>Statistical significance of supporting experimental results does not improve over time and are usually close to the cutoff for statistical significance. Normally, experimental techniques improve or the experiments are repeated, and this gives ever stronger evidence. If statistical significance does not improve, this typically shows the experiments have just been repeated until a success occurs due to chance variations.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personalization_of_issues">Personalization of issues</h3></div> <ul><li>Tight social groups and <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_personality" title="Authoritarian personality">authoritarian personality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_dissent" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppression of dissent">suppression of dissent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">groupthink</a> can enhance the adoption of beliefs that have no rational basis. In attempting to confirm their beliefs, the group tends to identify their critics as enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevilly2005_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevilly2005-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Assertion of a conspiracy on the part of the mainstream scientific community, government, or educational facilities to suppress pseudoscientific information. People who make these accusations often compare themselves to <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> and his persecution by the Roman Catholic Church; this comparison is commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Galileo_gambit" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo gambit">Galileo gambit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Attacking the motives, character, morality, or competence of critics, rather than their arguments (see <i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">ad hominem</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevilly2005_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevilly2005-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_of_misleading_language">Use of misleading language</h3></div> <ul><li>Creating scientific-sounding terms to persuade non-experts to believe statements that may be false or meaningless: for example, a long-standing hoax refers to water by the rarely used formal name "<a href="/wiki/Dihydrogen_monoxide_parody" title="Dihydrogen monoxide parody">dihydrogen monoxide</a>" and describes it as the main constituent in most <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisonous</a> solutions to show how easily the general public can be misled.</li> <li>Using established terms in idiosyncratic ways, thereby demonstrating unfamiliarity with mainstream work in the discipline.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevalence_of_pseudoscientific_beliefs">Prevalence of pseudoscientific beliefs</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Countries">Countries</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_AYUSH" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of AYUSH">Ministry of AYUSH</a> in the Government of India is purposed with developing education, research and propagation of indigenous alternative medicine systems in India. The ministry has faced significant criticism for funding systems that lack <a href="/wiki/Biological_plausibility" title="Biological plausibility">biological plausibility</a> and are either untested or conclusively proven as ineffective. Quality of research has been poor, and drugs have been launched without any rigorous pharmacological studies and meaningful <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trials_on_Ayurveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical trials on Ayurveda">clinical trials on Ayurveda</a> or other alternative healthcare systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Rathee2018_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rathee2018-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Narayanan2020_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Narayanan2020-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no credible efficacy or scientific basis of any of these forms of treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-AYUSHPseudo_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AYUSHPseudo-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his book <i>The Demon-Haunted World</i>, Carl Sagan discusses the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the People's Republic of China">government of China</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>'s concern about Western pseudoscience developments and certain ancient Chinese practices in China. He sees pseudoscience occurring in the United States as part of a worldwide trend and suggests its causes, dangers, diagnosis and treatment may be universal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagan19941–22_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagan19941–22-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large percentage of the United States population lacks scientific literacy, not adequately understanding scientific principles and <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <i>Journal of College Science Teaching</i>, Art Hobson writes, "Pseudoscientific beliefs are surprisingly widespread in our culture even among public school science teachers and newspaper editors, and are closely related to scientific illiteracy."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a 10,000-student study in the same journal concluded there was no strong correlation between science knowledge and belief in pseudoscience.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During 2006, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) issued an executive summary of a paper on science and engineering which briefly discussed the prevalence of pseudoscience in modern times. It said, "belief in pseudoscience is widespread" and, referencing a <a href="/wiki/Gallup_Poll" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup Poll">Gallup Poll</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stated that belief in the 10 commonly believed examples of paranormal phenomena listed in the poll were "pseudoscientific beliefs".<sup id="cite_ref-nsf_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The items were "extrasensory perception (ESP), that <a href="/wiki/Haunted_house" title="Haunted house">houses can be haunted</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghost" title="Ghost">ghosts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telepathy" title="Telepathy">telepathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clairvoyance" title="Clairvoyance">clairvoyance</a>, astrology, that people can <a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">mentally communicate with the dead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Channelling_(mediumistic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Channelling (mediumistic)">channelling</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-nsf_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such beliefs in pseudoscience represent a lack of knowledge of how science works. The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a> may attempt to communicate information about science out of concern for the public's susceptibility to unproven claims.<sup id="cite_ref-nsf_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NSF stated that pseudoscientific beliefs in the U.S. became more widespread during the 1990s, peaked about 2001, and then decreased slightly since with pseudoscientific beliefs remaining common. According to the NSF report, there is a lack of knowledge of pseudoscientific issues in society and pseudoscientific practices are commonly followed.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surveys indicate about a third of adult Americans consider astrology to be scientific.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Russia, in the late 20th and early 21st century, significant budgetary funds were spent on programs for the experimental study of "<a href="/wiki/Torsion_field_(pseudoscience)" title="Torsion field (pseudoscience)">torsion fields</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-prezRAS2003_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prezRAS2003-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the extraction of energy from granite,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the study of "<a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion">cold nuclear fusion</a>", and <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extrasensory_perception" title="Extrasensory perception">extrasensory</a> "research" by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(Russia)" title="Ministry of Defence (Russia)">Ministry of Defense</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Emergency_Situations_(Russia)" title="Ministry of Emergency Situations (Russia)">Ministry of Emergency Situations</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Russia)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia)">Ministry of Internal Affairs</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/State_Duma" title="State Duma">State Duma</a><sup id="cite_ref-prezRAS2003_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prezRAS2003-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%E2%84%96_10003" class="extiw" title="ru:Войсковая часть № 10003">Military Unit 10003</a>). In 2006, Deputy Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Security_Council_of_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Security Council of the Russian Federation">Security Council of the Russian Federation</a> <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9,_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" class="extiw" title="ru:Спасский, Николай Николаевич">Nikolai Spassky</a> published an article in <a href="/wiki/Rossiyskaya_Gazeta" title="Rossiyskaya Gazeta">Rossiyskaya Gazeta</a>, where among the priority areas for the development of the <a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Russia" title="Energy in Russia">Russian energy sector</a>, the task of extracting <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">energy from a vacuum</a> was in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-13–14_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13–14-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0)" class="extiw" title="ru:Чистая вода (целевая программа)">Clean Water</a> project was adopted as a <a href="/wiki/United_Russia" title="United Russia">United Russia</a> party project; in the version submitted to the government, the program budget for 2010–2017 exceeded $14 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13–14_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13–14-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racism">Racism</h3></div> <p>There have been many connections between pseudoscientific writers and researchers and their anti-semitic, racist and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Nazi">neo-Nazi</a> backgrounds. They often use pseudoscience to reinforce their beliefs. One of the most predominant pseudoscientific writers is <a href="/wiki/Frank_Collin" title="Frank Collin">Frank Collin</a>, a self-proclaimed Nazi who goes by Frank Joseph in his writings.<sup id="cite_ref-ocYkg_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocYkg-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of his works include the topics of <a href="/wiki/Atlantis" title="Atlantis">Atlantis</a>, extraterrestrial encounters, and <a href="/wiki/Lemuria_(continent)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemuria (continent)">Lemuria</a> as well as other ancient civilizations, often with <a href="/wiki/White_supremacist" class="mw-redirect" title="White supremacist">white supremacist</a> undertones. For example, he posited that European peoples migrated to North America before <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Columbus</a>, and that all Native American civilizations were initiated by descendants of <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RxsMI_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RxsMI-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Alt-Right" class="mw-redirect" title="Alt-Right">Alt-Right</a> using pseudoscience to base their ideologies on is not a new issue. The entire foundation of anti-semitism is based on pseudoscience, or <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>. In an article from <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i> by Sander Gilman, Gilman describes the pseudoscience community's anti-semitic views. "Jews as they appear in this world of pseudoscience are an invented group of ill, stupid or stupidly smart people who use science to their own nefarious ends. Other groups, too, are painted similarly in 'race science', as it used to call itself: African-Americans, the Irish, the Chinese and, well, any and all groups that you want to prove inferior to yourself".<sup id="cite_ref-ETQep_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ETQep-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neo-Nazis and white supremacist often try to support their claims with studies that "prove" that their claims are more than just harmful stereotypes. For example <a href="/wiki/Bret_Stephens" title="Bret Stephens">Bret Stephens</a> published a column in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> where he claimed that <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> had the highest <a href="/wiki/IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="IQ">IQ</a> among any ethnic group.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the scientific methodology and conclusions reached by the article Stephens cited has been called into question repeatedly since its publication. It has been found that at least one of that study's authors has been identified by the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">Southern Poverty Law Center</a> as a white nationalist.<sup id="cite_ref-aqHYS_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aqHYS-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The journal <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> has published a number of editorials in the last few years warning researchers about extremists looking to abuse their work, particularly population geneticists and those working with ancient <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>. One article in <i>Nature</i>, titled "Racism in Science: The Taint That Lingers" notes that early-twentieth-century <a href="/wiki/Eugenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugenic">eugenic</a> pseudoscience has been used to influence public policy, such as the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a> in the United States, which sought to prevent immigration from Asia and parts of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-oRFef_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oRFef-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanations">Explanations</h2></div> <p>In a 1981 report Singer and Benassi wrote that pseudoscientific beliefs have their origin from at least four sources.<sup id="cite_ref-aoycp_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aoycp-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Common cognitive errors from <a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">personal experience</a>.</li> <li>Erroneous sensationalistic mass media coverage.</li> <li>Sociocultural factors.</li> <li>Poor or erroneous <a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">science education</a>.</li></ul> <p>A 1990 study by Eve and Dunn supported the findings of Singer and Benassi and found pseudoscientific belief being promoted by high school life science and biology teachers.<sup id="cite_ref-W1g03_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W1g03-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3></div> <p>The psychology of pseudoscience attempts to explore and analyze pseudoscientific thinking by means of thorough clarification on making the distinction of what is considered scientific vs. pseudoscientific. The human proclivity for seeking confirmation rather than refutation (<a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevilly2005439_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevilly2005439-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the tendency to hold comforting beliefs, and the tendency to overgeneralize have been proposed as reasons for pseudoscientific thinking. According to Beyerstein, humans are prone to associations based on resemblances only, and often prone to misattribution in cause-effect thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a>'s theory of belief-dependent realism is driven by the belief that the brain is essentially a "belief engine" which scans data perceived by the senses and looks for patterns and meaning. There is also the tendency for the brain to create <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive biases</a>, as a result of inferences and assumptions made without logic and based on instinct – usually resulting in patterns in cognition. These tendencies of <a href="/wiki/Apophenia" title="Apophenia">patternicity</a> and agenticity are also driven "by a meta-bias called the <a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">bias blind spot</a>, or the tendency to recognize the power of cognitive biases in other people but to be blind to their influence on our own beliefs".<sup id="cite_ref-zbHau_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zbHau-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lindeman states that social motives (i.e., "to comprehend self and the world, to have a sense of control over outcomes, to belong, to find the world benevolent and to maintain one's self-esteem") are often "more easily" fulfilled by pseudoscience than by scientific information. Furthermore, pseudoscientific explanations are generally not analyzed rationally, but instead experientially. Operating within a different set of rules compared to rational thinking, experiential thinking regards an explanation as valid if the explanation is "personally functional, satisfying and sufficient", offering a description of the world that may be more personal than can be provided by science and reducing the amount of potential work involved in understanding complex events and outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindeman_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindeman-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anyone searching for psychological help that is based in science should seek a licensed therapist whose techniques are not based in pseudoscience. Hupp and Santa Maria provide a complete explanation of what that person should look for.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_scientific_literacy">Education and scientific literacy</h3></div> <p>There is a trend to believe in pseudoscience more than <a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">scientific evidence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Matute2015_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matute2015-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some people believe the prevalence of pseudoscientific beliefs is due to widespread <a href="/wiki/Scientific_illiteracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific illiteracy">scientific illiteracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-xLASt_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xLASt-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals lacking scientific literacy are more susceptible to wishful thinking, since they are likely to turn to immediate gratification powered by System 1, our default operating system which requires little to no effort. This system encourages one to <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">accept the conclusions they believe</a>, and reject the ones they do not. Further analysis of complex pseudoscientific phenomena require System 2, which follows rules, compares objects along multiple dimensions and weighs options. These two systems have several other differences which are further discussed in the <a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">dual-process theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aoPN2_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aoPN2-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scientific and secular systems of morality and meaning are generally unsatisfying to most people. Humans are, by nature, a forward-minded species pursuing greater avenues of happiness and satisfaction, but we are all too frequently willing to grasp at unrealistic promises of a better life.<sup id="cite_ref-Shermer_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shermer-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychology has much to discuss about pseudoscience thinking, as it is the illusory perceptions of causality and effectiveness of numerous individuals that needs to be illuminated. Research suggests that illusionary thinking happens in most people when exposed to certain circumstances such as reading a book, an advertisement or the testimony of others are the basis of pseudoscience beliefs. It is assumed that illusions are not unusual, and given the right conditions, illusions are able to occur systematically even in normal emotional situations. One of the things pseudoscience believers quibble most about is that academic science usually treats them as fools. Minimizing these illusions in the real world is not simple.<sup id="cite_ref-Matute_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matute-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To this aim, designing evidence-based educational programs can be effective to help people identify and reduce their own illusions.<sup id="cite_ref-Matute_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matute-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Boundaries_with_science">Boundaries with science</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3></div> <p>Philosophers classify types of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>. In English, the word <i><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a></i> is used to indicate specifically the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> and related fields, which are called the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different philosophers of science may disagree on the exact limits – for example, is mathematics a <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal science</a> that is closer to the empirical ones, or is pure mathematics closer to the philosophical study of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and therefore not a science?<sup id="cite_ref-L0347_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L0347-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – but all agree that all of the ideas that are not scientific are non-scientific. The large category of <a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">non-science</a> includes all matters outside the natural and social sciences, such as the study of <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dividing the category again, unscientific claims are a subset of the large category of non-scientific claims. This category specifically includes all matters that are directly opposed to good science.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_116-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Un-science includes both "bad science" (such as an error made in a good-faith attempt at learning something about the natural world) and pseudoscience.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_116-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus pseudoscience is a subset of un-science, and un-science, in turn, is subset of non-science. </p><p>Science is also distinguishable from revelation, theology, or spirituality in that it offers insight into the physical world obtained by empirical research and testing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESager200810_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESager200810-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most notable disputes concern the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of living organisms, the idea of common descent, the geologic history of the Earth, the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, and the origin of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Systems of belief that derive from divine or inspired knowledge are not considered pseudoscience if they do not claim either to be scientific or to overturn well-established science. Moreover, some specific religious claims, such as <a href="/wiki/Studies_on_intercessory_prayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Studies on intercessory prayer">the power of intercessory prayer to heal the sick</a>, although they may be based on untestable beliefs, can be tested by the scientific method. </p><p>Some statements and common beliefs of <a href="/wiki/Popular_science" title="Popular science">popular science</a> may not meet the criteria of science. "Pop" science may blur the divide between science and pseudoscience among the general public, and may also involve <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, pop science is disseminated to, and can also easily emanate from, persons not accountable to scientific methodology and expert peer review. </p><p>If claims of a given field can be tested experimentally and standards are upheld, it is not pseudoscience, regardless of how odd, astonishing, or counterintuitive those claims are. If claims made are inconsistent with existing experimental results or established theory, but the method is sound, caution should be used, since science consists of testing hypotheses which may turn out to be false. In such a case, the work may be better described as ideas that are "not yet generally accepted". <i><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></i> is a term sometimes used to describe a hypothesis that has not yet been tested adequately by the scientific method, but which is otherwise consistent with existing science or which, where inconsistent, offers reasonable account of the inconsistency. It may also describe the transition from a body of practical knowledge into a scientific field.<sup id="cite_ref-Popper_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></div> <p>Karl Popper stated it is insufficient to distinguish science from pseudoscience, or from <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> (such as the philosophical question of what <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a> means), by the criterion of rigorous adherence to the <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical method</a>, which is essentially inductive, based on observation or experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper,_Karl_1963-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He proposed a method to distinguish between genuine empirical, nonempirical or even pseudoempirical methods. The latter case was exemplified by astrology, which appeals to observation and experimentation. While it had <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical evidence</a> based on observation, on <a href="/wiki/Horoscopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Horoscopes">horoscopes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Biographies">biographies</a>, it crucially failed to use acceptable scientific standards.<sup id="cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper,_Karl_1963-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popper proposed falsifiability as an important criterion in distinguishing science from pseudoscience. </p><p>To demonstrate this point, Popper<sup id="cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper,_Karl_1963-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gave two cases of human behavior and typical explanations from <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Adler" title="Alfred Adler">Alfred Adler</a>'s theories: "that of a man who pushes a child into the water with the intention of drowning it; and that of a man who sacrifices his life in an attempt to save the child."<sup id="cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper,_Karl_1963-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From Freud's perspective, the first man would have suffered from <a href="/wiki/Psychological_repression" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological repression">psychological repression</a>, probably originating from an <a href="/wiki/Oedipus_complex" title="Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a>, whereas the second man had attained <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(psychology)" title="Sublimation (psychology)">sublimation</a>. From Adler's perspective, the first and second man suffered from feelings of <a href="/wiki/Inferiority" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferiority">inferiority</a> and had to prove himself, which drove him to commit the crime or, in the second case, drove him to rescue the child. Popper was not able to find any counterexamples of human behavior in which the behavior could not be explained in the terms of Adler's or Freud's theory. Popper argued<sup id="cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper,_Karl_1963-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was that the observation always fitted or confirmed the theory which, rather than being its strength, was actually its weakness. In contrast, Popper<sup id="cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper,_Karl_1963-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gave the example of Einstein's <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational theory">gravitational theory</a>, which predicted "light must be attracted by heavy bodies (such as the Sun), precisely as material bodies were attracted."<sup id="cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper,_Karl_1963-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following from this, stars closer to the Sun would appear to have moved a small distance away from the Sun, and away from each other. This prediction was particularly striking to Popper because it involved considerable risk. The brightness of the Sun prevented this effect from being observed under normal circumstances, so photographs had to be taken during an eclipse and compared to photographs taken at night. Popper states, "If observation shows that the predicted effect is definitely absent, then the theory is simply refuted."<sup id="cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper,_Karl_1963-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popper summed up his criterion for the scientific status of a theory as depending on its falsifiability, refutability, or <a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">testability</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Thagard" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul R. Thagard">Paul R. Thagard</a> used astrology as a case study to distinguish science from pseudoscience and proposed principles and criteria to delineate them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1978_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThagard1978-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, astrology has not progressed in that it has not been updated nor added any explanatory power since <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>. Second, it has ignored outstanding problems such as the <a href="/wiki/Axial_precession_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Axial precession (astronomy)">precession of equinoxes</a> in astronomy. Third, alternative theories of <a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a> and behavior have grown progressively to encompass explanations of phenomena which astrology statically attributes to heavenly forces. Fourth, astrologers have remained uninterested in furthering the theory to deal with outstanding problems or in critically evaluating the theory in relation to other theories. Thagard intended this criterion to be extended to areas other than astrology. He believed it would delineate as pseudoscientific such practices as <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyramidology" title="Pyramidology">pyramidology</a>, while leaving <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geoscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoscience">geoscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> in the realm of science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1978_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThagard1978-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy</a> and history of science, <a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a> stresses the social and political importance of the demarcation problem, the normative methodological problem of distinguishing between science and pseudoscience. His distinctive historical analysis of scientific methodology based on research programmes suggests: "scientists regard the successful theoretical prediction of stunning novel facts – such as the return of Halley's comet or the gravitational bending of light rays – as what demarcates good scientific theories from pseudo-scientific and degenerate theories, and in spite of all scientific theories being forever confronted by 'an ocean of counterexamples'".<sup id="cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imre-Lakatos-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lakatos offers a "novel <a href="/wiki/Fallibilist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallibilist">fallibilist</a> analysis of the development of Newton's celestial dynamics, [his] favourite historical example of his methodology" and argues in light of this historical turn, that his account answers for certain inadequacies in those of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> and Thomas Kuhn.<sup id="cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imre-Lakatos-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Nonetheless, Lakatos did recognize the force of Kuhn's historical criticism of Popper – all important theories have been surrounded by an 'ocean of anomalies', which on a falsificationist view would require the rejection of the theory outright...Lakatos sought to reconcile the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> of Popperian falsificationism with what seemed to be its own refutation by history".<sup id="cite_ref-Bird2008_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird2008-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Many philosophers have tried to solve the problem of demarcation in the following terms: a statement constitutes knowledge if sufficiently many people believe it sufficiently strongly. But the history of thought shows us that many people were totally committed to absurd beliefs. If the strengths of beliefs were a hallmark of knowledge, we should have to rank some tales about demons, angels, devils, and of heaven and hell as knowledge. Scientists, on the other hand, are very sceptical even of their best theories. Newton's is the most powerful theory science has yet produced, but Newton himself never believed that bodies attract each other at a distance. So no degree of commitment to beliefs makes them knowledge. Indeed, the hallmark of scientific behaviour is a certain scepticism even towards one's most cherished theories. Blind commitment to a theory is not an intellectual virtue: it is an intellectual crime.<br /><br /> Thus a statement may be pseudoscientific even if it is eminently 'plausible' and everybody believes in it, and it may be scientifically valuable even if it is unbelievable and nobody believes in it. A theory may even be of supreme scientific value even if no one understands it, let alone believes in it.<sup id="cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imre-Lakatos-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Imre Lakatos, Science and Pseudoscience</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The boundary between science and pseudoscience is disputed and difficult to determine analytically, even after more than a century of study by philosophers of science and <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientists</a>, and despite some basic agreements on the fundamentals of the scientific method.<sup id="cite_ref-Cover_Curd_1998_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cover_Curd_1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch20033–7_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch20033–7-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of pseudoscience rests on an understanding that the scientific method has been misrepresented or misapplied with respect to a given theory, but many philosophers of science maintain that different kinds of methods are held as appropriate across different fields and different eras of human history. According to Lakatos, the typical descriptive unit of great scientific achievements is not an isolated hypothesis but "a powerful problem-solving machinery, which, with the help of sophisticated mathematical techniques, digests anomalies and even turns them into positive evidence".<sup id="cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imre-Lakatos-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To Popper, pseudoscience uses induction to generate theories, and only performs experiments to seek to verify them. To Popper, falsifiability is what determines the scientific status of a theory. Taking a historical approach, Kuhn observed that scientists did not follow Popper's rule, and might ignore falsifying data, unless overwhelming. To Kuhn, puzzle-solving within a paradigm is science. Lakatos attempted to resolve this debate, by suggesting history shows that science occurs in research programmes, competing according to how progressive they are. The leading idea of a programme could evolve, driven by its heuristic to make predictions that can be supported by evidence. Feyerabend claimed that Lakatos was selective in his examples, and the whole history of science shows there is no universal rule of scientific method, and imposing one on the scientific community impedes progress.<sup id="cite_ref-Newbold_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newbold-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>David Newbold and Julia Roberts, "An analysis of the demarcation problem in science and its application to therapeutic touch theory" in <i>International Journal of Nursing Practice</i>, Vol. 13</cite></div></blockquote><p> Laudan maintained that the demarcation between science and non-science was a pseudo-problem, preferring to focus on the more general distinction between reliable and unreliable knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[Feyerabend] regards Lakatos's view as being closet anarchism disguised as methodological rationalism. Feyerabend's claim was not that standard methodological rules should never be obeyed, but rather that sometimes progress is made by abandoning them. In the absence of a generally accepted rule, there is a need for alternative methods of persuasion. According to Feyerabend, Galileo employed stylistic and rhetorical techniques to convince his reader, while he also wrote in Italian rather than Latin and directed his arguments to those already temperamentally inclined to accept them.<sup id="cite_ref-Bird2008_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird2008-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Alexander Bird, "The Historical Turn in the Philosophy of Science" in <i>Routledge Companion to the Philosophy of Science</i></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics,_health,_and_education"><span id="Politics.2C_health.2C_and_education"></span>Politics, health, and education</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_implications">Political implications</h3></div> <p>The demarcation problem between science and pseudoscience brings up debate in the realms of science, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a>, for instance, points out that the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> at one point declared that <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelian genetics">Mendelian genetics</a> was pseudoscientific and had its advocates, including well-established scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov" title="Nikolai Vavilov">Nikolai Vavilov</a>, sent to a <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> and that the "liberal Establishment of the West" denies freedom of speech to topics it regards as pseudoscience, particularly where they run up against social mores.<sup id="cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imre-Lakatos-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Something becomes pseudoscientific when science cannot be separated from <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a>, scientists misrepresent scientific findings to promote or draw attention for publicity, when politicians, journalists and a nation's intellectual elite <a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">distort the facts of science for short-term political gain</a>, or when powerful individuals of the public conflate causation and cofactors by clever wordplay. These ideas reduce the authority, value, integrity and independence of science in <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Makgoba_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Makgoba-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_and_education_implications">Health and education implications</h3></div> <p>Distinguishing science from pseudoscience has practical implications in the case of <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a>, expert testimony, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy" title="Environmental policy">environmental policies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">science education</a>. Treatments with a patina of scientific authority which have not actually been subjected to actual scientific testing may be ineffective, expensive and dangerous to patients and confuse health providers, insurers, government decision makers and the public as to what treatments are appropriate. Claims advanced by pseudoscience may result in government officials and educators making bad decisions in selecting curricula.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The extent to which students acquire a range of social and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> thinking skills related to the proper usage of science and technology determines whether they are scientifically literate. Education in the sciences encounters new dimensions with the changing landscape of <a href="/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science, technology and society">science and technology</a>, a fast-changing culture and a knowledge-driven era. A reinvention of the school science curriculum is one that shapes students to contend with its changing influence on human welfare. Scientific literacy, which allows a person to distinguish science from pseudosciences such as astrology, is among the attributes that enable students to adapt to the changing world. Its characteristics are embedded in a curriculum where students are engaged in resolving problems, conducting investigations, or developing projects.<sup id="cite_ref-Hurd_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurd-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alan_J._Friedman" title="Alan J. Friedman">Alan J. Friedman</a> mentions why most scientists avoid educating about pseudoscience, including that paying undue attention to pseudoscience could dignify it.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Park" title="Robert L. Park">Robert L. Park</a> emphasizes how pseudoscience can be a threat to society and considers that scientists have a responsibility to teach how to distinguish science from pseudoscience.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pseudosciences such as homeopathy, even if generally benign, are used by <a href="/wiki/Charlatan" title="Charlatan">charlatans</a>. This poses a serious issue because it enables incompetent practitioners to administer health care. True-believing zealots may pose a more serious threat than typical con men because of their delusion to homeopathy's ideology. Irrational health care is not harmless and it is careless to create patient confidence in pseudomedicine.<sup id="cite_ref-Haven_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haven-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 8 December 2016, journalist Michael V. LeVine pointed out the dangers posed by the <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_News" title="Natural News">Natural News</a></i> website: "Snake-oil salesmen have pushed false cures since the dawn of medicine, and now websites like <i>Natural News</i> flood social media with dangerous anti-pharmaceutical, anti-vaccination and anti-GMO pseudoscience that puts millions at risk of contracting preventable illnesses."<sup id="cite_ref-LeVine_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeVine-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-vaccine movement">anti-vaccine movement</a> has persuaded large numbers of parents not to vaccinate their children, citing pseudoscientific research that links <a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">childhood vaccines with the onset of autism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include the study by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wakefield" title="Andrew Wakefield">Andrew Wakefield</a>, which claimed that a combination of <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_disease" title="Gastrointestinal disease">gastrointestinal disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_regression" title="Developmental regression">developmental regression</a>, which are often seen in children with <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">ASD</a>, occurred within two weeks of receiving vaccines.<sup id="cite_ref-XVPKO_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-XVPKO-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FFury_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FFury-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study was eventually retracted by its publisher, and Wakefield was stripped of his license to practice medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline water">Alkaline water</a> is water that has a pH of higher than 7, purported to host numerous health benefits, with no empirical backing. A practitioner known as <a href="/wiki/Robert_O._Young" title="Robert O. Young">Robert O. Young</a> who promoted alkaline water and an "<a href="/wiki/Alkaline_diet" title="Alkaline diet">Alkaline diet</a>" was sent to jail for 3 years in 2017 for practicing medicine without a license.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credulity" title="Credulity">Credulity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factoid" title="Factoid">Factoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_theory" title="Fringe theory">Fringe theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">Magical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Not_even_wrong" title="Not even wrong">Not even wrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-scholarship" title="Pseudo-scholarship">Pseudo-scholarship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomathematics" title="Pseudomathematics">Pseudomathematics</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Definition: <ul><li>"A pretended or spurious science; a collection of related beliefs about the world mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method or as having the status that scientific truths now have". <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, second edition 1989.</li> <li>"Many writers on pseudoscience have emphasized that pseudoscience is non-science posing as science. The foremost modern classic on the subject (Gardner 1957) bears the title <i><a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a></i>. According to Brian Baigrie (1988, 438), '[w]hat is objectionable about these beliefs is that they masquerade as genuinely scientific ones.' These and many other authors assume that to be pseudoscientific, an activity or a teaching has to satisfy the following two criteria (Hansson 1996): (1) it is not scientific, and (2) its major proponents try to create the impression that it is scientific."<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_section_SciPse_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_section_SciPse-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>'"claims presented so that they appear [to be] scientific even though they lack supporting evidence and plausibility" (p. 33). In contrast, science is "a set of methods designed to describe and interpret observed and inferred phenomena, past or present, and aimed at building a testable body of knowledge open to rejection or confirmation" (p. 17)'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShermer1997_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShermer1997-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (this was the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind02/c7/c7s5.htm">definition adopted by</a> the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>)</li></ul> Terms regarded as having largely the same meaning but perhaps less disparaging connotations include <i>parascience,</i> <i>cryptoscience,</i> and <i>anomalistics.</i><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlum1978">Blum (1978)</a>, p. 12 [Yeates' emphasis]; also, see <a href="#CITEREFMoll1902">Moll (1902)</a>, pp. 44–47<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeates201842_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeates201842-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'Most terms in theoretical physics, for example, do not enjoy at least some distinct connections with observables, but not of the simple sort that would permit operational <i>definitions</i> in terms of these observables. [..] If a restriction in favor of operational definitions were to be followed, therefore, most of theoretical <i>physics</i> would have to be dismissed as meaningless pseudoscience!'<sup id="cite_ref-EUf6R_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EUf6R-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an opposing perspective, e.g. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/dissent/documents/ss/ss5.html">Chapter 5 of Suppression Stories by Brian Martin</a> (Wollongong: Fund for Intellectual Dissent, 1997), pp. 69–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fredb-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fredb_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"We can now propose the following principle of demarcation: A theory or discipline which purports to be scientific is pseudoscientific if and only if: it has been less progressive than alternative theories over a long period of time, and faces many unsolved problems; but the community of practitioners makes little attempt to develop the theory towards solutions of the problems, shows no concern for attempts to evaluate the theory in relation to others, and is selective in considering confirmations and non confirmations."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1978227–228_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThagard1978227–228-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Surveys conducted in the United States and Europe reveal that many citizens do not have a firm grasp of basic scientific facts and concepts, nor do they have an understanding of the scientific process. In addition, belief in pseudoscience (an indicator of scientific illiteracy) seems to be widespread among Americans and Europeans."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"A new national survey commissioned by the California Academy of Sciences and conducted by Harris Interactive® reveals that the U.S. public is unable to pass even a basic scientific literacy test."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"In a survey released earlier this year [2007], Miller and colleagues found that about 28 percent of American adults qualified as scientifically literate, which is an increase of about 10 percent from the late 1980s and early 1990s."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"From a practical point of view, the distinction is important for decision guidance in both private and public life. Since science is our most reliable source of knowledge in a wide variety of areas, we need to distinguish scientific knowledge from its look-alikes. Due to the high status of science in present-day society, attempts to exaggerate the scientific status of various claims, teachings, and products are common enough to make the demarcation issue serious. For example, creation science may replace evolution in studies of biology."<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford-Demarcations_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-Demarcations-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-bowler-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bowler_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBowler2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Bowler J</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8/page/128"><i>Evolution: The History of an Idea</i></a> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8/page/128">128</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6"><bdi>978-0-520-23693-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+History+of+an+Idea&rft.pages=128&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23693-6&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8%2Fpage%2F128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dtg6e-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dtg6e_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker Jones, O., Alfaro-Almagro, F., & Jbabdi, S. (2018). <i>An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology</i>. Cortex. Volume 106. pp. 26–35. doi: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cortex.2018.04.011">10.1016/j.cortex.2018.04.011</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Magendie1843-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Magendie1843_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Magendie1843_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagendie1843" class="citation book cs1">Magendie F (1843). <i>An Elementary Treatise on Human Physiology</i>. John Revere (5th ed.). New York: Harper. p. 150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Elementary+Treatise+on+Human+Physiology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=150&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1843&rft.aulast=Magendie&rft.aufirst=F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP_section_SciPse-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_section_SciPse_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_section_SciPse_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_section_SciPse_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansson2008" class="citation cs2">Hansson SO (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science">"Science and Pseudoscience"</a>, <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, Section 2: The "science" of pseudoscience, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054">1095-5054</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080906011752/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science/">archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2009</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+and+Pseudoscience&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=Section+2%3A+The+%22science%22+of+pseudoscience&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=1095-5054&rft.aulast=Hansson&rft.aufirst=Sven+Ove&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fpseudo-science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShermer1997-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShermer1997_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShermer1997">Shermer (1997)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordin2012" class="citation book cs1">Gordin MP (2012). <i>The Pseudoscience Wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the Birth of the Modern Fringe</i>. University of Chicago Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30443-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30443-4"><bdi>978-0-226-30443-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pseudoscience+Wars%3A+Immanuel+Velikovsky+and+the+Birth+of+the+Modern+Fringe&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-226-30443-4&rft.aulast=Gordin&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmanKaufman2019" class="citation book cs1">Kaufman AB, Kaufman JC (12 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLT4DwAAQBAJ"><i>Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science</i></a>. MIT Press. p. 471. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53704-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53704-9"><bdi>978-0-262-53704-9</bdi></a>. <q>Pseudoscience is different from junk science...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pseudoscience%3A+The+Conspiracy+Against+Science&rft.pages=471&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2019-03-12&rft.isbn=978-0-262-53704-9&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Allison+B.&rft.au=Kaufman%2C+James+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZLT4DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Imre-Lakatos-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Imre-Lakatos_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLakatos1973" class="citation web cs1">Lakatos I (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110725130745/http://richmedia.lse.ac.uk/philosophy/2002_LakatosScienceAndPseudoscience128.mp3">"Science and Pseudoscience"</a>. The London School of Economics and Political Science, Dept of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.lse.ac.uk/philosophy/About/lakatos/scienceAndPseudoscience.aspx">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(mp3)</span> on 25 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+and+Pseudoscience&rft.pub=The+London+School+of+Economics+and+Political+Science%2C+Dept+of+Philosophy%2C+Logic+and+Scientific+Method&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Lakatos&rft.aufirst=Imre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.lse.ac.uk%2Fphilosophy%2FAbout%2Flakatos%2FscienceAndPseudoscience.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110728012423/http://www2.lse.ac.uk/philosophy/about/lakatos/scienceAndPseudoscienceTranscript.aspx">"Science and Pseudoscience (transcript)"</a>. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01933-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01933-1"><bdi>978-1-107-01933-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210716200304/https://books.google.com/books?id=wgkgeQl9wN8C">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extraordinary+Beliefs%3A+A+Historical+Approach+to+a+Psychological+Problem&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01933-1&rft.aulast=Lamont&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwgkgeQl9wN8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-u5Ez4-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-u5Ez4_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamont2013" class="citation book cs1">Lamont P (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wgkgeQl9wN8C"><i>Extraordinary Beliefs: A Historical Approach to a Psychological Problem</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01933-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01933-1"><bdi>978-1-107-01933-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210716200304/https://books.google.com/books?id=wgkgeQl9wN8C">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2019</span>. <q>When the eminent French physiologist, François Magendie, first coined the term 'pseudo-science' in 1843, he was referring to phrenology.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extraordinary+Beliefs%3A+A+Historical+Approach+to+a+Psychological+Problem&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01933-1&rft.aulast=Lamont&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwgkgeQl9wN8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott2012-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott2012_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott2012">Abbott (2012)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeates201842-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeates201842_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYeates2018">Yeates (2018)</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Still-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Still_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStillDryden2004" class="citation journal cs1">Still A, Dryden W (2004). "The Social Psychology of "Pseudoscience": A Brief History". <i>J Theory Soc Behav</i>. <b>34</b> (3): 265–290. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0021-8308.2004.00248.x">10.1111/j.0021-8308.2004.00248.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Theory+Soc+Behav&rft.atitle=The+Social+Psychology+of+%22Pseudoscience%22%3A+A+Brief+History&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=265-290&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0021-8308.2004.00248.x&rft.aulast=Still&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Dryden%2C+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch20033–5_ff-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch20033–5_ff_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, pp. 3–5 ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, pp. 191 <i>ff</i>, especially Chapter 6, "Probability", and Chapter 7, "inductive Logic and Statistics"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Popper-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Popper_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper K</a> (1959). <a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery"><i>The Logic of Scientific Discovery</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27844-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27844-7"><bdi>978-0-415-27844-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Scientific+Discovery&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0-415-27844-7&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span> The German version is currently in print by Mohr Siebeck (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-16-148410-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-16-148410-X">3-16-148410-X</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper196343–86-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper196343–86_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPopper1963">Popper (1963)</a>, pp. 43–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagan1994171-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagan1994171_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSagan1994">Sagan (1994)</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paradigms_Lost-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Paradigms_Lost_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasti1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Casti" title="John Casti">Casti JL</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/paradigmslost00jlca/page/51"><i>Paradigms lost: tackling the unanswered mysteries of modern science</i></a> (1st ed.). New York: Avon Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/paradigmslost00jlca/page/51">51–52</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-380-71165-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-380-71165-9"><bdi>978-0-380-71165-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paradigms+lost%3A+tackling+the+unanswered+mysteries+of+modern+science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=51-52&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Avon+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-380-71165-9&rft.aulast=Casti&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fparadigmslost00jlca%2Fpage%2F51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThagard1978223_ff-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1978223_ff_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1978223_ff_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThagard1978">Thagard (1978)</a>, pp. 223 ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983a-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983a_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBunge1983a">Bunge (1983a)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovella2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Novella" title="Steven Novella">Novella S</a> (2018). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptics%27_Guide_to_the_Universe_(book)" title="The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe (book)">The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake</a></i>. Grand Central Publishing. p. 165.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Skeptics%27+Guide+to+the+Universe%3A+How+to+Know+What%27s+Really+Real+in+a+World+Increasingly+Full+of+Fake&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=Grand+Central+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Novella&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaudan1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Laudan L</a> (1996). "The demise of the demarcation problem". In Ruse M (ed.). <i>But Is It Science?: The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy</i>. pp. 337–350.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+demise+of+the+demarcation+problem&rft.btitle=But+Is+It+Science%3F%3A+The+Philosophical+Question+in+the+Creation%2FEvolution+Controversy&rft.pages=337-350&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Laudan&rft.aufirst=Larry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNally2003" class="citation journal cs1">McNally RJ (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srmhp.org/0202/pseudoscience.html">"Is the pseudoscience concept useful for clinical psychology?"</a>. <i>The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice</i>. <b>2</b> (2). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100430162007/http://www.srmhp.org/0202/pseudoscience.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scientific+Review+of+Mental+Health+Practice&rft.atitle=Is+the+pseudoscience+concept+useful+for+clinical+psychology%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=McNally&rft.aufirst=RJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srmhp.org%2F0202%2Fpseudoscience.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PNS0-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PNS0_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuntowiczRavetz1990" class="citation book cs1">Funtowicz S, Ravetz J (1990). <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_and_Quality_in_Science_for_Policy" title="Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy"><i>Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy</i></a>. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 54.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uncertainty+and+Quality+in+Science+for+Policy&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Funtowicz&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Ravetz%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-G0Dqe-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-G0Dqe_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Pseudoscientific". <i>Oxford American Dictionary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>. <q>Pseudoscientific – pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pseudoscientific&rft.btitle=Oxford+American+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ySdig-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ySdig_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skepdic.com/pseudosc.html">"Pseudoscience"</a>. <i>The Skeptic's Dictionary</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090201091026/http://www.skepdic.com/pseudosc.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pseudoscience&rft.btitle=The+Skeptic%27s+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fskepdic.com%2Fpseudosc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rpjTm-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rpjTm_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kåre Letrud, "The Gordian Knot of Demarcation: Tying Up Some Loose Ends" <i>International Studies in the Philosophy of Science</i> 32 (1):3–11 (2019)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bRxUN-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bRxUN_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper2002" class="citation book cs1">Popper KR (2002). <i>Conjectures and refutations : the growth of scientific knowledge</i>. London: Routledge. pp. 33–39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-28593-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-28593-3"><bdi>0-415-28593-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49593492">49593492</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conjectures+and+refutations+%3A+the+growth+of+scientific+knowledge&rft.place=London&rft.pages=33-39&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49593492&rft.isbn=0-415-28593-3&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl+R.+%28Karl+Raimund%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GMUjf-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GMUjf_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreener2007" class="citation journal cs1">Greener M (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2267227">"Taking on creationism. Which arguments and evidence counter pseudoscience?"</a>. <i>EMBO Reports</i>. <b>8</b> (12): 1107–09. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.embor.7401131">10.1038/sj.embor.7401131</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2267227">2267227</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18059309">18059309</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EMBO+Reports&rft.atitle=Taking+on+creationism.+Which+arguments+and+evidence+counter+pseudoscience%3F&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1107-09&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2267227%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18059309&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.embor.7401131&rft.aulast=Greener&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2267227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cover_Curd_1998-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cover_Curd_1998_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cover_Curd_1998_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoverCurd1998" class="citation cs2">Cover JA, Curd M, eds. (1998), <i>Philosophy of Science: The Central Issues</i>, pp. 1–82</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Science%3A+The+Central+Issues&rft.pages=1-82&rft.date=1998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983b-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983b_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBunge1983b">Bunge (1983b)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003211_ff(Probability,_"Common_Blunders")-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003211_ff(Probability,_"Common_Blunders")_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003211_ff(Probability,_"Common_Blunders")_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, pp. 211 ff, (Probability, "Common Blunders").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Popper,_Karl_1963-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper,_Karl_1963_48-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper K</a> (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paul-rosenfels.org/Popper.pdf"><i>Conjectures and Refutations</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171013124349/http://www.paul-rosenfels.org/Popper.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 13 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conjectures+and+Refutations&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paul-rosenfels.org%2FPopper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EUf6R-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EUf6R_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchland1999" class="citation book cs1">Churchland PM (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_7CBvggqOE4C&q=%22operational+definitions.%22+pseudoscience&pg=PA90"><i>Matter and Consciousness: A Contemporary Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind</i></a>. MIT Press. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53074-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53074-3"><bdi>978-0-262-53074-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210716200304/https://books.google.com/books?id=_7CBvggqOE4C&q=%22operational+definitions.%22+pseudoscience&pg=PA90">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Matter+and+Consciousness%3A+A+Contemporary+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Mind&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-262-53074-3&rft.aulast=Churchland&rft.aufirst=Paul+Montgomery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_7CBvggqOE4C%26q%3D%2522operational%2Bdefinitions.%2522%2Bpseudoscience%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003269_ff"Parsimony_and_Efficiency"-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003269_ff"Parsimony_and_Efficiency"_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, pp. 269 ff, "Parsimony and Efficiency".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hines1988-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hines1988_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hines1988_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHines1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Terence_Hines" title="Terence Hines">Hines T</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pseudosciencepar00hine"><i>Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: A Critical Examination of the Evidence</i></a>. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-419-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-419-8"><bdi>978-0-87975-419-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pseudoscience+and+the+Paranormal%3A+A+Critical+Examination+of+the+Evidence&rft.place=Buffalo%2C+NY&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-87975-419-8&rft.aulast=Hines&rft.aufirst=Terence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpseudosciencepar00hine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OsPUp-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OsPUp_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_E._Simanek" class="citation web cs1">Donald E. Simanek. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090425202814/http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/pseudo/scipseud.htm">"What is science? What is pseudoscience?"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/pseudo/scipseud.htm">the original</a> on 25 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+science%3F+What+is+pseudoscience%3F&rft.au=Donald+E.+Simanek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lhup.edu%2F~dsimanek%2Fpseudo%2Fscipseud.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lakatos_1970-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lakatos_1970_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lakatos_1970_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLakatos1970" class="citation book cs1">Lakatos I (1970). "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes". In Lakatos I, Musgrave A (eds.). <i>Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge</i>. pp. 91–195.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Falsification+and+the+Methodology+of+Scientific+Research+Programmes&rft.btitle=Criticism+and+the+Growth+of+Knowledge&rft.pages=91-195&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Lakatos&rft.aufirst=I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003178_ff(Deductive_Logic,_"Fallacies")-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003178_ff(Deductive_Logic,_"Fallacies")_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, pp. 178 ff, (Deductive Logic, "Fallacies").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vtd7w-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vtd7w_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> Vol. 3, "Fallacies" 174 ff, esp. section on "Ignoratio elenchi"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-T3iJ6-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-T3iJ6_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> Vol 3, "Fallacies" 174 ff esp. 177–178</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983a381-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983a381_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBunge1983a">Bunge (1983a)</a>, p. 381.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-coker-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-coker_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRory_Coker" class="citation web cs1">Rory Coker. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web2.ph.utexas.edu/~coker2/index.files/distinguish.htm">"Science versus Pseudoscience"</a>. <i>web2.ph.utexas.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220301104806/https://web2.ph.utexas.edu/~coker2/index.files/distinguish.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=web2.ph.utexas.edu&rft.atitle=Science+versus+Pseudoscience&rft.au=Rory+Coker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb2.ph.utexas.edu%2F~coker2%2Findex.files%2Fdistinguish.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cokerSF-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cokerSF_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRory_Coker" class="citation web cs1">Rory Coker. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web2.ph.utexas.edu/~coker2/index.files/sfandps.shtml">"SF in pseudoscience"</a>. <i>web2.ph.utexas.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220627154318/https://web2.ph.utexas.edu/~coker2/index.files/sfandps.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=web2.ph.utexas.edu&rft.atitle=SF+in+pseudoscience&rft.au=Rory+Coker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb2.ph.utexas.edu%2F~coker2%2Findex.files%2Fsfandps.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThagard1978227–228-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1978227–228_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThagard1978227–228_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThagard1978">Thagard (1978)</a>, pp. 227–228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gambrill2012-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gambrill2012_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEileen_Gambrill2012" class="citation book cs1">Eileen Gambrill (1 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NsuHtwciwQwC&pg=PA109"><i>Critical Thinking in Clinical Practice: Improving the Quality of Judgments and Decisions</i></a> (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-90438-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-90438-1"><bdi>978-0-470-90438-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191222023232/https://books.google.com/books?id=NsuHtwciwQwC&pg=PA109">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Thinking+in+Clinical+Practice%3A+Improving+the+Quality+of+Judgments+and+Decisions&rft.pages=109&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012-05-01&rft.isbn=978-0-470-90438-1&rft.au=Eileen+Gambrill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNsuHtwciwQwC%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lilienfeld-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lilienfeld_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lilienfeld_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lilienfeld SO (2004). <i>Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology</i> Guildford Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59385-070-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-59385-070-0">1-59385-070-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuscio2002-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuscio2002_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuscio2002_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuscio2002">Ruscio (2002)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58lDT-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58lDT_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGitanjali2001" class="citation journal cs1">Gitanjali B (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060623193431/http://www.senseaboutscience.org.uk/PDF/PeerReview.pdf">"Peer review – process, perspectives and the path ahead"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Postgraduate Medicine</i>. <b>47</b> (3): 210–14. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11832629">11832629</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.senseaboutscience.org.uk/PDF/peerReview.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 June 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Postgraduate+Medicine&rft.atitle=Peer+review+%E2%80%93+process%2C+perspectives+and+the+path+ahead&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=210-14&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11832629&rft.aulast=Gitanjali&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.senseaboutscience.org.uk%2FPDF%2FpeerReview.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003124_ff-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003124_ff_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003124_ff_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, pp. 124 ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagan1994210-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagan1994210_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSagan1994">Sagan (1994)</a>, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuscio2002120-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuscio2002120_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuscio2002">Ruscio (2002)</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevilly2005-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevilly2005_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevilly2005_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDevilly2005">Devilly (2005)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmsden,_Brian" class="citation web cs1">Amsden, Brian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190712055955/http://www.indiana.edu/~c228/Fallacies.pdf">"Recognizing Microstructural Fallacies"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 22. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiana.edu/~c228/Fallacies.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 12 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Recognizing+Microstructural+Fallacies&rft.pages=22&rft.au=Amsden%2C+Brian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiana.edu%2F~c228%2FFallacies.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/person.html">"Ad Hominem and Related Fallacies"</a>. <i>philosophy.lander.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201204164205/http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/person.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=philosophy.lander.edu&rft.atitle=Ad+Hominem+and+Related+Fallacies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilosophy.lander.edu%2Flogic%2Fperson.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rathee2018-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rathee2018_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRathee2018" class="citation news cs1">Rathee P (20 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/what-ayush-and-controversy-703993.html">"What is AYUSH and the controversy around it?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Deccan_Herald" title="Deccan Herald">Deccan Herald</a></i>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Printers_(Mysore)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Printers (Mysore) (page does not exist)">The Printers (Mysore)</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201122144706/https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/what-ayush-and-controversy-703993.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deccan+Herald&rft.atitle=What+is+AYUSH+and+the+controversy+around+it%3F&rft.date=2018-11-20&rft.aulast=Rathee&rft.aufirst=Pranshu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deccanherald.com%2Fspecials%2Fwhat-ayush-and-controversy-703993.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Narayanan2020-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Narayanan2020_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNarayanan2020" class="citation news cs1">Narayanan K (1 July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201121014011/https://www.firstpost.com/india/patanajali-covid-19-ayush-ministry-weak-response-ramdevs-coronil-stunt-endangers-people-jeopardises-ayurveda-homeopathy-8529151.html">"AYUSH Ministry is endangering people, jeopardising Ayurveda with lax response to Patanjali's Coronil and COVID-19, warn experts"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Firstpost" title="Firstpost">Firstpost</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.firstpost.com/india/patanajali-covid-19-ayush-ministry-weak-response-ramdevs-coronil-stunt-endangers-people-jeopardises-ayurveda-homeopathy-8529151.html">the original</a> on 21 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Firstpost&rft.atitle=AYUSH+Ministry+is+endangering+people%2C+jeopardising+Ayurveda+with+lax+response+to+Patanjali%27s+Coronil+and+COVID-19%2C+warn+experts&rft.date=2020-07-01&rft.aulast=Narayanan&rft.aufirst=Kavya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstpost.com%2Findia%2Fpatanajali-covid-19-ayush-ministry-weak-response-ramdevs-coronil-stunt-endangers-people-jeopardises-ayurveda-homeopathy-8529151.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AYUSHPseudo-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AYUSHPseudo_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources that criticize the entirety of AYUSH as a pseudo-scientific venture: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShrinivasan2015" class="citation news cs1">Shrinivasan R (26 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/sunday-anchor/medicine-wars-homeopathy-allopathy-ayurveda-unani-in-india/article10792873.ece">"Questions over science swirl, but AYUSH stands firm"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X">0971-751X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210827085300/https://www.thehindu.com/sunday-anchor/medicine-wars-homeopathy-allopathy-ayurveda-unani-in-india/article10792873.ece">Archived</a> from the original on 27 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Questions+over+science+swirl%2C+but+AYUSH+stands+firm&rft.date=2015-04-26&rft.issn=0971-751X&rft.aulast=Shrinivasan&rft.aufirst=Rukmini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fsunday-anchor%2Fmedicine-wars-homeopathy-allopathy-ayurveda-unani-in-india%2Farticle10792873.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrishnan" class="citation news cs1">Krishnan V. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/policy-and-issues/ayush-ministry-rails-against-global-study-on-homeopathy/article8561466.ece">"AYUSH Ministry rails against global study on homeopathy"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210428082147/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/policy-and-issues/ayush-ministry-rails-against-global-study-on-homeopathy/article8561466.ece">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=AYUSH+Ministry+rails+against+global+study+on+homeopathy&rft.aulast=Krishnan&rft.aufirst=Vidya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fsci-tech%2Fhealth%2Fpolicy-and-issues%2Fayush-ministry-rails-against-global-study-on-homeopathy%2Farticle8561466.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/National/2018-01-08/Bridge-course-for-AYUSH--the-seed-of-destruction/350752/amp">"Bridge course for AYUSH – the seed of destruction"</a>. <i>The Hans India</i>. 8 January 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215412/http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/National/2018-01-08/Bridge-course-for-AYUSH--the-seed-of-destruction/350752/amp">Archived</a> from the original on 17 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Hans+India&rft.atitle=Bridge+course+for+AYUSH+%E2%80%93+the+seed+of+destruction&rft.date=2018-01-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehansindia.com%2Fposts%2Findex%2FNational%2F2018-01-08%2FBridge-course-for-AYUSH--the-seed-of-destruction%2F350752%2Famp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undark.org/article/indian-scientists-confront-pseudoscience/">"The Threat of Pseudoscience in India"</a>. <i>Undark</i>. 10 December 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190707131151/https://undark.org/article/indian-scientists-confront-pseudoscience/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Undark&rft.atitle=The+Threat+of+Pseudoscience+in+India&rft.date=2018-12-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fundark.org%2Farticle%2Findian-scientists-confront-pseudoscience%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumar2018" class="citation web cs1">Kumar R (13 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qz.com/india/1492838/how-scientists-are-fighting-fake-news-and-superstition-in-india/">"Indian academia is fighting a toxic mix of nationalism and pseudoscience"</a>. <i>Quartz India</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210820170045/https://qz.com/india/1492838/how-scientists-are-fighting-fake-news-and-superstition-in-india/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Quartz+India&rft.atitle=Indian+academia+is+fighting+a+toxic+mix+of+nationalism+and+pseudoscience&rft.date=2018-12-13&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Ruchi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fqz.com%2Findia%2F1492838%2Fhow-scientists-are-fighting-fake-news-and-superstition-in-india%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmanKaufman2018" class="citation book cs1">Kaufman AB, Kaufman JC (12 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dwFKDwAAQBAJ"><i>Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science</i></a>. MIT Press. p. 293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03742-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03742-6"><bdi>978-0-262-03742-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210827085300/https://books.google.com/books?id=dwFKDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 27 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pseudoscience%3A+The+Conspiracy+Against+Science&rft.pages=293&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2018-01-12&rft.isbn=978-0-262-03742-6&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Allison+B.&rft.au=Kaufman%2C+James+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdwFKDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagan19941–22-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagan19941–22_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSagan1994">Sagan (1994)</a>, pp. 1–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Science_Board2004" class="citation book cs1">National Science Board (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind04/c7/c7s2.htm">"Chapter 7 Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding: Public Knowledge About S&T"</a>. <i>Science and Engineering Indicators 2004</i>. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/5902/20150628032751/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind04/c7/c7s2.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=That+a+clear+line+of+demarcation+has+separated+science+from+pseudoscience&rft.btitle=Newton%27s+Apple+and+Other+Myths+about+Science&rft.pages=219-25&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-674-91547-3&rft.aulast=Gordin&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpWouCwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnewton%27s%2Bapple%2Band%2Bother%2Bmyths%2Babout%2Bscience&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newbold-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newbold_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewboldRoberts2007" class="citation journal cs1">Newbold D, Roberts J (2007). "An analysis of the demarcation problem in science and its application to therapeutic touch theory". <i>International Journal of Nursing Practice</i>. <b>13</b> (6): 324–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1440-172X.2007.00646.x">10.1111/j.1440-172X.2007.00646.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18021160">18021160</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Nursing+Practice&rft.atitle=An+analysis+of+the+demarcation+problem+in+science+and+its+application+to+therapeutic+touch+theory&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=324-30&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1440-172X.2007.00646.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18021160&rft.aulast=Newbold&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Roberts%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaudan1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Laudan L</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AEvprSJzv2MC">"The Demise of the Demarcation Problem"</a>. In Cohen RS, Laudan L (eds.). <i>Physics, Philosophy and Psychoanalysis: Essays in Honor of Adolf Grünbaum</i>. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Vol. 76. Dordrecht: D. Reidel. pp. 111–127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-1533-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-277-1533-3"><bdi>978-90-277-1533-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200925144320/https://books.google.com/books?id=AEvprSJzv2MC">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Demise+of+the+Demarcation+Problem&rft.btitle=Physics%2C+Philosophy+and+Psychoanalysis%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Adolf+Gr%C3%BCnbaum&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=Boston+Studies+in+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.pages=111-127&rft.pub=D.+Reidel&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-90-277-1533-3&rft.aulast=Laudan&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAEvprSJzv2MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Makgoba-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Makgoba_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakgoba2002" class="citation journal cs1">Makgoba MW (2002). "Politics, the media and science in HIV/AIDS: the peril of pseudoscience". <i>Vaccine</i>. <b>20</b> (15): 1899–1904. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0264-410X%2802%2900063-4">10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00063-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11983241">11983241</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vaccine&rft.atitle=Politics%2C+the+media+and+science+in+HIV%2FAIDS%3A+the+peril+of+pseudoscience&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=1899-1904&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0264-410X%2802%2900063-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11983241&rft.aulast=Makgoba&rft.aufirst=MW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEfthimiouLlewellyn2006">Efthimiou & Llewellyn (2006)</a>, p. 4 – Efthimiou quoting Friedman: "We could dignify pseudoscience by mentioning it at all".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEfthimiouLlewellyn2006">Efthimiou & Llewellyn (2006)</a>, p. 4 – Efthimiou quoting Park: "The more serious threat is to the public, which is not often in a position to judge which claims are real and which are <i>voodoo</i>. ... Those who are fortunate enough to have chosen science as a career have an obligation to <i>inform the public about voodoo science</i>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haven-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Haven_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_National_Council_Against_Health_Fraud1994" class="citation news cs1">The National Council Against Health Fraud (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncahf.org/pp/homeop.html#haven">"NCAHF Position Paper on Homeopathy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181225185228/https://www.ncahf.org/pp/homeop.html#haven">Archived</a> from the original on 25 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=NCAHF+Position+Paper+on+Homeopathy&rft.date=1994&rft.au=The+National+Council+Against+Health+Fraud&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncahf.org%2Fpp%2Fhomeop.html%23haven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeVine-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LeVine_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeVine2016" class="citation web cs1">LeVine M (8 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessinsider.com/scientists-fake-news-and-disinformation-pseudoscience-2016-12">"What scientists can teach us about fake news and disinformation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Business_Insider" title="Business Insider">Business Insider</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161210131026/http://www.businessinsider.com/scientists-fake-news-and-disinformation-pseudoscience-2016-12">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: Springer Publishing Company, LLC. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8261-9419-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8261-9419-0"><bdi>978-0-8261-9419-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Thinking%2C+Science%2C+and+Pseudoscience%3A+Why+We+Can%27t+Trust+Our+Brains&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=Springer+Publishing+Company%2C+LLC&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8261-9419-0&rft.aulast=Lack&rft.aufirst=Caleb&rft.au=Rousseau%2C+Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FFury-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FFury_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLilienfeldLynnLohr2014" class="citation book cs1">Lilienfeld S, Lynn SJ, Lohr J (2014). <i>Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology, Second Edition</i>. 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"Demarcating science from pseudoscience". <i>Fundamenta Scientiae</i>. <b>3</b>: 369–388.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fundamenta+Scientiae&rft.atitle=Demarcating+science+from+pseudoscience&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=369-388&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunge1983b" class="citation book cs1">Bunge M (1983b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789027716347"><i>Epistemology & Methodology II: Understanding the World</i></a>. Treatise on Basic Philosophy: Volume 6. Springer Netherlands. pp. 223–228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-1634-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-277-1634-7"><bdi>978-90-277-1634-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200613205523/https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789027716347">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemology+%26+Methodology+II%3A+Understanding+the+World&rft.series=Treatise+on+Basic+Philosophy%3A+Volume+6&rft.pages=223-228&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-90-277-1634-7&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fgp%2Fbook%2F9789027716347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevilly2005" class="citation journal cs1">Devilly GJ (2005). "Power therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry". <i>The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry</i>. <b>39</b> (6): 437–445. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2Fj.1440-1614.2005.01601.x">10.1080/j.1440-1614.2005.01601.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15943644">15943644</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208627667">208627667</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Australian+and+New+Zealand+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Power+therapies+and+possible+threats+to+the+science+of+psychology+and+psychiatry&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=437-445&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A208627667%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15943644&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2Fj.1440-1614.2005.01601.x&rft.aulast=Devilly&rft.aufirst=GJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEfthimiouLlewellyn2006" class="citation arxiv cs1">C.J. Efthimiou, R. Llewellyn (2006). "Is pseudoscience the solution to science literacy?". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0608061">physics/0608061</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Is+pseudoscience+the+solution+to+science+literacy%3F&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0608061&rft.au=C.J.+Efthimiou&rft.au=R.+Llewellyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauch2003" class="citation book cs1">Gauch HG (2003). <i>Scientific Method in Practice</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01708-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01708-4"><bdi>978-0-521-01708-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002022271">2002022271</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Method+in+Practice&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002022271&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01708-4&rft.aulast=Gauch&rft.aufirst=Hugh+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansson2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hansson SO (5 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science/">"Science and Pseudo-Science"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054">1095-5054</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+and+Pseudo-Science&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2021-05-05&rft.issn=1095-5054&rft.aulast=Hansson&rft.aufirst=Sven+Ove&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fpseudo-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoll1902" class="citation book cs1">Moll A (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_pcGt5UpnDa0C"><i>Christian Science, Medicine, and Occultism</i></a>. London: Rebman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Science%2C+Medicine%2C+and+Occultism&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Rebman&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Moll&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_pcGt5UpnDa0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuscio2002" class="citation book cs1">Ruscio J (2002). <i>Clear thinking with psychology : separating sense from nonsense</i>. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-53659-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-53659-6"><bdi>978-0-534-53659-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47013264">47013264</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clear+thinking+with+psychology+%3A+separating+sense+from+nonsense&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pub=Brooks%2FCole-Thomson+Learning&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47013264&rft.isbn=978-0-534-53659-6&rft.aulast=Ruscio&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSager2008" class="citation web cs1">Sager C, ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ncse.com/files/pub/evolution/Voices_3e.pdf">"Voices for evolution"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. National Center for Science Education. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101218135536/http://ncse.com/files/pub/evolution/Voices_3e.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 18 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Voices+for+evolution&rft.pub=National+Center+for+Science+Education&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fncse.com%2Ffiles%2Fpub%2Fevolution%2FVoices_3e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagan1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan C</a> (1994). <a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World"><i>The demon-haunted world</i></a>. New York: Ballantine Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-40946-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-345-40946-1"><bdi>978-0-345-40946-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+demon-haunted+world&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Ballantine+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-345-40946-1&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShermer1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Shermer M</a> (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965594875"><i>Why people believe weird things: pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time</i></a></span>. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3090-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3090-3"><bdi>978-0-7167-3090-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+people+believe+weird+things%3A+pseudoscience%2C+superstition%2C+and+other+confusions+of+our+time&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3090-3&rft.aulast=Shermer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780965594875&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThagard1978" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Thagard" title="Paul Thagard">Thagard PR</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/THAWAI">"Why astrology is a pseudoscience"</a>. <i>PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association</i>. <b>1978</b> (1): 223–234. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fpsaprocbienmeetp.1978.1.192639">10.1086/psaprocbienmeetp.1978.1.192639</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0270-8647">0270-8647</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147050929">147050929</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190328142123/https://philpapers.org/rec/THAWAI">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PSA%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Biennial+Meeting+of+the+Philosophy+of+Science+Association&rft.atitle=Why+astrology+is+a+pseudoscience&rft.volume=1978&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=223-234&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147050929%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0270-8647&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fpsaprocbienmeetp.1978.1.192639&rft.aulast=Thagard&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FTHAWAI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeates2018" class="citation journal cs1">Yeates L (Autumn 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unsw-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/f/5gm2j3/unsworks_modsunsworks_62996">"James Braid (II): Mesmerism, Braid's Crucial Experiment, and Braid's Discovery of Neuro-Hypnotism"</a>. <i>Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy & Hypnosis</i>. <b>40</b> (1): 40–92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Journal+of+Clinical+Hypnotherapy+%26+Hypnosis&rft.atitle=James+Braid+%28II%29%3A+Mesmerism%2C+Braid%27s+Crucial+Experiment%2C+and+Braid%27s+Discovery+of+Neuro-Hypnotism&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-92&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Yeates&rft.aufirst=L.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funsw-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com%2Fpermalink%2Ff%2F5gm2j3%2Funsworks_modsunsworks_62996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Alcock, J. (2001). Science vs. Pseudoscience, Nonscience, and Nonsense. <i>The Skeptical Inquirer</i>, <b>25</b>(3), 50–54.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer2000" class="citation book cs1">Bauer HH (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scienceorpseudos00henr"><i>Science or Pseudoscience: Magnetic Healing, Psychic Phenomena, and Other Heterodoxies</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02601-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02601-0"><bdi>978-0-252-02601-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+or+Pseudoscience%3A+Magnetic+Healing%2C+Psychic+Phenomena%2C+and+Other+Heterodoxies&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-252-02601-0&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Henry+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscienceorpseudos00henr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharpakBroch2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Charpak" title="Georges Charpak">Charpak G</a>, Broch H (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/debunked00geor"><i>Debunked: Esp, telekinesis, other pseudoscience</i></a></span> (in French). Translated by Holland BK. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7867-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7867-1"><bdi>978-0-8018-7867-1</bdi></a>. <q>Debunked.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debunked%3A+Esp%2C+telekinesis%2C+other+pseudoscience&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7867-1&rft.aulast=Charpak&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft.au=Broch%2C+Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdebunked00geor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span> Originally published 2002 by Odile Jacob as <i>Devenez sorciers, devenez savants</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCioffi1998" class="citation book cs1">Cioffi F (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freudquestionof00ciof"><i>Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience</i></a>. Chicago and La Salle, Illinois: Open Court, division of Carus. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freudquestionof00ciof/page/314">314</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9385-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9385-0"><bdi>978-0-8126-9385-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freud+and+the+Question+of+Pseudoscience&rft.place=Chicago+and+La+Salle%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=314&rft.pub=Open+Court%2C+division+of+Carus&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8126-9385-0&rft.aulast=Cioffi&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffreudquestionof00ciof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerksen_AA1993" class="citation journal cs1">Derksen AA (1993). "The seven sins of pseudo-science". <i>J Gen Phil Sci</i>. <b>24</b>: 17–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00769513">10.1007/BF00769513</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:140478903">140478903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Gen+Phil+Sci&rft.atitle=The+seven+sins+of+pseudo-science&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=17-42&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00769513&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A140478903%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Derksen+AA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerksen2001" class="citation journal cs1">Derksen AA (2001). "The seven strategies of the sophisticated pseudo-scientist: a look into Freud's rhetorical toolbox". <i>J Gen Phil Sci</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 329–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1013100717113">10.1023/A:1013100717113</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141312494">141312494</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Gen+Phil+Sci&rft.atitle=The+seven+strategies+of+the+sophisticated+pseudo-scientist%3A+a+look+into+Freud%27s+rhetorical+toolbox&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=329-350&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1013100717113&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141312494%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Derksen&rft.aufirst=AA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Frietsch, Ute, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/knowledge-spaces/ute-frietsch-the-boundaries-of-science-pseudoscience?set_language=en&-C="><i>The Boundaries of Science/ Pseudoscience</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210411124606/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/knowledge-spaces/ute-frietsch-the-boundaries-of-science-pseudoscience?set_language=en&-C=">Archived</a> 11 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">EGO – European History Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130208042444/http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">Archived</a> 8 February 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Mainz: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Institute of European History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160219021834/http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Archived</a> 19 February 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 2015, retrieved: March 8, 2021 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/1073221725/34">pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210716200304/https://d-nb.info/1073221725/34">Archived</a> 16 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner1957" class="citation book cs1">Gardner M (1957). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fadsfallaciesinn0000gard"><i>Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</i></a></span> (2nd, revised & expanded ed.). Mineola, NY: <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20394-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20394-2"><bdi>978-0-486-20394-2</bdi></a>. <q>fads and fallacies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fads+and+Fallacies+in+the+Name+of+Science&rft.place=Mineola%2C+NY&rft.edition=2nd%2C+revised+%26+expanded&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-486-20394-2&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffadsfallaciesinn0000gard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span> Originally published 1952 by G.P. Putnam's Sons, under the title <i>In the Name of Science</i>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner1990" class="citation book cs1">Gardner M (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencegoodbadbo00gard"><i>Science – Good, Bad and Bogus</i></a>. Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-573-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-573-7"><bdi>978-0-87975-573-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+%E2%80%93+Good%2C+Bad+and+Bogus&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-87975-573-7&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsciencegoodbadbo00gard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittle,_John1981" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Little_(academic)" title="John Little (academic)">Little, John</a> (29 October 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gfh9AnIDxS8C&q=%22Science+%E2%80%93+Good,+Bad+and+Bogus%22&pg=PA320">"Review and useful overview of Gardner's book"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i>. <b>92</b> (1277): 320.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Review+and+useful+overview+of+Gardner%27s+book&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1277&rft.pages=320&rft.date=1981-10-29&rft.au=Little%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGfh9AnIDxS8C%26q%3D%2522Science%2B%25E2%2580%2593%2BGood%2C%2BBad%2Band%2BBogus%2522%26pg%3DPA320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner2000" class="citation book cs1">Gardner M (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z1NdAgAAQBAJ"><i>Did Adam and Eve Have Navels?: Debunking Pseudoscience</i></a>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32238-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32238-5"><bdi>978-0-393-32238-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Did+Adam+and+Eve+Have+Navels%3F%3A+Debunking+Pseudoscience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-393-32238-5&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz1NdAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2021" class="citation book cs1">Gordon MD (2021). <i>On the Fringe: Where Science Meets Pseudoscience</i>. Oxford University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-755576-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-755576-7"><bdi>978-0-19-755576-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Fringe%3A+Where+Science+Meets+Pseudoscience&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-755576-7&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansson1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sven_Ove_Hansson" title="Sven Ove Hansson">Hansson SO</a> (1996). "Defining pseudoscience". <i>Philosophia Naturalis</i>. <b>33</b>: 169–76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophia+Naturalis&rft.atitle=Defining+pseudoscience&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=169-76&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Hansson&rft.aufirst=Sven+Ove&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kaufman, Allison B. & Kaufman, James C. (eds.), <i>Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science</i>, The MIT Press, (Cambridge, MA), 2018. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53704-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53704-9">978-0-262-53704-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_M1994" class="citation journal cs1">Martin M (1994). "Pseudoscience, the paranormal, and science education". <i>Science & Education</i>. <b>3</b> (4): 1573–901. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Sc&Ed...3..357M">1994Sc&Ed...3..357M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00488452">10.1007/BF00488452</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22730647">22730647</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%26+Education&rft.atitle=Pseudoscience%2C+the+paranormal%2C+and+science+education&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1573-901&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22730647%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00488452&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994Sc%26Ed...3..357M&rft.au=Martin+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPigliucciBoudry2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pigliucci" title="Massimo Pigliucci">Pigliucci M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maarten_Boudry" title="Maarten Boudry">Boudry M</a> (2013). <i>Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-05196-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-05196-3"><bdi>978-0-226-05196-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Pseudoscience%3A+Reconsidering+the+Demarcation+Problem&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-226-05196-3&rft.aulast=Pigliucci&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rft.au=Boudry%2C+Maarten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratkanis1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Pratkanis" title="Anthony Pratkanis">Pratkanis AR</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061211055201/http://www.positiveatheism.org//writ/pratkanis.htm">"How to Sell a Pseudoscience"</a>. <i>Skeptical Inquirer</i>. <b>19</b> (4): 19–25. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/pratkanis.htm">the original</a> on 11 December 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=How+to+Sell+a+Pseudoscience&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=19-25&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Pratkanis&rft.aufirst=Anthony+R&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.positiveatheism.org%2Fwrit%2Fpratkanis.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShermer2011" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Shermer M</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-pseudoscience/">"What Is Pseudoscience?: Distinguishing between science and pseudoscience is problematic"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>305</b> (3): 92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0911-92">10.1038/scientificamerican0911-92</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21870452">21870452</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180729171335/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-pseudoscience/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=What+Is+Pseudoscience%3F%3A+Distinguishing+between+science+and+pseudoscience+is+problematic&rft.volume=305&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=92&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0911-92&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21870452&rft.aulast=Shermer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat-is-pseudoscience%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShermerGould2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Shermer M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Gould SJ</a> (2002). <i>Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time</i>. New York: Holt Paperbacks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7089-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7089-7"><bdi>978-0-8050-7089-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+People+Believe+Weird+Things%3A+Pseudoscience%2C+Superstition%2C+and+Other+Confusions+of+Our+Time&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Holt+Paperbacks&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7089-7&rft.aulast=Shermer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Gould%2C+Steven+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson_F.2000" class="citation book cs1">Wilson F. (2000). <i>The Logic and Methodology of Science and Pseudoscience</i>. Canadian Scholars Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55130-175-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55130-175-4"><bdi>978-1-55130-175-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Logic+and+Methodology+of+Science+and+Pseudoscience&rft.pub=Canadian+Scholars+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-55130-175-4&rft.au=Wilson+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolpert,_Lewis1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Wolpert" title="Lewis Wolpert">Wolpert, Lewis</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=67Mr-fhfZmQC"><i>The Unnatural Nature of Science</i></a>. Vol. 341. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 310. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0140-6736%2893%2992665-g">10.1016/0140-6736(93)92665-g</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-92981-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-92981-4"><bdi>978-0-674-92981-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8093949">8093949</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44724752">44724752</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unnatural+Nature+of+Science&rft.pages=310&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0140-6736%2893%2992665-g&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44724752%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8093949&rft.isbn=978-0-674-92981-4&rft.au=Wolpert%2C+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D67Mr-fhfZmQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APseudoscience" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span> First published 1992 by Faber & Faber, London.</li></ul> </div> <style 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Pseudoscience" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pseudoscience" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Pseudoscience" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Pseudoscience</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Pseudoscience">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pseudoscience" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pseudoscience" title="Template talk:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pseudoscience" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pseudoscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo cult science">Cargo cult science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlatan" title="Charlatan">Charlatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crank_(person)" title="Crank (person)">Crank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_theory" title="Fringe theory">Fringe theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomathematics" title="Pseudomathematics">Pseudomathematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">Junk science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">Pathological science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">Quackery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_oil" title="Snake oil">Snake oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superseded_theories_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded theories in science">Superseded scientific theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True-believer_syndrome" title="True-believer syndrome">True-believer syndrome</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Voodoo_Science" title="Voodoo Science">Voodoo Science</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">Topics <br />characterized as <br />pseudoscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatherapy" title="Aromatherapy">Aromatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue" title="Adrenal fatigue">Adrenal fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine" title="Anthroposophic medicine">Anthroposophic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_kinesiology" title="Applied kinesiology">Applied kinesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_method" title="Bates method">Bates method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)" title="Biorhythm (pseudoscience)">Biorhythms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">Bloodletting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_memory" title="Body memory">Body memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">Chiropractic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correactology" title="Correactology">Correactology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_healing" title="Crystal healing">Crystal healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">Cupping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_(alternative_medicine)" title="Detoxification (alternative medicine)">Detoxification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colon_cleansing" title="Colon cleansing">Colon cleansing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures" title="Doctrine of signatures">Doctrine of signatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doktor_Koster%27s_Antigaspills" title="Doktor Koster's Antigaspills">Doktor Koster's Antigaspills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_candling" title="Ear candling">Ear candling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity" title="Electromagnetic hypersensitivity">Electromagnetic hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_medicine" title="Energy medicine">Energy medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fad_diet" title="Fad diet">Fad diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FasciaBlaster" title="FasciaBlaster">FasciaBlaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_denialism" title="Germ theory denialism">Germ theory denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">Humorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridology" title="Iridology">Iridology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome" title="Leaky gut syndrome">Leaky gut syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_effect" title="Lunar effect">Lunar effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet" title="Macrobiotic diet">Macrobiotic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnet_therapy" title="Magnet therapy">Magnet therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement" title="Miracle Mineral Supplement">Miracle Mineral Supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturopathy" title="Naturopathy">Naturopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmistry" title="Palmistry">Palmistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchagavya" title="Panchagavya">Panchagavya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_medicine" title="Patent medicine">Patent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primal_therapy" title="Primal therapy">Primal therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionics" title="Radionics">Radionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">Trepanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine_syndrome" title="Wind turbine syndrome">Wind turbine syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion" title="Young blood transfusion">Young blood transfusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts" title="Ancient astronauts">Ancient astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamal_Salibi#Arabian_Judah_theory" title="Kamal Salibi">Arabian Judah theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5G#Misinformation_and_controversy" title="5G">5G conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory" title="Chemtrail conspiracy theory">Chemtrail conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Moon landing conspiracy theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation#Generational_theory" title="Generation">Generational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generationism" title="Generationism">Generationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory" title="Strauss–Howe generational theory">Strauss–Howe generational theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_children" title="Indigo children">Indigo children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_archaeology" title="Nazi archaeology">Nazi archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past_life_regression" title="Past life regression">Past life regression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_theory" title="Melanin theory">Melanin theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator" title="Myers–Briggs Type Indicator">Myers–Briggs Type Indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneagram_of_Personality" title="Enneagram of Personality">Enneagram of Personality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gravity" title="Anti-gravity">Anti-gravity‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion">Cold fusion‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light" title="Faster-than-light">Faster-than-light travel</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_motion" title="Perpetual motion">Perpetual motion</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mysticism" title="Quantum mysticism">Quantum mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionless_drive" title="Reactionless drive">Reactionless drive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dean_drive" title="Dean drive">Dean drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EmDrive" title="EmDrive">EMDrive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleportation" title="Teleportation">Teleportation‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractor_beam" title="Tractor beam">Tractor beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-fueled_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-fueled car">Water-fueled car</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture" title="Biodynamic agriculture">Biodynamic agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_transmutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological transmutation">Biological transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">Creation science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dianetics" title="Dianetics">Dianetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)" title="Auditing (Scientology)">Auditing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowsing" title="Dowsing">Dowsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon" title="Electronic voice phenomenon">Electronic voice phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_Earth" title="Flat Earth">Flat Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphology" title="Graphology">Graphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laundry_ball" title="Laundry ball">Laundry ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_attraction_(New_Thought)" title="Law of attraction (New Thought)">Law of attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">Levitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygraph" title="Polygraph">Polygraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology" title="Pseudoscientific metrology">Pseudoscientific metrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_analysis" title="Statement analysis">Statement analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ufology" title="Ufology">Ufology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_stress_analysis" title="Voice stress analysis">Voice stress analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_memory" title="Water memory">Water memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Promoters of<br />pseudoscience</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi" title="Sucharit Bhakdi">Sucharit Bhakdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Del_Bigtree" title="Del Bigtree">Del Bigtree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_and_Grichka_Bogdanoff" title="Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff">Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Boisselier" title="Brigitte Boisselier">Brigitte Boisselier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhonda_Byrne" title="Rhonda Byrne">Rhonda Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charroux" title="Robert Charroux">Robert Charroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepak_Chopra" title="Deepak Chopra">Deepak Chopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonaid" title="Clonaid">Clonaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Coleman" title="Vernon Coleman">Vernon Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_L._Donnelly" title="Ignatius L. Donnelly">Ignatius L. Donnelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia,_Inc." title="Gaia, Inc.">Gaia, Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Gerson" title="Max Gerson">Max Gerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gonzalez_(physician)" title="Nicholas Gonzalez (physician)">Nicholas Gonzalez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goop_(company)" title="Goop (company)">Goop (company)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Hancock" title="Graham Hancock">Graham Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Icke" title="David Icke">David Icke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Donald_Kelley" title="William Donald Kelley">William Donald Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr." title="Robert F. Kennedy Jr.">Robert F. Kennedy Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corentin_Louis_Kervran" title="Corentin Louis Kervran">Corentin Louis Kervran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Light_(newspaper)" title="The Light (newspaper)">The Light (newspaper)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Lindell" title="Mike Lindell">Mike Lindell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_McCarthy" title="Jenny McCarthy">Jenny McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mercola" title="Joseph Mercola">Joseph Mercola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judy_Mikovits" title="Judy Mikovits">Judy Mikovits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Ayush" title="Ministry of Ayush">Ministry of Ayush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Morell" title="Theodor Morell">Theodor Morell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Alfred_Nieper" title="Hans Alfred Nieper">Hans Alfred Nieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Oz" title="Mehmet Oz">Mehmet Oz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABl" title="Raël">Raël</a> (<a href="/wiki/Claude_Vorilhon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Vorilhon">Claude Vorilhon</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robby_Starbuck" title="Robby Starbuck">Robby Starbuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Stone" title="Randolph Stone">Randolph Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Joseph_Watson" title="Paul Joseph Watson">Paul Joseph Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wakefield" title="Andrew Wakefield">Andrew Wakefield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bogdanov_affair" title="Bogdanov affair">Bogdanov affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience" title="Bourgeois pseudoscience">Bourgeois pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cults_of_Unreason" title="Cults of Unreason">Cults of Unreason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Encyclopedia_of_Claims,_Frauds,_and_Hoaxes_of_the_Occult_and_Supernatural" title="An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural">An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fortean_Times" title="Fortean Times">Fortean Times</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackwatch" title="Quackwatch">Quackwatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Quackery" class="mw-redirect" title="The Natural History of Quackery">The Natural History of Quackery</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Occult" title="The Psychology of the Occult">The Psychology of the Occult</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ragged_Edge_of_Science" title="The Ragged Edge of Science">The Ragged Edge of Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience" title="The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience">The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" title="The Skeptic's Dictionary">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Positivism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Positivism" title="Template:Positivism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism" title="Template talk:Positivism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Positivism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></i></span> (1890s)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></span> (1909–1959)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></span> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i> (1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i> (1869)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a></i> (1879–1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i> (1909)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i> (1934)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Science_and_technology_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template talk:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Science_and_technology_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_science" title="Regulation of science">Regulation of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> Portals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cryptozoology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptozoology" title="Template:Cryptozoology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cryptozoology" title="Template talk:Cryptozoology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cryptozoology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cryptozoology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cryptozoology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cryptids" title="List of cryptids">List of cryptids</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_cryptozoologists" title="List of cryptozoologists">Cryptozoologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Bauer" title="Henry H. Bauer">Henry H. Bauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon-Erik_Beckjord" title="Jon-Erik Beckjord">Jon-Erik Beckjord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bindernagel" title="John Bindernagel">John Bindernagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Byrne" title="Peter C. Byrne">Peter C. Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hatcher_Childress" title="David Hatcher Childress">David Hatcher Childress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loren_Coleman" title="Loren Coleman">Loren Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Corliss" title="William R. Corliss">William R. Corliss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Costello_(author)" title="Peter Costello (author)">Peter Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Dinsdale" title="Tim Dinsdale">Tim Dinsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Ellis_(biologist)" title="Richard Ellis (biologist)">Richard Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Freeman_(cryptozoologist)" title="Richard Freeman (cryptozoologist)">Richard Freeman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gould_(geologist)" title="Charles Gould (geologist)">Charles Gould</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Gould" title="Rupert Gould">Rupert Gould</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Willison_Green" title="John Willison Green">John Willison Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Greenwell" title="Richard Greenwell">Richard Greenwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Heuvelmans" title="Bernard Heuvelmans">Bernard Heuvelmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Izzard" title="Ralph Izzard">Ralph Izzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keel" title="John Keel">John Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Kondratov" title="Aleksandr Kondratov">Aleksandr Kondratov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Krantz" title="Grover Krantz">Grover Krantz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willy_Ley" title="Willy Ley">Willy Ley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Mackal" title="Roy Mackal">Roy Mackal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Markotic_(anthropologist)" title="Vladimir Markotic (anthropologist)">Vladimir Markotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Meldrum" title="Jeffrey Meldrum">Jeffrey Meldrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Napier" title="John R. Napier">John R. Napier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Newton_(author)" title="Michael Newton (author)">Michael Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthonie_Cornelis_Oudemans" title="Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans">Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Paulides" title="David Paulides">David Paulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Porshnev" title="Boris Porshnev">Boris Porshnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_T._Sanderson" title="Ivan T. Sanderson">Ivan T. Sanderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Shuker" title="Karl Shuker">Karl Shuker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardner_Soule" title="Gardner Soule">Gardner Soule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Sprague" title="Roderick Sprague">Roderick Sprague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odette_Tchernine" title="Odette Tchernine">Odette Tchernine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books and<br />television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animalia_Paradoxa" title="Animalia Paradoxa">Animalia Paradoxa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke%27s_Mysterious_World" title="Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World">Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beast_Hunter" title="Beast Hunter">Beast Hunter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beast_Legends" title="Beast Legends">Beast Legends</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Destination_Truth" title="Destination Truth">Destination Truth</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Exotic_Zoology" title="Exotic Zoology">Exotic Zoology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Extinct_or_Alive" title="Extinct or Alive">Extinct or Alive</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fact_or_Faked:_Paranormal_Files" title="Fact or Faked: Paranormal Files">Fact or Faked: Paranormal Files</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fortean_TV" title="Fortean TV">Fortean TV</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Search_of..._(TV_series)" title="In Search of... (TV series)">In Search of...</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Is_It_Real%3F" title="Is It Real?">Is It Real?</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lost_Tapes" title="Lost Tapes">Lost Tapes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/MonsterQuest" title="MonsterQuest">MonsterQuest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monsters_and_Mysteries_in_America" title="Monsters and Mysteries in America">Monsters and Mysteries in America</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Track_of_Unknown_Animals" title="On the Track of Unknown Animals">On the Track of Unknown Animals</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sasquatch:_Legend_Meets_Science" title="Sasquatch: Legend Meets Science">Sasquatch: Legend Meets Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strange_Abominable_Snowmen" title="Strange Abominable Snowmen">Strange Abominable Snowmen</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hunt_for_the_Buru" class="mw-redirect" title="The Hunt for the Buru">The Hunt for the Buru</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Sasquatch_and_Other_Unknown_Hominoids" class="mw-redirect" title="The Sasquatch and Other Unknown Hominoids">The Sasquatch and Other Unknown Hominoids</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_X_Creatures" title="The X Creatures">The X Creatures</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_Saturdays" title="The Secret Saturdays">The Secret Saturdays</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weird_Travels" title="Weird Travels">Weird Travels</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Blu_Buhs" class="mw-redirect" title="Joshua Blu Buhs">Joshua Blu Buhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Todd_Carroll" title="Robert Todd Carroll">Robert Todd Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steuart_Campbell" title="Steuart Campbell">Steuart Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Dendle" title="Peter Dendle">Peter Dendle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Dunning_(author)" title="Brian Dunning (author)">Brian Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharon_A._Hill" title="Sharon A. Hill">Sharon A. Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Lee_(naturalist)" title="Henry Lee (naturalist)">Henry Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Loxton" title="Daniel Loxton">Daniel Loxton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherrie_Lynne_Lyons" title="Sherrie Lynne Lyons">Sherrie Lynne Lyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darren_Naish" title="Darren Naish">Darren Naish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Prothero" title="Donald Prothero">Donald Prothero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Radford" title="Benjamin Radford">Benjamin Radford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Regal" title="Brian Regal">Brian Regal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gaylord_Simpson" title="George Gaylord Simpson">George Gaylord Simpson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 8.39% 189.707 32 Template:Sfnp"," 7.73% 174.684 31 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.49% 169.381 5 Template:Lang"," 7.23% 163.462 27 Template:Cite_web"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.440","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21981805,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbbott2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexandrov2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmsden,_Brian\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrewsHenry1796\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBauer2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeyersteinHadaway1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBird2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlum1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowler2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBunge,_Mario_Augusto1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBunge1983a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBunge1983b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasti1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharpakBroch2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChurchland1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCioffi1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColavito\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoverCurd1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_W._Moore2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerksen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerksen_AA1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevilly2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonald_E._Simanek\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEfthimiouLlewellyn2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEileen_Gambrill2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEveDunn1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFOX_News2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrietsch2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuntowiczRavetz1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardner1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardner1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardner2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauch2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilman2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGitanjali2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGould1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreener2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGropp2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansson1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansson2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHansson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHines1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHupp2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHurd1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImpeyBuxnerAntonellisJohnson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufmanKaufman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufmanKaufman2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufmanKaufman2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrishnan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumar2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLack2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLackRousseau2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLakatos1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLakatos1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamont2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLaudan1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaudan1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeVine2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLilienfeldLynnLohr2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindeman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittle,_John1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagendie1843\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahdawi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakgoba2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin_M1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatuteBlancoYarrituDíaz-Lago2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatuteYarrituVadillo2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNally2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoll1902\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarayanan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Science_Board2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Science_Board2006\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewboldRoberts2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNovella2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOswald2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPendle\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPigliucciBoudry2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopper1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopper1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopper2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratkanis1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaloff2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRathee2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodríguez-FerreiroBarberia2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRory_Coker\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRuscio2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagan1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSager2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapiro2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShermer1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShermer2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFShermerGould2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFShrinivasan2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingerBenassi1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephens2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStillDryden2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoneNg\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2003\"] = 1,\n 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