CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> <html lang="en"> <head>  <script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-KGJZMMX');</script>  <script type="text/javascript"> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-29277122-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <META content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"> <META http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css"> <META http-equiv="Content-Script-Type" content="text/javascript"> <meta name="norton-safeweb-site-verification" content="jazg3njqarvwzb6hugexme0l9n56sj3bz6oz2jbv9whid98y65iude81ix7gopuf3i6gdfaikvo35e58tlb6-oumux22ocwohj3owmvvszf3kx8d-oordn0c6w3x41wj"> <META NAME="ROBOTS" CONTENT="INDEX, FOLLOW"> <META name="keywords" content="Bukovyna, Буковина, Bukovina, Bukowina, Bucovina, reference work, Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine, Інтернетова Енциклопедія України (ІЕУ), Ukraine, Ukraina, Україна"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="60x60" href="/apple-touch-icon-60x60.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="/apple-touch-icon-72x72.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="/apple-touch-icon-76x76.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="/apple-touch-icon-114x114.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="/apple-touch-icon-120x120.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="/apple-touch-icon-144x144.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="/apple-touch-icon-152x152.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="/apple-touch-icon-180x180.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href="/favicon-32x32.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href="/favicon-16x16.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="manifest" href="/manifest.json?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <link rel="mask-icon" href="/safari-pinned-tab.svg?v=Km2wkp7okQ" color="#5bbad5"> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="/favicon.ico?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <meta name="msapplication-TileColor" content="#ffc40d"> <meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="/mstile-144x144.png?v=Km2wkp7okQ"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="css/allMD.css" type="text/css" media="screen, projection">  <title>Bukovyna</title> </head> <body>  <noscript><iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-KGJZMMX" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript>  <div id="main" class="main marginZero" role="main"> <div class="hp bg8 tc " > <div > <div class="clear"></div> <div class=" bannerBack marginZero" > <div id="MobileOneLineMenu1" class="Link_Buttons"> <a href="#" type="button" onclick="document.getElementById('MobileOneLineMenu1').style.cssText = ' font-size: 0; height: 0;'; document.getElementById('MobileOneLineMenu2').style.cssText = ' font-size: 1.8em; height: 2.6em;';showMe()">Menu</a> </div> <div id="MobileOneLineMenu2" class="Link_Buttons"> <a href="#" type="button" onclick="document.getElementById('MobileOneLineMenu2').style.cssText = 'font-size: 0; height: 0;'; document.getElementById('MobileOneLineMenu1').style.cssText = ' font-size: 1.8em; height: 2.6em; margin-right: .74em;';notDisplay()">Menu</a> </div> <div class="lower "> <a href="#main"> <img src="images/DBHFill.gif" width="1" height="1" alt="Skip Navigation"></a> <div id="MobileFullMenu" class="mattblacktabs marginZero"> <ul> <li><a href="default.asp" class="buttonHeight buttonWidth marginZero" title=" Go to Home Page ">Home</a></li> <li><a href="info.asp" class="buttonHeight buttonWidth marginZero" title=" View information about IEU ">About IEU</a></li> <li><a href="help.asp" class=" buttonHeight buttonWidth marginZero" title=" View user's instructions, tips and editorial information ">User Info</a></li> <li><a href="contact.asp" class=" buttonHeight buttonWidth marginZero" title=" Contact IEU staff ">Contact Address</a></li> <li><a href="donor.asp" class=" buttonHeight buttonWidth marginZero" title="Donate to Encyclopedia">Donate to IEU</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="largeMenu" class="mattblacktabs marginZero"> <ul role="navigaton"> <li ><a href="default.asp" title=" Go to Home Page " >Home</a></li> <li><a href="info.asp" title=" View information about IEU ">About IEU</a></li> <li><a href="help.asp" title=" View user's instructions, tips and editorial information ">User Info</a></li> <li><a href="main-index.asp" title=" Use IEU Index to search for entry titles ">Index Search</a></li> <li><a href="contact.asp" title=" Contact IEU staff ">Contact Address</a></li> <li><a href="donor.asp" title="Donate to Encyclopedia">Donate to IEU</a></li> </ul> </div> <form name="FormMain" id="Blockkk" method="post" action="alphasearch.asp" class="SearchFloat SearchPosition"> <input id="submit1" type="submit" class="inputButton buttonHeightSub" title=" Search Titles in Encyclopedia " value=" Title " onClick="document.FormMain.action='alphasearch.asp' + '?q=' + document.getElementById('email').value;"> <input id="submit2" type="submit" class="inputButton buttonHeightSub" title=" Full Text Search " value="Text " onClick="document.FormMain.action='query.asp' +'?q=' + document.getElementById('email').value; method='post'" > <input id="submit3" type="submit" class="inputButton buttonHeightSub" title=" Use advanced search functions to search IEU database " value="ADV " onClick="document.FormMain.action='advanced.asp' + '?q=' + document.getElementById('email').value;" > <div id="SearchFieldMobile" class="mattblacktabs" > <label for="email" class="visuallyhidden">Search: </label> <input id="email" type="text" name="Textalpha" value="Search" onfocus="this.value=''"> </div> </form> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="bg9 tc float90 marginZero" > <div class="clear"></div> <BR> <H1>Bukovyna</H1>   <div> <div class="marginZero"> <ul class="fl NoListStyle"> <li class="NoListStyle"> <form name="MyFormPrevious" method="post" Action="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/previous.asp?bottomMenuDisplay=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&KidNumer=1624"> <input type="hidden" name="Previous entry" value="pages\B\U\Bukovyna.htm"> <a href="javascript:document.MyFormPrevious.submit()" TITLE="Previous Entry" class="inlineBlockDisplay"><Strong><<<</Strong></a> </form> </li> </ul> <ul class=" fr NoListStyle" role="navigaton"> <li > <form name="MyFormNext" method="post" Action="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/next.asp?bottomMenuDisplay=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&KidNumer=1624"> <input type="hidden" name="Next entry" value="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages\B\U\Bukovyna.htm"> <a href="javascript:document.MyFormNext.submit()" TITLE="Next Entry" class="inlineBlockDisplay"><Strong>>>></Strong></a> </form> </li> </ul> <ul class="NoListStyle" role="navigaton"> <li class="NoListStyle" > <A href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm" title="View black-on-white text, print, copy-and-paste" class="NoListStyle" rel="nofollow">print</A> </li> </ul> <div class="clear"></div> </div>   <div class="clear"></div> <div id="picturesColumnRight">  <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi%20University%20aerial%20view.jpg&page=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&id=1624&pid=967&tyt=Bukovyna&key=Bukovyna%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+Bukovina%2C+Bukowina%2C+Bucovina"><img class="thumbnail" src="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pic%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi%20University%20aerial%20view.jpg" title="Chernivtsi University (former metropolitan residence) (aerial view)." alt="Image - Chernivtsi University (former metropolitan residence) (aerial view)."></a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna%20Carpathian%20landscape.jpg&page=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&id=1624&pid=977&tyt=Bukovyna&key=Bukovyna%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+Bukovina%2C+Bukowina%2C+Bucovina"><img class="thumbnail" src="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pic%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna%20Carpathian%20landscape.jpg" title="Carpathian foothills landscape in Bukovyna." alt="Image - Carpathian foothills landscape in Bukovyna."></a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna%20village%20church.jpg&page=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&id=1624&pid=978&tyt=Bukovyna&key=Bukovyna%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+Bukovina%2C+Bukowina%2C+Bucovina"><img class="thumbnail" src="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pic%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna%20village%20church.jpg" title="A village church in Bukovyna." alt="Image - A village church in Bukovyna."></a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi%20university%20general%20view.jpg&page=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&id=1624&pid=969&tyt=Bukovyna&key=Bukovyna%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+Bukovina%2C+Bukowina%2C+Bucovina"><img class="thumbnail" src="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pic%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi%20university%20general%20view.jpg" title="Buildings of the Chernivtsi University." alt="Image - Buildings of the Chernivtsi University."></a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna%20landscape.jpg&page=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&id=1624&pid=4856&tyt=Bukovyna&key=Bukovyna%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+Bukovina%2C+Bukowina%2C+Bucovina"><img class="thumbnail" src="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pic%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna%20landscape.jpg" title="A landscape in Bukovyna." alt="Image - A landscape in Bukovyna."></a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CZ%5CA%5CZakamianila%20Bahachka%20Rock%20near%20Vyzhnytsia.jpg&page=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&id=1624&pid=4858&tyt=Bukovyna&key=Bukovyna%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+Bukovina%2C+Bukowina%2C+Bucovina"><img class="thumbnail" src="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pic%5CZ%5CA%5CZakamianila%20Bahachka%20Rock%20near%20Vyzhnytsia.jpg" title="The Zakamianila Bahachka (Petrified Rich Woman) Rock near Vyzhnytsia, Chernivtsi oblast." alt="Image - The Zakamianila Bahachka (Petrified Rich Woman) Rock near Vyzhnytsia, Chernivtsi oblast."></a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi%20University%20panorama.jpg&page=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&id=1624&pid=4838&tyt=Bukovyna&key=Bukovyna%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+Bukovina%2C+Bukowina%2C+Bucovina"><img class="thumbnail" src="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pic%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi%20University%20panorama.jpg" title="A panoramic view of the Chernivtsi University." alt="Image - A panoramic view of the Chernivtsi University."></a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi_Theater%20Square%20(panorama).jpg&page=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&id=1624&pid=4833&tyt=Bukovyna&key=Bukovyna%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+Bukovina%2C+Bukowina%2C+Bucovina"><img class="thumbnail" src="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pic%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi_Theater%20Square%20(panorama).jpg" title="The Theater Square in Chernivtsi." alt="Image - The Theater Square in Chernivtsi."></a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi%20panorama%20with%20churches.jpg&page=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&id=1624&pid=4836&tyt=Bukovyna&key=Bukovyna%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+Bukovina%2C+Bukowina%2C+Bucovina"><img class="thumbnail" src="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pic%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi%20panorama%20with%20churches.jpg" title="Chernivtsi panorama with churches." alt="Image - Chernivtsi panorama with churches."></a>  </div> <div class="bg9 tc marginZero">  <div class="fl"> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CC%5CA%5CCarpathian%20Mountains%20in%20Bukovyna%20(Chernivtsi%20oblast).jpg&page=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm&id=1624&pid=833&tyt=Bukovyna&key=Bukovyna%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+Bukovina%2C+Bukowina%2C+Bucovina"><img class="thumbnailWW" src="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pic%5CC%5CA%5CCarpathian%20Mountains%20in%20Bukovyna%20(Chernivtsi%20oblast).jpg" title="Carpathian Mountains in Bukovyna (Chernivtsi oblast)." alt="Image - Carpathian Mountains in Bukovyna (Chernivtsi oblast)."> </a>  </div> <A name="TopPosition"> </A> <a name="main"></a> <P class="padingHistoryLand"><STRONG>Bukovyna</STRONG> (Bukovina, Bukowina, Bucovina) [Буковина]. (See map: <A href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna_Map.jpg">Bukovyna</A>.) The territory between the middle <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CD%5CN%5CDnisterRiver.htm">Dnister River</a> and the main range of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CA%5CCarpathianMountains.htm">Carpathian Mountains</a>, around the source of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CR%5CPrutRiver.htm">Prut River</a> and the upper Seret (Siret) River, the border area between Ukraine and Romania. Today Bukovyna is divided between Ukraine (incorporating <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsioblast.htm">Chernivtsi oblast</a> or most of northern Bukovyna) and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomania.htm">Romania</a> (containing most of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CU%5CSuceava.htm">Suceava</a> region or southern Bukovyna). The name of this territory is derived from its great <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CE%5CBeech.htm">beech</a> (<I>buk</I>) <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CF%5CO%5CForests.htm">forests</a> and dates back to the 14th century when it designated the lands on the Moldavian-Polish border.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">Bukovyna is a transitional land between Ukraine and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomania.htm">Romania</a>. From a historical perspective it is a strategically important border area between <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CA%5CGalicia.htm">Galicia</a> and Moldavia, as it lies at the northwest entrance to <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CO%5CMoldavia.htm">Moldavia</a>. Bukovyna's transitional location influenced its history; it belonged to the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CA%5CGalicia6VolhyniaPrincipalityof.htm">Principality of Galicia-Volhynia</a>, then to Moldavia. Polish and Hungarian influences intersected here in the 14th and 15th centuries. In 1919–40 and 1941–4 all of Bukovyna belonged to <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomania.htm">Romania</a>. It was only in 1940 that Bukovyna was divided, along ethnic lines, between Ukraine and Romania. Bukovyna's territory consists of 10,440 sq km, of which about 5,500 belong to Ukraine. The population in 1930 was 853,000, about 520,000 of which became citizens of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianSSR.htm">Ukrainian SSR</a> in 1940.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand"><STRONG>Geography and economy.</STRONG> The southwestern half of Bukovyna consists of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CA%5CCarpathianMountains.htm">Carpathian Mountains</a>, which are divided into two ranges: the crystalline <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CA%5CMaramureK16BukovynianUpland.htm">Maramureş-Bukovynian Upland</a> and the flysch <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CU%5CHutsulBeskyd.htm">Hutsul Beskyd</a> mountains. Adjacent to the Carpathians lie the Bukovynian Carpathian foothills. Then comes a part of the Pokutian-Bessarabian Upland located between the Prut River and the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CD%5CN%5CDnisterRiver.htm">Dnister River</a>. The climate of Bukovyna is temperate continental, modified by the elevation. For example, the temperature at Vatra Dornei (at 789 m) is -6.4°C in January and 14.2°C in July, and the annual precipitation is 745 mm; at <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a> (at 252 m) the temperature is -5.1°C in January and 20.1°C in July and the annual precipitation is 619 mm. About 40 percent of the area is <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CF%5CO%5CForest.htm">forest</a>, up to 20 percent is <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CA%5CPasture.htm">pasture</a>, and over 30 percent is cultivated land. The 270,000 ha under cultivation produce <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCorn.htm">corn</a>, rye, wheat, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CO%5CA%5COats.htm">oats</a>, potatoes, seed grasses, and sugar beets. In 1930 about 75 percent of the population was employed in agriculture. The crystalline band contains such useful minerals as <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CI%5CR%5CIronore.htm">iron ore</a>, manganese ore, lead, silver, and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCopperores.htm">copper ores</a>. The Carpathian foothills contain salt and cement marls. The main <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CI%5CN%5CIndustry.htm">industry</a> is woodcrafts, which produces significant exports, followed by the food industry (sugar refining, milling, brewing), tanning and shoemaking, rubbermaking, and knitting. In general industrial development is low, although industrial growth was somewhat greater under Romanian rule than it was before 1918, when Bukovyna had to compete with Austrian and Czech industries. The <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CA%5CRailway.htm">railway</a> network (5.1 km per 100 sq km or 6.3 km per 1,000 inhabitants) and highway network are well developed.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand"><STRONG>Population.</STRONG> At the time Bukovyna came under Austrian rule it was sparsely settled. In 1775 it had 75,000 inhabitants or 7 people per sq km. Eventually, through natural growth and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CI%5CM%5CImmigration.htm">immigration</a>, its population increased to 208,000 in 1807; 371,000 in 1827; 447,000 in 1857; and 642,000 in 1890. At the end of the 19th century the population outflow (<a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CE%5CM%5CEmigration.htm">emigration</a> to the Americas) exceeded the influx, and so the rate of population growth declined: in 1900 the population was 730,000; in 1930 it was 853,000; and in 1941 it was 792,000. In 1930 there were 82 inhabitants per square kilometer, and 27 percent of the population lived in towns. The largest towns were <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a> (the center of the region) with 112,000 inhabitants, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CU%5CSuceava.htm">Suceava</a> with 17,000, Rădăuţi with 17,000, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CE%5CSeret.htm">Seret</a> with 10,000, Cîmpulung Moldovenesc with 10,000, Sadhora with 9,000, and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CT%5CStorozhynets.htm">Storozhynets</a> with 9,000. <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanians.htm">Romanians</a> constitute the majority of the population. According to the Austrian census of 1910, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> numbered 340,000 or 40 percent of the population (29.2 percent according to the inaccurate Romanian census of 1930), while Romanians numbered 290,000 or 34 percent of the population (379,000 or 44.5 percent of the population according to the Romanian census).</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">Other ethnic groups appeared only during the Austrian period: in 1910 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CJ%5CE%5CJews.htm">Jews</a> numbered 95,000, constituting 11 percent of the population (92,000 or 10.8 percent according to the 1930 census); <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CE%5CGermans.htm">Germans</a> numbered 75,000 or 9 percent (75,500 or 8.9 percent); <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPoles.htm">Poles</a> numbered 25,000 or 3 percent (30,600 or 3.6 percent); and smaller groups, such as the Hungarians, Russian <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CO%5CL%5COldBelievers.htm">Old Believers</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CL%5CSlovaks.htm">Slovaks</a>, and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CR%5CArmenians.htm">Armenians</a>, totaled 25,000 or 3 percent of the population. The Jews, Germans, and Poles lived primarily in towns (most of them in Chernivtsi). Although the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CE%5CGermans.htm">Germans</a> constituted only one-tenth of the population, the German language, which was used by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CJ%5CE%5CJews.htm">Jews</a> as well as Germans, was widely spoken in Bukovyna, especially during the Austrian period. Nowhere else in Ukraine were German cultural influences and, in the Austrian period, German political influences as strong as in Bukovyna. The <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CE%5CT%5CEthnographic.htm">ethnographic</a> border that divides Bukovyna into Ukrainian and Romanian sections runs from Kyrlybaba in the south, through Ruska Moldavytsia, Banyliv-Pidhirnyi, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CT%5CStorozhynets.htm">Storozhynets</a>, and Chernivtsi, to Ridkivtsi on the Bessarabian border in the north. From the Ukrainian ethnic area a long Ukrainian ethnic peninsula, containing the town of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CE%5CSeret.htm">Seret</a>, extends along the Moldavian border from <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a> to <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CU%5CSuceava.htm">Suceava</a> in the south. On the other side Romanian settlements extend up to Chernivtsi. In 1930 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> constituted 65 percent, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CJ%5CE%5CJews.htm">Jews</a> 12 percent, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanians.htm">Romanians</a> 11.5 percent, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CE%5CGermans.htm">Germans</a> 5 percent, and others 6 percent of the population in the Ukrainian ethnic area (5,300 sq km and 460,000 inhabitants). At the same time, in the Romanian ethnic area (5,140 sq km, 390,000 inhabitants), Romanians constituted 64 percent, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CE%5CGermans.htm">Germans</a> 11 percent, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CJ%5CE%5CJews.htm">Jews</a> 10 percent, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> 9.5 percent, and others 5.5 percent of the population.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">The present political border between Ukraine and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomania.htm">Romania</a> does not coincide with the ethnic border: <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomania.htm">Romania</a> contains the southern part of the Ukrainian ethnic peninsula with <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CE%5CSeret.htm">Seret</a> and a string of mountain <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CI%5CVillages.htm">villages</a>, while Ukraine contains the Romanian ethnic wedge that extends to <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a>. Romanian Bukovyna has about 30,000 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> or 9 percent of the region's total population, while Ukrainian Bukovyna has almost 95,000 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanians.htm">Romanians</a> or 18 percent of the region's population. The present ethnic composition of the population has changed somewhat as a result of the German exodus and the extermination of most of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CJ%5CE%5CJews.htm">Jews</a> during the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CE%5CSecondWorldWar.htm">Second World War</a>.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand"><STRONG>History</STRONG></P> <P class="padingHistoryLand"><STRONG><I>To 1774.</I></STRONG> In early times Bukovyna was inhabited by the Thracian <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CR%5CTribes.htm">tribes</a> of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CE%5CGetae.htm">Getae</a> and Dacians. From the 3rd to the 9th century AD various nomads traversed Bukovyna: in the 4th century East <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CL%5CSlavictribes.htm">Slavic tribes</a> began to appear and the region was part of the Antean state (see <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CN%5CAntes.htm">Antes</a>); in the 9th century the Tivertsians and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CW%5CH%5CWhiteCroatians.htm">White Croatians</a> were the local inhabitants.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">In the 10th century Bukovyna became part of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CY%5CKyivanRushDA.htm">Kyivan Rus’</a> state. When this state was divided at the end of the 11th century, Bukovyna was eventually incorporated into the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CA%5CGalicia6VolhyniaPrincipalityof.htm">Principality of Galicia-Volhynia</a>. The church in Bukovyna was administered by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CY%5CKyivmetropoly.htm">Kyiv metropoly</a> until 1302, when it was transferred to <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CA%5CHalychmetropoly.htm">Halych metropoly</a>. With the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CA%5CTatar.htm">Tatar</a> invasion in 1241 Bukovyna fell under Tatar domination. At the beginning of the 14th century in northern Bukovyna an <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CU%5CAutonomous.htm">autonomous</a> territory called the Shypyntsi land arose. When the Hungarian king Louis I defeated the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CA%5CTatars.htm">Tatars</a> in 1342, southern Bukovyna came under Hungarian rule. During this period <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanians.htm">Romanians</a> from <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CR%5CTransylvania.htm">Transylvania</a> and the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CA%5CMaramureK1region.htm">Maramureş region</a> began to settle in Bukovyna. Voevode Bogdan I, the founder of the Moldavian state, freed Bukovyna from <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CU%5CHungary.htm">Hungary</a> (1359–65). From then to 1774 Bukovyna belonged to <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CO%5CMoldavia.htm">Moldavia</a> and shared its fate. From 1387 to 1497 Moldavia recognized the nominal supremacy of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPoland.htm">Poland</a>. In this period the people of Bukovyna took part in the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CU%5CMukharebellion.htm">Mukha rebellion</a> against the Polish and Moldavian <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CN%5CO%5CNobles.htm">nobles</a> (1490–2). From 1514 Moldavia recognized the supremacy of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CU%5CTurkey.htm">Turkey</a>, and towards the end of the century it became increasingly dominated by that country. The Romanianization of Moldavia, where the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> played an important role and literary Ukrainian was the official language, and of Bukovyna became more intense after 1564, when the capital of Moldavia was moved from <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CU%5CSuceava.htm">Suceava</a> in Bukovyna to <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CI%5CA%5CIaK1i.htm">Iaşi</a>. Yet Bukovyna maintained its ties with the rest of Ukraine. <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCossackregiments.htm">Cossack regiments</a> (under <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CI%5CPidkovaIvan.htm">Ivan Pidkova</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CN%5CA%5CNalyvaikoSeveryn.htm">Severyn Nalyvaiko</a>, and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CO%5CKonashevych6SahaidachnyPetro.htm">Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny</a>) fought on Moldavian territory against the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CU%5CTurks.htm">Turks</a>. Some of Bukovyna's population participated in <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CH%5CKhmelnytskyBohdan.htm">Bohdan Khmelnytsky</a>'s national rebellion. <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CH%5CKhmelnytskyTymish.htm">Tymish Khmelnytsky</a> died near Suceava in 1653 fighting a coalition of Poland, Transylvania, and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CW%5CA%5CWallachia.htm">Wallachia</a>.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">In the cultural sphere, Bukovyna benefitted from the achievements of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CL%5CV%5CLvivDormitionBrotherhood.htm">Lviv Dormition Brotherhood</a> and the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CY%5CKyivanMohylaAcademy.htm">Kyivan Mohyla Academy</a>. From 1401 to 1630 an independent metropoly (to which the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CE%5CP%5CEparchy.htm">eparchy</a> of Rădăuţi was subordinated) existed in Suceava. From 1630 to 1782 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CU%5CSuceava.htm">Suceava</a> metropoly came under the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CE%5CMetropolitan.htm">metropolitan</a> of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CI%5CA%5CIaK1i.htm">Iaşi</a>. From the 16th to the mid-19th century the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CO%5CP%5COpryshoks.htm">opryshoks</a> were active in the mountainous part of Bukovyna bordering on <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CA%5CGalicia.htm">Galicia</a>; among them was the famous <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CD%5CO%5CDovbushOleksa.htm">Oleksa Dovbush</a>. At the end of the Moldavian period Bukovyna was sparsely populated and was economically and culturally backward.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand"><STRONG><I>1774–1918.</I></STRONG> Taking advantage of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CU%5CRusso6TurkishWar.htm">Russo-Turkish War</a> of 1768–74, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CU%5CAustria.htm">Austria</a> annexed the part of northern <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CO%5CMoldavia.htm">Moldavia</a> that included <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CE%5CSeret.htm">Seret</a>, Rădăuţi, and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CU%5CSuceava.htm">Suceava</a>. <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CU%5CTurkey.htm">Turkey</a> and Moldavia had no choice but to accept this action. The new administrative entity was given the name of Bukovyna (first used in a document in 1412). The Austrian government brought in a series of reforms: in 1781 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CE%5CSerfdom.htm">serfdom</a> was abolished; in 1782 a separate Bukovynian <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CE%5CP%5CEparchy.htm">eparchy</a> was established and in 1783 subordinated to the Serbian <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CE%5CMetropolitan.htm">metropolitan</a> in Sremski Karlovci; in 1873 the eparchy was elevated to an independent metropoly with <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CA%5CHakmanYevhen.htm">Yevhen Hakman</a> as the first metropolitan; schools were then founded. <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CU%5CAustria.htm">Austria</a> opened new sources of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CI%5CM%5CImmigration.htm">immigration</a> into Bukovyna from the neighboring lands—<a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CR%5CTransylvania.htm">Transylvania</a>, Moldavia, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CA%5CGalicia.htm">Galicia</a>—as well as from the heartland of Austria and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CE%5CGermany.htm">Germany</a>. As a result, there was an influx of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CE%5CGermans.htm">Germans</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPoles.htm">Poles</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CJ%5CE%5CJews.htm">Jews</a>, Hungarians, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanians.htm">Romanians</a>, and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a>, and by the beginning of the 19th century the population of Bukovyna was three times that of 1775. German was the official language in Bukovyna, although Romanian and Ukrainian could be used in transactions with the government.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">At first <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CU%5CAustria.htm">Austria</a> held Bukovyna under military rule. From 1774 to 1786 it was governed by the generals G. Splényi and K. von Enzenberg. In 1787 it was attached as a separate region to <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CA%5CGalicia.htm">Galicia</a>, a status it retained until 1849. During this period, in 1842–5 and particularly in 1848–9, peasant revolts broke out in the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CU%5CHutsul.htm">Hutsul</a> area of Bukovyna. The <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CE%5CPeasants.htm">peasants</a> demanded social and political rights. <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCorvI8e.htm">Corvée</a> was abolished in 1848. Then elections to the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CA%5CParliament.htm">parliament</a> in <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CI%5CVienna.htm">Vienna</a> were held, and five <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> (among them <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CO%5CKobylytsiaLukian.htm">Lukian Kobylytsia</a>), two <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanians.htm">Romanians</a>, and one German were elected to represent Bukovyna. On 4 March 1849 Bukovyna became a <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CR%5CCrownland.htm">crown land</a> with an <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CU%5CAutonomous.htm">autonomous</a> administration and its own president. It attained full <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CU%5CAutonomy.htm">autonomy</a> in 1861, when it was granted a special statute, a <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CD%5CI%5CDietprovincial.htm">provincial diet</a> (its first <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CA%5CMarshal.htm">marshal</a> was <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CI%5CBishop.htm">Bishop</a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CA%5CHakmanYevhen.htm">Yevhen Hakman</a>), and its own executive.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">Writers such as <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CF%5CE%5CFedkovychYurii.htm">Yurii Fedkovych</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CO%5CVorobkevychSydir.htm">Sydir Vorobkevych</a>, and later <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CO%5CKobylianskaOlha.htm">Olha Kobylianska</a> were the heralds of the 19th-century Ukrainian renaissance in Bukovyna. The first Ukrainian association, known as <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CU%5CRuskaBesidainBukovyna.htm">Ruska Besida in Bukovyna</a>, was established in 1869. In 1870 the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CU%5CRuskaRadasociety.htm">Ruska Rada society</a> was founded, and in 1875 a <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CT%5CStudentorganization.htm">student organization</a> called <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CO%5CSoiuz.htm">Soiuz</a>, in which <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CU%5CRussophiles.htm">Russophiles</a> at first predominated. From 1884 the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPopulists.htm">populists</a> (see <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPopulismWesternUkrainian.htm">Populism, Western Ukrainian</a>) assumed the leadership in Ukrainian public life. They founded a number of new organizations and published the periodical <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovynaIT.htm"><I>Bukovyna</I></a> (1885–1918). Led by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CM%5CSmal6StotskyStepan.htm">Stepan Smal-Stotsky</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CI%5CPihuliakYerotei.htm">Yerotei Pihuliak</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPopovychOmelian.htm">Omelian Popovych</a>, and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CA%5CVasylkoMykola.htm">Mykola Vasylko</a>, the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> of Bukovyna made important gains in the political, civic, economic, cultural, and religious fields.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">Not until 1890 did <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> win representation at the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CD%5CI%5CDietprovincial.htm">provincial diet</a> and in the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CI%5CVienna.htm">Vienna</a> <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CA%5CParliament.htm">parliament</a>, where their representatives from Bukovyna and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CA%5CGalicia.htm">Galicia</a> formed the Ukrainian Club. After 1911 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> exerted greater influence in the administration of Bukovyna. By that year they had 16 representatives in the provincial diet. The vice-marshals of the diet were <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CM%5CSmal6StotskyStepan.htm">Stepan Smal-Stotsky</a> (from 1904) and Rev <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CD%5CR%5CDrachynskyTeofil.htm">Teofil Drachynsky</a> (from 1911). At the turn of the century the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPopulists.htm">populists</a> split into various parties: the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CN%5CA%5CNationalDemocraticparty.htm">National Democratic party</a> (led by Smal-Stotsky until 1911, then by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CA%5CVasylkoMykola.htm">Mykola Vasylko</a> and Drachynsky), the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianRadicalparty.htm">Ukrainian Radical party</a> (founded in 1906 and led by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CA%5CHalipTeodot.htm">Teodot Halip</a> and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPopovychIlko.htm">Ilko Popovych</a>), and the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianSocialDemocraticparty.htm">Ukrainian Social Democratic party</a> (led by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CE%5CBezpalkoYosyp.htm">Yosyp Bezpalko</a> and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CA%5CHavryshchukMykola.htm">Mykola Havryshchuk</a>).</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">Cultural-educational work was carried on by the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CU%5CRuskaBesidainBukovyna.htm">Ruska Besida in Bukovyna</a> society, which had nine branches in various towns, 150 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CE%5CReadingrooms.htm">reading rooms</a> in <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CI%5CVillages.htm">villages</a>, and a membership of 13,000; by the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainskaShkola.htm">Ukrainska Shkola</a> society, and by the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CI%5CSichsocieties.htm">Sich societies</a> (a sports and firefighting organization). In <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a> the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CE%5CPeoplesHome.htm">People's Home</a> network was responsible for cultural work. The <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CE%5CSelianskaKasa.htm">Selianska Kasa</a> union of agricultural associations headed a system of savings and loan <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCo6operatives.htm">co-operatives</a> of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CA%5CRaiffeisen.htm">Raiffeisen</a> type. Ukrainian schools were well organized in Bukovyna; there were 216 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CE%5CL%5CElementaryschools.htm">elementary schools</a> and 6 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CE%5CSecondaryschools.htm">secondary schools</a> (4 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CY%5CGymnasiums.htm">gymnasiums</a> and 2 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CE%5CTeachersseminaries.htm">teachers' seminaries</a>). At <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsiUniversity.htm">Chernivtsi University</a>, which was founded in 1875 with German as the language of instruction, there were three chairs besides the chair in <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianlanguage.htm">Ukrainian language</a> and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CL%5CI%5CLiterature.htm">literature</a> whose holder lectured in Ukrainian. Generally speaking, up to 1914 Bukovyna had the best Ukrainian schools and cultural-educational institutions of all the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CE%5CRegionsofUkraine.htm">regions of Ukraine</a>.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">In the religious field the Orthodox <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> of Bukovyna strove for equality with the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanians.htm">Romanians</a>. They achieved it in part on the eve of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CF%5CI%5CFirstWorldWar.htm">First World War</a>. The <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CConsistory.htm">consistory</a> was divided into two branches—Ukrainian and Romanian. A <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CI%5CBishop.htm">bishop</a> was appointed for the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> (<a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CY%5CTyminskyTaras.htm">Taras Tyminsky</a>); two Ukrainian chairs were established in the faculty of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CH%5CTheology.htm">theology</a>; and church publications appeared in Ukrainian. The <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CR%5CGreekCatholic.htm">Greek Catholic</a> deanery of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a> was subordinated to the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CL%5CV%5CLvivarcheparchy.htm">Lviv archeparchy</a> from 1811 and from 1885 to the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CT%5CStanyslaviveparchy.htm">Stanyslaviv eparchy</a>. The efforts of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> to divide Bukovyna into a Ukrainian- and a Romanian-governed section did not succeed. Ukrainian achievements were accompanied by friction with the Romanians, especially at the turn of the century. Rural overpopulation and difficult economic conditions forced many peasants to emigrate overseas (almost 50,000 left in 1891–1910) and led to peasant <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CT%5CStrikes.htm">strikes</a> in 1901–5 (see <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CE%5CPeasantstrikesinGaliciaandBukovyna.htm">Peasant strikes in Galicia and Bukovyna</a>).</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">During the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CF%5CI%5CFirstWorldWar.htm">First World War</a> Bukovyna was a war zone and therefore suffered great losses. In 1915 Ukrainian representatives from Bukovyna and from <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CA%5CGalicia.htm">Galicia</a> organized the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CE%5CGeneralUkrainianCouncil.htm">General Ukrainian Council</a> in <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CI%5CVienna.htm">Vienna</a> (with <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CV%5CA%5CVasylkoMykola.htm">Mykola Vasylko</a> as vice-president).</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand"><STRONG><I>1918–40.</I></STRONG> On 25 October 1918 the Ukrainian Regional Committee, with <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPopovychOmelian.htm">Omelian Popovych</a> as chairman, was established in <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a> to represent the Ukrainian National Council in Bukovyna. This committee organized a massive public rally in <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a> on 3 November to demand that Bukovyna be attached to Ukraine, and on 6 November it took power in the Ukrainian part of Bukovyna, including Chernivtsi. Romanian moderates, led by A. Onciul, accepted the division of Bukovyna into Ukrainian and Romanian sections, but Romanian conservatives under I. Flondor's leadership rejected this idea. On 11 November the Romanian army occupied <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a> and all Bukovyna in spite of resistance from the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a>. The General Congress of Bukovyna, which was hastily summoned by the Romanians, declared the unification of Bukovyna with <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomania.htm">Romania</a> on 28 November. The Treaty of Saint-Germain, signed on 10 September 1919, recognized Romania's right to the part of Bukovyna settled by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanians.htm">Romanians</a>. On 10 August 1920 the Treaty of Sèvres ceded all of Bukovyna to Romania. Official representatives of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CW%5CE%5CWesternUkrainianNationalRepublic.htm">Western Ukrainian National Republic</a>, the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianNationalRepublic.htm">Ukrainian National Republic</a>, and the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianSSR.htm">Ukrainian SSR</a> protested this action.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">The Romanian government canceled all the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CU%5CAutonomous.htm">autonomous</a> powers of Bukovyna and turned it into an ordinary Romanian province. The Ukrainian school system was dismantled; Ukrainian cultural and civic life was restricted; and the Ukrainian church was persecuted (Romanian was introduced into the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CL%5CI%5CLiturgy.htm">liturgy</a>). In 1918–28 and 1937–40 Bukovyna found itself in a state of siege. <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> were particularly oppressed when the Liberal party was in power, and they made few gains when the National Peasant party took office. In the 1920s the Ukrainian section of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CO%5CSocialDemocraticPartyofBukovyna.htm">Social Democratic Party of Bukovyna</a> (led by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CU%5CRusnakVasyl.htm">Vasyl Rusnak</a>) became active. The left wing of the party (under <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CA%5CKaniukSerhii.htm">Serhii Kaniuk</a>) became the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCommunistParty.htm">Communist Party</a> of Bukovyna. In time the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianNationalparty.htm">Ukrainian National party</a> (1928–38), under the leadership of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CZ%5CA%5CZalozetsky6SasVolodymyr.htm">Volodymyr Zalozetsky-Sas</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CD%5CU%5CDutchakVasyl.htm">Vasyl Dutchak</a>, and Yurii Serbyniuk, became the legal political representative of the Ukrainian population. Having reached an understanding with Romanian <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CA%5CPartiespolitical.htm">political parties</a>, the Ukrainian National party won several seats in the Romanian <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CA%5CParliament.htm">parliament</a>. When <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomania.htm">Romania</a> became an authoritarian state in 1938, the position of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> in Bukovyna grew even worse. In the 1930s an underground <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CN%5CA%5CNationalist.htm">nationalist</a> movement led by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CZ%5CY%5CZybachynskyOrest.htm">Orest Zybachynsky</a> and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CV%5CKvitkovskyDenys.htm">Denys Kvitkovsky</a> gained strength. To counteract it, the Romanian government staged two political trials in 1937.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">In spite of government persecution, Ukrainian organizations—such as the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CE%5CPeoplesHome.htm">People's Home</a> in <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm">Chernivtsi</a> (headed by O. Kupchanko); the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainskaShkola.htm">Ukrainska Shkola</a> educational society (led by A. Kyryliv and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CR%5CBryndzanTeofil.htm">Teofil Bryndzan</a>); the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CU%5CMusical.htm">musical</a> societies Bukovynskyi Kobzar (Chernivtsi 1920–40) and the Ukrainian Male Choir; the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CW%5CO%5CWomensHromadainBukovyna.htm">Women's Hromada in Bukovyna</a> (headed by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CU%5CHuzarOlha.htm">Olha Huzar</a>); the student societies <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CZ%5CA%5CZaporozhe.htm">Zaporozhe</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChornomore.htm">Chornomore</a>, and Zalizniak; and the Ukrainian Theater (headed by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CT%5CE%5CTerletskySydir.htm">Sydir Terletsky</a> and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CD%5CU%5CDutkaIvan.htm">Ivan Dutka</a>) - continued their cultural activities. The publication of the daily <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChasChernivtsiIT.htm"><I>Chas</I> (Chernivtsi)</a> by <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CO%5CKohutLev.htm">Lev Kohut</a>, several weeklies—<a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CH%5CKhliborobshDAkapravdaIT.htm"><I>Khliborobs’ka pravda</I></a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CI%5CRidnyikraiChernivtsiIT.htm"><I>Ridnyi krai</I> (Chernivtsi)</a>, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CA%5CRadaChernivtsiIT.htm"><I>Rada</I> (Chernivtsi)</a>, and <I>Samostiinist</I>’—and the journal <I>Samostiina dumka</I> was an important achievement.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">Under Romanian domination there were 155 Ukrainian Orthodox <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CA%5CParishes.htm">parishes</a> (out of a total of 310), 135 Ukrainian priests, and 330,000 church members in Bukovyna. The <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CR%5CGreekCatholicchurch.htm">Greek Catholic church</a> had 17 parishes and 17 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CR%5CPriests.htm">priests</a>. In 1923–30 it constituted the Bukovynian apostolic administration with its center in <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CE%5CSeret.htm">Seret</a>. Then it became a general vicariate subordinated to the Romanian diocese of Baia Mare.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand"><STRONG><I>1940–5.</I></STRONG> On 28 June 1940 the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanians.htm">Romanians</a> withdrew from the Ukrainian part of Bukovyna in response to an ultimatum from the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CS%5CUSSR.htm">USSR</a>, and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CO%5CSoviettroops.htm">Soviet troops</a> moved in. By decision of the Supreme <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CO%5CSoviet.htm">Soviet</a> of the USSR on 2 August, northern Bukovyna, together with northern <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CE%5CBessarabia.htm">Bessarabia</a> and a small part of old <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomania.htm">Romania</a> containing the town of <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CE%5CHertsa.htm">Hertsa</a>, became <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsioblast.htm">Chernivtsi oblast</a>. During the year-long Soviet occupation some radical changes took place in Bukovyna: private property was <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CN%5CA%5CNationalized.htm">nationalized</a>; farms were partly collectivized; and <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CE%5CD%5CEducation.htm">education</a> was Ukrainianized. At the same time all Ukrainian organizations were disbanded, and many publicly active <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> were either killed or exiled. A significant part of the Ukrainian <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CI%5CN%5CIntelligentsia.htm">intelligentsia</a> had <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CE%5CM%5CEmigrated.htm">emigrated</a> to <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomania.htm">Romania</a> or <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CE%5CGermany.htm">Germany</a> when the Soviet occupation began. When the German-Soviet war broke out and the Soviet troops retreated from Bukovyna, <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> tried to establish their own local government, but they could not withstand the advance of the Romanian army. In July 1941 almost 1,000 Bukovynians fled to <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CA%5CGalicia.htm">Galicia</a>, where they formed the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovynianBattalionof1941.htm">Bukovynian Battalion of 1941</a> under the leadership of Petro Voinovsky. This <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCompany.htm">company</a> joined the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CO%5CU%5COUNexpeditionarygroups.htm">OUN expeditionary groups</a> of the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CO%5CU%5COUNMelnykfaction.htm">OUN (Melnyk faction)</a> and reached <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CY%5CKyiv.htm">Kyiv</a>. In 1941–4 the Romanians set up a military dictatorship in Bukovyna (which was turned into a <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CG%5CE%5CGeneralgouvernement.htm">Generalgouvernement</a>), established <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CConcentrationcamps.htm">concentration camps</a>, put prominent <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainians.htm">Ukrainians</a> (<a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CU%5CHuzarOlha.htm">Olha Huzar</a>, M. Zybachynsky, and others) on trial, prohibited any kind of civic and cultural work, and introduced total Romanianization. At this time partisan groups sprang up in the mountains of Bukovyna forming the Bukovynian-Ukrainian Self-Defense Army. Under V. Luhovy's leadership these units fought the Romanians and, in 1944, the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CO%5CSoviets.htm">Soviets</a>.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">In March 1944 <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CO%5CSoviettroops.htm">Soviet troops</a> occupied northern Bukovyna for the second time. The <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CA%5CParis.htm">Paris</a> Peace Treaty of 1947 between the Allies and the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanians.htm">Romanians</a> (see <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CP%5CA%5CParisPeaceTreatiesof1947.htm">Paris Peace Treaties of 1947</a>) recognized the Soviet-Romanian border that had been established in 28 June 1940. The <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CS%5CO%5CSoviet.htm">Soviet</a> government created in Bukovyna the same conditions of life as in the <a href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainianSSR.htm">Ukrainian SSR</a>.</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">BIBLIOGRAPHY<BR>Kaindl, R.F. <I>Geschichte der Bukowina</I>, 3 vols (Chernivtsi 1896–1903)<BR>Smal’-Stots’kyi, S. <I>Bukovyns’ka Rus’</I> (Chernivtsi 1897)<BR><I>Die österreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild. Bukowina</I> (Vienna 1899)<BR>Korduba, M. <I>Iliustrovana istoriia Bukovyny</I> (Chernivtsi 1901)<BR>Nistor, I. <I>Românii şi Rutenii în Bucowina</I> (Bucharest 1915)<BR>Korduba, M. ‘Perevorot na Bukovyni,' <I>LNV</I>, 1923, nos 10-12<BR>Piddubnyi, H. <I>Bukovyna, ïï mynule i suchasne</I> (Kharkiv 1928)<BR>Popovych, O. <I>Vidrodzhennia Bukovyny</I> (Lviv 1933)<BR>Kvitkovs’kyi, D.; Bryndzan, T.; Zhukovs'kyi, A. (eds). <I>Bukovyna, ïï mynule i suchasne</I> (Paris-Philadelphia-Detroit 1956)<BR><I>Borot’ba trudiashchykh Bukovyny za sotsial’ne ta natsional’ne vyzvolennia i vozz’iednannia z Ukraïns’koiu RSR, 1917–1941: Dokumenty i materialy</I> (Chernivtsi 1958)<BR>Hubar, O.; Dikhtiar, S.; Romanets', O.; Chernets', L. <I>Literaturna Bukovyna</I> (Kyiv 1966)<BR>Hryhorenko, O. <I>Bukovyna vchora i s’ohodni</I> (Kyiv 1967)<BR><I>Radians’ka</I> <I>Bukovyna 1940–1945: Dokumenty i materialy</I> (Kyiv 1967)<BR>Demochko, K. <I>Mystets’ka</I> <I>Bukovyna</I> (Kyiv 1968)<BR>Tymoshchuk, B. <I>Pivnichna</I> <I>Bukovyna–zemlia slov’ians’ka</I> (Uzhhorod 1968)<BR>Kurylo, V.; Lishchenko, M.; Romanets', O.; Syrota, N.; Tymoshchuk, B. <I>Pivnichna</I> <I>Bukovyna, ïï mynule i suchasne</I> (Uzhhorod 1969)<BR>Nowosiwsky, I. <I>Bukovinian</I> <I>Ukrainians</I> (New York 1970)<BR><I>Mynule i suchasne Pivnichnoï Bukovyny</I>, 3 vols (Kyiv 1972–4)<BR>Karpenko, Iu. <I>Toponomiia Bukovyny</I> (Kyiv 1973)<BR>Shevchenko, F.; et al (eds). <I>Narysy z istoriï Pivnichnoï Bukovyny</I> (Kyiv 1980)<BR>Tymoshchuk, V. <I>Davnorus’ka</I> <I>Bukovyna (x-persha polovyna XIV st.)</I> (Kyiv 1981)<BR>Kukurudziak, M. <I>Robitnychyi rukh na Pivnichnii Bukovyni naprykintsi XIX-na pochatku XX stolittia</I> (Lviv 1982)<BR>Himka, J-P. <I>Galicia and Bukovina: A Research Handbook about Western Ukraine</I>. [Alberta] Historic Sites Service Occasional Report No 20 (Edmonton 1990)<BR>Zhukovs’kyi, A. <I>Istoriia Bukovyny</I> (Chernivtsi 1991)<BR>Turczynski, E. <I>Geschichte der Bukowina in der Neuzeit: Zur Sozial- und Kulturgeschichte einer mitteleuropäisch grepägten Landschaft</I> (Wiesbaden 1993)<BR>Kostyshyn, S. (ed). <I>Bukovyna: Istorychnyi narys</I> (Chernivtsi 1998)<BR>Dobrzhans’kyi, O. <I>Natsional’nyi ruk ukraïntsiv Bukovyny druhoï polovyny XIX–pochatku XX st.</I> (Chernivtsi 1999)<BR>Kozholianko, H. <I>Etnohrafiia Bukovyny</I>. Tom 1 (Chernivtsi 1999)<BR>Pavliuk, O. <I>Bukovyna: Vyznachni postati, 1774–1918: Biohrafichnyi dovidnyk</I> (Chernivtsi 2000)</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">Nykyforak, M. <I>Derzhavnyi lad i pravo na Bukovyni v 1774–1918 rr.</I> (Chernivtsi 2001)</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand">Skoreiko, H. <I>Naselennia Bukovyny za avstriis’kymy uriadovymy perepysamy druhoï polovyny XIX–pochatku XX st.: Istoryko-demohrafichnyi narys</I> (Chernivtsi 2002)</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand" style="TEXT-ALIGN: right">Volodymyr Kubijovyč, Arkadii Zhukovsky</P> <P class="padingHistoryLand" style="TEXT-ALIGN: right">[This article originally appeared in the <I>Encyclopedia of Ukraine</I>, vol. 1 (1984).]</P> <BR> <CENTER> <P class="padingHistoryLand"></P> </CENTER> </div> <div class="clear"></div>  <div class="bg9 marginbottom tc">    <div class="dr20 tc marginZero TotalWidth"> <A name="linksaddress"> </A> <BR> <HR class="marginZero"> <H2 class="tc mb b rozmiar50">List of related links from Encyclopedia of Ukraine pointing to <span class="FontDarkBlue b "> Bukovyna</span> entry: <BR> </H2> <Div> <label for="groovybtn1" class="visuallyhidden">1 Agricultural education</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn1" name="groovybtn1" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 1 Agricultural education " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CG%5CAgriculturaleducation.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn2" class="visuallyhidden">2 Agricultural organizations</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn2" name="groovybtn2" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 2 Agricultural organizations " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CG%5CAgriculturalorganizations.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn3" class="visuallyhidden">3 Agricultural periodicals</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn3" name="groovybtn3" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 3 Agricultural periodicals " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CG%5CAgriculturalperiodicals.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn4" class="visuallyhidden">4 Alberta</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn4" name="groovybtn4" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 4 Alberta " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CL%5CAlberta.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn5" class="visuallyhidden">5 American National Council of Uhro-Rusins</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn5" name="groovybtn5" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 5 American National Council of Uhro-Rusins " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CM%5CAmericanNationalCouncilofUhro6Rusins.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn6" class="visuallyhidden">6 Architecture</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn6" name="groovybtn6" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 6 Architecture " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CR%5CArchitecture.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn7" class="visuallyhidden">7 Argentina</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn7" name="groovybtn7" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 7 Argentina " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CR%5CArgentina.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn8" class="visuallyhidden">8 Artymovych, Ahenor</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn8" name="groovybtn8" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 8 Artymovych, Ahenor " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CR%5CArtymovychAhenor.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn9" class="visuallyhidden">9 Austria</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn9" name="groovybtn9" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 9 Austria " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CU%5CAustria.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn10" class="visuallyhidden">10 Austria-Hungary</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn10" name="groovybtn10" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 10 Austria-Hungary " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CU%5CAustria6Hungary.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn11" class="visuallyhidden">11 Autonomy</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn11" name="groovybtn11" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 11 Autonomy " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CA%5CU%5CAutonomy.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn12" class="visuallyhidden">12 Bachynska, Olha</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn12" name="groovybtn12" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 12 Bachynska, Olha " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CA%5CBachynskaOlha.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn13" class="visuallyhidden">13 Banat</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn13" name="groovybtn13" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 13 Banat " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CA%5CBanat.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn14" class="visuallyhidden">14 Barvinsky, Oleksander</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn14" name="groovybtn14" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 14 Barvinsky, Oleksander " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CA%5CBarvinskyOleksander.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn15" class="visuallyhidden">15 Bessarabia</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn15" name="groovybtn15" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 15 Bessarabia " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CE%5CBessarabia.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn16" class="visuallyhidden">16 Bezpalko, Yosyp</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn16" name="groovybtn16" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 16 Bezpalko, Yosyp " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CE%5CBezpalkoYosyp.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn17" class="visuallyhidden">17 Biliashivsky, Mykola</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn17" name="groovybtn17" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 17 Biliashivsky, Mykola " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CI%5CBiliashivskyMykola.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn18" class="visuallyhidden">18 Boian</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn18" name="groovybtn18" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 18 Boian " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CO%5CBoian.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn19" class="visuallyhidden">19 Book publishing</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn19" name="groovybtn19" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 19 Book publishing " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CO%5CBookpublishing.htm'"> <label for="groovybtn20" class="visuallyhidden">20 Botany</label> <INPUT id="groovybtn20" name="groovybtn20" class="groovybutton" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE=" 20 Botany " ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CO%5CBotany.htm'"> </Div> <BR> <P class="tc"> <form name="bbback" action="self"> <label for="groovybtnN" class="visuallyhidden">Next 20 records</label> <INPUT id="groovybtnN" name="groovybtnN" class="groovybutton marginTenPix" TYPE=BUTTON VALUE="+ 20 Records >>" ONCLICK="document.location.href='https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?page=2&ffpath=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm#linksaddress'"> </form> <p class="tc b">A referral to this page is found in 366 entries.</p> <BR> </DIV> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class=" bg8 tc marginZero FontWhite FontVerdana" aria-label="local"> <br> Click Home to get to the IEU Home page; to contact the IEU editors click Contact.<br> To learn more about IEU click About IEU and to view the list of donors and to become an IEU supporter click Donors.  <br>  <br> <ul class="marginZero" role="navigaton"> <li class="queryFontInline"><a class="buttonZ" href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com" title="IEU Home Web Page" target="_blank">Home</a></li> <li class="queryFontInline"><a class="buttonZ" href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/contact.asp" title="Contact IEU Staff" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="queryFontInline"><a class="buttonZ" href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/info.asp" title="Information about IEU" target="_blank">About IEU</a></li> <li class="queryFontInline"><a class="buttonZ" href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/donor.asp" title="Donors web page" target="_blank">Donors</a></li> <li class="queryFontInline"><a class="buttonZ" href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/donate.asp" title="Donors Web page">Donate to IEU</a></li> </ul>  <br> <span class="FontSizeSmall" > ©2001 All Rights Reserved. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. </span>  <br>  <br> </div> <script type="text/javascript">  </script> </body> </html>