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id="toc-Clustering_of_commodity_chemical_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clustering_of_commodity_chemical_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Clustering of commodity chemical plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clustering_of_commodity_chemical_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corrosion_and_use_of_new_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corrosion_and_use_of_new_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Corrosion and use of new materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corrosion_and_use_of_new_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemical plant</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">13 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A3%D8%A9_%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="منشأة كيميائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="منشأة كيميائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemiefabrik" title="Chemiefabrik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chemiefabrik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Planta química – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Planta química" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="کارخانه شیمیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کارخانه شیمیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="रासायनिक संयंत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रासायनिक संयंत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impianto_chimico" title="Impianto chimico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impianto chimico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Химийн үйлдвэр – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Химийн үйлдвэр" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjemisk_anlegg" title="Kjemisk anlegg – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjemisk anlegg" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Planta química – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Planta química" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabric%C4%83_chimic%C4%83" title="Fabrică chimică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fabrică chimică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimyasal_tesisi" title="Kimyasal tesisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kimyasal tesisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%B7%A5%E5%BB%A0" title="化工廠 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="化工廠" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E5%B7%A5%E5%BB%A0" title="化學工廠 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="化學工廠" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q905286#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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style="background:#ccccff;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Chemical_engineering" title="Category:Chemical engineering">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haber-Bosch-En.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Haber-Bosch-En.svg/150px-Haber-Bosch-En.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Haber-Bosch-En.svg/225px-Haber-Bosch-En.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Haber-Bosch-En.svg/300px-Haber-Bosch-En.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="154" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_chemical_engineering" title="Outline of chemical engineering">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering" title="History of chemical engineering">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_chemical_engineering_articles" title="Index of chemical engineering articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;padding:0.2em;"> Fundamentals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineer" title="Chemical engineer">Engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_process" title="Chemical process">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_operation" title="Unit operation">Unit operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_phenomena" title="Transport phenomena">Transport phenomena</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;padding:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Unit_process" title="Unit process">Unit processes</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemical plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reactor" title="Chemical reactor">Chemical reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation processes</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;padding:0.2em;"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_transfer" title="Mass transfer">Mass transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Process_design" title="Process design">Process design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_control_system" title="Industrial control system">Process control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Reaction engineering</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;padding:0.2em;"> Glossaries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of chemistry">Glossary of chemistry</a></li> <li>Glossary of engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#ddddff;"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Chemical_engineering" title="Category:Chemical engineering">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chemical_engineering" title="Template:Chemical engineering"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chemical_engineering" title="Template talk:Chemical engineering"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical_engineering" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical engineering"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>chemical plant</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Industrial_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial process">industrial process</a> <a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">plant</a> that manufactures (or otherwise processes) <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemicals</a>, usually on a large scale.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The general objective of a chemical plant is to create new material wealth via the chemical or biological transformation and or separation of materials.<sup id="cite_ref-Douglas_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Douglas-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemical plants use specialized equipment, units, and technology in the manufacturing process. Other kinds of plants, such as polymer, pharmaceutical, food, and some beverage production facilities, <a href="/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refineries</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">refineries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural gas processing">natural gas processing</a> and biochemical plants, <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a> treatment, and <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a> control equipment use many technologies that have similarities to chemical plant technology such as fluid systems and chemical reactor systems. Some would consider an <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refinery</a> or a pharmaceutical or <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> <a href="/wiki/Manufacturer" class="mw-redirect" title="Manufacturer">manufacturer</a> to be effectively a chemical plant. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">Petrochemical</a> plants (plants using chemicals from petroleum as a raw material or <i> feedstock</i>) are usually located adjacent to an <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refinery</a> to <a href="/wiki/Optimization_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimization (mathematics)">minimize</a> <a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">transportation</a> costs for the feedstocks produced by the refinery. <a href="/wiki/Speciality_chemicals" title="Speciality chemicals">Speciality chemical</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Fine_chemical" title="Fine chemical">fine chemical</a> plants are usually much smaller and not as sensitive to location. Tools have been developed for converting a base project cost from one geographic location to another.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_processes">Chemical processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Chemical processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kemira_factory_in_Oulu_Jun2011_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Kemira_factory_in_Oulu_Jun2011_001.jpg/220px-Kemira_factory_in_Oulu_Jun2011_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Kemira_factory_in_Oulu_Jun2011_001.jpg/330px-Kemira_factory_in_Oulu_Jun2011_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Kemira_factory_in_Oulu_Jun2011_001.jpg/440px-Kemira_factory_in_Oulu_Jun2011_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kemira" title="Kemira">Kemira</a>'s chemical plant in <a href="/wiki/Oulu" title="Oulu">Oulu</a>, Finland</figcaption></figure> <p>Chemical plants use <a href="/wiki/Chemical_process" title="Chemical process">chemical processes</a>, which are detailed industrial-scale methods, to transform feedstock chemicals into products. The same chemical process can be used at more than one chemical plant, with possibly differently scaled capacities at each plant. Also, a chemical plant at a site may be constructed to utilize more than one chemical process, for instance to produce multiple products. </p><p>A chemical plant commonly has usually large vessels or sections called <b>units</b> or <b>lines</b> that are interconnected by <a href="/wiki/Piping" title="Piping">piping</a> or other material-moving equipment which can carry <b>streams</b> of material. Such material streams can include <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluids</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> or <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a> carried in piping) or sometimes <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solids</a> or mixtures such as <a href="/wiki/Slurry" title="Slurry">slurries</a>. An overall chemical process is commonly made up of steps called <a href="/wiki/Unit_operation" title="Unit operation">unit operations</a> which occur in the individual units. A raw material going into a chemical process or plant as input to be converted into a product is commonly called a <b>feedstock</b>, or simply <b>feed</b>. In addition to feedstocks for the plant, as a whole, an input stream of material to be processed in a particular unit can similarly be considered feed for that unit. Output streams from the plant as a whole are final products and sometimes output streams from individual units may be considered intermediate products for their units. However, final products from one plant may be intermediate chemicals used as feedstock in another plant for further processing. For example, some products from an oil refinery may be used as feedstock in petrochemical plants, which may in turn produce feedstocks for pharmaceutical plants. </p><p>Either the feedstock(s), the product(s), or both may be individual <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a> or mixtures. It is often not worthwhile separating the components in these mixtures completely; specific levels of purity depend on product requirements and process economics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operations">Operations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chemical processes may be run in <a href="/wiki/Continuous_production" title="Continuous production">continuous</a> or <a href="/wiki/Batch_production" title="Batch production">batch</a> operation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Batch_operation">Batch operation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Batch operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <b>batch</b> operation, production occurs in time-sequential steps in discrete batches. A batch of feedstock(s) is fed (or <b>charged</b>) into a process or unit, then the chemical process takes place, then the product(s) and any other outputs are removed. Such batch production may be repeated over again and again with new batches of feedstock. Batch operation is commonly used in smaller scale plants such as pharmaceutical or specialty chemicals production, for purposes of improved traceability as well as flexibility. Continuous plants are usually used to manufacture <a href="/wiki/Commodity_chemicals" title="Commodity chemicals">commodity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Petrochemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemicals">petrochemicals</a> while batch plants are more common in <a href="/wiki/Speciality_chemicals" title="Speciality chemicals">speciality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fine_chemical" title="Fine chemical">fine chemical</a> production as well as <a href="/wiki/Active_ingredient" title="Active ingredient">active pharmaceutical ingredient</a> (API) manufacture. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Continuous_operation">Continuous operation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Continuous operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <b>continuous</b> operation, all steps are ongoing continuously in time.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During usual continuous operation, the feeding and product removal are ongoing streams of moving material, which together with the process itself, all take place simultaneously and continuously. Chemical plants or units in continuous operation are usually in a <a href="/wiki/Steady_state" title="Steady state">steady state</a> or approximate steady state. Steady state means that quantities related to the process do not change as time passes during operation. Such constant quantities include stream <a href="/wiki/Flow_measurement" title="Flow measurement">flow rates</a>, heating or cooling rates, <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperatures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressures</a>, and chemical compositions at any given point (location). Continuous operation is more efficient in many large-scale operations like petroleum refineries. It is possible for some units to operate continuously and others be in batch operation in a chemical plant; for example, see <a href="/wiki/Continuous_distillation" title="Continuous distillation">Continuous distillation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Batch_distillation" title="Batch distillation">Batch distillation</a>. The amount of primary feedstock or product per unit of time which a plant or unit can process is referred to as the <b>capacity</b> of that plant or unit. For examples: the capacity of an oil refinery may be given in terms of <a href="/wiki/Barrel_(unit)" title="Barrel (unit)">barrels</a> of <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">crude oil</a> refined per day; alternatively chemical plant capacity may be given in <a href="/wiki/Ton" title="Ton">tons</a> of product produced per day. In actual daily operation, a plant (or unit) will operate at a percentage of its full capacity. Engineers typically assume 90% operating time for plants which work primarily with fluids, and 80% uptime for plants which primarily work with solids. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Units_and_fluid_systems">Units and fluid systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Units and fluid systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Specific <a href="/wiki/Unit_operation" title="Unit operation">unit operations</a> are conducted in specific kinds of units. Although some units may operate at ambient temperature or pressure, many units operate at higher or lower temperatures or pressures. Vessels in chemical plants are often <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cylinder (geometry)">cylindrical</a> with rounded ends, a shape which can be suited to hold either high pressure or <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reactions</a> can convert certain kinds of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a> into other compounds in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reactor" title="Chemical reactor">chemical reactors</a>. Chemical reactors may be <a href="/wiki/Packed_bed" title="Packed bed">packed beds</a> and may have solid heterogeneous <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalysts</a> which stay in the reactors as fluids move through, or may simply be stirred vessels in which reactions occur. Since the surface of solid heterogeneous catalysts may sometimes become "poisoned" from deposits such as <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a>, regeneration of catalysts may be necessary. <a href="/wiki/Fluidized_bed" title="Fluidized bed">Fluidized beds</a> may also be used in some cases to ensure good mixing. There can also be units (or subunits) for <a href="/wiki/Mixing_(process_engineering)" title="Mixing (process engineering)">mixing</a> (including dissolving), <a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">separation</a>, heating, cooling, or some combination of these. For example, chemical reactors often have stirring for mixing and heating or cooling to maintain temperature. When designing plants on a large scale, <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of reaction">heat produced or absorbed by chemical reactions</a> must be considered. Some plants may have units with organism cultures for biochemical processes such as <a href="/wiki/Industrial_fermentation" title="Industrial fermentation">fermentation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> production. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonne_distillazione.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Colonne_distillazione.jpg/200px-Colonne_distillazione.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Colonne_distillazione.jpg/300px-Colonne_distillazione.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Colonne_distillazione.jpg/400px-Colonne_distillazione.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1609" data-file-height="2120" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">Distillation</a> unit in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Separation_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Separation processes">Separation processes</a> include <a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">filtration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Settling" title="Settling">settling</a> (sedimentation), <a href="/wiki/Liquid-liquid_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid-liquid extraction">extraction</a> or leaching, <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(chemistry)" title="Recrystallization (chemistry)">recrystallization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitation</a> (followed by filtration or settling), <a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis" title="Reverse osmosis">reverse osmosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drying" title="Drying">drying</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a>. <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">Heat exchangers</a> are often used for heating or cooling, including <a href="/wiki/Boiling" title="Boiling">boiling</a> or <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a>, often in conjunction with other units such as distillation towers. There may also be storage <a href="/wiki/Chemical_tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical tank">tanks</a> for storing feedstock, intermediate or final products, or waste. Storage tanks commonly have level indicators to show how full they are. There may be structures holding or supporting sometimes massive units and their associated equipment. There are often stairs, ladders, or other steps for personnel to reach points in the units for sampling, inspection, or maintenance. An area of a plant or facility with numerous storage tanks is sometimes called a <i><a href="/wiki/Oil_depot" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil depot">tank farm</a></i>, especially at an <a href="/wiki/Oil_depot" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil depot">oil depot</a>. </p><p>Fluid systems for carrying liquids and gases include piping and tubing of various diameter sizes, various types of <a href="/wiki/Valve" title="Valve">valves</a> for controlling or stopping flow, <a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">pumps</a> for moving or pressurizing liquid, and <a href="/wiki/Compressors" class="mw-redirect" title="Compressors">compressors</a> for pressurizing or moving gases. Vessels, piping, tubing, and sometimes other equipment at high or very low temperatures are commonly covered with <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">insulation</a> for personnel safety and to maintain temperature inside. Fluid systems and units commonly have <a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">instrumentation</a> such as temperature and pressure sensors and <a href="/wiki/Flow_measurement" title="Flow measurement">flow measuring</a> devices at select locations in a plant. Online <a href="/wiki/Analyzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Analyzer">analyzers</a> for chemical or physical property analysis have become more common. <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">Solvents</a> can sometimes be used to dissolve <a href="/wiki/Reactant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactant">reactants</a> or materials such as solids for extraction or leaching, to provide a suitable medium for certain chemical reactions to run, or so they can otherwise be treated as fluids. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_plant_design">Chemical plant design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Chemical plant design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RefineryFlow.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/RefineryFlow.svg/250px-RefineryFlow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/RefineryFlow.svg/375px-RefineryFlow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/RefineryFlow.svg/500px-RefineryFlow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1170" data-file-height="1420" /></a><figcaption>Flow diagram for a typical <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refinery</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Today, the fundamental aspects of <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">designing</a> chemical plants are done by <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineer" title="Chemical engineer">chemical engineers</a>. Historically, this was not always the case, and many chemical plants were constructed haphazardly before the discipline of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a> became established. Chemical engineering was first established as a profession in the United Kingdom when the first chemical engineering course was given at the University of Manchester in 1887 by <a href="/wiki/George_E._Davis" title="George E. Davis">George E. Davis</a> in the form of twelve lectures covering various aspects of industrial chemical practice.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a consequence <a href="/wiki/George_E._Davis" title="George E. Davis">George E. Davis</a> is regarded as the world's first chemical engineer. Today chemical engineering is a profession and those professional chemical engineers with experience can gain "Chartered" engineer status through the <a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Chemical_Engineers" title="Institution of Chemical Engineers">Institution of Chemical Engineers</a>. </p><p>In plant design, typically less than 1 percent of ideas for new designs ever become commercialized. During this solution process, typically, cost studies are used as an initial screening to eliminate unprofitable designs. If a process appears profitable, then other factors are considered, such as safety, environmental constraints, controllability, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Douglas_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Douglas-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The general goal in plant design, is to construct or synthesize “optimum designs” in the neighborhood of the desired constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many times <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemists</a> research chemical reactions or other chemical principles in a <a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">laboratory</a>, commonly on a small scale in a "batch-type" experiment. Chemistry information obtained is then used by chemical engineers, along with expertise of their own, to convert to a chemical process and scale up the batch size or capacity. Commonly, a small chemical plant called a <a href="/wiki/Pilot_plant" title="Pilot plant">pilot plant</a> is built to provide design and operating information before construction of a large plant. From data and operating experience obtained from the pilot plant, a scaled-up plant can be designed for higher or full capacity. After the fundamental aspects of a plant design are determined, <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical engineer">mechanical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical engineer">electrical engineers</a> may become involved with mechanical or electrical details, respectively. <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineer" title="Structural engineer">Structural engineers</a> may become involved in the plant design to ensure the structures can support the <a href="/wiki/Weight" title="Weight">weight</a> of the units, piping, and other equipment. </p><p>The units, streams, and fluid systems of chemical plants or processes can be represented by <a href="/wiki/Block_diagram" title="Block diagram">block flow diagrams</a> which are very simplified diagrams, or <a href="/wiki/Process_flow_diagram" title="Process flow diagram">process flow diagrams</a> which are somewhat more detailed. The streams and other piping are shown as lines with arrow heads showing usual direction of material flow. In block diagrams, units are often simply shown as blocks. Process flow diagrams may use more detailed symbols and show pumps, compressors, and major valves. Likely values or ranges of material flow rates for the various streams are determined based on desired plant capacity using material balance calculations. Energy balances are also done based on <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of reaction">heats of reaction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">heat capacities</a>, expected temperatures, and pressures at various points to calculate amounts of heating and cooling needed in various places and to size heat exchangers. Chemical plant design can be shown in fuller detail in a <a href="/wiki/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram" title="Piping and instrumentation diagram">piping and instrumentation diagram</a> (P&ID) which shows all piping, tubing, valves, and instrumentation, typically with special symbols. Showing a full plant is often complicated in a P&ID, so often only individual units or specific fluid systems are shown in a single P&ID. </p><p>In the plant design, the units are sized for the maximum capacity each may have to handle. Similarly, sizes for pipes, pumps, compressors, and associated equipment are chosen for the flow capacity they have to handle. Utility systems such as <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> supply should also be included in the plant design. Additional piping lines for non-routine or alternate operating procedures, such as plant or unit startups and shutdowns, may have to be included. Fluid systems design commonly includes isolation valves around various units or parts of a plant so that a section of a plant could be isolated in case of a problem such as a <a href="/wiki/Leak" title="Leak">leak</a> in a unit. If pneumatically or hydraulically actuated valves are used, a system of pressurizing lines to the actuators is needed. Any points where process samples may have to be taken should have sampling lines, valves, and access to them included in the detailed design. If necessary, provisions should be made for reducing high pressure or temperature of a sampling stream, such including a <a href="/wiki/Pressure_reducing_valve" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure reducing valve">pressure reducing valve</a> or sample cooler. </p><p>Units and fluid systems in the plant including all vessels, piping, tubing, valves, pumps, compressors, and other equipment must be rated or designed to be able to withstand the entire range of pressures, temperatures, and other conditions which they could possibly encounter, including any appropriate <a href="/wiki/Safety_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety factor">safety factors</a>. All such units and equipment should also be checked for <a href="/wiki/Compatibility_(chemical)" title="Compatibility (chemical)">materials compatibility</a> to ensure they can withstand long-term exposure to the chemicals they will come in contact with. Any closed system in a plant which has a means of pressurizing possibly beyond the rating of its equipment, such as heating, exothermic reactions, or certain pumps or compressors, should have an appropriately sized pressure <a href="/wiki/Relief_valve" title="Relief valve">relief valve</a> included to prevent overpressurization for safety. Frequently all of these parameters (temperatures, pressures, flow, etc.) are exhaustively analyzed in combination through a <i><a href="/wiki/Hazop" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazop">Hazop</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Fault_tree_analysis#Fault_tree_analysis" title="Fault tree analysis">fault tree analysis</a></i>, to ensure that the plant has no known risk of serious hazard. </p><p>Within any constraints the plant is subject to, design parameters are <a href="/wiki/Process_optimization" title="Process optimization">optimized</a> for good economic performance while ensuring the safety and welfare of personnel and the surrounding community. For flexibility, a plant may be designed to operate in a range around some optimal design parameters in case feedstock or economic conditions change and re-optimization is desirable. In more modern times, <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">computer simulations</a> or other computer calculations have been used to help in chemical plant design or optimization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant_operation">Plant operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Plant operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Process_control">Process control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Process control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">process control</a>, information gathered automatically from various sensors or other devices in the plant is used to control various equipment for running the plant, thereby controlling operation of the plant. Instruments receiving such information signals and sending out control signals to perform this function automatically are process <i><a href="/wiki/Controller_(control_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Controller (control theory)">controllers</a></i>. Previously, <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumatic">pneumatic</a> controls were sometimes used. <a href="/wiki/Electrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical">Electrical</a> controls are now common. A plant often has a <a href="/wiki/Control_room" title="Control room">control room</a> with displays of parameters such as key temperatures, pressures, fluid flow rates and levels, operating positions of key valves, pumps, and other equipment, etc. In addition, operators in the control room can control various aspects of the plant operation, often including overriding automatic control. Process control with a computer represents more modern technology. Based on possible changing feedstock composition, changing products requirements or economics, or other changes in constraints, operating conditions may be re-optimized to maximize profit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Workers">Workers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Workers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As in any industrial setting, there are a variety of workers working throughout a chemical plant facility, often organized into departments, sections, or other work groups. Such workers typically include <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_operator" title="Plant operator">plant operators</a>, and maintenance technicians. Other personnel at the site could include chemists, management/administration, and office workers. Types of engineers involved in operations or maintenance may include chemical process engineers, mechanical engineers for maintaining mechanical equipment, and electrical/computer engineers for electrical or <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> equipment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Transport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Large quantities of fluid feedstock or product may enter or leave a plant by <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipeline</a>, railroad <a href="/wiki/Tank_car" title="Tank car">tank car</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tanker_truck" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanker truck">tanker truck</a>. For example, petroleum commonly comes to a refinery by pipeline. Pipelines can also carry petrochemical feedstock from a refinery to a nearby petrochemical plant. <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a> is a product which comes all the way from a natural gas processing plant to final consumers by pipeline or tubing. Large quantities of liquid feedstock are typically pumped into process units. Smaller quantities of feedstock or product may be shipped to or from a plant in <a href="/wiki/Drum_(container)" title="Drum (container)">drums</a>. Use of drums about 55 gallons in capacity is common for <a href="/wiki/Packaging" title="Packaging">packaging</a> industrial quantities of chemicals. Smaller batches of feedstock may be added from drums or other containers to process units by workers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maintenance">Maintenance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Maintenance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to feeding and operating the plant, and packaging or preparing the product for shipping, plant workers are needed for taking samples for routine and troubleshooting analysis and for performing routine and non-routine maintenance. <a href="/wiki/Planned_maintenance" class="mw-redirect" title="Planned maintenance">Routine maintenance</a> can include periodic inspections and replacement of worn catalyst, analyzer reagents, various sensors, or mechanical parts. Non-routine maintenance can include investigating problems and then fixing them, such as leaks, failure to meet feed or product specifications, mechanical failures of valves, pumps, compressors, sensors, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statutory_and_regulatory_compliance">Statutory and regulatory compliance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Statutory and regulatory compliance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When working with chemicals, <a href="/wiki/Safety" title="Safety">safety</a> is a concern in order to avoid problems such as <a href="/wiki/Chemical_accident" title="Chemical accident">chemical accidents</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the law requires that employers provide workers working with chemicals with access to a <a href="/wiki/Material_safety_data_sheet" class="mw-redirect" title="Material safety data sheet">material safety data sheet</a> (MSDS) for every kind of chemical they work with. An MSDS for a certain chemical is prepared and provided by the supplier to whoever buys the chemical. Other laws covering chemical safety, hazardous waste, and pollution must be observed, including statutes such as the <a href="/wiki/Resource_Conservation_and_Recovery_Act" title="Resource Conservation and Recovery Act">Resource Conservation and Recovery Act</a> (RCRA) and the <a href="/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic Substances Control Act">Toxic Substances Control Act</a> (TSCA), and regulations such as the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Facility_Anti-Terrorism_Standards" title="Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards">Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards</a> in the United States. <a href="/wiki/Dangerous_goods" title="Dangerous goods">Hazmat</a> (hazardous materials) teams are trained to deal with chemical leaks or spills. <a href="/wiki/Process_Hazard_Analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Process Hazard Analysis">Process Hazard Analysis</a> (PHA) is used to assess potential <a href="/wiki/Hazard" title="Hazard">hazards</a> in chemical plants. In 1998, the <a href="/wiki/U._S._Chemical_Safety_and_Hazard_Investigation_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="U. S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board">U. S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board</a> has become operational. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clustering_of_commodity_chemical_plants">Clustering of commodity chemical plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Clustering of commodity chemical plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chemical Plants used particularly for <a href="/wiki/Commodity_chemicals" title="Commodity chemicals">commodity chemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a> manufacture, are located in relatively few manufacturing locations around the world largely due to infrastructural needs. This is less important for <a href="/wiki/Speciality_chemicals" title="Speciality chemicals">speciality</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fine_chemical" title="Fine chemical">fine chemical</a> batch plants. Not all commodity/petrochemicals are produced in any one location but groups of related materials often are, to induce industrial symbiosis as well as material, energy and utility efficiency and other <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>. These manufacturing locations often have <a href="/wiki/Business_cluster" title="Business cluster">business clusters</a> of units called chemical plants that share utilities and large scale infrastructure such as power stations, port facilities, road and rail terminals. In the United Kingdom for example there are four main locations for commodity chemical manufacture: near the <a href="/wiki/River_Mersey" title="River Mersey">River Mersey</a> in Northwest England, on the Humber on the East coast of Yorkshire, in Grangemouth near the Firth of Forth in Scotland and on <a href="/wiki/Teesside" title="Teesside">Teesside</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_of_England_Process_Industry_Cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster">Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster</a> (NEPIC).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 50% of the UK's petrochemicals, which are also commodity chemicals, are produced by the industry cluster companies on <a href="/wiki/Teesside" title="Teesside">Teesside</a> at the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/River_Tees" title="River Tees">River Tees</a> on three large chemical parks at <a href="/wiki/Wilton,_Redcar_and_Cleveland" title="Wilton, Redcar and Cleveland">Wilton</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Billingham" title="Billingham">Billingham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seal_Sands" title="Seal Sands">Seal Sands</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Corrosion_and_use_of_new_materials">Corrosion and use of new materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Corrosion and use of new materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">Corrosion</a> in chemical process plants is a major issue that consumes billions of dollars yearly. Electrochemical corrosion of metals is pronounced in chemical process plants due to the presence of acid fumes and other electrolytic interactions. Recently, FRP (<a href="/wiki/Fibre-reinforced_plastic" title="Fibre-reinforced plastic">Fibre-reinforced plastic</a>) is used as a material of construction. The British standard specification <a href="/wiki/BS4994" class="mw-redirect" title="BS4994">BS4994</a> is widely used for design and construction of the vessels, tanks, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">Chemical industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_process_modeling" title="Chemical process modeling">Chemical process modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FRP_tanks_and_vessels" class="mw-redirect" title="FRP tanks and vessels">FRP tanks and vessels</a> - chemical process plant equipment made of FRP</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BS4994" class="mw-redirect" title="BS4994">BS4994</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_equipment_in_hazardous_areas" title="Electrical equipment in hazardous areas">Electrical equipment in hazardous areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_in_petrochemical_industries" title="Instrumentation in petrochemical industries">Instrumentation in petrochemical industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_accident" title="Chemical accident">Chemical accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_plant_cost_indexes" title="Chemical plant cost indexes">Chemical plant cost indexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine_chemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Fine chemicals">Fine chemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciality_chemicals" title="Speciality chemicals">Speciality chemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">Petrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_of_England_Process_Industry_Cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster">Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Chemical_Engineers" title="Institution of Chemical Engineers">Institution of Chemical Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-graph" title="S-graph">S-graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Unit operations">Unit operations</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEllison-Taylor1970" class="citation book cs1">Ellison-Taylor; et al. (1970). <i>Chemical Plant Technology: An Introductory Manual</i>. Longmans.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+Plant+Technology%3A+An+Introductory+Manual&rft.pub=Longmans&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Ellison-Taylor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Douglas-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Douglas_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Douglas_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas1988" class="citation book cs1">Douglas, James M. (1988). <i>Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes</i>. McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-017762-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-017762-8"><bdi>978-0-07-017762-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conceptual+Design+of+Chemical+Processes&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-07-017762-8&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStork2004" class="citation news cs1">Stork, William (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/supplements/chemchronicles2/pdf/035.pdf">"Speciality Chemicals"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Chemical & Engineering News supplement 82. pp. 35–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Speciality+Chemicals&rft.pages=35-39&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Stork&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fsupplements%2Fchemchronicles2%2Fpdf%2F035.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://base.intratec.us/home/location-factor">Plant Construction Location Factor - Intratec Knowledge Base</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140306053819/http://base.intratec.us/home/location-factor">Archived</a> 6 March 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNetSuite.com2023" class="citation web cs1">NetSuite.com (29 June 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.netsuite.com/portal/resource/articles/accounting/continuous-operations.shtml">"Continuous Operations Explained"</a>. <i>Oracle NetSuite</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oracle+NetSuite&rft.atitle=Continuous+Operations+Explained&rft.date=2023-06-29&rft.au=NetSuite.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.netsuite.com%2Fportal%2Fresource%2Farticles%2Faccounting%2Fcontinuous-operations.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelgass" class="citation web cs1">Delgass; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://engineering.purdue.edu/ChE/AboutUs/history.html">"Seventy Five Years of Chemical Engineering"</a>. Purdue University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Seventy+Five+Years+of+Chemical+Engineering&rft.pub=Purdue+University&rft.au=Delgass&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fengineering.purdue.edu%2FChE%2FAboutUs%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCussler,_Moggridge_and_Moggridge2001" class="citation book cs1">Cussler, Moggridge and Moggridge (2001). <i>Chemical product design</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+product+design&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Cussler%2C+Moggridge+and+Moggridge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUK_Trade&Investment" class="citation web cs1">UK Trade&Investment. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029190310/http://www.cia.org.uk/Portals/0/downloads_pdf_1_Chemicals-Brochure-FINAL-JAN-09.pdf">"Chemicals–the UK advantage"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. pp. 9–10. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cia.org.uk/Portals/0/downloads_pdf_1_Chemicals-Brochure-FINAL-JAN-09.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 29 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chemicals%E2%80%93the+UK+advantage&rft.pages=9-10&rft.au=UK+Trade%26Investment&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.org.uk%2FPortals%2F0%2Fdownloads_pdf_1_Chemicals-Brochure-FINAL-JAN-09.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurworth1999" class="citation book cs1">Hurworth, Colin (1999). <i>Wilton the First Fifty Years</i>. Falcon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1872339016" title="Special:BookSources/978-1872339016"><bdi>978-1872339016</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wilton+the+First+Fifty+Years&rft.pub=Falcon+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1872339016&rft.aulast=Hurworth&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_plant&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cstools.asme.org/csconnect/CommitteePages.cfm?Committee=C34000000">ASME B73 Standards Committee, Chemical Standard Pumps</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelmus2008" class="citation book cs1">Helmus, Frank P. (2008). <i>Process plant design : project management from inquiry to acceptance</i>. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3527313136" title="Special:BookSources/978-3527313136"><bdi>978-3527313136</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Process+plant+design+%3A+project+management+from+inquiry+to+acceptance&rft.place=Weinheim&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3527313136&rft.aulast=Helmus&rft.aufirst=Frank+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKletz2010" class="citation book cs1">Kletz, Trevor (2010). <i>Process plants : a handbook for inherently safer design</i> (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1439804551" title="Special:BookSources/978-1439804551"><bdi>978-1439804551</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Process+plants+%3A+a+handbook+for+inherently+safer+design.&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=CRC+Press%2FTaylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1439804551&rft.aulast=Kletz&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTowlerRay_Sinnott2013" class="citation book cs1">Towler, Gavin; Ray Sinnott (2013). <i>Chemical engineering design: principles, practice and economics of plant and process design</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080966595" title="Special:BookSources/9780080966595"><bdi>9780080966595</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+engineering+design%3A+principles%2C+practice+and+economics+of+plant+and+process+design&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780080966595&rft.aulast=Towler&rft.aufirst=Gavin&rft.au=Ray+Sinnott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogel2005" class="citation book cs1">Vogel, G. Herbert (2005). <i>Process development : from the initial idea to the chemical production plant</i> (1st ed., repr. ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3527310890" title="Special:BookSources/978-3527310890"><bdi>978-3527310890</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Process+development+%3A+from+the+initial+idea+to+the+chemical+production+plant&rft.place=Weinheim&rft.edition=1st+ed.%2C+repr.&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3527310890&rft.aulast=Vogel&rft.aufirst=G.+Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMax_Stone_PetersKlaus_Dieter_TimmerhausRonald_Emmett_West2003" class="citation book cs1">Max Stone Peters; Klaus Dieter Timmerhaus; Ronald Emmett West (2003). <i>Plant design and economics for chemical engineers</i> (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0072392661" title="Special:BookSources/978-0072392661"><bdi>978-0072392661</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+design+and+economics+for+chemical+engineers&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0072392661&rft.au=Max+Stone+Peters&rft.au=Klaus+Dieter+Timmerhaus&rft.au=Ronald+Emmett+West&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170517075328/http://sanwariyafebchem.com/">Chemical Plant</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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