Election | History, Polls, Results, Date, & Facts

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border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/election-political-science">election</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/topic/election-political-science">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref229014"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science#ref229014">History of elections</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref36677"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Functions-of-elections">Functions of elections</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref229015"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Functions-of-elections#ref229015">Types of elections</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Functions-of-elections#ref229016">Elections of officeholders</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Functions-of-elections#ref229017">Recall elections</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Functions-of-elections#ref229018">Referendum and initiative</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Functions-of-elections#ref229019">Plebiscite</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref36678"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Functions-of-elections#ref36678">Systems of vote counting</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Functions-of-elections#ref229020">Legislative elections</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Plurality-and-majority-systems">Plurality and majority systems</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229024" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Plurality-and-majority-systems#ref229024">Proportional representation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229025"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Plurality-and-majority-systems#ref229025">Single transferable vote</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229026"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Plurality-and-majority-systems#ref229026">Party-list proportional representation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229027"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Plurality-and-majority-systems#ref229027">Hybrid systems</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Executive-elections">Executive elections</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229028"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Executive-elections#ref229028">Parliamentary systems</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229029"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Executive-elections#ref229029">Presidential and semipresidential systems</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref36686"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Executive-elections#ref36686">Constituencies: districting and apportionment</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref36687"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Voting-practices">Voting practices</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36688"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Voting-practices#ref36688">Secret voting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36689"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Voting-practices#ref36689">Balloting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Voting-practices#ref229022">Compulsory voting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref36691"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Voting-practices#ref36691">Electoral abuses</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref36692"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Participation-in-elections">Participation in elections</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref36693"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/election-political-science/Participation-in-elections#ref36693">Influences on voting behavior</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/election-political-science/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/election-political-science">Quick Facts & Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 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Author of <em>The Politics of Representation </em>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Heinz Eulau</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/election-political-science/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-27T00:00:00CST" >Nov 27, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/election-political-science/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Getulio-Vargas" topicid="623309">Getúlio Vargas</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Roh-Tae-Woo" topicid="506868">Roh Tae-Woo</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Theobald-von-Bethmann-Hollweg" topicid="63463">Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/James-Baker" topicid="49485">James Baker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/James-A-Farley" topicid="201889">James A. Farley</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/interest-group" topicid="290136">interest group</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Eight-Elections-That-Changed-History" topicid="2253312">Eight Elections That Changed History</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/voting-rights" topicid="2180872">voting rights</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/proportional-representation" topicid="479181">proportional representation</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/midterm-election" topicid="2214972">United States midterm elections</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/election-political-science"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.cnn.com/election/2024/exit-polls" rel="nofollow">Election 2024: Exit polls</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 26, 2024, 3:20 PM ET (CNN) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://indianexpress.com/article/india/by-election-results-2024-live-updates-can-bjp-break-tmcs-hold-in-west-bengal-while-battling-rebels-in-gujarat-9684398/" rel="nofollow">West Bengal, Gujarat Bye-Election Result 2024 Live Updates: No RG Kar effect, Mamata’s TMC sweeps bye-elections; BJP wins Vav bypoll in close contest</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 24, 2024, 2:16 AM ET (The Indian Express) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/pune-maharashtra-election-results-2024-live-updates-baramati-indapur-maval-kasba-peth-kothrud-shivaji-nagar-kolhapur-latur-rural-seats-9683525/" rel="nofollow">Pune Election Results 2024 Live Updates: Ajit Pawar’s NCP wins 8 seats in Pune district, BJP dominates at 21 seats</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 6:12 AM ET (The Indian Express) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://indianexpress.com/article/india/by-election-results-2024-live-updates-can-bjp-break-tmcs-hold-in-west-bengal-while-battling-rebels-in-gujarat-9684398/lite/" rel="nofollow">By-Election Results 2024 Live Updates: Can BJP break TMC’s hold in West Bengal while battling rebels in Gujarat?</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 2:18 AM ET (The Indian Express) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://indianexpress.com/article/india/pune-maharashtra-election-results-2024-live-updates-baramati-indapur-maval-kasba-peth-kothrud-shivaji-nagar-kolhapur-latur-rural-seats-9683525/" rel="nofollow">Maharashtra Pune Election Results 2024 Live Updates: Ajit Pawar on course to have last laugh amid massive Baramati lead</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 5:13 PM ET (The Indian Express) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref416847"></span>election</strong>, the formal process of selecting a person for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/public-administration" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">public office</a> or of accepting or rejecting a political proposition by voting. It is important to distinguish between the form and the substance of elections. In some cases, electoral forms are present but the substance of an election is missing, as when voters do not have a free and genuine choice between at least two <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="alternatives" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alternatives" data-type="MW">alternatives</a>. Most countries hold elections in at least the formal sense, but in many of them the elections are not competitive (e.g., all but one party may be forbidden to contest) or the electoral situation is in other respects highly compromised.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref229014"> <h2 class="h1">History of elections</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="298303" data-asm-type="video"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="video" video-id="253537"><a data-id="253537" class="gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9" href="/video/primary-election-and-caucus/-298303"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/253537-138-0BD3DC30/primary-election-and-caucus.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop" alt="The difference between a primary and caucus, explained" loading="lazy"><script type="application/json"> { "sources": [ { "file" : "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/sQDDB6Kd.m3u8" } ], "image": "https://cdn.britannica.com/37/253537-138-0BD3DC30/primary-election-and-caucus.jpg" ,"tracks": [ { "file" : "//assets-jpcust.jwpsrv.com/tracks/jgb7Eo69.vtt", "label": "English" } ] ,"adfile": "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/UlmSYH1K.m3u8" } </script><div class="btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%)"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="play_arrow"></em></div></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><span class="md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption" video-control="253537">The difference between a primary and caucus, explained</span><span>Iowa. New Hampshire. Ohio. In the U.S. presidential election, why are some states so important?</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div><a class="font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block" href="/topic/election-political-science/images-videos">See all videos for this article</a></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Although elections were used in ancient <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Athens" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Athens</a>, in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Roman-Empire" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Rome</a>, and in the selection of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/pope" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">popes</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Holy-Roman-Empire" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Holy Roman</a> emperors, the origins of elections in the contemporary world lie in the gradual emergence of <span id="ref1288153"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/representative-democracy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">representative</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/government" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">government</a> in Europe and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-America" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">North America</a> beginning in the 17th century. At that time, the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="holistic" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/holistic" data-type="MW">holistic</a> notion of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/representation-government" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">representation</a> characteristic of the Middle Ages was transformed into a more <span id="ref416848"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/individualism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">individualistic</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conception" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conception" data-type="MW">conception</a>, one that made the individual the critical unit to be counted. For example, the British <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parliament" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Parliament</a> was no longer seen as representing estates, corporations, and vested interests but was rather perceived as standing for actual human beings. The movement abolishing the so-called “<span id="ref416849"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/rotten-borough" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">rotten boroughs</a>”—electoral districts of small population controlled by a single person or family—that culminated in the Reform Act of 1832 (one of three major <span id="ref1288154"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Reform-Bill" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Reform Bills</a> in the 19th century in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Britain</a> that expanded the size of the electorate) was a direct consequence of this individualistic conception of representation. Once governments were believed to derive their powers from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/consent-political-philosophy-and-ethics" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">consent</a> of the governed and expected to seek that consent regularly, it remained to decide precisely who was to be included among the governed whose consent was necessary. Advocates of full <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="democracy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/democracy" data-type="MW">democracy</a> favored the establishment of universal adult <span id="ref416850"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/suffrage" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">suffrage</a>. Across western Europe and North America, adult male suffrage was ensured almost everywhere by 1920, though <span id="ref1288155"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/woman-suffrage" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">woman suffrage</a> was not established until somewhat later (e.g., 1928 in Britain, 1944 in France, 1949 in Belgium, and 1971 in Switzerland).</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Although it is common to equate representative government and elections with <span id="ref416851"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/democracy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">democracy</a>, and although competitive elections under universal suffrage are one of democracy’s defining characteristics, universal suffrage is not a necessary condition of competitive electoral politics. An electorate may be limited by formal legal requirements—as was the case before universal adult suffrage—or it may be limited by the failure of citizens to exercise their right to vote. In many countries with free elections, large numbers of citizens do not cast ballots. For example, in Switzerland and the United States, fewer than half the electorate vote in most elections. Although legal or self-imposed exclusion can dramatically affect public policy and even <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="undermine" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/undermine" data-type="EB">undermine</a> the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/legitimacy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">legitimacy</a> of a government, it does not preclude <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/decision-making" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">decision making</a> by election, provided that voters are given genuine alternatives among which to choose.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">During the 18th century, access to the political arena depended largely on membership in an <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/aristocracy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">aristocracy</a>, and participation in elections was regulated mainly by local customs and arrangements. Although both the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">American</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/French-Revolution" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">French revolutions</a> declared every citizen formally equal to every other, the vote remained an instrument of political power possessed by very few.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Even with the implementation of universal suffrage, the ideal of “one person, one vote” was not achieved in all countries. Systems of plural voting were maintained in some countries, giving certain social groups an electoral advantage. For example, in the United Kingdom, university graduates and owners of businesses in <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constituencies" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituencies" data-type="MW">constituencies</a> other than those in which they lived could cast more than one ballot until 1948. Before <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">World War I</a>, both Austria and Prussia had three classes of weighted votes that effectively kept electoral power in the hands of the upper social strata. Until the passage of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Voting-Rights-Act" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Voting Rights Act in 1965</a> in the United States, legal barriers and intimidation effectively barred most African Americans—especially those in the South—from being able to cast ballots in elections.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/voting-for-the-us-president" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/59/193559-131-449472AD/Voters-ballots-California-election-2012.jpg" alt="Election - Voters in polling station voting in 2012 Presidential Election, Ventura County, California, November 6, 2012." class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">Voting for the U.S. President: A Quiz</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="284289" data-asm-type="video"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="video" video-id="237158"><a data-id="237158" class="gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9" href="/video/history-midterm-elections-United-States/-284289"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/58/237158-138-D77322A7/history-midterm-elections-United-States.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop" alt="What is a midterm election?" loading="lazy"><script type="application/json"> { "sources": [ { "file" : "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/TADxRIml.m3u8" } ], "image": "https://cdn.britannica.com/58/237158-138-D77322A7/history-midterm-elections-United-States.jpg" ,"tracks": [ { "file" : "//assets-jpcust.jwpsrv.com/tracks/O4wK1Vyo.vtt", "label": "English" } ] ,"adfile": "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/QiqG7zKa.m3u8" } </script><div class="btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%)"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="play_arrow"></em></div></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><span class="md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption" video-control="237158">What is a midterm election?</span><span>Situated two years into a presidential term in the United States, midterm elections determine who serves in many congressional seats.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div><a class="font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block" href="/topic/election-political-science/images-videos">See all videos for this article</a></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">During the 19th and 20th centuries, the increased use of competitive mass elections in western Europe had the purpose and effect of institutionalizing the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="diversity" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diversity" data-type="MW">diversity</a> that had existed in the countries of that region. However, mass elections had quite different purposes and consequences under the <span id="ref416852"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/totalitarianism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">one-party</a> <span id="ref1288156"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/communism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">communist</a> regimes of eastern Europe and the Soviet Union during the period from the end of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">World War II</a> to 1989–90. Although these governments held elections, the contests were not competitive, as voters usually had only the choice of voting for or against the official candidate. Indeed, elections in these countries were similar to the 19th-century Napoleonic <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/plebiscite" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">plebiscites</a>, which were intended to demonstrate the unity rather than the diversity of the people. <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="Dissent" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Dissent" data-type="EB">Dissent</a> in eastern Europe could be registered by crossing out the name of the candidate on the ballot, as several million citizens in the <span id="ref416853"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Soviet Union</a> did in each election before 1989; however, because <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-ballot" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">secret voting</a> did not exist in these countries, this practice invited reprisals. Nonvoting was another form of protest, especially as local communist activists were under extreme pressure to achieve nearly a 100 percent turnout. Not all elections in eastern Europe followed the Soviet model. For example, in <span id="ref416854"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Poland</a> more names appeared on the ballot than there were offices to fill, and some degree of electoral choice was thus provided.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In sub-Saharan <span id="ref763430"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Africa</a>, competitive elections based on universal suffrage were introduced in three distinct periods. In the 1950s and ’60s, a number of countries held elections following <span id="ref1288157"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/decolonization" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">decolonization</a>. Although many of them reverted to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="authoritarian" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/authoritarian" data-type="MW">authoritarian</a> forms of rule, there were exceptions (e.g., Botswana and Gambia). In the late 1970s, elections were introduced in a smaller number of countries when some military dictatorships were dissolved (e.g., in Ghana and Nigeria) and other countries in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Southern-Africa" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Southern Africa</a> underwent decolonization (e.g., Angola, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe). Beginning in the early 1990s, the end of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Cold War</a> and the reduction of military and economic aid from developed countries brought about democratization and competitive elections in more than a dozen African countries, including Benin, Mali, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">South Africa</a>, and Zambia.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Competitive elections in <span id="ref763428"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Latin-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Latin America</a> also were introduced in phases. In the century after 1828, for example, elections were held in Argentina, Chile, Colombia, and Uruguay, though all but Chile <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="reverted" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/reverted" data-type="EB">reverted</a> to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/authoritarianism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">authoritarianism</a>. Additional countries held elections in the period dating roughly 1943 to 1962, though again many did not retain democratic governments. Beginning in the mid 1970s, competitive elections were introduced gradually throughout most of Latin America.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In <span id="ref763429"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Asia</a>, competitive elections were held following the end of World War II, in many cases as a result of decolonization (e.g., India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines), though once again the restoration of authoritarianism was commonplace. Beginning in the 1970s, competitive elections were reintroduced in a number of countries, including the Philippines and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Korea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">South Korea</a>. With exceptions, such as Turkey, Iraq, and Israel, competitive elections in countries of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Middle-East" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Middle East</a> are rare.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref416855"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/authoritarianism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Authoritarian</a> regimes often have used elections as a way to achieve a degree of popular legitimacy. <span id="ref1288158"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/dictatorship" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dictatorships</a> may hold elections in cases where no <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="substantive" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/substantive" data-type="MW">substantive</a> opposition is remotely <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="feasible" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/feasible" data-type="MW">feasible</a> (e.g., because opposition forces have been repressed) or when economic factors favor the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/regime" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">regime</a>. Even when opposition parties are allowed to participate, they may face intimidation by the government and its allies, which thereby precludes the effective mobilization of potential supporters. In other cases, a regime may postpone an election if there is a significant chance that it will lose. In addition, it has been a common practice of authoritarian regimes to intervene once balloting has begun by intimidating voters (e.g., through physical attacks) and by <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="manipulating" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/manipulating" data-type="EB">manipulating</a> the count of votes that have been freely cast.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":6,"pageId":182308,"pageLength":1322,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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