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href="#Emulsion_speed_rating_criteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Emulsion speed rating criteria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emulsion_speed_rating_criteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Threshold" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Threshold"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 Threshold </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Threshold-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inertia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inertia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2 Inertia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inertia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fixed_density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fixed_density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.3 Fixed density </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fixed_density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minimum_useful_gradient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minimum_useful_gradient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.4 Minimum useful gradient </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minimum_useful_gradient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fractional_gradient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fractional_gradient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.5 Fractional gradient </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fractional_gradient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Historical systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Warnerke" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warnerke"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Warnerke </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warnerke-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hurter_&_Driffield" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hurter_&_Driffield"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Hurter & Driffield </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hurter_&_Driffield-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scheiner" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scheiner"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3 Scheiner </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scheiner-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DIN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DIN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.4 DIN </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DIN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-BSI" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#BSI"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.5 BSI </div> </a> <ul id="toc-BSI-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weston" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weston"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.6 Weston </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weston-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_Electric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_Electric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.7 General Electric </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_Electric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ASA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ASA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.8 ASA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ASA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-GOST" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#GOST"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.9 GOST </div> </a> <ul id="toc-GOST-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_system:_ISO" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_system:_ISO"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Current system: ISO </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_system:_ISO-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conversion_between_current_scales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conversion_between_current_scales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Conversion between current scales </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conversion_between_current_scales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historic_ASA_and_DIN_conversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historic_ASA_and_DIN_conversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Historic ASA and DIN conversion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historic_ASA_and_DIN_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determining_film_speed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determining_film_speed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Determining film speed </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determining_film_speed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applying_film_speed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applying_film_speed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Applying film speed </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applying_film_speed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exposure_index" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exposure_index"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Exposure index </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exposure_index-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reciprocity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reciprocity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Reciprocity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reciprocity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film_sensitivity_and_grain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film_sensitivity_and_grain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Film sensitivity and grain </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Film_sensitivity_and_grain-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Film sensitivity and grain subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Film_sensitivity_and_grain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marketing_anomalies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marketing_anomalies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Marketing anomalies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marketing_anomalies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_camera_ISO_speed_and_exposure_index" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_camera_ISO_speed_and_exposure_index"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Digital_camera_ISO_speed_and_exposure_index-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Digital_camera_ISO_speed_and_exposure_index-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_ISO_(International_Organization_of_Standards)_12232:2019_standard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_ISO_(International_Organization_of_Standards)_12232:2019_standard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_ISO_(International_Organization_of_Standards)_12232:2019_standard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurements_and_calculations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurements_and_calculations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Measurements and calculations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurements_and_calculations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Saturation-based_speed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saturation-based_speed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Saturation-based speed </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saturation-based_speed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noise-based_speed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noise-based_speed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Noise-based speed </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noise-based_speed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standard_output_sensitivity_(SOS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_output_sensitivity_(SOS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Standard output sensitivity (SOS) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_output_sensitivity_(SOS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discussion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discussion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.4 Discussion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discussion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Film speed</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" > 27 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmspoed" title="Filmspoed – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Filmspoed" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B6%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="سرعة شريط التصوير الضوئي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سرعة شريط التصوير الضوئي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%93_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1" title="আইএসও স্পিড – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আইএসও স্পিড" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Светлочувствителност – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Светлочувствителност" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escala_de_sensibilitat_fotogr%C3%A0fica" title="Escala de sensibilitat fotogràfica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Escala de sensibilitat fotogràfica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citlivost" title="Citlivost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Citlivost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmempfindlichkeit" title="Filmempfindlichkeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Filmempfindlichkeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escala_de_sensibilidad_fotogr%C3%A1fica" title="Escala de sensibilidad fotográfica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Escala de sensibilidad fotográfica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argazki-sentikortasun" title="Argazki-sentikortasun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Argazki-sentikortasun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B9%D8%AA_%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%85" title="سرعت فیلم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سرعت فیلم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luas_(grianghrafad%C3%B3ireacht)" title="Luas (grianghrafadóireacht) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Luas (grianghrafadóireacht)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensibilidade_da_pel%C3%ADcula_fotogr%C3%A1fica" title="Sensibilidade da película fotográfica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sensibilidade da película fotográfica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%90%EA%B4%91_%EC%86%8D%EB%8F%84" title="감광 속도 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="감광 속도" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kecepatan_film" title="Kecepatan film – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kecepatan film" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocit%C3%A0_della_pellicola" title="Velocità della pellicola – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Velocità della pellicola" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82" title="ഫിലിം വേഗം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഫിലിം വേഗം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmgevoeligheid" title="Filmgevoeligheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Filmgevoeligheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmhastighet" title="Filmhastighet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Filmhastighet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czu%C5%82o%C5%9B%C4%87_filmu" title="Czułość filmu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Czułość filmu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensibilidade_fotogr%C3%A1fica" title="Sensibilidade fotográfica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sensibilidade fotográfica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Светочувствительность фотоматериалов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Светочувствительность фотоматериалов" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valoherkkyys" title="Valoherkkyys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Valoherkkyys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="படச்சுருள் வேகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="படச்சுருள் வேகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AB%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%82" title="ఫిలిం వేగం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఫిలిం వేగం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_hassasiyeti" title="Film hassasiyeti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Film hassasiyeti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Світлочутливість фотоматеріалів – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Світлочутливість фотоматеріалів" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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5800</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Frame_rate" title="Frame rate">frame rate</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Slow film" redirects here. For the genre of films, see <a href="/wiki/Slow_cinema" title="Slow cinema">slow cinema</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Provia_100F_RDPIII_Box_with_ISO_film_speed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Provia_100F_RDPIII_Box_with_ISO_film_speed.jpg/220px-Provia_100F_RDPIII_Box_with_ISO_film_speed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Provia_100F_RDPIII_Box_with_ISO_film_speed.jpg/330px-Provia_100F_RDPIII_Box_with_ISO_film_speed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Provia_100F_RDPIII_Box_with_ISO_film_speed.jpg/440px-Provia_100F_RDPIII_Box_with_ISO_film_speed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2099" data-file-height="1803" /></a><figcaption>This film container denotes its speed as ISO 100/21°, including both arithmetic (100 ASA) and logarithmic (21 DIN) components. The second is often dropped, making (e.g.) "ISO 100" effectively equivalent to the older ASA speed. (As is common, the "100" in the film name alludes to its ISO rating.)</figcaption></figure> Film speed is the measure of a <a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">photographic film</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Photosensitivity" title="Photosensitivity">sensitivity to light</a>, determined by <a href="/wiki/Sensitometry" title="Sensitometry">sensitometry</a> and measured on <a href="#Film">various numerical scales</a>, the most recent being the <a href="#ISO">ISO</a> system introduced in 1974. A closely related system, also known as ISO, is used to describe the relationship between exposure and output image <a href="/wiki/Lightness" title="Lightness">lightness</a> in digital cameras. Prior to ISO, the most common systems were <a href="#ASA">ASA</a> in the United States and <a href="#DIN">DIN</a> in Europe. The term speed comes from the early days of photography. <a href="/wiki/Photographic_emulsion" title="Photographic emulsion">Photographic emulsions</a> that were more sensitive to light needed less time to generate an acceptable image and thus a complete exposure could be finished faster, with the subjects having to hold still for a shorter length of time. Emulsions that were less sensitive were deemed "slower" as the time to complete an exposure was much longer and often usable only for <a href="/wiki/Still_life" title="Still life">still life photography</a>. Exposure times for photographic emulsions shortened from hours to fractions of a second by the late 19th century. In both film and digital photography, the use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser <a href="/wiki/Film_grain" title="Film grain">film grain</a> or higher <a href="/wiki/Image_noise" title="Image noise">image noise</a>). Generally, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_efficiency" title="Quantum efficiency">quantum efficiency</a> of the film or sensor. To determine the exposure time needed for a given film, a <a href="/wiki/Light_meter" title="Light meter">light meter</a> is typically used. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Film_speed_measurement_systems">Film speed measurement systems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Film speed measurement systems">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emulsion_speed_rating_criteria">Emulsion speed rating criteria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Emulsion speed rating criteria">edit</a>]</div> Five criteria for the rating of emulsion speed have been used since the late 19th century, listed here by name and date, these criteria are: threshold (1880), inertia (1890), fixed density (1934), minimum useful gradient (1939) and fractional gradient (1939). <a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Threshold">Threshold</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Threshold">edit</a>]</div> The threshold criterion is the point on the <a href="/wiki/Sensitometry" title="Sensitometry">characteristic curve</a> corresponding to just perceptible density above fog. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inertia">Inertia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Inertia">edit</a>]</div> The inertia speed point of an emulsion is determined on the Hurter and Driffield <a href="/wiki/Sensitometry" title="Sensitometry">characteristic curve</a> by the intercept between the gradient of the straight line part of the curve and the line representing the base + fog (B+F) on the density axis. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fixed_density">Fixed density</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fixed density">edit</a>]</div> The fixed density speed point is determined by defining a fixed minimum density as the basis the emulsion speed (e.g. 0.1 above B+F). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Minimum_useful_gradient">Minimum useful gradient</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Minimum useful gradient">edit</a>]</div> The minimum useful gradient criterion places the speed point where the gradient first reaches an agreed value (e.g. tan <big>𝜃</big> = 0.2). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fractional_gradient">Fractional gradient</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fractional gradient">edit</a>]</div> The fractional gradient is defined as the speed point at which the slope of the characteristic curve first reaches a fixed fraction (e.g. 0.3) of the average gradient over a range (e.g. 1.5) of the characteristic curve.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_systems">Historical systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Historical systems">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Warnerke">Warnerke</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Warnerke">edit</a>]</div> The first known practical <a href="/wiki/Sensitometry" title="Sensitometry">sensitometer</a>, which allowed measurements of the speed of photographic materials, was invented by the Polish engineer <a href="/wiki/Leon_Warnerke" title="Leon Warnerke">Leon Warnerke</a><a href="#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-3">[3]</a> – pseudonym of <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Ma%C5%82achowski" class="mw-redirect" title="Władysław Małachowski">Władysław Małachowski</a> (1837–1900) – in 1880, among the achievements for which he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Progress_Medal_(RPS)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progress Medal (RPS)">Progress Medal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Photographic_Society_of_Great_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Photographic Society of Great Britain">Photographic Society of Great Britain</a> in 1882.<a href="#cite_note-RPS_2011_Progress_Medal_1882-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia-5">[5]</a> It was commercialized since 1881. The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a <a href="/wiki/Phosphorescence" title="Phosphorescence">phosphorescent</a> tablet excited before by the light of a burning <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> ribbon.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia-5">[5]</a> The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or °W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at the time. His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable<a href="#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-3">[3]</a> due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia-5">[5]</a> The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_Chapman_Jones&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry Chapman Jones (page does not exist)">Henry Chapman Jones</a> (1855–1932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hasluck_1905_Jones-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hurter_&_Driffield">Hurter & Driffield</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hurter & Driffield">edit</a>]</div> Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of <a href="/wiki/Hurter_and_Driffield" title="Hurter and Driffield">Hurter and Driffield</a> (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Hurter" title="Ferdinand Hurter">Ferdinand Hurter</a> (1844–1898) and British <a href="/wiki/Vero_Charles_Driffield" title="Vero Charles Driffield">Vero Charles Driffield</a> (1848–1915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D.<a href="#cite_note-Sowerby-7">[7]</a> The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)—this later variant was sometimes called "H&D 10". The H&D system was officially<a href="#cite_note-Konovalov_2007-8">[8]</a> accepted as a standard in the former <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by <a href="#GOST">GOST</a> 2817–50. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scheiner">Scheiner</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Scheiner">edit</a>]</div> The Scheinergrade (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer <a href="/wiki/Julius_Scheiner" title="Julius Scheiner">Julius Scheiner</a> (1858–1913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1° to 20° Sch., with each increment of a degree corresponding to a multiplicative factor of increased light sensitivity. This multiplicative factor was determined by the constraint that an increment of 19° Sch. (from 1° to 20° Sch.) corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity. Thus emulsions that differed by 1° Sch. on the Scheiner scale were <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sqrt[{19}]{100}}=1.2742...}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mroot> <mn>100</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>19</mn> </mrow> </mroot> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1.2742...</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sqrt[{19}]{100}}=1.2742...}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/69c20d8e6d1a0bd169d745a5640fe572412e2497" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:16.939ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sqrt[{19}]{100}}=1.2742...}">-fold more (or, less) sensitive to each other. An increment of 3° Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity<a href="#cite_note-Sowerby-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Riat_2006-9">[9]</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ({\sqrt[{19}]{100}})^{3}=2.06914...}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mroot> <mn>100</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>19</mn> </mrow> </mroot> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2.06914...</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ({\sqrt[{19}]{100}})^{3}=2.06914...}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b18ffa3323989087f0b1628b591248b3f6c52b69" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:20.965ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ({\sqrt[{19}]{100}})^{3}=2.06914...}">. The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist <a href="/wiki/Josef_Maria_Eder" title="Josef Maria Eder">Josef Maria Eder</a> (1855–1944)<a href="#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-3">[3]</a> and Flemish-born botanist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Hecht&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Hecht (page does not exist)">Walter Hecht</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Hecht" class="extiw" title="de:Walter Hecht">de</a>] (1896–1960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their Eder–Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer measuring emulsion speeds in Eder–Hecht grades). It remained difficult for manufacturers to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products,<a href="#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-3">[3]</a> so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner's original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability.<a href="#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress-10">[10]</a> Scheiner's system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized <a href="#DIN">DIN</a> system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="DIN">DIN</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: DIN">edit</a>]</div> The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by the <a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Institut_f%C3%BCr_Normung" title="Deutsches Institut für Normung">Deutsches Institut für Normung</a> (then known as the Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA)), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by the Deutscher Normenausschuß für Phototechnik<a href="#cite_note-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress-10">[10]</a> as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung<a href="#cite_note-Biltz_1933_DIN-Grade-11">[11]</a> since 1930<a href="#cite_note-Heisenberg_1930_Tagung-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Voss_2002_Luther-13">[13]</a> and presented by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Thomas_Dietrich_Luther&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Thomas Dietrich Luther (page does not exist)">Robert Luther</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Thomas_Dietrich_Luther" class="extiw" title="de:Robert Thomas Dietrich Luther">de</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Voss_2002_Luther-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Buckland_2008_Kinamo-14">[14]</a> (1868–1945) and <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Goldberg" title="Emanuel Goldberg">Emanuel Goldberg</a><a href="#cite_note-Buckland_2008_Kinamo-14">[14]</a> (1881–1970) at the influential VIII. <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Congress_of_Photography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Congress of Photography (page does not exist)">International Congress of Photography</a> (German: Internationaler Kongreß für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie) held in <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a> from 3 to 8 August 1931.<a href="#cite_note-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eggert_1932_Kongress-Bericht-15">[15]</a> The DIN system was inspired by <a href="#Scheiner">Scheiner</a>'s system,<a href="#cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-3">[3]</a> but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to <a href="/wiki/Decibel" title="Decibel">decibels</a>. Thus an increase of 20° (and not 19° as in Scheiner's system) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3° was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103...):<a href="#cite_note-Riat_2006-9">[9]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \log _{10}{(2)}=0.30103...\approx 3/10}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>log</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.30103...</mn> <mo>≈</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>10</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \log _{10}{(2)}=0.30103...\approx 3/10}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ea17d23f64293245e3f2784714b0d7317757ed00" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:28.616ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \log _{10}{(2)}=0.30103...\approx 3/10}">.</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agfacolor_neu_-_7300960484.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Agfacolor_neu_-_7300960484.jpg/220px-Agfacolor_neu_-_7300960484.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Agfacolor_neu_-_7300960484.jpg/330px-Agfacolor_neu_-_7300960484.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Agfacolor_neu_-_7300960484.jpg/440px-Agfacolor_neu_-_7300960484.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1252" data-file-height="860" /></a><figcaption>A box of <a href="/wiki/Agfacolor" title="Agfacolor">Agfacolor Neu</a> with the instruction "expose as 15/10° DIN" (in German).</figcaption></figure> As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example "18/10° DIN"),<a href="#cite_note-Benser_1957_Farbig-16">[16]</a> where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as "18° DIN".<a href="#cite_note-Sowerby-7">[7]</a> The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American <a href="#ASA">ASA</a> PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as "18° DIN" would now be labeled as "21 DIN" without emulsion changes. Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film. On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974,<a href="#cite_note-ISO_6-17">[17]</a> ISO 2240:1982,<a href="#cite_note-http-18">[18]</a> and ISO 5800:1979<a href="#cite_note-iso.org-19">[19]</a> where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as "ISO 100/21°" (now again with degree symbol). These <a href="#ISO">ISO</a> standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="BSI">BSI</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: BSI">edit</a>]</div> When <a href="/wiki/British_Standards_Institution" class="mw-redirect" title="British Standards Institution">BS</a> 935:1941 was published during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, specifying exposure tables for negative materials, it employed the same <a href="#Fixed_density">fixed-density</a> speed criterion used in the German <a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Institut_f%C3%BCr_Normung" title="Deutsches Institut für Normung">DIN</a> 4512:1934 system. The British Standard also used logarithmic speed numbers, following the example of <a href="#Scheiner">Scheiner</a> and DIN. When the American ASA Z38.2.1:1943 standard was published, it used a <a href="#Fractional_gradient">fractional gradient</a> speed criterion and arithmetic speed numbers, for compatibility with <a href="/wiki/Edward_Weston" title="Edward Weston">Weston</a> and <a href="/wiki/GE" class="mw-redirect" title="GE">GE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> British standard BS 1380:1947 adopted the fractional gradient criterion of the American 1943 standard, and also included arithmetic speed numbers in addition to logarithmic numbers.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The logarithmic speed number proposed in the later BS 1380:1957 standard was almost identical to the DIN 4512:1957 standard, except that the BS number was +9 degrees greater than the corresponding DIN number; in 1971, the BS and DIN standards changed this to +10 degrees. <a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Following an increasing effort to produce international standards, the British, American, and German standards became identical in ISO 6:1974, which corresponded to BS 1380:Part1:1973.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Weston">Weston</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Weston">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weston_650_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Weston_650_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg/220px-Weston_650_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Weston_650_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg/330px-Weston_650_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Weston_650_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg/440px-Weston_650_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1188" data-file-height="776" /></a><figcaption>Weston Model 650 <a href="/wiki/Light_meter" title="Light meter">light meter</a> from about 1935</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weston_Master_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Weston_Master_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg/220px-Weston_Master_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Weston_Master_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg/330px-Weston_Master_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Weston_Master_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg/440px-Weston_Master_Light_Meter_July_2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>Early Weston Master light meter 1935-1945</figcaption></figure> Before the advent of the ASA system, the system of Weston film speed ratings was introduced by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Faraday_Weston&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Faraday Weston (page does not exist)">Edward Faraday Weston</a> (1878–1971) and his father Dr. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Weston_(chemist)" title="Edward Weston (chemist)">Edward Weston</a> (1850–1936), a British-born electrical engineer, industrialist and founder of the US-based <a href="/w/index.php?title=Weston_Electrical_Instrument_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation (page does not exist)">Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Mulhern_1990_Letter-24">[24]</a> with the Weston model 617, one of the earliest photo-electric exposure meters, in August 1932. The meter and film rating system were invented by <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Nelson_Goodwin,_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Nelson Goodwin, Jr. (page does not exist)">William Nelson Goodwin, Jr.</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Goodwin_1938_emulsion_ratings-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roseborough_1996_PHSC-PC-22-3-26">[26]</a> who worked for them<a href="#cite_note-Tipper_Weston-27">[27]</a> and later received a <a href="/wiki/Howard_N._Potts_Medal" title="Howard N. Potts Medal">Howard N. Potts Medal</a> for his contributions to engineering. The company tested and frequently published speed ratings for most films of the time. Weston film speed ratings could since be found on most Weston exposure meters and were sometimes referred to by film manufacturers and third parties<a href="#cite_note-Hefley_1951_micrographs-28">[28]</a> in their exposure guidelines. Since manufacturers were sometimes creative about film speeds, the company went as far as to warn users about unauthorized uses of their film ratings in their "Weston film ratings" booklets.<a href="#cite_note-Weston_1946_Ratings-29">[29]</a> The Weston Cadet (model 852 introduced in 1949), Direct Reading (model 853 introduced 1954) and Master III (models 737 and S141.3 introduced in 1956) were the first in their line of exposure meters to switch and utilize the meanwhile established ASA scale instead. Other models used the original Weston scale up until ca. 1955. The company continued to publish Weston film ratings after 1955,<a href="#cite_note-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings-30">[30]</a> but while their recommended values often differed slightly from the ASA film speeds found on film boxes, these newer Weston values were based on the ASA system and had to be converted for use with older Weston meters by subtracting 1/3 exposure stop as per Weston's recommendation.<a href="#cite_note-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings-30">[30]</a> Vice versa, "old" Weston film speed ratings could be converted into "new" Westons and the ASA scale by adding the same amount, that is, a film rating of 100 Weston (up to 1955) corresponded with 125 ASA (as per ASA PH2.5-1954 and before). This conversion was not necessary on Weston meters manufactured and Weston film ratings published since 1956 due to their inherent use of the ASA system; however the changes of the ASA PH2.5-1960 revision may be taken into account when comparing with newer ASA or ISO values. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="General_Electric">General Electric</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: General Electric">edit</a>]</div> Prior to the establishment of the ASA scale<a href="#cite_note-General-Electric_194x_GES-2810_Manual_GW-68-31">[31]</a> and similar to <a href="#Weston">Weston film speed ratings</a> another manufacturer of photo-electric exposure meters, <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>, developed its own rating system of so-called General Electric film values (often abbreviated as G-E or GE) around 1937. Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated General Electric Film Values<a href="#cite_note-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values-32">[32]</a> leaflets and in the General Electric Photo Data Book.<a href="#cite_note-General-Electric_1942_GET-I717-33">[33]</a> General Electric switched to use the <a href="#ASA">ASA</a> scale in 1946. Meters manufactured since February 1946 are equipped with the ASA scale (labeled "Exposure Index") already. For some of the older meters with scales in "Film Speed" or "Film Value" (e.g. models DW-48, DW-49 as well as early DW-58 and GW-68 variants), replaceable hoods with ASA scales were available from the manufacturer.<a href="#cite_note-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-General-Electric_1946_Ad_Hood-34">[34]</a> The company continued to publish recommended film values after that date, however, they were then aligned to the ASA scale. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ASA">ASA</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: ASA">edit</a>]</div> Based on earlier research work by <a href="/wiki/Loyd_A._Jones" title="Loyd A. Jones">Loyd Ancile Jones</a> (1884–1954) of <a href="/wiki/Kodak" title="Kodak">Kodak</a> and inspired by the systems of <a href="#Weston">Weston film speed ratings</a><a href="#cite_note-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings-30">[30]</a> and <a href="#GE">General Electric film values</a>,<a href="#cite_note-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values-32">[32]</a> the <a href="/wiki/American_Standards_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="American Standards Association">American Standards Association</a> (now named ANSI) defined a new method to determine and specify film speeds of black-and-white negative films in 1943. ASA Z38.2.1–1943 was revised in 1946 and 1947 before the standard grew into ASA PH2.5-1954. Originally, ASA values were frequently referred to as American standard speed numbers or ASA exposure-index numbers. (See also: <a href="#EI">Exposure Index</a> (EI).) The ASA scale is a linear scale, that is, a film denoted as having a film speed of 200 ASA is twice as fast as a film with 100 ASA. The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an <a href="/wiki/Ilford_HP" title="Ilford HP">Ilford HP3</a> that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the <a href="#DIN">DIN</a> system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years. In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5° ASA), where a difference of 1° ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in the form of the <a href="/wiki/APEX_system" title="APEX system">APEX</a> speed value Sv (without degree symbol) as well. ASA PH2.5-1960 was revised as ANSI PH2.5-1979, without the logarithmic speeds, and later replaced by NAPM IT2.5–1986 of the National Association of Photographic Manufacturers, which represented the US adoption of the international standard ISO 6. The latest issue of ANSI/NAPM IT2.5 was published in 1993. The standard for color negative film was introduced as ASA PH2.27-1965 and saw a string of revisions in 1971, 1976, 1979, and 1981, before it finally became ANSI IT2.27–1988 prior to its withdrawal. Color reversal film speeds were defined in ANSI PH2.21-1983, which was revised in 1989 before it became ANSI/NAPM IT2.21 in 1994, the US adoption of the ISO 2240 standard. On an international level, the ASA system was superseded by the <a href="#ISO">ISO</a> film speed system between 1982 and 1987, however, the arithmetic ASA speed scale continued to live on as the linear speed value of the ISO system. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="GOST">GOST</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: GOST">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Svema-film-65.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Svema-film-65.jpg/220px-Svema-film-65.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Svema-film-65.jpg/330px-Svema-film-65.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Svema-film-65.jpg/440px-Svema-film-65.jpg 2x" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="757" /></a><figcaption>A box of <a href="/wiki/Svema" title="Svema">Svema</a> film, with a sensitivity of 65 <a href="/wiki/GOST" title="GOST">GOST</a> (ГОСТ)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/GOST" title="GOST">GOST</a> (Cyrillic: ГОСТ) was an arithmetic film speed scale defined in GOST 2817-45 and GOST 2817–50.<a href="#cite_note-Gorokhovskiy_1970_Metrologiya-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-GOST_2817-50-36">[36]</a> It was used in the former <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> since October 1951,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] replacing Hurter & Driffield (H&D, Cyrillic: ХиД) numbers,<a href="#cite_note-Gorokhovskiy_1970_Metrologiya-35">[35]</a> which had been used since 1928.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] GOST 2817-50 was similar to the ASA standard, having been based on a speed point at a density 0.2 above base plus fog, as opposed to the ASA's 0.1.<a href="#cite_note-Stroebel_1993_Encyclopedia-37">[37]</a> GOST markings are only found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, <a href="/wiki/Light_meter" title="Light meter">lightmeters</a>, etc.) of Soviet Union manufacture.<a href="#cite_note-ZENIT_2011_GOST-38">[38]</a> On 1 January 1987, the GOST scale was realigned to the <a href="#ISO">ISO</a> scale with GOST 10691–84,<a href="#cite_note-GOST_10691-84-39">[39]</a> This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6–88<a href="#cite_note-GOST_10691.6-88-40">[40]</a> and GOST 10691.5–88,<a href="#cite_note-GOST_10691.5-88-41">[41]</a> which both became functional on 1 January 1991. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_system:_ISO">Current system: ISO</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Current system: ISO">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="#ASA">ASA</a> and <a href="#DIN">DIN</a> film speed standards have been combined into the ISO standards since 1974. The current <a href="/wiki/International_standard" title="International standard">International Standard</a> for measuring the speed of <a href="/wiki/Color_print_film" title="Color print film">color negative film</a> is ISO 5800:2001<a href="#cite_note-iso.org-19">[19]</a> (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993<a href="#cite_note-ISO_6-17">[17]</a> (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003<a href="#cite_note-http-18">[18]</a> (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994 and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and color reversal film, respectively. The determination of ISO speeds <a href="#ISO_12232">with digital still-cameras</a> is described in ISO 12232:2019 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, corrected in October 2006 and again revised in February 2019).<a href="#cite_note-ISO_12232_2019-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gasiorowski-Denis_2019_ISO12232-43">[43]</a> The ISO system defines both an <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_scale" title="Logarithmic scale">logarithmic scale</a>.<a href="#cite_note-manual-44">[44]</a> The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In the logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3° to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO 200/24° is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO 100/21°.<a href="#cite_note-manual-44">[44]</a> Commonly, the logarithmic speed is omitted; for example, "ISO 100" denotes "ISO 100/21°",<a href="#cite_note-Graves_1996_Zone-system-45">[45]</a> while logarithmic ISO speeds are written as "ISO 21°" as per the standard. <table class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%; clear: both;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Preceded by <a href="/wiki/ISO_5" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 5">ISO 5</a> </td> <td style="text-align: center;">Lists of ISOs ISO 6 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Succeeded by <a href="/wiki/ISO_7" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 7">ISO 7</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conversion_between_current_scales">Conversion between current scales</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Conversion between current scales">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ASA_and_DIN_on_Yashica_FR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/ASA_and_DIN_on_Yashica_FR.jpg/220px-ASA_and_DIN_on_Yashica_FR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/ASA_and_DIN_on_Yashica_FR.jpg/330px-ASA_and_DIN_on_Yashica_FR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/ASA_and_DIN_on_Yashica_FR.jpg/440px-ASA_and_DIN_on_Yashica_FR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Yashica" title="Yashica">Yashica</a> FR with both ASA and DIN markings</figcaption></figure> Conversion from arithmetic speed S to logarithmic speed S° is given by<a href="#cite_note-ISO_6-17">[17]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S^{\circ }=10\log S+1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S^{\circ }=10\log S+1}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6a6b2695fc54607cefe3c3936db628791e3b1480" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:17.247ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S^{\circ }=10\log S+1}"></dd></dl> and rounding to the nearest integer; the log is base 10. Conversion from logarithmic speed to arithmetic speed is given by<a href="#cite_note-ISO-2721_1982-46">[46]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S=10^{\left({S^{\circ }-1}\right)/10}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∘</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S=10^{\left({S^{\circ }-1}\right)/10}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ed830db4d79e6f2f3d9e19e489b2a266cf71065b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:14.908ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S=10^{\left({S^{\circ }-1}\right)/10}}"></dd></dl> and rounding to the nearest standard arithmetic speed in Table 1 below. <table class="wikitable center" summary="Comparison of speed scales APEX Sv, ISO (since 1974), digital cameras, ASA (since 1960), DIN (since 1961) and GOST (1951 to 1986)."> <caption>Table 1. Comparison of various film speed scales </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#FFDEAD;"><a href="#APEX">APEX</a> Sv (1960–) </th> <th style="background:#FFDEAD;"><a href="#ISO">ISO</a> (1974–) arith./log.° </th> <th style="background:#FFDEAD;">Camera mfrs. (2009–) </th> <th style="background:#FFDEAD;"><a href="#ASA">ASA</a> (1960–1987) arith. </th> <th style="background:#FFDEAD;"><a href="#DIN">DIN</a> (1961–2002) log. </th> <th style="background:#FFDEAD;"><a href="#GOST">GOST</a> (1951–1986) arith. </th> <th style="background:#FFDEAD;">Example of film stock with this nominal speed </th></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>−2 </td> <td>0.8/0°<a href="#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-47">[47]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>0.8 </td> <td>0<a href="#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-48">[48]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td align="left">FPP BW Super Positive<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>1/1° </td> <td>  </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>(1) </td> <td align="left">Svema Micrat-orto, Astrum Micrat-orto </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>1.2/2° </td> <td>  </td> <td>1.2 </td> <td>2 </td> <td>(1) </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>−1 </td> <td>1.6/3° </td> <td>  </td> <td>1.6 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>1.4 </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>2/4° </td> <td>  </td> <td>2 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>(2) </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>2.5/5° </td> <td>  </td> <td>2.5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>(2) </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>0 </td> <td>3/6° </td> <td>  </td> <td>3 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>2.8 </td> <td align="left">Svema MZ-3, Astrum MZ-3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>4/7° </td> <td>  </td> <td>4 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>(4) </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>5/8° </td> <td>  </td> <td>5 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>(4) </td> <td align="left">Original three-strip <a href="/wiki/Technicolor#Convincing_Hollywood" title="Technicolor">Technicolor</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>1 </td> <td>6/9° </td> <td>  </td> <td>6 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>5.5 </td> <td align="left">Original <a href="/wiki/Kodachrome" title="Kodachrome">Kodachrome</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>8/10° </td> <td>  </td> <td>8 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>(8) </td> <td align="left">Polaroid PolaBlue </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>10/11° </td> <td>  </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>(8) </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Kodachrome" title="Kodachrome">Kodachrome 8 mm film</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>2 </td> <td>12/12° </td> <td>  </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td align="left">Gevacolor 8 mm reversal film, later Agfa Dia-Direct </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>16/13° </td> <td>  </td> <td>16 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>(16) </td> <td align="left">Agfacolor 8 mm reversal film </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>20/14° </td> <td>  </td> <td>20 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>(16) </td> <td align="left">Adox CMS 20 </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>3 </td> <td>25/15° </td> <td>  </td> <td>25 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>22 </td> <td align="left">Old Agfacolor, Kodachrome II and (later) <a href="/wiki/Kodachrome" title="Kodachrome">Kodachrome 25</a>, Efke 25 </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>32/16° </td> <td>  </td> <td>32 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>(32) </td> <td align="left">Kodak Panatomic-X </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>40/17° </td> <td>  </td> <td>40 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>(32) </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Kodachrome" title="Kodachrome">Kodachrome 40 (movie)</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>4 </td> <td>50/18° </td> <td>  </td> <td>50 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>45 </td> <td align="left">Fuji RVP (<a href="/wiki/Velvia" title="Velvia">Velvia</a>), Ilford Pan F Plus, Kodak Vision2 50D 5201 (movie), AGFA CT18, Efke 50, Polaroid type 55 </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>64/19° </td> <td>  </td> <td>64 </td> <td>19 </td> <td>(65) </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Kodachrome" title="Kodachrome">Kodachrome 64</a>, Ektachrome-X, Polaroid type 64T </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>80/20° </td> <td>  </td> <td>80 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>(65) </td> <td align="left">Ilford Commercial Ortho, Polaroid type 669 </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>5 </td> <td>100/21° </td> <td>  </td> <td>100 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>90 </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Kodacolor_(still_photography)" title="Kodacolor (still photography)">Kodacolor Gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kodak_T-MAX" title="Kodak T-MAX">Kodak T-MAX</a> 100 (TMX), Kodak <a href="/wiki/Ektar" title="Ektar">Ektar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fujichrome_Provia_100F" class="mw-redirect" title="Fujichrome Provia 100F">Fujichrome Provia 100F</a>, Efke 100, Fomapan/Arista 100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>125/22° </td> <td>  </td> <td>125 </td> <td>22 </td> <td>(130) </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Ilford_FP4%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilford FP4+">Ilford FP4+</a>, Kodak Plus-X Pan, Svema Color 125 </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>160/23° </td> <td>  </td> <td>160 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>(130) </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Fujicolor_Pro" title="Fujicolor Pro">Fujicolor Pro 160C/S</a>, Kodak High-Speed Ektachrome, <a href="/wiki/Kodak_Portra" title="Kodak Portra">Kodak Portra</a> 160NC and 160VC </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>6 </td> <td>200/24° </td> <td>  </td> <td>200 </td> <td>24 </td> <td>180 </td> <td align="left">Kodak Gold 200, <a href="/wiki/Fujifilm_Superia" title="Fujifilm Superia">Fujicolor Superia</a> 200, <a href="/wiki/Agfa_Scala_200x" class="mw-redirect" title="Agfa Scala 200x">Agfa Scala 200x</a>, Fomapan/Arista 200, Wittner Chrome 200D/Agfa Aviphot Chrome 200 PE1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>250/25° </td> <td>  </td> <td>250 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>(250) </td> <td align="left">Tasma Foto-250, Eastman Double-X </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>320/26° </td> <td>  </td> <td>320 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>(250) </td> <td align="left">Kodak Tri-X Pan Professional (TXP) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>7 </td> <td>400/27° </td> <td>  </td> <td>400 </td> <td>27 </td> <td>350 </td> <td align="left">Kodak T-Max 400 (TMY), <a href="/wiki/Kodak_Tri-X_400" class="mw-redirect" title="Kodak Tri-X 400">Kodak Tri-X 400</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kodak_Portra" title="Kodak Portra">Kodak Portra</a> 400, <a href="/wiki/Ilford_HP5%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilford HP5+">Ilford HP5+</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fujifilm_Superia_X-tra_400" class="mw-redirect" title="Fujifilm Superia X-tra 400">Fujifilm Superia X-tra 400</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fujichrome_Provia_400X" class="mw-redirect" title="Fujichrome Provia 400X">Fujichrome Provia 400X</a>, Fomapan/Arista 400 </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>500/28° </td> <td>  </td> <td>500 </td> <td>28 </td> <td>(500) </td> <td align="left">Kodak Vision3 500T 5219 (movie) </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>640/29° </td> <td>  </td> <td>640 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>(500) </td> <td align="left">Polaroid 600 </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>8 </td> <td>800/30° </td> <td>  </td> <td>800 </td> <td>30 </td> <td>700 </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Fujicolor_Pro" title="Fujicolor Pro">Fuji Pro 800Z</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instax" title="Instax">Fuji Instax</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>1000/31° </td> <td>  </td> <td>1000 </td> <td>31 </td> <td>(1000) </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Ilford_Delta" title="Ilford Delta">Ilford Delta</a> 3200, <a href="/wiki/Kodak_T-MAX" title="Kodak T-MAX">Kodak P3200 TMAX</a><a href="#cite_note-TMZ-50">[50]</a> Kodak Professional T-Max P3200<a href="#cite_note-new_TMZ-51">[51]</a> (see <a href="#Marketing_anomalies">Marketing anomalies</a> below) </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>1250/32° </td> <td>  </td> <td>1250 </td> <td>32 </td> <td>(1000) </td> <td align="left">Kodak Royal-X Panchromatic </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>9 </td> <td>1600/33° </td> <td>  </td> <td>1600 </td> <td>33 </td> <td>1400 (1440) </td> <td align="left">Fujicolor 1600, <a href="/wiki/Fujifilm_Superia" title="Fujifilm Superia">Fuji Natura 1600 and Superia 1600</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neopan#Neopan_1600_Professional_(Super_Presto)" title="Neopan">Neopan 1600</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>2000/34° </td> <td>  </td> <td>2000 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>(2000) </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>2500/35° </td> <td>  </td> <td>2500 </td> <td>35 </td> <td>(2000) </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>10 </td> <td>3200/36° </td> <td>  </td> <td>3200 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>2800 (2880) </td> <td align="left">Konica 3200, Polaroid type 667, Fujifilm FP-3000B, Kodak Tmax 3200 B&W<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#ref_Tmax_3200_is_not_actually_rated_to_ISO_standards_at_3200,_but_delivers_useful_results_when_exposed_at_3200.">^</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>4000/37° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>37 </td> <td>(4000) </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>5000/38° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>38 </td> <td>(4000) </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>11 </td> <td>6400/39° </td> <td>  </td> <td>6400<a href="#cite_note-ASA_1961_PH2-12_12500-52">[52]</a> </td> <td>39 </td> <td>5600 </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>8000/40°<a href="#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-48">[48]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>10000/41°<a href="#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>12 </td> <td>12500/42°<a href="#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>12800<a href="#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Canon_1966_Booster-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Canon_1978_Manual_A-1-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV-57">[57]</a> </td> <td>  12500<a href="#cite_note-ASA_1961_PH2-12_12500-52">[52]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td align="left">ISO speeds greater than 10000 have not been defined officially before ISO 12232:2019.<a href="#cite_note-ISO_12232_2019-42">[42]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>16000/43°<a href="#cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>20000/44°<a href="#cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td align="left">Polaroid type 612<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>13 </td> <td>25000/45°<a href="#cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>25600<a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV-57">[57]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>32000/46°<a href="#cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>40000/47°<a href="#cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>14 </td> <td>50000/48°<a href="#cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>51200<a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV-57">[57]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>64000/49°<a href="#cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>80000/50°<a href="#cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">[53]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>15 </td> <td>100000/51°<a href="#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-47">[47]</a> </td> <td>102400<a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV-57">[57]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>51<a href="#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-48">[48]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Nikon_D3s" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikon D3s">Nikon D3s</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canon_EOS-1D_Mark_IV" title="Canon EOS-1D Mark IV">Canon EOS-1D Mark IV</a> (2009) </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>125000/52° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>160000/53° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>16 </td> <td>200000/54° </td> <td>204800<a href="#cite_note-Canon_2011_ISO_EOS-1D_X-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2012_ISO_D4-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ricoh_2014_ISO_Pentax_645Z-61">[61]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Canon_EOS-1D_X" title="Canon EOS-1D X">Canon EOS-1D X</a> (2011), <a href="/wiki/Nikon_D4" title="Nikon D4">Nikon D4</a> (2012), <a href="/wiki/Pentax_645Z" title="Pentax 645Z">Pentax 645Z</a> (2014) </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>250000/55° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>320000/56° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>17 </td> <td>400000/57° </td> <td>409600<a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2014_ISO_D4s-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sony_2014_ISO_Alpha_ILCE-7S-63">[63]</a> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Nikon_D4s" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikon D4s">Nikon D4s</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sony_%CE%B1_ILCE-7S" class="mw-redirect" title="Sony α ILCE-7S">Sony α ILCE-7S</a> (2014), <a href="/wiki/Canon_EOS_1D_X_Mark_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon EOS 1D X Mark II">Canon EOS 1D X Mark II</a> (2016) </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>500000/58° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>640000/59° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>18 </td> <td>800000/60° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>1000000/61° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>1250000/62° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>19 </td> <td>1600000/63° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>2000000/64° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>2500000/65° </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#F2F2F2"> <td>20 </td> <td>3200000/66° </td> <td>3280000  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Nikon_D5" title="Nikon D5">Nikon D5</a> (2016) </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>4000000/67°<a href="#cite_note-Canon_2015_ISO_ME20F-SH-64">[64]</a> </td> <td>4560000 </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td align="left"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Canon_ME20F-SH&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canon ME20F-SH (page does not exist)">Canon ME20F-SH</a><a href="#cite_note-Canon_2015_ISO_ME20F-SH-64">[64]</a> (2015) </td></tr> <tr> <td>21 </td> <td> </td> <td>104857600 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td align="left"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.photonis.com/news/photonis-launches-inocturn-first-intensified-camera-combining-photonis-image-intensifier-tube">Photonis INocturn</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> (2021) </td></tr></tbody></table> Table notes: <ol><li>Speeds shown in bold under APEX, ISO, and ASA are values actually assigned in speed standards from the respective agencies; other values are calculated extensions to assigned speeds using the same progressions as for the assigned speeds.</li> <li>APEX Sv values 1 to 10 correspond with logarithmic ASA grades 1° to 10° found in ASA PH2.5-1960.</li> <li>ASA arithmetic speeds from 4 to 5 are taken from ANSI PH2.21-1979 (Table 1, p. 8).</li> <li>ASA arithmetic speeds from 6 to 3200 are taken from ANSI PH2.5-1979 (Table 1, p. 5) and ANSI PH2.27-1979.</li> <li>ISO arithmetic speeds from 4 to 3200 are taken from ISO 5800:1987 (Table "ISO speed scales", p. 4).</li> <li>ISO arithmetic speeds from 6 to 10000 are taken from ISO 12232:1998 (Table 1, p. 9).</li> <li>ISO 12232:1998 does not specify speeds greater than 10000. However, the upper limit for Snoise 10000 was given as 12500, suggesting that ISO may have envisioned a progression of 12500, 25000, 50000, and 100000, similar to that from 1250 to 10000. This was consistent with ASA PH2.12-1961.<a href="#cite_note-ASA_1961_PH2-12_12500-52">[52]</a> For digital cameras, Nikon, Canon, Sony, Pentax, and Fujifilm chose to express the greater speeds in an exact power-of-2 progression from the highest previously realized speed (6400) rather than rounding to an extension of the existing progression. Speed ratings greater than 10000 have finally been defined in ISO 12232:2019.<a href="#cite_note-ISO_12232_2019-42">[42]</a></li> <li>Most of the modern <a href="/wiki/35mm_format" class="mw-redirect" title="35mm format">35 mm film</a> SLRs support an automatic film speed range from ISO 25/15° to 5000/38° with <a href="/wiki/DX_encoding" title="DX encoding">DX-coded films</a>, or ISO 6/9° to 6400/39° manually (without utilizing <a href="/wiki/Exposure_compensation" title="Exposure compensation">exposure compensation</a>). The film speed range with support for <a href="/wiki/Through-the-lens_metering#Through_the_lens_flash_metering" title="Through-the-lens metering">TTL flash</a> is smaller, typically ISO 12/12° to 3200/36° or less.</li> <li>The Booster<a href="#cite_note-Canon_1966_Booster-54">[54]</a> accessory for the <a href="/wiki/Canon_Pellix_QL" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon Pellix QL">Canon Pellix QL</a> (1965) and <a href="/wiki/Canon_FT_QL" title="Canon FT QL">Canon FT QL</a> (1966) supported film speeds from 25 to 12800 ASA.</li> <li>The film speed dial of the <a href="/wiki/Canon_A-1" title="Canon A-1">Canon A-1</a> (1978) supported a speed range from 6 to 12800 ASA (but already called ISO film speeds in the manual).<a href="#cite_note-Canon_1978_Manual_A-1-55">[55]</a> On this camera exposure compensation and extreme film speeds were mutually exclusive.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Leica_R8" class="mw-redirect" title="Leica R8">Leica R8</a> (1996) and <a href="/wiki/Leica_R9" class="mw-redirect" title="Leica R9">R9</a> (2002) officially supported film speeds of 8000/40°, 10000/41° and 12800/42° (in the case of the R8) or 12500/42° (in the case of the R9), and utilizing its ±3 EV exposure compensation the range could be extended from ISO 0.8/0° to ISO 100000/51° in half exposure steps.<a href="#cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Digital camera manufacturers' arithmetic speeds from 12800 to 409600 are from specifications by Nikon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009,<a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2009_ISO_D3s-56">[56]</a> 204800 in 2012,<a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2012_ISO_D4-60">[60]</a> 409600 in 2014<a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2014_ISO_D4s-62">[62]</a>), Canon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009,<a href="#cite_note-Canon_2009_ISO_EOS-1D_Mk-IV-57">[57]</a> 204800 in 2011,<a href="#cite_note-Canon_2011_ISO_EOS-1D_X-59">[59]</a> 4000000 in 2015<a href="#cite_note-Canon_2015_ISO_ME20F-SH-64">[64]</a>), Sony (12800 in 2009,<a href="#cite_note-Sony_2009_ISO_Alpha_DSLR-A500-A550-66">[66]</a> 25600 in 2010,<a href="#cite_note-Sony_2010_ISO_Alpha_DSLR-A560-A580-67">[67]</a> 409600 in 2014<a href="#cite_note-Sony_2014_ISO_Alpha_ILCE-7S-63">[63]</a>), Pentax (12800, 25600, 51200 in 2010,<a href="#cite_note-Pentax_2010_ISO_K-5-68">[68]</a> 102400, 204800 in 2014<a href="#cite_note-Ricoh_2014_ISO_Pentax_645Z-61">[61]</a>), and Fujifilm (12800 in 2011<a href="#cite_note-Fujifilm_2011_ISO_X100-69">[69]</a>).</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historic_ASA_and_DIN_conversion">Historic ASA and DIN conversion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Historic ASA and DIN conversion">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg/300px-ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="429" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg/450px-ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg/600px-ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Historic film speed conversion table, 1952<a href="#cite_note-Singapore_1952-70">[70]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tessina_with_exposure_guide_plate.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Tessina_with_exposure_guide_plate.JPG/300px-Tessina_with_exposure_guide_plate.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Tessina_with_exposure_guide_plate.JPG/450px-Tessina_with_exposure_guide_plate.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Tessina_with_exposure_guide_plate.JPG/600px-Tessina_with_exposure_guide_plate.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1373" /></a><figcaption>Classic camera <a href="/wiki/Tessina" title="Tessina">Tessina</a> with exposure guide, late 1950s</figcaption></figure> As discussed in the ASA and DIN sections, the definition of the ASA and DIN scales changed several times in the 1950s up into the early 1960s making it necessary to convert between the different scales. Since the ISO system combines the newer ASA and DIN definitions, this conversion is also necessary when comparing older ASA and DIN scales with the ISO scale. The picture shows an ASA/DIN conversion in a 1952 photography book<a href="#cite_note-Singapore_1952-70">[70]</a> in which 21/10° DIN was converted to ASA 80 instead of ASA 100. Some classic camera's exposure guides show the old conversion as they were valid at the time of production, for example the exposure guide of the classic camera <a href="/wiki/Tessina" title="Tessina">Tessina</a> (since 1957), where 21/10° DIN is related to ASA 80, 18° DIN to ASA 40, etc. Users of classic cameras may become confused if they are not aware of the historic background of changing standards. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determining_film_speed">Determining film speed</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Determining film speed">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ISO6speedMethod.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/ISO6speedMethod.png/540px-ISO6speedMethod.png" decoding="async" width="540" height="375" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/ISO6speedMethod.png/810px-ISO6speedMethod.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/ISO6speedMethod.png/1080px-ISO6speedMethod.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption>ISO 6:1993 method of determining speed for black-and-white film.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amsterdam,_Red_Ligth_District,_Graffiti_1996.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Amsterdam%2C_Red_Ligth_District%2C_Graffiti_1996.jpg/200px-Amsterdam%2C_Red_Ligth_District%2C_Graffiti_1996.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Amsterdam%2C_Red_Ligth_District%2C_Graffiti_1996.jpg/300px-Amsterdam%2C_Red_Ligth_District%2C_Graffiti_1996.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Amsterdam%2C_Red_Ligth_District%2C_Graffiti_1996.jpg/400px-Amsterdam%2C_Red_Ligth_District%2C_Graffiti_1996.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2146" data-file-height="3425" /></a><figcaption>Recording film 1000 ASA, Red Light District, Amsterdam, Graffiti 1996</figcaption></figure> Film speed is found from a plot of <a href="/wiki/Optical_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical density">optical density</a> vs. log of exposure for the film, known as the D–log H curve or <a href="/wiki/Sensitometry" title="Sensitometry">Hurter–Driffield</a> curve. There typically are five regions in the curve: the base + fog, the toe, the linear region, the shoulder, and the overexposed region. For <a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">black-and-white</a> <a href="/wiki/Negative_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative film">negative film</a>, the "speed point" m is the point on the curve where density exceeds the base + fog density by 0.1 when the negative is developed so that a point n where the log of exposure is 1.3 units greater than the exposure at point m has a density 0.8 greater than the density at point m. The exposure Hm, in <a href="/wiki/Lux_second" class="mw-redirect" title="Lux second">lux-s</a>, is that for point m when the specified contrast condition is satisfied. The ISO arithmetic speed is determined from: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S={\frac {0.8\;{\text{lx⋅s}}}{H_{\mathrm {m} }}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>0.8</mn> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>lx⋅s</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S={\frac {0.8\;{\text{lx⋅s}}}{H_{\mathrm {m} }}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dfbfdbda618f3e635cc6d1a35c06bcff0ff00827" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:12.488ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S={\frac {0.8\;{\text{lx⋅s}}}{H_{\mathrm {m} }}}}"></dd></dl> This value is then rounded to the nearest standard speed in Table 1 of ISO 6:1993. Determining speed for color negative film is similar in concept but more complex because it involves separate curves for blue, green, and red. The film is processed according to the film manufacturer's recommendations rather than to a specified contrast. ISO speed for <a href="/wiki/Color_reversal_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Color reversal film">color reversal film</a> is determined from the middle rather than the threshold of the curve; it again involves separate curves for blue, green, and red, and the film is processed according to the film manufacturer's recommendations. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applying_film_speed">Applying film speed</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Applying film speed">edit</a>]</div> Film speed is used in the <a href="/wiki/Light_meter#Exposure_equations" title="Light meter">exposure equations</a> to find the appropriate exposure parameters. Four variables are available to the photographer to obtain the desired effect: <a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">lighting</a>, film speed, <a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">f-number</a> (aperture size), and <a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a> (exposure time). The equation may be expressed as ratios, or, by taking the logarithm (base 2) of both sides, by addition, using the APEX system, in which every increment of 1 is a doubling of exposure; this increment is commonly known as a "stop". The <a href="/wiki/F-number#Working_f-number" title="F-number">effective f-number</a> is proportional to the ratio between the lens <a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">focal length</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a> diameter, the diameter itself being proportional to the square root of the aperture area. Thus, a lens set to <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1207775266">.mw-parser-output span.fnumber,.mw-parser-output .fnumber-fallback{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;width:max-content}.mw-parser-output span.fnumber::first-letter,.mw-parser-output .fnumber-fallback .first-letter{font-style:italic;font-family:Trebuchet MS,Candara,Georgia,Calibri,Corbel,serif}</style><a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">f/1.4</a> allows twice as much light to strike the focal plane as a lens set to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1207775266">f/2. Therefore, each f-number factor of the square root of two (approximately 1.4) is also a stop, so lenses are typically marked in that progression: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1207775266">f/1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, etc.. The ISO arithmetic speed has a useful property for photographers without the equipment for taking a metered light reading. Correct exposure will usually be achieved for a frontlighted scene in bright sun if the aperture of the lens is set to f/16 and the shutter speed is the reciprocal of the ISO film speed (e.g. 1/100 second for 100 ISO film). This known as the <a href="/wiki/Sunny_16_rule" title="Sunny 16 rule">sunny 16 rule</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exposure_index">Exposure index</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Exposure index">edit</a>]</div> Exposure index, or EI, refers to speed rating assigned to a particular film and shooting situation in variance to the film's actual speed. It is used to compensate for equipment calibration inaccuracies or process variables, or to achieve certain effects. The exposure index may simply be called the speed setting, as compared to the speed rating. For example, a photographer may rate an ISO 400 film at EI 800 and then use <a href="/wiki/Push_processing" title="Push processing">push processing</a> to obtain printable negatives in low-light conditions. The film has been exposed at EI 800. Another example occurs where a camera's <a href="/wiki/Shutter_(photography)" title="Shutter (photography)">shutter</a> is miscalibrated and consistently overexposes or underexposes the film; similarly, a <a href="/wiki/Light_meter" title="Light meter">light meter</a> may be inaccurate. One may adjust the EI setting accordingly in order to compensate for these defects and consistently produce correctly exposed negatives. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reciprocity">Reciprocity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Reciprocity">edit</a>]</div> Upon exposure, the amount of light energy that reaches the film determines the effect upon the emulsion. If the brightness of the light is multiplied by a factor and the exposure of the film decreased by the same factor by varying the camera's <a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a> and aperture, so that the energy received is the same, the film will be developed to the same density. This rule is called <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" title="Reciprocity (photography)">reciprocity</a>. The systems for determining the sensitivity for an emulsion are possible because reciprocity holds over a wide range of customary conditions. In practice, reciprocity works reasonably well for normal photographic films for the range of exposures between 1/1000 second to 1/2 second. However, this relationship breaks down outside these limits, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)#Reciprocity_failure" title="Reciprocity (photography)">reciprocity failure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lambrecht_2003_Way-Beyond-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Film_sensitivity_and_grain">Film sensitivity and grain</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Film sensitivity and grain">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Film_grain" title="Film grain">Film grain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg/220px-Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg/330px-Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Grainy high-speed B&W film negative</figcaption></figure> The size of <a href="/wiki/Silver_halide" title="Silver halide">silver halide</a> grains in the <a href="/wiki/Emulsion" title="Emulsion">emulsion</a> affects film sensitivity, which is related to <a href="/wiki/Film_grain" title="Film grain">granularity</a> because larger grains give film greater sensitivity to light. Fine-grain film, such as film designed for portraiture or copying <a href="/wiki/Original_camera_negative" title="Original camera negative">original camera negatives</a>, is relatively insensitive, or "slow", because it requires brighter light or a longer exposure than a "fast" film. Fast films, used for photographing in low light or capturing high-speed motion, produce comparatively grainy images. <a href="/wiki/Eastman_Kodak" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastman Kodak">Kodak</a> has defined a "Print Grain Index" (PGI) to characterize film grain (color negative films only), based on perceptual <a href="/wiki/Just-noticeable_difference" title="Just-noticeable difference">just-noticeable difference</a> of graininess in prints. They also define "granularity", a measurement of grain using an RMS measurement of density fluctuations in uniformly exposed film, measured with a microdensitometer with 48 micrometre aperture.<a href="#cite_note-Kodak_2000_Print-Grain-Index-72">[72]</a> Granularity varies with exposure — underexposed film looks grainier than overexposed film. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marketing_anomalies">Marketing anomalies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Marketing anomalies">edit</a>]</div> Some high-speed black-and-white films, such as <a href="/wiki/Ilford_Delta" title="Ilford Delta">Ilford Delta</a> 3200, <a href="/wiki/Kodak_T-MAX" title="Kodak T-MAX">P3200 T-Max</a>, and T-MAX P3200 are marketed with film speeds in excess of their true ISO speed as determined using the ISO testing method. According to the respective data sheets, the Ilford product is actually an ISO 1000 film,<a href="#cite_note-Ilford_2010_Delta3200-73">[73]</a> while the Kodak film's speed is nominally 800 to 1000 ISO.<a href="#cite_note-TMZ-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-new_TMZ-51">[51]</a> The manufacturers do not indicate that the 3200 number is an ISO rating on their packaging.<a href="#cite_note-Ilford_2006_Delta-3200-74">[74]</a> Kodak and Fuji also marketed E6 films designed for pushing (hence the "P" prefix), such as Ektachrome P800/1600 and Fujichrome P1600, both with a base speed of ISO 400. The <a href="/wiki/DX_encoding" title="DX encoding">DX codes</a> on the film cartridges indicate the marketed film speed (i.e. 3200), not the ISO speed, in order to automate shooting and development. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Digital_camera_ISO_speed_and_exposure_index">Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Film_speed" title="Special:EditPage/Film speed">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (October 2016) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CCD_Image_sensor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/CCD_Image_sensor.jpg/300px-CCD_Image_sensor.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/CCD_Image_sensor.jpg/450px-CCD_Image_sensor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/CCD_Image_sensor.jpg/600px-CCD_Image_sensor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a> image sensor, 2/3 inch size</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital camera systems</a>, an arbitrary relationship between exposure and sensor data values can be achieved by setting the <a href="/wiki/Signal_gain" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal gain">signal gain</a> of the sensor. The relationship between the sensor data values and the lightness of the finished image is also arbitrary, depending on the parameters chosen for the interpretation of the sensor data into an image <a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">color space</a> such as <a href="/wiki/SRGB" title="SRGB">sRGB</a>. For digital photo cameras ("digital still cameras"), an <a href="#EI">exposure index</a> (EI) rating—commonly called ISO setting—is specified by the manufacturer such that the sRGB image files produced by the camera will have a lightness similar to what would be obtained with film of the same EI rating at the same exposure. The usual design is that the camera's parameters for interpreting the sensor data values into sRGB values are fixed, and a number of different EI choices are accommodated by varying the sensor's signal gain in the analog realm, prior to conversion to digital. Some camera designs provide at least some EI choices by adjusting the sensor's signal gain in the digital realm ("expanded ISO"). A few camera designs also provide EI adjustment through a choice of lightness parameters for the interpretation of sensor data values into sRGB; this variation allows different tradeoffs between the range of highlights that can be captured and the amount of noise introduced into the shadow areas of the photo. Digital cameras have far surpassed film in terms of sensitivity to light, with <a href="#ISO">ISO</a> equivalent speeds of up to 4,560,000, a number that is unfathomable in the realm of conventional film photography. Faster <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a>, as well as advances in software noise reduction techniques allow this type of processing to be executed the moment the photo is captured, allowing photographers to store images that have a higher level of refinement and would have been prohibitively time-consuming to process with earlier generations of digital camera hardware. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_ISO_(International_Organization_of_Standards)_12232:2019_standard">The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard">edit</a>]</div> The ISO standard ISO 12232:2006<a href="#cite_note-iso12232-75">[75]</a> gave digital still camera manufacturers a choice of five different techniques for determining the exposure index rating at each sensitivity setting provided by a particular camera model. Three of the techniques in ISO 12232:2006 were carried over from the 1998 version of the standard, while two new techniques allowing for measurement of JPEG output files were introduced from <a href="/wiki/Camera_%26_Imaging_Products_Association" title="Camera & Imaging Products Association">CIPA</a> DC-004.<a href="#cite_note-CIPA_DC-004-76">[76]</a> Depending on the technique selected, the exposure index rating could depend on the sensor sensitivity, the sensor noise, and the appearance of the resulting image. The standard specified the measurement of light sensitivity of the entire digital camera system and not of individual components such as digital sensors, although Kodak has reported<a href="#cite_note-Kodak_Sensor_ISO-77">[77]</a> using a variation to characterize the sensitivity of two of their sensors in 2001. The Recommended Exposure Index (REI) technique, new in the 2006 version of the standard, allows the manufacturer to specify a camera model's <a href="#EI">EI</a> choices arbitrarily. The choices are based solely on the manufacturer's opinion of what EI values produce well-exposed <a href="/wiki/SRGB" title="SRGB">sRGB</a> images at the various sensor sensitivity settings. This is the only technique available under the standard for output formats that are not in the sRGB color space. This is also the only technique available under the standard when <a href="/wiki/Metering_mode#Multi-zone_metering" title="Metering mode">multi-zone metering</a> (also called pattern metering) is used. The Standard Output Sensitivity (SOS) technique, also new in the 2006 version of the standard, effectively specifies that the average level in the sRGB image must be 18% gray plus or minus 1/3 stop when the exposure is controlled by an automatic exposure control system calibrated per <a href="/wiki/Light_Meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Light Meter">ISO 2721</a> and set to the EI with no <a href="/wiki/Exposure_compensation" title="Exposure compensation">exposure compensation</a>. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images—typically <a href="/wiki/JPEG" title="JPEG">JPEG</a>—and not to output files in <a href="/wiki/Raw_image_format" title="Raw image format">raw image format</a>. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used. The CIPA DC-004 standard requires that Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras use either the REI or SOS techniques, and DC-008<a href="#cite_note-CIPA_DC-008-78">[78]</a> updates the <a href="/wiki/Exchangeable_image_file_format" class="mw-redirect" title="Exchangeable image file format">Exif</a> specification to differentiate between these values. Consequently, the three EI techniques carried over from ISO 12232:1998 are not widely used in recent camera models (approximately 2007 and later). As those earlier techniques did not allow for measurement from images produced with <a href="/wiki/Lossy_compression" title="Lossy compression">lossy compression</a>, they cannot be used at all on cameras that produce images only in JPEG format. The saturation-based (SAT or Ssat) technique is closely related to the SOS technique, with the sRGB output level being measured at 100% white rather than 18% gray. The SOS value is effectively 0.704 times the saturation-based value.<a href="#cite_note-Kerr_2007_Digital-Camera-Sensitivity-79">[79]</a> Because the output level is measured in the <a href="/wiki/SRGB" title="SRGB">sRGB</a> output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images—typically <a href="/wiki/Tagged_Image_File_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Tagged Image File Format">TIFF</a>—and not to output files in raw image format.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used. The two noise-based techniques have rarely been used for consumer digital still cameras.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] These techniques specify the highest EI that can be used while still providing either an "excellent" picture or a "usable" picture depending on the technique chosen.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] An update to this standard has been published as ISO 12232:2019, defining a wider range of ISO speeds.<a href="#cite_note-ISO_12232_2019-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gasiorowski-Denis_2019_ISO12232-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measurements_and_calculations">Measurements and calculations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Measurements and calculations">edit</a>]</div> ISO speed ratings of a digital camera are based on the properties of the sensor and the image processing done in the camera, and are expressed in terms of the luminous exposure H (in <a href="/wiki/Lux" title="Lux">lux</a> <a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">seconds</a>) arriving at the sensor. For a typical camera lens with an effective <a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">focal length</a> f that is much smaller than the distance between the camera and the photographed scene, H is given by <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H={\frac {qLt}{N^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>H</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>q</mi> <mi>L</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H={\frac {qLt}{N^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/39f5086cb1e88aa86a9167794d325092a72508a3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:9.49ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H={\frac {qLt}{N^{2}}}}">,</dd></dl> where L is the <a href="/wiki/Luminance" title="Luminance">luminance</a> of the scene (in <a href="/wiki/Candela" title="Candela">candela</a> per <a href="/wiki/Metre" title="Metre">m</a>²), t is the exposure time (in seconds), N is the aperture f-number, and <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q={\frac {\pi }{4}}T\,v(\theta )\,\cos ^{4}\theta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>π</mi> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>T</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>v</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mi>cos</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>θ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q={\frac {\pi }{4}}T\,v(\theta )\,\cos ^{4}\theta }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/743b9766ff200ff3eefbcf67b0d43d570f0c1ad5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:18.804ex; height:4.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q={\frac {\pi }{4}}T\,v(\theta )\,\cos ^{4}\theta }"></dd></dl> is a factor depending on the <a href="/wiki/Transmittance" title="Transmittance">transmittance</a> T of the lens, the <a href="/wiki/Vignetting" title="Vignetting">vignetting</a> factor v(θ), and the angle θ relative to the axis of the lens. A typical value is q = 0.65, based on θ = 10°, T = 0.9, and v = 0.98.<a href="#cite_note-ISO-12232_1998-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Saturation-based_speed">Saturation-based speed</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Saturation-based speed">edit</a>]</div> The saturation-based speed is defined as <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sat} }={\frac {78\;{\text{lx⋅s}}}{H_{\mathrm {sat} }}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>78</mn> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>lx⋅s</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sat} }={\frac {78\;{\text{lx⋅s}}}{H_{\mathrm {sat} }}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e006030696e82b462cd3ce563e4eb0ef8e7483b9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:14.109ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sat} }={\frac {78\;{\text{lx⋅s}}}{H_{\mathrm {sat} }}}}">,</dd></dl> where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H_{\mathrm {sat} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H_{\mathrm {sat} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e82ed0bcce87268e06d59cef404d25b284ef958b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.273ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H_{\mathrm {sat} }}"> is the maximum possible exposure that does not lead to a clipped or bloomed camera output. Typically, the lower limit of the saturation speed is determined by the sensor itself, but with the <a href="/wiki/Gain_(electronics)" title="Gain (electronics)">gain</a> of the amplifier between the sensor and the <a href="/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter" title="Analog-to-digital converter">analog-to-digital converter</a>, the saturation speed can be increased. The factor 78 is chosen such that exposure settings based on a standard <a href="/wiki/Light_meter" title="Light meter">light meter</a> and an 18-percent reflective surface will result in an image with a grey level of 18%/√2 = 12.7% of saturation. The factor √2 indicates that there is half a stop of headroom to deal with <a href="/wiki/Specular_reflection" title="Specular reflection">specular reflections</a> that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting diffuse white surface.<a href="#cite_note-iso12232-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noise-based_speed">Noise-based speed</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Noise-based speed">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Signal_to_noise_ratio_(imaging)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal to noise ratio (imaging)">Signal to noise ratio (imaging)</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ISO.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/ISO.gif/220px-ISO.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/ISO.gif/330px-ISO.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/ISO.gif/440px-ISO.gif 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Digital noise at 3200 ISO vs. 100 ISO</figcaption></figure> The noise-based speed is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a> on individual <a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">pixels</a>. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 ("excellent image quality") and the 10:1 ("acceptable image quality") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25 cm (9.8 inch) distance. The noise is defined as the <a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">standard deviation</a> of a weighted average of the <a href="/wiki/Luminance" title="Luminance">luminance</a> and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter.<a href="#cite_note-iso12232-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Standard_output_sensitivity_(SOS)">Standard output sensitivity (SOS)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Standard output sensitivity (SOS)">edit</a>]</div> In addition to the above speed ratings, the standard also defines the standard output sensitivity (SOS), how the exposure is related to the digital pixel values in the output image. It is defined as <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sos} }={\frac {10\;{\text{lx⋅s}}}{H_{\mathrm {sos} }}},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>10</mn> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>lx⋅s</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sos} }={\frac {10\;{\text{lx⋅s}}}{H_{\mathrm {sos} }}},}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/077c7eea138714ac6c4afe71f7ccbb55dc7c80d5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:14.764ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sos} }={\frac {10\;{\text{lx⋅s}}}{H_{\mathrm {sos} }}},}"></dd></dl> where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H_{\mathrm {sos} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H_{\mathrm {sos} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/df52097ebd5f073f42c7731f054ce47832e76a68" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.281ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H_{\mathrm {sos} }}"> is the exposure that will lead to values of 118 in 8-bit pixels, which is 18 percent of the saturation value in images encoded as <a href="/wiki/SRGB" title="SRGB">sRGB</a> or with <a href="/wiki/Gamma_correction" title="Gamma correction">gamma</a> = 2.2.<a href="#cite_note-iso12232-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Discussion">Discussion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Discussion">edit</a>]</div> The standard specifies how speed ratings should be reported by the camera. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is higher than the saturation-based speed, the noise-based speed should be reported, rounded downwards to a standard value (e.g. 200, 250, 320, or 400). The rationale is that exposure according to the lower saturation-based speed would not result in a visibly better image. In addition, an exposure latitude can be specified, ranging from the saturation-based speed to the 10:1 noise-based speed. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is lower than the saturation-based speed, or undefined because of high noise, the saturation-based speed is specified, rounded upwards to a standard value, because using the noise-based speed would lead to overexposed images. The camera may also report the SOS-based speed (explicitly as being an SOS speed), rounded to the nearest standard speed rating.<a href="#cite_note-iso12232-75">[75]</a> For example, a camera sensor may have the following properties: <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{40:1}=107}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>40</mn> <mo>:</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>107</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{40:1}=107}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e4face4b09315fe6e550652037de3f81d3a1c3a8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.166ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{40:1}=107}">, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{10:1}=1688}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>10</mn> <mo>:</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1688</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{10:1}=1688}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/991b06d30e6156ac29db3148e7cd25025a9ea3b8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:12.329ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{10:1}=1688}">, and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sat} }=49}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>49</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sat} }=49}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a50cb8a8a704724559f013611f231967854532d5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.19ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sat} }=49}">. According to the standard, the camera should report its sensitivity as <dl><dd>ISO 100 (daylight)</dd> <dd>ISO speed latitude 50–1600</dd> <dd>ISO 100 (SOS, daylight).</dd></dl> The SOS rating could be user controlled. For a different camera with a noisier sensor, the properties might be <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{40:1}=40}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>40</mn> <mo>:</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>40</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{40:1}=40}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d543fcfacfd8887c306cd236cb94d3678e096355" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10.004ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{40:1}=40}">, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{10:1}=800}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>10</mn> <mo>:</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>800</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{10:1}=800}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/954774a7bcbaa64ffdd5d168cf7bdec85a4da48c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.166ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{10:1}=800}">, and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sat} }=200}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>200</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sat} }=200}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/962d5bf3c70df1a29aa412830756ae46360c038e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10.353ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{\mathrm {sat} }=200}">. In this case, the camera should report <dl><dd>ISO 200 (daylight),</dd></dl> as well as a user-adjustable SOS value. In all cases, the camera should indicate for the white balance setting for which the speed rating applies, such as daylight or tungsten (<a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescent light">incandescent light</a>).<a href="#cite_note-iso12232-75">[75]</a> Despite these detailed standard definitions, cameras typically do not clearly indicate whether the user "ISO" setting refers to the noise-based speed, saturation-based speed, or the specified output sensitivity, or even some made-up number for marketing purposes. Because the 1998 version of ISO 12232 did not permit measurement of camera output that had lossy compression, it was not possible to correctly apply any of those measurements to cameras that did not produce <a href="/wiki/SRGB" title="SRGB">sRGB</a> files in an uncompressed format such as <a href="/wiki/Tagged_Image_File_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Tagged Image File Format">TIFF</a>. Following the publication of CIPA DC-004 in 2006, Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras are required to specify whether a sensitivity rating is REI or SOS.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A greater SOS setting for a given sensor comes with some loss of image quality, just like with analog film. However, this loss is visible as image noise rather than <a href="/wiki/Film_grain" title="Film grain">grain</a>. APS- and 35 mm-sized digital <a href="/wiki/Image_sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Image sensors">image sensors</a>, both CMOS and CCD based, do not produce significant noise until about ISO 1600.<a href="#cite_note-D200-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frame_rate" title="Frame rate">Frame rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_speed" title="Lens speed">Lens speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preferred_number" title="Preferred number">Preferred number</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAllbright1991" class="citation cs2">Allbright, G S (1991), Emulsion Speed Rating Systems, The Journal of Photographic Science, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00223638.1991.11737126">10.1080/00223638.1991.11737126</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emulsion+Speed+Rating+Systems&rft.pub=The+Journal+of+Photographic+Science&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00223638.1991.11737126&rft.aulast=Allbright&rft.aufirst=G+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobson1978" class="citation cs2">Jacobson, Ralph E (1978), The Manual of Photography (Seventh Edition), Focal Press, p. 410</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manual+of+Photography+%28Seventh+Edition%29&rft.pages=410&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Jacobson&rft.aufirst=Ralph+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DIN_1934_DIN-4512_Introduction_3-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">DIN 4512:1934-01. Photographische Sensitometrie, Bestimmung der optischen Dichte (in German). <a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Normenausschu%C3%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutscher Normenausschuß">Deutscher Normenausschuß</a> (DNA). 1934. <q>In the introduction to the standard, <a href="#Warnerke">Warnerke</a>'s system is described as the first practical system used to measure emulsion speeds, but as being unreliable. In regard to Scheiner's system, it states: "Auch hier erwies sich nach einiger Zeit, daß das Meßverfahren trotz der von <a href="/wiki/Josef_Maria_Eder" title="Josef Maria Eder">Eder</a> vorgenommenen Abänderungen den Anforderungen der Praxis nicht vollständig Rechnung zu tragen vermag, so daß jeder Hersteller […] nach seinem eigenen System die Empfindlichkeit in <a href="#Scheiner">Scheinergraden</a> ermitteln muß, häufig in sehr primitiver Weise durch […] Vergleich mit Erzeugnissen anderer Hersteller. Die so ermittelten Gebrauchs-Scheinergrade haben mit dem ursprünglich […] ausgearbeiteten Meßverfahren nach Scheiner sachlich nichts mehr zu tun. […] Als Folge hiervon ist allmählich eine Inflation in Empfindlichkeitsgraden eingetreten, für die das Scheiner'sche Verfahren nichts mehr als den Namen hergibt."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=DIN+4512%3A1934-01.+Photographische+Sensitometrie%2C+Bestimmung+der+optischen+Dichte&rft.pub=Deutscher+Normenausschu%C3%9F+%28DNA%29&rft.date=1934&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RPS_2011_Progress_Medal_1882-4"><a href="#cite_ref-RPS_2011_Progress_Medal_1882_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Progress medal. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Photographic_Society" title="Royal Photographic Society">Royal Photographic Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Progress+medal&rft.pub=Royal+Photographic+Society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988">, and web-page listing people, who have received this award since 1878: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120822030453/http://www.rps.org/annual-awards/Progress-Medal">"Progress medal"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rps.org/annual-awards/Progress-medal">the original</a> on 2012-08-22. Retrieved 2013-04-19. <q>Instituted in 1878, this medal is awarded in recognition of any invention, research, publication or other contribution which has resulted in an important advance in the scientific or technological development of photography or imaging in the widest sense. This award also carries with it an Honorary Fellowship of The Society. […] 1882 <a href="/wiki/Leon_Warnerke" title="Leon Warnerke">Leon Warnerke</a> […] 1884 <a href="/wiki/Josef_Maria_Eder" title="Josef Maria Eder">J. M. Eder</a> […] 1898 <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Hurter" title="Ferdinand Hurter">Ferdinand Hurter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vero_Charles_Driffield" title="Vero Charles Driffield">Vero C. Driffield</a> […] 1910 <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Watkins" title="Alfred Watkins">Alfred Watkins</a> […] 1912 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_Chapman_Jones&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry Chapman Jones (page does not exist)">H. Chapman Jones</a> […] 1948 <a href="/wiki/Loyd_Ancile_Jones" class="mw-redirect" title="Loyd Ancile Jones">Loyd A. Jones</a> […]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Progress+medal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rps.org%2Fannual-awards%2FProgress-medal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1911_Cyclopaedia_5-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1911" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Bernhard Edward, ed. (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924030707867">Cassell's cyclopaedia of photography</a>. London, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cassell_(publisher)" title="Cassell (publisher)">Cassell</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cassell%27s+cyclopaedia+of+photography&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=1911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924030707867&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> (Reprinted as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunnellSobieszek1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Bunnell" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Bunnell">Bunnell, Peter C.</a>; Sobieszek, Robert A. (1974). introduction. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cassellscyclopae0000jone/page/472">Encyclopaedia of photography – With a New Picture Portfolio</a>. By Jones, Bernhard Edward. New York, USA: Arno Press Inc. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cassellscyclopae0000jone/page/472">472–473</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-405-04922-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-405-04922-6"><bdi>0-405-04922-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=introduction&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+photography+%E2%80%93+With+a+New+Picture+Portfolio&rft.place=New+York%2C+USA&rft.pages=472-473&rft.pub=Arno+Press+Inc.&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-405-04922-6&rft.aulast=Bunnell&rft.aufirst=Peter+C.&rft.au=Sobieszek%2C+Robert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcassellscyclopae0000jone%2Fpage%2F472&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988">: 'Soon after the introduction of the gelatine dry plate, it was usual to express the speed of the emulsion as "x times", which meant that it was x times the speed of a wet collodion plate. This speed was no fixed quantity, and the expression consequently meant but little. <a href="#Warnerke">Warnerke</a> introduced a sensitometer, consisting of a series of numbered squares with increasing quantities of opaque pigment. The plate to be tested was placed in contact with this, and an exposure made to light emanating from a tablet of luminous paint, excited by burning magnesium ribbon. After development and fixation the last number visible was taken as the speed of the plate. The chief objections to this method were that practically no two numbered tablets agreed, that the pigment possessed selective spectral absorption, and that the luminosity of the tablet varied considerably with the lapse of time between its excitation and the exposure of the plate. […] <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_Chapman_Jones&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry Chapman Jones (page does not exist)">Chapman Jones</a> has introduced a modified Warnerke tablet containing a series of twenty-five graduated densities, a series of coloured squares, and a strip of neutral grey, all five being of approximately equal luminosity, and a series of four squares passing a definite portion of the spectrum; finally, there is a square of a line design, over which is superposed a half-tone negative. This "plate tester", […] is used with a standard candle as the source of light, and is useful for rough tests of both plates and printing papers.') </li> <li id="cite_note-Hasluck_1905_Jones-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Hasluck_1905_Jones_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasluck1905" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Nooncree_Hasluck" title="Paul Nooncree Hasluck">Hasluck, Paul Nooncree</a> (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bookofphotograph00hasl">The Book of Photography: Practical, Theoretical and Applied</a>. <q>THE CHAPMAN JONES PLATE TESTER. A convenient means of testing the colour rendering and other properties of a sensitive plate, or for ascertaining the effect of various colour screens, is afforded by the plate tester devised by Mr. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_Chapman_Jones&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry Chapman Jones (page does not exist)">Chapman Jones</a> in 1900. This consists of a number of graduated squares by which the sensitiveness and range of gradation of the plate examined may be determined; a series of squares of different colours and mixtures of colours of equal visual intensity, which will indicate the colour sensitiveness; and a strip of uncoloured space for comparison purposes. It is simply necessary to expose the plate being tested, in contact with the screen, to the light of a standard candle. A suitable frame and stand are supplied for the purpose; any other light may, however, be used if desired. The plate is then developed, when an examination of the negative will yield the desired information. The idea of the coloured squares is based on that of the <a href="/wiki/William_de_Wiveleslie_Abney" title="William de Wiveleslie Abney">Abney</a> Colour Sensitometer, where three or four squares of coloured and one of uncoloured glass are brought to an equal visual intensity by backing where necessary with squares of exposed celluloid film developed to suitable density.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Photography%3A+Practical%2C+Theoretical+and+Applied&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Hasluck&rft.aufirst=Paul+Nooncree&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbookofphotograph00hasl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sowerby-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sowerby_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sowerby_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sowerby_7-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay1961" class="citation book cs1">Lindsay, Arthur (1961). Sowerby, MacRae (ed.). Dictionary of Photography: A Reference Book for Amateur and Professional Photographers (19th ed.). London, UK: <a href="/wiki/Iliffe_Books_Ltd." class="mw-redirect" title="Iliffe Books Ltd.">Iliffe Books Ltd.</a> pp. 582–589.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Photography%3A+A+Reference+Book+for+Amateur+and+Professional+Photographers&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=582-589&rft.edition=19th&rft.pub=Iliffe+Books+Ltd.&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Konovalov_2007-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Konovalov_2007_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKonovalov2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leonid_Konovalov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leonid Konovalov (page does not exist)">Konovalov, Leonid</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media-shoot.ru/books/Konovalov-Harakteristi4eskaja_krivaja.pdf">Characteristic curve</a> (PDF). Moscow: <a href="/wiki/%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="Всероссийский государственный институт кинематографии">Всероссийский государственный институт кинематографии</a> (ВГИК). p. 24. Retrieved 2012-11-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Characteristic+curve&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82+%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8+%28%D0%92%D0%93%D0%98%D0%9A%29&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Konovalov&rft.aufirst=Leonid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia-shoot.ru%2Fbooks%2FKonovalov-Harakteristi4eskaja_krivaja.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Riat_2006-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Riat_2006_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riat_2006_9-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiat2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Riat, Martin (Spring 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.riat-serra.org/g_tech_3.pdf">Graphische Techniken – Eine Einführung in die verschiedenen Techniken und ihre Geschichte</a> (PDF) (E-Book) (in German) (3rd German ed.). Burriana.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Graphische+Techniken+%E2%80%93+Eine+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+verschiedenen+Techniken+und+ihre+Geschichte&rft.place=Burriana&rft.edition=3rd+German&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Riat&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.riat-serra.org%2Fg_tech_3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>), based on a Spanish book: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiat1983" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Riat, Martin (September 1983). Tecniques Grafiques: Una Introduccio a Les Diferents Tecniques I a La Seva Historia (in Spanish) (1st ed.). Aubert. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-86243-00-9" title="Special:BookSources/84-86243-00-9"><bdi>84-86243-00-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tecniques+Grafiques%3A+Una+Introduccio+a+Les+Diferents+Tecniques+I+a+La+Seva+Historia&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Aubert&rft.date=1983-09&rft.isbn=84-86243-00-9&rft.aulast=Riat&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sheppard_1932_Dresden-Congress_10-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheppard1932" class="citation journal cs1">Sheppard, Samuel Edward (February 1932). Harris, Sylvan (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/journalofsociety18socirich">"Resumé of the Proceedings of the Dresden International Photographic Congress"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Society_of_Motion_Picture_Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers">Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers</a>. XVIII (2). <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Motion_Picture_Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Motion Picture Engineers">Society of Motion Picture Engineers</a> (SMPE): 232–242. <q>[…] The 8th International Congress of Photography was held at Dresden, Germany, from [3 to 8] August […] 1931, inclusive. […] In regard to sensitometric standardization, several important developments occurred. First, the other national committees on sensitometric standardization accepted the light source and filter proposed by the American Committee at Paris, 1925, and accepted by the British in 1928. In the meantime, no definite agreement had been reached, nor indeed had very definite proposals been made on the subjects of sensitometers or exposure meters, development, density measurement, and methods of expressing sensitometric results, although much discussion and controversy on this subject had taken place. At the present Congress, a body of recommendations for sensitometric standards was put forward by the Deutschen Normenausschusses [für] Phototechnik, which endeavored to cover the latter questions and bring the subject of sensitometric standardization into the industrial field. It was stated by the German committee that this action had been forced on them by difficulties arising from indiscriminate and uncontrolled placing of speed numbers on photographic sensitive goods, a situation which was summarized at the Congress by the term "<a href="#Scheiner">Scheiner</a>-inflation". The gist of these recommendations was as follows: (a) Acceptance of the light source and daylight filter as proposed by the American commission. (b) As exposure meter, a density step-wedge combined with a drop shutter accurate to 1/20 second. (c) Brush development in a tray with a prescribed solution of metol-hydroquinone according to a so-called "optimal" development. (d) Expression of the sensitivity by that illumination at which a density of 0.1 in excess of fog is reached. (e) Density measurement shall be carried out in diffused light according to details to be discussed later. These proposals aroused a very lively discussion. The American and the British delegations criticized the proposals both as a whole and in detail. As a whole they considered that the time was not ripe for application of sensitometric standards to industrial usage. In matters of detail they criticized the proposed employment of a step-wedge, and the particular sensitivity number proposed. The latter approaches very roughly the idea of an exposure for minimum gradient, but even such a number is not adequate for certain photographic uses of certain materials. The upshot of the discussion was that the German proposals in somewhat modified form are to be submitted simply as proposals of the German committee for sensitometric standardization to the various national committees for definite expression of opinion within six months of the expiration of the Congress. Further, in case of general approval of these recommendations by the other national committees, that a small International Committee on Sensitometric Standardization shall, within a further period of six months, work out a body of sensitometric practices for commercial usage.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Society+of+Motion+Picture+Engineers&rft.atitle=Resum%C3%A9+of+the+Proceedings+of+the+Dresden+International+Photographic+Congress&rft.volume=XVIII&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=232-242&rft.date=1932-02&rft.aulast=Sheppard&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjournalofsociety18socirich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biltz_1933_DIN-Grade-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Biltz_1933_DIN-Grade_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiltz1933" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Biltz, Martin (October 1933). "Über DIN-Grade, das neue deutsche Maß der photographischen Empfindlichkeit". <a href="/wiki/Naturwissenschaften_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturwissenschaften (journal)">Naturwissenschaften</a> (in German). 21 (41). <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer</a>: 734–736. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01504271">10.1007/BF01504271</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-1042">0028-1042</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31974234">31974234</a>. <q>[…] Im folgenden soll an Hand der seither gebräuchlichen sensitometrischen Systeme nach <a href="/wiki/Julius_Scheiner" title="Julius Scheiner">Scheiner</a> […], nach <a href="/wiki/Hurter_and_Driffield" title="Hurter and Driffield">Hurter und Driffield</a> […] und nach <a href="/wiki/Josef_Maria_Eder" title="Josef Maria Eder">Eder</a> und <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Hecht&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Hecht (page does not exist)">Hecht</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Hecht" class="extiw" title="de:Walter Hecht">de</a>] […] kurz gezeigt werden, wie man bisher verfahren ist. Im Anschlusse daran wird das neue vom Deutschen Normenausschusse für Phototechnik auf Empfehlung des Ausschusses für Sensitometrie der Deutschen Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung vorgeschlagene System […] betrachtet werden. […]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Naturwissenschaften&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+DIN-Grade%2C+das+neue+deutsche+Ma%C3%9F+der+photographischen+Empfindlichkeit&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=41&rft.pages=734-736&rft.date=1933-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31974234%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0028-1042&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01504271&rft.aulast=Biltz&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heisenberg_1930_Tagung-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Heisenberg_1930_Tagung_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeisenberg1930" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Heisenberg" class="extiw" title="de:Erwin Heisenberg">Heisenberg, Erwin</a> [in German] (December 1930). "Mitteilungen aus verschiedenen Gebieten – Bericht über die Gründung und erste Tagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung (23. bis 25. Mai 1930)". <a href="/wiki/Naturwissenschaften_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturwissenschaften (journal)">Naturwissenschaften</a> (in German). 18 (52). <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer</a>: 1130–1131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01492990">10.1007/BF01492990</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-1042">0028-1042</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42242680">42242680</a>. <q>[…] Weitere 3 Vorträge von Prof. Dr. R. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Thomas_Dietrich_Luther&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Thomas Dietrich Luther (page does not exist)">Luther</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Thomas_Dietrich_Luther" class="extiw" title="de:Robert Thomas Dietrich Luther">de</a>], Dresden, Prof. Dr. Lehmann, Berlin, Prof. Dr. <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Stefano_Pirani" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcello Stefano Pirani">Pirani</a>, Berlin, behandelten die Normung der sensitometrischen Methoden. Zu normen sind: die Lichtquelle, die Art der Belichtung (zeitliche oder Intensitätsabstufung), die Entwicklung, die Auswertung. Auf den Internationalen Kongressen in Paris 1925 und London 1928 sind diese Fragen schon eingehend behandelt und in einzelnen Punkten genaue Vorschläge gemacht worden. Die Farbtemperatur der Lichtquelle soll 2360° betragen. Vor dieselbe soll ein Tageslichtfilter, welches vom <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Standards">Bureau of Standards</a> ausgearbeitet worden ist, geschaltet werden. Herr Luther hat an der Filterflüssigkeit durch eigene Versuche gewisse Verbesserungen erzielt. Schwierigkeiten bereitet die Konstanthaltung der Farbtemperatur bei Nitralampen. Herr Pirani schlug deshalb in seinem Vortrag die Verwendung von Glimmlampen vor, deren Farbe von der Stromstärke weitgehend unabhängig ist. In der Frage: Zeit- oder Intensitätsskala befürworten die Herren Luther und Lehmann die Intensitätsskala. Herr Lehmann behandelte einige Fragen, die mit der Herstellung der Intensitätsskala zusammenhängen. Ausführlicher wurde noch die Auswertung (zahlenmäßige Angabe der Empfindlichkeit und Gradation) besprochen, die eine der wichtigsten Fragen der Sensitometrie darstellt. In der Diskussion wurde betont, daß es zunächst nicht so sehr auf eine wissenschaftlich erschöpfende Auswertung ankomme als darauf, daß die Empfindlichkeit der Materialien in möglichst einfacher, aber eindeutiger und für den Praktiker ausreichender Weise charakterisiert wird. […]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Naturwissenschaften&rft.atitle=Mitteilungen+aus+verschiedenen+Gebieten+%E2%80%93+Bericht+%C3%BCber+die+Gr%C3%BCndung+und+erste+Tagung+der+Deutschen+Gesellschaft+f%C3%BCr+photographische+Forschung+%2823.+bis+25.+Mai+1930%29&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=52&rft.pages=1130-1131&rft.date=1930-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42242680%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0028-1042&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01492990&rft.aulast=Heisenberg&rft.aufirst=Erwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Voss_2002_Luther-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Voss_2002_Luther_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Voss_2002_Luther_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoss2002" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Voss, Waltraud (2002-03-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110917033425/http://tu-dresden.de/die_tu_dresden/verwaltung/dezernat_5/sachgebiet_5_7/uj/bilder/pdf2002/UJ05-02.pdf">"Robert Luther – der erste Ordinarius für Wissenschaftliche Photographie in Deutschland – Zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften an der TU Dresden (12)"</a> (PDF). Dresdner UniversitätsJournal (in German). 13 (5): 7. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tu-dresden.de/die_tu_dresden/verwaltung/dezernat_5/sachgebiet_5_7/uj/bilder/pdf2002/UJ05-02.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-09-17. Retrieved 2011-08-06. <q><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Thomas_Dietrich_Luther&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Thomas Dietrich Luther (page does not exist)">Luther</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Thomas_Dietrich_Luther" class="extiw" title="de:Robert Thomas Dietrich Luther">de</a>] war Mitglied des Komitees zur Veranstaltung internationaler Kongresse für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie; die Kongresse 1909 und 1931 in Dresden hat er wesentlich mit vorbereitet. 1930 gehörte er zu den Mitbegründern der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Photographische Forschung. Er gründete und leitete den Ausschuss für Sensitometrie der Gesellschaft, aus dessen Tätigkeit u.a. das DIN-Verfahren zur Bestimmung der Empfindlichkeit photographischer Materialien hervorging. […]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dresdner+Universit%C3%A4tsJournal&rft.atitle=Robert+Luther+%E2%80%93+der+erste+Ordinarius+f%C3%BCr+Wissenschaftliche+Photographie+in+Deutschland+%E2%80%93+Zur+Geschichte+der+Naturwissenschaften+an+der+TU+Dresden+%2812%29&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=7&rft.date=2002-03-12&rft.aulast=Voss&rft.aufirst=Waltraud&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftu-dresden.de%2Fdie_tu_dresden%2Fverwaltung%2Fdezernat_5%2Fsachgebiet_5_7%2Fuj%2Fbilder%2Fpdf2002%2FUJ05-02.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buckland_2008_Kinamo-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buckland_2008_Kinamo_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buckland_2008_Kinamo_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuckland2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Buckland" title="Michael Buckland">Buckland, Michael Keeble</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~buckland/kinamo08.pdf">"The Kinamo movie camera, Emanuel Goldberg and Joris Ivens"</a> (PDF). Film History. 20 (1) (Preprint ed.): 49–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2FFIL.2008.20.1.49">10.2979/FIL.2008.20.1.49</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:194951687">194951687</a>. <q><a href="/wiki/Joris_Ivens" title="Joris Ivens">Ivens</a> returned to <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a> in August 1931 to attend the VIII <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Congress_of_Photography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Congress of Photography (page does not exist)">International Congress of Photography</a>, organised by <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Goldberg" title="Emanuel Goldberg">Goldberg</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Eggert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Eggert (page does not exist)">John Eggert</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Eggert" class="extiw" title="de:John Eggert">de</a>], head of research at the <a href="/wiki/Agfa" class="mw-redirect" title="Agfa">Agfa</a> plant in <a href="/wiki/ORWO" title="ORWO">Wolfen</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>; and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Thomas_Dietrich_Luther&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Thomas Dietrich Luther (page does not exist)">Robert Luther</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Thomas_Dietrich_Luther" class="extiw" title="de:Robert Thomas Dietrich Luther">de</a>], the founding Director of the Institute for Scientific Photography at the Technical University in Dresden and Goldberg's dissertation advisor. The proceedings were heavily technical and dominated by discussion of the measurement of film speeds. The Congress was noteworthy because a film speed standard proposed by Goldberg and Luther was approved and, in Germany, became <a href="#DIN">DIN 4512</a>, […]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Film+History&rft.atitle=The+Kinamo+movie+camera%2C+Emanuel+Goldberg+and+Joris+Ivens&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=49-58&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2FFIL.2008.20.1.49&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A194951687%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Buckland&rft.aufirst=Michael+Keeble&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.ischool.berkeley.edu%2F~buckland%2Fkinamo08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eggert_1932_Kongress-Bericht-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Eggert_1932_Kongress-Bericht_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEggertvon_Biehler1932" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Eggert" class="extiw" title="de:John Eggert">Eggert, John Emil Max</a> [in German]; von Biehler, Arpad, eds. (1932). "Bericht über den VIII. Internationalen Kongreß für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie Dresden 1931" (in German). Leipzig: <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Ambrosius_Barth_Verlag" class="extiw" title="de:Johann Ambrosius Barth Verlag">Johann Ambrosius Barth Verlag</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bericht+%C3%BCber+den+VIII.+Internationalen+Kongre%C3%9F+f%C3%BCr+wissenschaftliche+und+angewandte+Photographie+Dresden+1931&rft.date=1932&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Benser_1957_Farbig-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Benser_1957_Farbig_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenser1957" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Walther_Benser" title="Walther Benser">Benser, Walther</a> (1957). Wir photographieren farbig (in German). Europäischer Buchklub. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wir+photographieren+farbig&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Europ%C3%A4ischer+Buchklub&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Benser&rft.aufirst=Walther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ISO_6-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ISO_6_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISO_6_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISO_6_17-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=3580">ISO 6:1993: Photography – Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems – Determination of ISO speed</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISO+6%3A1993%3A+Photography+%E2%80%93+Black-and-white+pictorial+still+camera+negative+film%2Fprocess+systems+%E2%80%93+Determination+of+ISO+speed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fiso_catalogue%2Fcatalogue_tc%2Fcatalogue_detail.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D3580&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-http-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-http_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-http_18-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=34533">ISO 2240:2003: Photography – Colour reversal camera films – Determination of ISO speed</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISO+2240%3A2003%3A+Photography+%E2%80%93+Colour+reversal+camera+films+%E2%80%93+Determination+of+ISO+speed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fiso_catalogue%2Fcatalogue_tc%2Fcatalogue_detail.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D34533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-iso.org-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iso.org_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-iso.org_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=11948">ISO 5800:1987: Photography – Colour negative films for still photography – Determination of ISO speed</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISO+5800%3A1987%3A+Photography+%E2%80%93+Colour+negative+films+for+still+photography+%E2%80%93+Determination+of+ISO+speed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fiso_catalogue%2Fcatalogue_tc%2Fcatalogue_detail.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D11948&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobson1978" class="citation cs2">Jacobson, Ralph E (1978), The Manual of Photography (Seventh Edition), Focal Press, p. 412</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manual+of+Photography+%28Seventh+Edition%29&rft.pages=412&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Jacobson&rft.aufirst=Ralph+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobson1978" class="citation cs2">Jacobson, Ralph E (1978), The Manual of Photography (Seventh Edition), Focal Press, p. 412</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manual+of+Photography+%28Seventh+Edition%29&rft.pages=412&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Jacobson&rft.aufirst=Ralph+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunnWakefield1981" class="citation cs2">Dunn, Jack F; Wakefield, George L (1981), Exposure Manual (Fourth Edition), Fountain Press, p. 22</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exposure+Manual+%28Fourth+Edition%29&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Fountain+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=Jack+F&rft.au=Wakefield%2C+George+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllbright1991" class="citation cs2">Allbright, G S (1991), Emulsion Speed Rating Systems, The Journal of Photographic Science, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00223638.1991.11737126">10.1080/00223638.1991.11737126</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emulsion+Speed+Rating+Systems&rft.pub=The+Journal+of+Photographic+Science&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00223638.1991.11737126&rft.aulast=Allbright&rft.aufirst=G+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mulhern_1990_Letter-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Mulhern_1990_Letter_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulhern1990" class="citation book cs1">Mulhern, Charles J. (1990-06-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130103115812/http://www.johndesq.com/westonmaster/edward.htm">Letter to John D. de Vries</a> (<a href="/wiki/Copyscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyscript">Copyscript</a> on John D. de Vries' web-site). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johndesq.com/westonmaster/edward.htm">the original</a> on 2013-01-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letter+to+John+D.+de+Vries&rft.date=1990-06-15&rft.aulast=Mulhern&rft.aufirst=Charles+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.johndesq.com%2Fwestonmaster%2Fedward.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988">In 1931, Edward Faraday Weston applied for a U.S patent on the first Weston Exposure meter, which was granted patent No. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=ncNPAAAAEBAJ">2016469</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] on [8] October 1935, also an improved version was applied for and granted U.S patent No. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=2042665">2042665</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170226053630/http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=2042665">Archived</a> 2017-02-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on [7th} July 1936. From 1932 to around 1967, over 36 varieties of Weston Photographic Exposure Meters were produced in large quantities and sold throughout the world, mostly by Photographic dealers or agents, which also included the Weston film speed ratings, as there were no ASA or DIN data available at that time. </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodwin_1938_emulsion_ratings-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin_1938_emulsion_ratings_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodwin1938" class="citation journal cs1">Goodwin, William Nelson Jr. (August 1938). "Weston emulsion speed ratings: What they are and how they are determined". <a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Photographer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="American Photographer (page does not exist)">American Photographer</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Photographer&rft.atitle=Weston+emulsion+speed+ratings%3A+What+they+are+and+how+they+are+determined&rft.date=1938-08&rft.aulast=Goodwin&rft.aufirst=William+Nelson+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> (4 pages) </li> <li id="cite_note-Roseborough_1996_PHSC-PC-22-3-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Roseborough_1996_PHSC-PC-22-3_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoseborough1996" class="citation journal cs1">Roseborough, Everett (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phsc.ca/excerpt22.html">"The Contributions of Edward W. Weston and his company"</a>. Photographic Canadiana. 22 (3).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Photographic+Canadiana&rft.atitle=The+Contributions+of+Edward+W.+Weston+and+his+company&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Roseborough&rft.aufirst=Everett&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phsc.ca%2Fexcerpt22.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tipper_Weston-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Tipper_Weston_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTipper" class="citation web cs1">Tipper, Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.westonmeter.org.uk/thecompany.htm">"Weston — The company and the man"</a>. www.westonmeter.org.uk, a web-page on Weston exposure meters. <q>[…] the Weston method of measuring film speeds. While it had some shortcomings it had the advantage of being based on a method which gave practical speeds for actual use and it was independent of any film manufacturer. Previous speed systems such as the H&D and early Scheiner speeds were both threshold speeds and capable of considerable manipulation by manufacturers. Weston's method measured the speed well up on the curve making it more nearly what one would get in actual practice. (This means that he was a bit less optimistic about film sensitivity than the manufacturers of the day who were notorious for pretending their films were more sensitive than they really were.) A certain Mr. W. N. Goodwin of Weston is usually credited with this system.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.westonmeter.org.uk%2C+a+web-page+on+Weston+exposure+meters&rft.atitle=Weston+%E2%80%94+The+company+and+the+man&rft.aulast=Tipper&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.westonmeter.org.uk%2Fthecompany.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hefley_1951_micrographs-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Hefley_1951_micrographs_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHefley1951" class="citation journal cs1">Hefley, Harold M. (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libinfo.uark.edu/aas/issues/1951v4/v4a28.pdf">"A method of calculating exposures for photomicrographs"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Academy_of_Science_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Arkansas Academy of Science Journal">Arkansas Academy of Science Journal</a> (4). Fayetteville, USA: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arkansas" title="University of Arkansas">University of Arkansas</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arkansas+Academy+of+Science+Journal&rft.atitle=A+method+of+calculating+exposures+for+photomicrographs&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Hefley&rft.aufirst=Harold+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibinfo.uark.edu%2Faas%2Fissues%2F1951v4%2Fv4a28.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> (NB. Research paper on an exposure system for micro-photography based on a variation of Weston film speed ratings.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Weston_1946_Ratings-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Weston_1946_Ratings_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Weston film ratings — Weston system of emulsion ratings (Booklet, 16 pages). Newark, USA: Weston. 1946. <q>You cannot necessarily depend on Weston speed values from any other source unless they are marked "OFFICIAL WESTON SPEEDS BY AGREEMENT WITH THE WESTON ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT CORPORATION"</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weston+film+ratings+%E2%80%94+Weston+system+of+emulsion+ratings&rft.place=Newark%2C+USA&rft.pub=Weston&rft.date=1946&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sangamo_1959_Weston-Ratings_30-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Weston ratings (Booklet, 20 pages). Enfield, UK: Sangamo Weston. 1956. <q>WESTON RATINGS—Correct exposure depends on two variables: (1) the available light and (2) its effect on the film in use. WESTON have always considered these two to be of equal importance and therefore introduced their own system of film ratings. Subsequently this system was found to be so successful that it was widely accepted in photographic circles and formed the basis for internationally agreed standards.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weston+ratings&rft.place=Enfield%2C+UK&rft.pub=Sangamo+Weston&rft.date=1956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-General-Electric_194x_GES-2810_Manual_GW-68-31"><a href="#cite_ref-General-Electric_194x_GES-2810_Manual_GW-68_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">GW-68. Manual. USA: <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>. GES-2810.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GW-68.+Manual&rft.place=USA&rft.pub=General+Electric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> (The manual states that ASA was working on standardized values, but none had been established at this time.) </li> <li id="cite_note-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-General-Electric_1947_GED-744_Film-Values_32-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">General Electric Film Values (Leaflet, 12 pages). USA: <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>. 1947. General Electric publication code GED-744. <q>This General Electric Film Value Booklet contains the […] exposure-index numbers for […] photographic films in accordance with the new system for rating photographic films that has been devised by the American Standards Association. This system has been under development for several years and is the result of co-operative effort on the part of all the film manufacturers, meter manufacturers, the Optical Society of America, and the Bureau of Standards. It was used by all of the military services during the war. The new ASA exposure-index numbers provide the photographer with the most accurate film-rating information that has yet been devised. The G-E exposure meter uses the ASA exposure-index numbers, not only in the interest of standardization, but also because this system represents a real advancement in the field of measurement. The exposure-index number have been so arranged that all earlier model G-E meters can be used with this series of numbers. For some films the values are exactly the same; and where differences exist, the new ASA exposure-index value will cause but a slight increase in exposure. However […] a comparison of the new ASA exposure-index numbers and the G-E film values is shown […] A complete comparison of all systems of emulsion speed values can be found in the G-E Photo Data Book. […] All G-E meters manufactured after January, 1946, utilize the ASA exposure indexes. Although the new ASA values can be used with all previous model G-E meters, interchangeable calculator-hoods with ASA exposure indexes are available for Types DW-48, DW-49, and DW-58 meters.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Electric+Film+Values&rft.place=USA&rft.pub=General+Electric&rft.date=1947&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-General-Electric_1942_GET-I717-33"><a href="#cite_ref-General-Electric_1942_GET-I717_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">General Electric Photo Data Book. <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>. GET-I717.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Electric+Photo+Data+Book&rft.pub=General+Electric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-General-Electric_1946_Ad_Hood-34"><a href="#cite_ref-General-Electric_1946_Ad_Hood_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeneral_Electric1946" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jollinger.com/photo/meters/images/ads/GE/ge_dw58hood%281946%29.jpg">"Attention exposure meter owners"</a> (Advertisement). <q>Attention! Exposure meter owners! Modernizing Hood $3.50 […] Modernize your G-E meter (Type DW-48 or early DW-58) with a new G-E Hood. Makes it easy to use the new film-exposure ratings developed by the American Standards Association … now the only basis for data published by leading film makers. See your photo dealer and snap on a new G-E hood! General Electric Company, Schenectady 5, N.Y.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Attention+exposure+meter+owners&rft.date=1946&rft.au=General+Electric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jollinger.com%2Fphoto%2Fmeters%2Fimages%2Fads%2FGE%2Fge_dw58hood%25281946%2529.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Gorokhovskiy_1970_Metrologiya-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gorokhovskiy_1970_Metrologiya_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gorokhovskiy_1970_Metrologiya_35-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorokhovskiy1970" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gorokhovskiy, Yu. N. (1970). <bdi lang="ru">Fotograficheskaya metrologiya</bdi>. Uspekhi Nauchnoy Fotografii (Advances in Scientific Photography) (in Russian). 15: 183–195.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Uspekhi+Nauchnoy+Fotografii+%28Advances+in+Scientific+Photography%29&rft.atitle=Fotograficheskaya+metrologiya&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=183-195&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Gorokhovskiy&rft.aufirst=Yu.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> (English translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730001888_1973001888.pdf">Photographic Metrology</a> (PDF) (NASA Technical Translation II F-13,921, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C. 20546). November 1972.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Photographic+Metrology&rft.date=1972-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fntrs.nasa.gov%2Farchive%2Fnasa%2Fcasi.ntrs.nasa.gov%2F19730001888_1973001888.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988">) </li> <li id="cite_note-GOST_2817-50-36"><a href="#cite_ref-GOST_2817-50_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111011230119/http://gostrf.com/standart/Pages_gost/46030.htm">GOST 2817-50 Transparent sublayer photographic materials. Method of general sensitometric test</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gostrf.com/standart/Pages_gost/46030.htm">the original</a> on 2011-10-11. Retrieved 2011-08-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GOST+2817-50+Transparent+sublayer+photographic+materials.+Method+of+general+sensitometric+test&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gostrf.com%2Fstandart%2FPages_gost%2F46030.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> (GOST 2817-45 was replaced by GOST 2817-50, which in turn was replaced by GOST 10691.6–88, which defines black-and-white films, whereas GOST 10691.5–88 defines black-and-white films for aerial photography.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Stroebel_1993_Encyclopedia-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Stroebel_1993_Encyclopedia_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStroebelZakia1993" class="citation book cs1">Stroebel, Leslie D.; Zakia, Richard D. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/focalencyclopedi00lesl">The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography</a> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Focal_Press" title="Focal Press">Focal Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/focalencyclopedi00lesl/page/304">304</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-240-51417-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-240-51417-8"><bdi>978-0-240-51417-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Focal+Encyclopedia+of+Photography&rft.pages=304&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-240-51417-8&rft.aulast=Stroebel&rft.aufirst=Leslie+D.&rft.au=Zakia%2C+Richard+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffocalencyclopedi00lesl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ZENIT_2011_GOST-38"><a href="#cite_ref-ZENIT_2011_GOST_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFзавод_[Zavod]" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Krasnogorskiy_Zavod" class="mw-redirect" title="Krasnogorskiy Zavod">завод [Zavod], Красногорский [Krasnogorskiy]</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=ru&u=http://www.zenitcamera.com/qa/qa-filmspeeds.html">"Questions and answers: Film speeds"</a> (in Russian). Retrieved 2011-08-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Questions+and+answers%3A+Film+speeds&rft.aulast=%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4+%5BZavod%5D&rft.aufirst=%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%5BKrasnogorskiy%5D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftranslate.google.com%2Ftranslate%3Fhl%3Den%26sl%3Dru%26u%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.zenitcamera.com%2Fqa%2Fqa-filmspeeds.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GOST_10691-84-39"><a href="#cite_ref-GOST_10691-84_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120112165206/http://www.gostrf.com/standart/Pages_gost/29411.htm">GOST 10691.0–84 Black-and-white photographic materials with transparent sublaver. Method of general sensitometric test</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gostrf.com/standart/Pages_gost/29411.htm">the original</a> on 2012-01-12. Retrieved 2011-08-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GOST+10691.0%E2%80%9384+Black-and-white+photographic+materials+with+transparent+sublaver.+Method+of+general+sensitometric+test&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gostrf.com%2Fstandart%2FPages_gost%2F29411.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GOST_10691.6-88-40"><a href="#cite_ref-GOST_10691.6-88_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120112165341/http://www.gostrf.com/standart/Pages_gost/11439.htm">GOST 10691.6–88 Black-and-white phototechnical films, films for scientific researches and industry. Method for determination of speed numbers</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gostrf.com/standart/Pages_gost/11439.htm">the original</a> on 2012-01-12. Retrieved 2011-08-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GOST+10691.6%E2%80%9388+Black-and-white+phototechnical+films%2C+films+for+scientific+researches+and+industry.+Method+for+determination+of+speed+numbers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gostrf.com%2Fstandart%2FPages_gost%2F11439.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GOST_10691.5-88-41"><a href="#cite_ref-GOST_10691.5-88_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120112165032/http://www.gostrf.com/standart/Pages_gost/11651.htm">GOST 10691.5–88 Black-and-white aerophotographic films. Method for determination of speed numbers</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gostrf.com/standart/Pages_gost/11651.htm">the original</a> on 2012-01-12. Retrieved 2011-08-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GOST+10691.5%E2%80%9388+Black-and-white+aerophotographic+films.+Method+for+determination+of+speed+numbers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gostrf.com%2Fstandart%2FPages_gost%2F11651.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ISO_12232_2019-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ISO_12232_2019_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISO_12232_2019_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISO_12232_2019_42-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISO_12232_2019_42-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:12232:ed-3:v1:en">"ISO 12232:2019 — Photography — Digital still cameras — Determination of exposure index, ISO speed ratings, standard output sensitivity, and recommended exposure index"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO). February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ISO+12232%3A2019+%E2%80%94+Photography+%E2%80%94+Digital+still+cameras+%E2%80%94+Determination+of+exposure+index%2C+ISO+speed+ratings%2C+standard+output+sensitivity%2C+and+recommended+exposure+index&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization+%28ISO%29&rft.date=2019-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fobp%2Fui%2F%23iso%3Astd%3Aiso%3A12232%3Aed-3%3Av1%3Aen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gasiorowski-Denis_2019_ISO12232-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gasiorowski-Denis_2019_ISO12232_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gasiorowski-Denis_2019_ISO12232_43-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGasiorowski-Denis2019" class="citation web cs1">Gasiorowski-Denis, Elizabeth (2019-03-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20190609201259/https://www.iso.org/news/ref2375.html">"A better picture: International Standard gives photography a new exposure"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO). Archived from the original on 2019-06-09. Retrieved 2019-06-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+better+picture%3A+International+Standard+gives+photography+a+new+exposure&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization+%28ISO%29&rft.date=2019-03-07&rft.aulast=Gasiorowski-Denis&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fnews%2Fref2375.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-manual-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-manual_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-manual_44-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsonRayAttridgeAxford2000" class="citation book cs1">Jacobson, Ralph E.; Ray, Sidney F.; Attridge, Geoffrey G.; Axford, Norman R. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MblHnLN2N2kC&pg=PA306">The manual of photography</a> (9th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Focal_Press" title="Focal Press">Focal Press</a>. pp. 305–307. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-240-51574-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-240-51574-8"><bdi>978-0-240-51574-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+manual+of+photography&rft.pages=305-307&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-240-51574-8&rft.aulast=Jacobson&rft.aufirst=Ralph+E.&rft.au=Ray%2C+Sidney+F.&rft.au=Attridge%2C+Geoffrey+G.&rft.au=Axford%2C+Norman+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMblHnLN2N2kC%26pg%3DPA306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graves_1996_Zone-system-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Graves_1996_Zone-system_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraves1996" class="citation book cs1">Graves, Carson (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nHgZHXvqy5sC&pg=PA124">The zone system for 35mm photographers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Focal_Press" title="Focal Press">Focal Press</a>. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-240-80203-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-240-80203-9"><bdi>978-0-240-80203-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+zone+system+for+35mm+photographers&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-240-80203-9&rft.aulast=Graves&rft.aufirst=Carson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnHgZHXvqy5sC%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ISO-2721_1982-46"><a href="#cite_ref-ISO-2721_1982_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080807163442/http://www.iso.org/">"ISO 2721:1982. Photography — Cameras — Automatic controls of exposure"</a> (paid download). Geneva: <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=7692">the original</a> on 2008-08-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ISO+2721%3A1982.+Photography+%E2%80%94+Cameras+%E2%80%94+Automatic+controls+of+exposure&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization+%28ISO%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fiso_catalogue%2Fcatalogue_tc%2Fcatalogue_detail.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D7692&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leica_2002_ISO_R9-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_47-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_47-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_47-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_2002_ISO_R9_47-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130415104604/http://en.leica-camera.com/assets/file/download.php?filename=file_2048.pdf">"Leica R9 Bedienungsanleitung / Instructions"</a> (PDF) (in German and English). Solms, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Leica_Camera_AG" class="mw-redirect" title="Leica Camera AG">Leica Camera AG</a>. 2002. p. 197. Leica publication 930 53 VII/03/GX/L. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.leica-camera.com/assets/file/download.php?filename=file_2048.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2013-04-15. Retrieved 2011-07-30. <q>Film speed range: Manual setting from ISO 6/9° to ISO 12500/42° (with additional exposure compensation of up to ±3 EV, overall films from ISO 0.8/0° to ISO 100000/51° can be exposed), DX scanning from ISO 25/15° to ISO 5000/38°.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leica+R9+Bedienungsanleitung+%2F+Instructions&rft.place=Solms%2C+Germany&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=Leica+Camera+AG&rft.date=2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.leica-camera.com%2Fassets%2Ffile%2Fdownload.php%3Ffilename%3Dfile_2048.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leica_1996_ISO_R8-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_48-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_48-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_48-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leica_1996_ISO_R8_48-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Leica Instructions – Leica R8. Solms, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Leica_Camera_AG" class="mw-redirect" title="Leica Camera AG">Leica Camera AG</a>. 1996. pp. 16, 65. <q>The DX-setting for automatic speed scanning appears after the position "12800" […] Film speed range: Manual setting from ISO 6/9° to ISO 12,800/42° (With additional override of −3 EV to +3 EV, films from 0 DIN to 51 DIN can be exposed as well.) DX scanning from ISO 25/15° to ISO 5000/38°.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leica+Instructions+%E2%80%93+Leica+R8&rft.place=Solms%2C+Germany&rft.pages=16%2C+65&rft.pub=Leica+Camera+AG&rft.date=1996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://filmphotographystore.com/products/35mm-bw-film-svema-super-positive-film-1-roll">"35mm BW Film - FPP Super Positive Film (1 Roll)"</a>. Film Photography Project Store. Retrieved 2023-05-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Film+Photography+Project+Store&rft.atitle=35mm+BW+Film+-+FPP+Super+Positive+Film+%281+Roll%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffilmphotographystore.com%2Fproducts%2F35mm-bw-film-svema-super-positive-film-1-roll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TMZ-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TMZ_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TMZ_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wwwuk.kodak.com/global/en/professional/support/techPubs/f4016/f4016.pdf">"KODAK PROFESSIONAL T-MAX Films"</a> (PDF). wwwuk.kodak.com. <a href="/wiki/Kodak" title="Kodak">Kodak</a>. 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Showed (but did not specify) a speed of 12500 as the next full step greater than 6400.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Vision_2016_Boosting-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vision_2016_Boosting_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vision_2016_Boosting_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vision_2016_Boosting_53-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vision_2016_Boosting_53-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vision_2016_Boosting_53-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vision_2016_Boosting_53-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vision_2016_Boosting_53-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vision_2016_Boosting_53-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vision_2016_Boosting_53-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vision_2016_Boosting_53-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phantomhighspeed-service.force.com/servlet/servlet.FileDownload?file=00P1N00000dSuGDUA0&oid=00D1N000002Br2EUAS">"Boosting Sensitivity"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Phantom_(high-speed_camera_brand)" title="Phantom (high-speed camera brand)">Phantom</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ametek" title="Ametek">Ametek</a>. 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Retrieved 2011-07-30. <q>Multi-frame Noise Reduction 'stacks' a high-speed burst of six frames, creating a single low-noise exposure that boosts effective sensitivity as high as ISO 25600.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sony+Europe+Web+page&rft.atitle=DSLR-A560%2FDSLR-A580&rft.date=2010-08-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpresscentre.sony.eu%2Fcontent%2Fdetail.aspx%3FReleaseID%3D6109%26NewsAreaId%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pentax_2010_ISO_K-5-68"><a href="#cite_ref-Pentax_2010_ISO_K-5_68-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101206023448/http://www.pentaximaging.com/slr/K-5/">"Pentax K-5"</a>. Pentax USA Web page. 2010. 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Retrieved 2015-09-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=D200+Users+manual&rft.pub=Nikon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdn-10.nikon-cdn.com%2Fpdf%2Fmanuals%2Fdslr%2FD200_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+speed" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=3579">ISO 6:1974</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=3580">ISO 6:1993</a> (1993-02). Photography — Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems — Determination of ISO speed. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=7049">ISO 2240:1982</a> (1982-07), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=7050">ISO 2240:1994</a> (1994-09), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=34533">ISO 2240:2003</a> (2003–10). Photography — Colour reversal camera films — Determination of ISO speed. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=7690">ISO 2720:1974</a>. General Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type) — Guide to Product Specification. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=11947">ISO 5800:1979</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?csnumber=11948">ISO 5800:1987</a> (1987-11), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=35540">ISO 5800:1987/Cor 1:2001</a> (2001-06). Photography — Colour negative films for still photography — Determination of ISO speed. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=21020">ISO 12232:1998</a> (1998-08), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=37777">ISO 12232:2006</a> (2006-04-15), ISO 12232:2006 (2006-10-01), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:12232:ed-3:v1:en">ISO 12232:2019</a> (2019-02-01). Photography — Digital still cameras — Determination of exposure index, ISO speed ratings, standard output sensitivity, and recommended exposure index. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.</li> <li>ASA Z38.2.1-1943, ASA Z38.2.1-1946, ASA Z38.2.1-1947 (1947-07-15). American Standard Method for Determining Photographic Speed and Speed Number. New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ASA PH2.5-1954.</li> <li>ASA PH2.5-1954, ASA PH2.5-1960. American Standard Method for Determining Speed of photographic Negative Materials (Monochrome, Continuous Tone). New York: United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). Superseded by ANSI PH2.5-1972.</li> <li>ANSI PH2.5-1972, ANSI PH2.5-1979 (1979-01-01), ANSI PH2.5-1979(R1986). Speed of photographic negative materials (monochrome, continuous tone, method for determining). New York: American National Standards Institute. Superseded by NAPM IT2.5-1986.</li> <li>NAPM IT2.5-1986, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ANSI%2FISO+6-1993+ANSI%2FNAPM+IT2.5-1993">ANSI/ISO 6-1993 ANSI/NAPM IT2.5-1993</a> (1993-01-01). Photography — Black-and-White Pictorial Still Camera Negative Film/Process Systems — Determination of ISO Speed (same as ANSI/ISO 6-1993). National Association of Photographic Manufacturers. This represents the US adoption of ISO 6.</li> <li>ASA PH2.12-1957, ASA PH2.12-1961. American Standard, General-Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (photoelectric type). New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ANSI PH3.49-1971.</li> <li>ANSI PH2.21-1983 (1983-09-23), ANSI PH2.21-1983(R1989). Photography (Sensitometry) Color reversal camera films – Determination of ISO speed. New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ANSI/ISO 2240-1994 ANSI/NAPM IT2.21-1994.</li> <li>ANSI/ISO 2240-1994 ANSI/NAPM IT2.21-1994. Photography – Colour reversal camera films – determination of ISO speed. New York: American National Standards Institute. This represents the US adoption of ISO 2240.</li> <li>ASA PH2.27-1965 (1965-07-06), ASA PH2.27-1971, ASA PH2.27-1976, ANSI PH2.27-1979, ANSI PH2.27-1981, ANSI PH2.27-1988 (1988-08-04). Photography – Colour negative films for still photography – Determination of ISO speed (withdrawn). New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ANSI IT2.27-1988.</li> <li>ANSI IT2.27-1988 (1994-08/09?). Photography Color negative films for still photography – Determination of ISO speed. New York: American National Standards Institute. Withdrawn. This represented the US adoption of ISO 5800.</li> <li>ANSI PH3.49-1971, ANSI PH3.49-1971(R1987). American National Standard for general-purpose photographic exposure meters (photoelectric type). New York: American National Standards Institute. After several revisions, this standard was withdrawn in favor of ANSI/ISO 2720:1974.</li> <li>ANSI/ISO 2720:1974, ANSI/ISO 2720:1974(R1994) ANSI/NAPM IT3.302-1994. General Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type) — Guide to Product Specification. New York: American National Standards Institute. This represents the US adoption of ISO 2720.</li> <li>BSI BS 1380:1947, BSI BS 1380:1963. Speed and exposure index. British Standards Institution. Superseded by BSI BS 1380-1:1973 (1973-12), BSI BS 1380-2:1984 (1984-09), BSI BS 1380-3:1980 (1980-04) and others.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000000040980">BSI BS 1380-1:1973</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111009042715/http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000000040980">Archived</a> 2011-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1973-12-31). Speed of sensitized photographic materials: Negative monochrome material for still and cine photography. British Standards Institution. Replaced by BSI BS ISO 6:1993, superseded by BSI BS ISO 2240:1994.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000000049468">BSI BS 1380-2:1984 ISO 2240:1982</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111009042747/http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000000049468">Archived</a> 2011-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1984-09-28). Speed of sensitized photographic materials. Method for determining the speed of colour reversal film for still and amateur cine photography. British Standards Institution. Superseded by BSI BS ISO 2240:1994.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000000040992">BSI BS 1380-3:1980 ISO 5800:1979</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111009042901/http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000000040992">Archived</a> 2011-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1980-04-30). Speed of sensitized photographic materials. Colour negative film for still photography. British Standards Institution. Superseded by BSI BS ISO 5800:1987.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000000483185">BSI BS ISO 6:1993</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111009044139/http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000000483185">Archived</a> 2011-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1995-03-15). Photography. Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems. Determination of ISO speed. British Standards Institution. This represents the British adoption of ISO 6:1993.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000000497946">BSI BS ISO 2240:1994</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111009044151/http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000000497946">Archived</a> 2011-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1993-03-15), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030046567">BSI BS ISO 2240:2003</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111009044219/http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030046567">Archived</a> 2011-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2004-02-11). Photography. Colour reversal camera films. Determination of ISO speed. British Standards Institution. This represents the British adoption of ISO 2240:2003.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030050685">BSI BS ISO 5800:1987</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111009044326/http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030050685">Archived</a> 2011-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1995-03-15). Photography. Colour negative films for still photography. Determination of ISO speed. British Standards Institution. This represents the British adoption of ISO 5800:1987.</li> <li>DIN 4512:1934-01, DIN 4512:1957-11 (Blatt 1), DIN 4512:1961-10 (Blatt 1). Photographische Sensitometrie, Bestimmung der optischen Dichte. Berlin: Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA). Superseded by DIN 4512-1:1971-04, DIN 4512-4:1977-06, DIN 4512-5:1977-10 and others.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-4512-1-1971-04/en/1830007.html">DIN 4512-1:1971-04</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-4512-1-1993-05/en/3236175.html">DIN 4512-1:1993-05</a>. Photographic sensitometry; systems of black and white negative films and their process for pictorial photography; determination of speed. Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung (before 1975: Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA)). Superseded by DIN ISO 6:1996-02.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-4512-4-1977-06/en/1846945.html">DIN 4512-4:1977-06</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-4512-4-1985-08/en/1225729.html">DIN 4512-4:1985-08</a>. Photographic sensitometry; determination of the speed of colour reversal films. Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. Superseded by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-4512-5-1977-10/en/1871467.html">DIN 4512-5:1977-10</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-4512-5-1990-11/en/1622790.html">DIN 4512-5:1990-11</a>. Photographic sensitometry; determination of the speed of colour negative films. Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. Superseded by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-ISO-6-1996-02/en/2699500.html">DIN ISO 6:1996-02</a>. Photography – Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems – Determination of ISO speed (ISO 6:1993). Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. This represents the German adoption of ISO 6:1993.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-ISO-2240-1998-06/en/3367243.html">DIN ISO 2240:1998-06</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-ISO-2240-2005-10/en/82165961.html">DIN ISO 2240:2005-10</a>. Photography – Colour reversal camera films – Determination of ISO speed (ISO 2240:2003). Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. This represents the German adoption of ISO 2240:2003.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-ISO-5800-1998-06/en/3367409.html">DIN ISO 5800:1998-06</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beuth.de/langanzeige/DIN-ISO-5800/en/66332092.html">DIN ISO 5800:2003-11</a>. Photography – Colour negative films for still photography – Determination of ISO speed (ISO 5800:1987 + Corr. 1:2001). Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. This represents the German adoption of ISO 5800:2001.</li> <li>Leslie B. Stroebel, John Compton, Ira Current, Richard B. Zakia. Basic Photographic Materials and Processes, second edition. Boston: Focal Press, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-240-80405-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-240-80405-8">0-240-80405-8</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_speed&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Film_speed" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Film speed">Film speed</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.duke.edu/~parr/photography/faq.html#isomeaning">What is the meaning of ISO for digital cameras?</a> Digital Photography FAQ</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.tut.fi/~foi/sensornoise.html">Signal-dependent noise modeling, estimation, and removal for digital imaging sensors</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/film-speed-comparisons-version-1.4">"Handbook of Photography" by Henney and Dudley (1939)</a> Spreadsheet Comparing Film Speed Systems</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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"}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Photography" title="Template:Photography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Photography" title="Template talk:Photography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Photography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Photography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_field_camera" title="Light field camera">light-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_camera" title="Field camera">field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_camera" title="Instant camera">instant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_phone" title="Camera phone">phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Press_camera" title="Press camera">press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangefinder_camera" title="Rangefinder camera">rangefinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">SLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-lens_reflex_camera" title="Twin-lens reflex camera">TLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/View_camera" title="View camera">view</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkroom" title="Darkroom">Darkroom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlarger" title="Enlarger">enlarger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safelight" title="Safelight">safelight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_base" title="Film base">base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_holder" title="Film holder">holder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_stock" title="Film stock">stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_films" title="List of photographic films">available films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_discontinued_photographic_films" title="List of discontinued photographic films">discontinued films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_filter" title="Photographic filter">Filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_(photography)" title="Flash (photography)">Flash</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_dish" title="Beauty dish">beauty dish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucoloris" title="Cucoloris">cucoloris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobo_(lighting)" title="Gobo (lighting)">gobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_shoe" title="Hot shoe">hot shoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_hood" title="Lens hood">lens hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolight" title="Monolight">monolight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflector_(photography)" title="Reflector (photography)">reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoot" title="Snoot">snoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Softbox" title="Softbox">softbox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_lens" title="Camera lens">Lens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-focus_lens" title="Long-focus lens">long-focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_lens" title="Prime lens">prime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_lens" title="Zoom lens">zoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide-angle_lens" title="Wide-angle lens">wide-angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheye_lens" title="Fisheye lens">fisheye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swivel_lens" title="Swivel lens">swivel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephoto_lens" title="Telephoto lens">telephoto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_equipment_makers" title="List of photographic equipment makers">Manufacturers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopod" title="Monopod">Monopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movie_projector" title="Movie projector">Movie projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slide_projector" title="Slide projector">Slide projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_(photography)" title="Tripod (photography)">Tripod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_head" title="Tripod head">head</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_plate" title="Zone plate">Zone plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/35_mm_equivalent_focal_length" title="35 mm equivalent focal length">35 mm equivalent focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_view_(photography)" title="Angle of view (photography)">Angle of view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">Aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backscatter_(photography)" title="Backscatter (photography)">Backscatter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">Black-and-white</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">Chromatic aberration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" title="Circle of confusion">Circle of confusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipping_(photography)" title="Clipping (photography)">Clipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_balance" title="Color balance">Color balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">Color temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">Depth of field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_focus" title="Depth of focus">Depth of focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" title="Exposure (photography)">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_compensation" title="Exposure compensation">Exposure compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_value" title="Exposure value">Exposure value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebra_patterning" title="Zebra patterning">Zebra patterning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">F-number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">Film format</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_format" title="Large format">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_format" title="Medium format">medium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Film speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">Focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guide_number" title="Guide number">Guide number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" title="Hyperfocal distance">Hyperfocal distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">Lens flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metering_mode" title="Metering mode">Metering mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspective_distortion" title="Perspective distortion">Perspective distortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_printing" title="Photographic printing">Photographic printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albumen_print" title="Albumen print">Albumen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_processes" title="List of photographic processes">Photographic processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" title="Reciprocity (photography)">Reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-eye_effect" title="Red-eye effect">Red-eye effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_photography" title="Science of photography">Science of photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">Shutter speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_synchronization" title="Flash synchronization">Sync</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_System" title="Zone System">Zone System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_photography" title="Abstract photography">Abstract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_spotting" title="Aircraft spotting">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_photography" title="Architectural photography">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophotography" title="Astrophotography">Astrophotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banquet_photography" title="Banquet photography">Banquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candid_photography" title="Candid photography">Candid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_photography" title="Conceptual photography">Conceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudscape_photography" title="Cloudscape photography">Cloudscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_photography" title="Documentary photography">Documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipse_photography" title="Eclipse photography">Eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_photography" title="Erotic photography">Erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_photography" title="Fashion photography">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-art_photography" title="Fine-art photography">Fine-art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_photography" title="Fire photography">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glamour_photography" title="Glamour photography">Glamour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_photography" title="Landscape photography">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochrome_photography" title="Monochrome photography">Monochrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_photography" title="Nature photography">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Sehen" title="Neues Sehen">Neues Sehen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nude_photography" title="Nude photography">Nude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photojournalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictorialism" title="Pictorialism">Pictorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography" title="Pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portrait_photography" title="Portrait photography">Portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruins_photography" title="Ruins photography">Ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selfie" title="Selfie">Selfie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">space selfie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_documentary_photography" title="Social documentary photography">Social documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_photography" title="Sports photography">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Still_life_photography" title="Still life photography">Still life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_photography" title="Stock photography">Stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_photography" title="Straight photography">Straight photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_photography" title="Street photography">Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">Toy camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_photography" title="Vernacular photography">Vernacular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_photography" title="Wedding photography">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_photography" title="Wildlife photography">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afocal_photography" title="Afocal photography">Afocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokeh" title="Bokeh">Bokeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenizer_method" title="Brenizer method">Brenizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burst_mode_(photography)" title="Burst mode (photography)">Burst mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contre-jour" title="Contre-jour">Contre-jour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposing_to_the_right" title="Exposing to the right">ETTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_flash" title="Fill flash">Fill flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks_photography" title="Fireworks photography">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand-colouring_of_photographs" title="Hand-colouring of photographs">Hand-colouring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_shutter" title="Harris shutter">Harris shutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holography" title="Holography">Holography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_camera_movement" title="Intentional camera movement">Intentional camera movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirlian_photography" title="Kirlian photography">Kirlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kite_aerial_photography" title="Kite aerial photography">Kite aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo-fi_photography" title="Lo-fi photography">Lo-fi photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-exposure_photography" title="Long-exposure photography">Long-exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminogram" title="Luminogram">Luminogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro_photography" title="Macro photography">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordan%C3%A7age" title="Mordançage">Mordançage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_exposure" title="Multiple exposure">Multiple exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-exposure_HDR_capture" title="Multi-exposure HDR capture">Multi-exposure HDR capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_photography" title="Night photography">Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panning_(camera)" title="Panning (camera)">Panning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panoramic_photography" title="Panoramic photography">Panoramic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogram" title="Photogram">Photogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_print_toning" title="Photographic print toning">Print toning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_photography" title="Pigeon photography">Pigeon photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redscale" title="Redscale">Redscale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rephotography" title="Rephotography">Rephotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollout_photography" title="Rollout photography">Rollout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanography" title="Scanography">Scanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieren_photography" title="Schlieren photography">Schlieren photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabattier_effect" title="Sabattier effect">Sabattier effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_motion" title="Slow motion">Slow motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stopping_down" title="Stopping down">Stopping down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strip_photography" title="Strip photography">Strip</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slit-scan_photography" title="Slit-scan photography">Slit-scan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_printing" title="Sun printing">Sun printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilt%E2%80%93shift_photography" title="Tilt–shift photography">Tilt–shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miniature_faking" title="Miniature faking">Miniature faking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-lapse_photography" title="Time-lapse photography">Time-lapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photography" title="Ultraviolet photography">Ultraviolet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vignetting" title="Vignetting">Vignetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerox_art" title="Xerox art">Xerography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_burst" title="Zoom burst">Zoom burst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)" title="Composition (visual arts)">Composition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagonal_method" title="Diagonal method">Diagonal method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(visual_arts)" title="Framing (visual arts)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headroom_(photographic_framing)" title="Headroom (photographic framing)">Headroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_room" title="Lead room">Lead room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_thirds" title="Rule of thirds">Rule of thirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity_(photography)" title="Simplicity (photography)">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_triangle_(composition)" title="Golden triangle (composition)">Golden triangle (composition)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_photography" title="History of photography">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_photography_technology" title="Timeline of photography technology">Timeline of photography technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrotype" title="Ambrotype">Ambrotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_photography" title="Analog photography">Analog photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re" title="Autochrome Lumière">Autochrome Lumière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_camera" title="Box camera">Box camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calotype" title="Calotype">Calotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">Camera obscura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daguerreotype" title="Daguerreotype">Daguerreotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufaycolor" title="Dufaycolor">Dufaycolor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliography" title="Heliography">Heliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lippmann_plate" title="Lippmann plate">Lippmann plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_photography_backdrops" title="Painted photography backdrops">Painted photography backdrops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_and_the_law" title="Photography and the law">Photography and the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">Glass plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tintype" title="Tintype">Tintype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Albania" title="Photography in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Bangladesh" title="Photography in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Canada" title="Photography in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_China" title="Photography in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Denmark" title="Photography in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Greece" title="Photography in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_India" title="Photography in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Japan" title="Photography in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Korea" title="Photography in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Luxembourg" title="Photography in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Norway" title="Photography in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_Philippines" title="Photography in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Serbia" title="Photography in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Photography in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Sudan" title="Photography in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Taiwan" title="Photography in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Turkey" title="Photography in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Ukraine" title="Photography in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_United_States" title="Photography in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Uzbekistan" title="Photography in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Vietnam" title="Photography in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digital_photography" title="Digital photography">Digital photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Digital camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Digital single-lens reflex camera">D-SLR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_SLRs" title="Comparison of digital SLRs">comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirrorless_camera" title="Mirrorless camera">MILC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera_back" title="Digital camera back">camera back</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digiscoping" title="Digiscoping">Digiscoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_and_film_photography" title="Comparison of digital and film photography">Comparison of digital and film photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_scanner" title="Film scanner">Film scanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">CMOS APS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-CCD_camera" title="Three-CCD camera">Three-CCD camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor" title="Foveon X3 sensor">Foveon X3 sensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sharing" title="Image sharing">Image sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">Pixel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_photography" title="Color photography">Color photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_print_film" title="Color print film">Print film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromogenic_print" title="Chromogenic print">Chromogenic print</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversal_film" title="Reversal film">Reversal film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_management" title="Color management">Color management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">color space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">primary color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMYK_color_model" title="CMYK color model">CMYK color model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB color model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Photographic_processing" title="Photographic processing">Photographic processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleach_bypass" title="Bleach bypass">Bleach bypass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-41_process" title="C-41 process">C-41 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collodion_process" title="Collodion process">Collodion process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_processing" title="Cross processing">Cross processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanotype" title="Cyanotype">Cyanotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_developer" title="Photographic developer">Developer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">Digital image processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye_coupler" title="Dye coupler">Dye coupler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-6_process" title="E-6 process">E-6 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_fixer" title="Photographic fixer">Fixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelatin_silver_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelatin silver process">Gelatin silver process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gum_printing" title="Gum printing">Gum printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_film" title="Instant film">Instant film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-14_process" title="K-14 process">K-14 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_permanence" title="Print permanence">Print permanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_processing" title="Push processing">Push processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_bath" title="Stop bath">Stop bath</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_photographs" title="List of largest photographs">Largest photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_photographs" title="List of most expensive photographs">Most expensive photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_devoted_to_one_photographer" title="List of museums devoted to one photographer">Museums devoted to one photographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographs_considered_the_most_important" title="List of photographs considered the most important">Photographs considered the most important</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers" title="List of photographers">Photographers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_photographers" title="List of Norwegian photographers">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_photographers" title="List of Polish photographers">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_street_photographers" title="List of street photographers">street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_photographers" title="List of women photographers">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photography_periodicals" title="List of photography periodicals">Photography periodicals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographs" title="Conservation and restoration of photographs">Conservation and restoration of photographs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_film" title="Conservation and restoration of film">film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographic_plates" title="Conservation and restoration of photographic plates">photographic plates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera#Lomography" title="Toy camera">Lomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaroid_art" title="Polaroid art">Polaroid art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Photography" title="Category:Photography">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_photography" title="Outline of photography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="ISO_standards_by_standard_number" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:ISO_standards" title="Template:ISO standards"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:ISO_standards" title="Template talk:ISO standards"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:ISO_standards" title="Special:EditPage/Template:ISO standards"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="ISO_standards_by_standard_number" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> standards by standard number</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>List of <a href="/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards" title="List of ISO standards">ISO standards</a> – <a href="/wiki/List_of_ISO_romanizations" title="List of ISO romanizations">ISO romanizations</a> – <a href="/wiki/List_of_IEC_standards" title="List of IEC standards">IEC standards</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1–9999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_1" title="ISO 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2" title="ISO 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renard_series" title="Renard series">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_4" title="ISO 4">4</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Standard_Pipe" title="British Standard Pipe">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_9" title="ISO 9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A440_(pitch_standard)" title="A440 (pitch standard)">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renard_series" title="Renard series">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31" title="ISO 31">31</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-0" title="ISO 31-0">-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-1" title="ISO 31-1">-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-3" title="ISO 31-3">-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-4" title="ISO 31-4">-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-5" title="ISO 31-5">-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-6" title="ISO 31-6">-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-7" title="ISO 31-7">-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-8" title="ISO 31-8">-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-9" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 31-9">-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-10" title="ISO 31-10">-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-11" title="ISO 31-11">-11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-12" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 31-12">-12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31-13" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 31-13">-13</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_metric_screw_thread" title="ISO metric screw thread">68-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_128" title="ISO 128">128</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_216" title="ISO 216">216</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_217" title="ISO 217">217</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal-loudness_contour" title="Equal-loudness contour">226</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Standard_Pipe" title="British Standard Pipe">228</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_233" title="ISO 233">233</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_259" title="ISO 259">259</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_metric_screw_thread" title="ISO metric screw thread">261</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_metric_screw_thread" title="ISO metric screw thread">262</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappa_number" title="Kappa number">302</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicat_softening_point" title="Vicat softening point">306</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_symbol#Ionizing_radiation_symbol" title="Hazard symbol">361</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_take-off" title="Power take-off">500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_shoe" title="Hot shoe">518</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prontor-Compur" title="Prontor-Compur">519</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_639" title="ISO 639">639</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-6" title="ISO 639-6">-6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_646" title="ISO/IEC 646">646</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_657" title="ISO 657">657</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_668" title="ISO 668">668</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_690" title="ISO 690">690</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_704" title="ISO 704">704</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_732" title="ISO 732">732</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimagnetic_watch" title="Antimagnetic watch">764</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hole_punch" title="Hole punch">838</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_843" title="ISO 843">843</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_860" title="ISO 860">860</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_898" title="ISO 898">898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_965" title="ISO 965">965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_999" title="ISO 999">999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_1000" title="ISO 1000">1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_ink_character_recognition" title="Magnetic ink character recognition">1004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/135_film" title="135 film">1007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OCR-A" title="OCR-A">1073-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OCR-B" title="OCR-B">1073-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_redundancy_check" title="Longitudinal redundancy check">1155</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock-resistant_watch#ISO_1413_shock-resistant_standard" title="Shock-resistant watch">1413</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ALGOL_60" title="ALGOL 60">1538</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_1629" title="ISO 1629">1629</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_1745" title="ISO 1745">1745</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2014" title="ISO 2014">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2015" title="ISO 2015">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_2022" title="ISO/IEC 2022">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2033" title="ISO 2033">2033</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2047" title="ISO 2047">2047</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">2108</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2145" title="ISO 2145">2145</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2146" title="ISO 2146">2146</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">2240</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_Resistant_mark" title="Water Resistant mark">2281</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Atmosphere" title="International Standard Atmosphere">2533</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2709" title="ISO 2709">2709</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2711" title="ISO 2711">2711</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">2720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2788" title="ISO 2788">2788</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2848" title="ISO 2848">2848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2852" title="ISO 2852">2852</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_2921" title="ISO 2921">2921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/126_film" title="126 film">3029</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_3103" title="ISO 3103">3103</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">3166</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-1" title="ISO 3166-1">-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2" title="ISO 3166-2">-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-3" title="ISO 3166-3">-3</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">3297</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_3307" title="ISO 3307">3307</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O-ring" title="O-ring">3601</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunrei-shiki_romanization" title="Kunrei-shiki romanization">3602</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_3864" title="ISO 3864">3864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Recording_Code" title="International Standard Recording Code">3901</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FDI_World_Dental_Federation_notation" title="FDI World Dental Federation notation">3950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_3977" title="ISO 3977">3977</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_4031" title="ISO 4031">4031</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_4157" title="ISO 4157">4157</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_4165" title="ISO 4165">4165</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">4217</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_4909" title="ISO/IEC 4909">4909</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_5218" title="ISO/IEC 5218">5218</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_5426" title="ISO 5426">5426</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_5427" title="ISO 5427">5427</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_5428" title="ISO 5428">5428</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">5725</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_5775" title="ISO 5775">5775</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_5776" title="ISO 5776">5776</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">5800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowchart" title="Flowchart">5807</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_5964" title="ISO 5964">5964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Securities_Identification_Number" title="International Securities Identification Number">6166</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_6344" title="ISO 6344">6344</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_6346" title="ISO 6346">6346</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_BASIC" title="Minimal BASIC">6373</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_6385" title="ISO 6385">6385</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_Resistant_mark" title="Water Resistant mark">6425</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANSI_escape_code" title="ANSI escape code">6429</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_6438" title="ISO 6438">6438</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_6523" title="ISO/IEC 6523">6523</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_6709" title="ISO 6709">6709</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_6943" title="ISO 6943">6943</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_7001" title="ISO 7001">7001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_7002" title="ISO 7002">7002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_7010" title="ISO 7010">7010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_7027" title="ISO 7027">7027</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_7064" title="ISO/IEC 7064">7064</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">7098</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">7185</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_7200" title="ISO 7200">7200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSI_model" title="OSI model">7498</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OSI_model" title="OSI model">-1</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_7637" title="ISO 7637">7637</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_7736" title="ISO 7736">7736</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_7810" title="ISO/IEC 7810">7810</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_7811" title="ISO/IEC 7811">7811</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_7812" title="ISO/IEC 7812">7812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_7813" title="ISO/IEC 7813">7813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_7816" title="ISO/IEC 7816">7816</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphical_Kernel_System" title="Graphical Kernel System">7942</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_8000" title="ISO 8000">8000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On-board_diagnostics" title="On-board diagnostics">8093</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_8178" title="ISO 8178">8178</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">8217</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_8373" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 8373">8373</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_8501-1" title="ISO 8501-1">8501-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTAM" title="FTAM">8571</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_8583" title="ISO 8583">8583</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_8601" title="ISO 8601">8601</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Document_Architecture" title="Open Document Architecture">8613</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_Graphics_Metafile" title="Computer Graphics Metafile">8632</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphical_Kernel_System" title="Graphical Kernel System">8651</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8652" title="ISO/IEC 8652">8652</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_8691" title="ISO 8691">8691</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphical_Kernel_System" title="Graphical Kernel System">8805/8806</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_Of_Temporal_Ordering_Specification" class="mw-redirect" title="Language Of Temporal Ordering Specification">8807</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuse_(automotive)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuse (automotive)">8820-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859" title="ISO/IEC 8859">8859</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-1" title="ISO/IEC 8859-1">-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-2" title="ISO/IEC 8859-2">-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-3" title="ISO/IEC 8859-3">-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-4" title="ISO/IEC 8859-4">-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-5" title="ISO/IEC 8859-5">-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-7" title="ISO/IEC 8859-7">-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-8" title="ISO/IEC 8859-8">-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO-8859-8-I" title="ISO-8859-8-I">-8-I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-9" title="ISO/IEC 8859-9">-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-10" title="ISO/IEC 8859-10">-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-11" title="ISO/IEC 8859-11">-11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-12" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO/IEC 8859-12">-12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-13" title="ISO/IEC 8859-13">-13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-14" title="ISO/IEC 8859-14">-14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-15" title="ISO/IEC 8859-15">-15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-16" title="ISO/IEC 8859-16">-16</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Generalized_Markup_Language" title="Standard Generalized Markup Language">8879</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_9000" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 9000">9000/9001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASMO_449" title="ASMO 449">9036</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SQL" title="SQL">9075</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_9126" title="ISO/IEC 9126">9126</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On-board_diagnostics" title="On-board diagnostics">9141</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_spray_test" title="Salt spray test">9227</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_9241" title="ISO 9241">9241</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_Allocation_Table" title="File Allocation Table">9293</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber_Distributed_Data_Interface" title="Fiber Distributed Data Interface">9314</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_9362" title="ISO 9362">9362</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoe_size" title="Shoe size">9407</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CHILL" title="CHILL">9496</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_Message_Specification" title="Manufacturing Message Specification">9506</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_9529" title="ISO/IEC 9529">9529</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_9564" title="ISO 9564">9564</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PHIGS" title="PHIGS">9592/9593</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X.500" title="X.500">9594</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_9660" title="ISO 9660">9660</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_9797-1" title="ISO/IEC 9797-1">9797-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_9897" title="ISO 9897">9897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANSI_C" title="ANSI C">9899</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/POSIX" title="POSIX">9945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Georgian" title="Romanization of Georgian">9984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Armenian" title="Romanization of Armenian">9985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_9995" title="ISO/IEC 9995">9995</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10000–19999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10006" title="ISO 10006">10006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10007" title="ISO 10007">10007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_10116" title="ISO/IEC 10116">10116</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool_(hash_function)" title="Whirlpool (hash function)">10118-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10160" title="ISO 10160">10160</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10161" title="ISO 10161">10161</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guidelines_for_the_Definition_of_Managed_Objects" title="Guidelines for the Definition of Managed Objects">10165</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document_Style_Semantics_and_Specification_Language" title="Document Style Semantics and Specification Language">10179</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)#ISO/IEC_10206:1990_Extended_Pascal" title="Pascal (programming language)">10206</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10218" title="ISO 10218">10218</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_BASIC" title="Full BASIC">10279</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10303" title="ISO 10303">10303</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EXPRESS_(data_modeling_language)" title="EXPRESS (data modeling language)">-11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10303-21" title="ISO 10303-21">-21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10303-22" title="ISO 10303-22">-22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10303-28" title="ISO 10303-28">-28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/STEP-NC" title="STEP-NC">-238</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_Identifier_Code" title="Market Identifier Code">10383</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ArmSCII" title="ArmSCII">10585</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IS-IS" title="IS-IS">10589</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10628" title="ISO 10628">10628</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Coded_Character_Set" title="Universal Coded Character Set">10646</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torx" title="Torx">10664</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RM-ODP" title="RM-ODP">10746</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multibus" title="Multibus">10861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Music_Number" title="International Standard Music Number">10957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_10962" title="ISO 10962">10962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_10967" title="ISO/IEC 10967">10967</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEEE_11073" title="ISO/IEEE 11073">11073</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_11170" title="ISO 11170">11170</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-1" title="MPEG-1">11172</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_11179" title="ISO/IEC 11179">11179</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_11404" title="ISO/IEC 11404">11404</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JBIG" title="JBIG">11544</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_11783" title="ISO 11783">11783</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_11784_and_ISO_11785" title="ISO 11784 and ISO 11785">11784</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_11784_and_ISO_11785" title="ISO 11784 and ISO 11785">11785</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_11801" title="ISO/IEC 11801">11801</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trusted_Platform_Module" title="Trusted Platform Module">11889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAN_bus#CAN_lower-layer_standards" title="CAN bus">11898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_11940" title="ISO 11940">11940</a> (<a href="/wiki/ISO_11940-2" title="ISO 11940-2">-2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/TR_11941" title="ISO/TR 11941">11941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/TR_11941" title="ISO/TR 11941">11941 (TR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_11992" title="ISO 11992">11992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_12006" title="ISO 12006">12006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DICOM" title="DICOM">12052</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_TR_12182" title="ISO/IEC TR 12182">12182</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_12207" title="ISO/IEC 12207">12207</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TIFF/EP" title="TIFF/EP">12234-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_categories#ISO_12620_(ISO_TC37_Data_Category_Registry,_ISOcat)" title="Linguistic categories">12620</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">13211</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">-2</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isofix" title="Isofix">13216</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topic_map" title="Topic map">13250</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_13399" title="ISO 13399">13399</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_13406-2" title="ISO 13406-2">13406-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/110_film" title="110 film">13450</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_13485" title="ISO 13485">13485</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_13490" title="ISO 13490">13490</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_13567" title="ISO 13567">13567</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z_notation" title="Z notation">13568</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_13584" title="ISO 13584">13584</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Bank_Account_Number" title="International Bank Account Number">13616</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISLISP" title="ISLISP">13816</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-2" title="MPEG-2">13818</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14000" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 14000">14000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14031" title="ISO 14031">14031</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14224" title="ISO 14224">14224</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDF/UA" title="PDF/UA">14289</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horsepower" title="Horsepower">14396</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_14443" title="ISO/IEC 14443">14443</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-4" title="MPEG-4">14496</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-4_Part_2" title="MPEG-4 Part 2">-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-4_Part_3" title="MPEG-4 Part 3">-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delivery_Multimedia_Integration_Framework" title="Delivery Multimedia Integration Framework">-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Video_Coding" title="Advanced Video Coding">-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-4_Part_11" title="MPEG-4 Part 11">-11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_base_media_file_format" title="ISO base media file format">-12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MP4_file_format" title="MP4 file format">-14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MP4_file_format" title="MP4 file format">-17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MP4_file_format" title="MP4 file format">-20</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14617" title="ISO 14617">14617</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14644" title="ISO 14644">14644</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/STEP-NC" title="STEP-NC">14649</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_14651" title="ISO/IEC 14651">14651</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14698" title="ISO 14698">14698</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">14764</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">14882</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14971" title="ISO 14971">14971</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15022" title="ISO 15022">15022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15189" title="ISO 15189">15189</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_15288" title="ISO/IEC 15288">15288</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ada_Semantic_Interface_Specification" title="Ada Semantic Interface Specification">15291</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15398" title="ISO 15398">15398</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Criteria" title="Common Criteria">15408</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JPEG_2000" title="JPEG 2000">15444</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motion_JPEG_2000" title="Motion JPEG 2000">-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JPIP" title="JPIP">-9</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">15445</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDF417" title="PDF417">15438</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_15504" title="ISO/IEC 15504">15504</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Identifier_for_Libraries_and_Related_Organizations" title="International Standard Identifier for Libraries and Related Organizations">15511</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15686" title="ISO 15686">15686</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_15693" title="ISO/IEC 15693">15693</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Audiovisual_Number" title="International Standard Audiovisual Number">15706</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Audiovisual_Number" title="International Standard Audiovisual Number">-2</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Musical_Work_Code" title="International Standard Musical Work Code">15707</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_15897" title="ISO/IEC 15897">15897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15919" title="ISO 15919">15919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15924" title="ISO 15924">15924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15926" title="ISO 15926">15926</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15926_WIP" title="ISO 15926 WIP">15926 WIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDF/X" title="PDF/X">15930</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-7" title="MPEG-7">15938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MaxiCode" title="MaxiCode">16023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">16262</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_function_deployment" title="Quality function deployment">16355-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_raster_content" title="Mixed raster content">16485</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDF/VT" title="PDF/VT">16612-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_16750" title="ISO 16750">16750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IATF_16949" title="IATF 16949">16949 (TS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_17024" title="ISO/IEC 17024">17024</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_17025" title="ISO/IEC 17025">17025</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_17100" title="ISO 17100">17100</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Virtualization_Format" title="Open Virtualization Format">17203</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SDMX" title="SDMX">17369</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_Entity_Identifier" title="Legal Entity Identifier">17442</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COLLADA" title="COLLADA">17506</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_27002" title="ISO/IEC 27002">17799</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QR_code" title="QR code">18004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_18014" title="ISO/IEC 18014">18014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JPEG_XL" title="JPEG XL">18181</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_18245" title="ISO 18245">18245</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_Specification_Language" title="Process Specification Language">18629</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_Activity_Test" title="Photographic Activity Test">18916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDF/A" title="PDF/A">19005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_19011" title="ISO 19011">19011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_19092-1" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 19092-1">19092</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_19092-1" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 19092-1">-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_19092-2" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 19092-2">-2</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_19114" title="ISO 19114">19114</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geospatial_metadata#ISO_19115:_Geographic_information_–_Metadata" title="Geospatial metadata">19115</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_Features" title="Simple Features">19125</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_Markup_Language#ISO_19136" title="Geography Markup Language">19136</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoe_size" title="Shoe size">19407</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_19439" title="ISO 19439">19439</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Object_Request_Broker_Architecture" title="Common Object Request Broker Architecture">19500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">19501</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-Object_Facility" title="Meta-Object Facility">19502</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XML_Metadata_Interchange" title="XML Metadata Interchange">19503</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Modeling_Language" title="Unified Modeling Language">19505</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_Discovery_Metamodel" title="Knowledge Discovery Metamodel">19506</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_Constraint_Language" title="Object Constraint Language">19507</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-Object_Facility" title="Meta-Object Facility">19508</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XML_Metadata_Interchange" title="XML Metadata Interchange">19509</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_Process_Model_and_Notation" title="Business Process Model and Notation">19510</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_19600" title="ISO 19600">19600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_19752" title="ISO/IEC 19752">19752</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RELAX_NG" title="RELAX NG">19757</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_19770" title="ISO/IEC 19770">19770</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X3D" title="X3D">19775-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_19794-5" title="ISO/IEC 19794-5">19794-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_Infrastructure_Management_Interface" title="Cloud Infrastructure Management Interface">19831</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20000–29999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_20000" title="ISO/IEC 20000">20000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_20022" title="ISO 20022">20022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_20121" title="ISO 20121">20121</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_20400" title="ISO 20400">20400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Data_Protocol" title="Open Data Protocol">20802</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Xin_code" title="Han Xin code">20830</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-21" title="MPEG-21">21000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_21001" title="ISO 21001">21001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Text_Code" title="International Standard Text Code">21047</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JPEG_XS" title="JPEG XS">21122</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_21500" title="ISO 21500">21500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_21827" title="ISO/IEC 21827">21827</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">22000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">22275</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22300" title="ISO 22300">22300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22301" title="ISO 22301">22301</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22395" title="ISO 22395">22395</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ECMAScript_for_XML" title="ECMAScript for XML">22537</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-A" title="MPEG-A">23000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-D" title="MPEG-D">23003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-H" title="MPEG-H">23008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_Adaptive_Streaming_over_HTTP" title="Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP">23009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Versatile_Video_Coding" title="Versatile Video Coding">23090-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-G" title="MPEG-G">23092</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essential_Video_Coding" title="Essential Video Coding">23094-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LCEVC" title="LCEVC">23094-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">23270</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Language_Infrastructure" title="Common Language Infrastructure">23271</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_Standard_Base" title="Linux Standard Base">23360</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_Micro_QR_Code" title="Rectangular Micro QR Code">23941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDF/E" title="PDF/E">24517</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_Markup_Framework" title="Lexical Markup Framework">24613</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO-TimeML" title="ISO-TimeML">24617</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Logic" title="Common Logic">24707</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroPDF417" title="MicroPDF417">24728</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_25178" title="ISO 25178">25178</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_25964" title="ISO 25964">25964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_26000" title="ISO 26000">26000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_26262" title="ISO 26262">26262</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenDocument" title="OpenDocument">26300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">26324</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_27000-series" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO/IEC 27000-series">27000 series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_27000" title="ISO/IEC 27000">27000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_27001" title="ISO/IEC 27001">27001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_27002" title="ISO/IEC 27002">27002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_27005" title="ISO/IEC 27005">27005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_27006" title="ISO/IEC 27006">27006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Name_Identifier" title="International Standard Name Identifier">27729</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_28000" title="ISO 28000">28000</a></li> <li>29110</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requirements_engineering" title="Requirements engineering">29148</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JPEG_XR" title="JPEG XR">29199-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_Open_XML" title="Office Open XML">29500</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">30000+</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">30170</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_31000" title="ISO 31000">31000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">32000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_37001" title="ISO 37001">37001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_38500" title="ISO/IEC 38500">38500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_Query_Language" title="Graph Query Language">39075</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_Content_Accessibility_Guidelines" title="Web Content Accessibility Guidelines">40500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_42010" title="ISO/IEC 42010">42010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_45001" title="ISO 45001">45001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_50001" title="ISO 50001">50001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_55000" title="ISO 55000">55000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_56000" title="ISO 56000">56000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_80000" title="ISO/IEC 80000">80000</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:ISO_standards" title="Category:ISO standards">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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