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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Multimodal_sensory_processing,_sensory_binding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multimodal_sensory_processing,_sensory_binding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Multimodal sensory processing, sensory binding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multimodal_sensory_processing,_sensory_binding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Taste</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speech" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speech"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Speech</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speech-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interoceptive_awareness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interoceptive_awareness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Interoceptive awareness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interoceptive_awareness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motor_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motor_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Motor control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motor_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homeostasis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homeostasis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Homeostasis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homeostasis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Self</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_emotions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_emotions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Social emotions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_emotions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emotions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emotions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Emotions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emotions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Salience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decision_making" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decision_making"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Decision making</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decision_making-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Auditory_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auditory_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>Auditory perception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auditory_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Progressive_expressive_aphasia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Progressive_expressive_aphasia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Progressive expressive aphasia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Progressive_expressive_aphasia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Addiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Addiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Addiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Addiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subjective_certainty_in_ecstatic_seizures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subjective_certainty_in_ecstatic_seizures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Subjective certainty in ecstatic seizures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subjective_certainty_in_ecstatic_seizures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_clinical_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_clinical_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Other clinical conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_clinical_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Insular cortex</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B5_%D8%AC%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="فص جزيري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فص جزيري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyl_adac%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Reyl adacığı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Reyl adacığı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insula" title="Insula – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Insula" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B2bul_de_l%27%C3%ADnsula" title="Lòbul de l'ínsula – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lòbul de l'ínsula" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insul%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_kortex" title="Insulární kortex – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Insulární kortex" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insula" title="Insula – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Insula" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inselrinde" title="Inselrinde – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Inselrinde" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dnsula" title="Ínsula – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ínsula" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intsula" title="Intsula – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Intsula" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B4%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="قشر جزیره‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قشر جزیره‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortex_insulaire" title="Cortex insulaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cortex insulaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rtex_insular" title="Córtex insular – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Córtex insular" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%87%8C%EC%84%AC%EC%97%BD" title="뇌섬엽 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뇌섬엽" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korteks_insular" title="Korteks insular – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Korteks insular" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobo_dell%27insula" title="Lobo dell'insula – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lobo dell'insula" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%94_(%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97)" title="אינסולה (מוח) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אינסולה (מוח)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sala_(galvos_smegenys)" title="Sala (galvos smegenys) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sala (galvos smegenys)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insula_(anat%C3%B3mia)" title="Insula (anatómia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Insula (anatómia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ഇൻസുലാർ കോർട്ടെക്സ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇൻസുലാർ കോർട്ടെക്സ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insula_(hersenen)" title="Insula (hersenen) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Insula (hersenen)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B3%B6%E7%9A%AE%E8%B3%AA" title="島皮質 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="島皮質" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyspa_(anatomia)" title="Wyspa (anatomia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wyspa (anatomia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobo_da_%C3%ADnsula" title="Lobo da ínsula – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lobo da ínsula" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Островковая доля – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Островковая доля" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Инсуларни кортекс – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Инсуларни кортекс" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insula_(anatomi)" title="Insula (anatomi) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Insula (anatomi)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Portion of the mammalian cerebral cortex</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:lemonchiffon">Insular cortex</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Sobo_1909_633.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Sobo_1909_633.png/250px-Sobo_1909_633.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Sobo_1909_633.png/375px-Sobo_1909_633.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Sobo_1909_633.png/500px-Sobo_1909_633.png 2x" data-file-width="1078" data-file-height="699" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Right insula, exposed by removing the <a href="/wiki/Operculum_(brain)" title="Operculum (brain)">opercula</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Insular_cortex.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Insular_cortex.gif/180px-Insular_cortex.gif" decoding="async" width="180" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Insular_cortex.gif/270px-Insular_cortex.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Insular_cortex.gif/360px-Insular_cortex.gif 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="390" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">3D view of the insular cortex</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">Cerebral cortex</a> of <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_cerebral_artery" title="Middle cerebral artery">Middle cerebral</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>cortex insularis</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000087623">D000087623</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NeuroNames" title="NeuroNames">NeuroNames</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/centraldirectory.aspx?ID=111">111</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NeuroLex" title="NeuroLex">NeuroLex</a> ID</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uri.neuinfo.org/nif/nifstd/birnlex_1117">birnlex_1117</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/14.1.09.149%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A14.1.09.149</a><br /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/12.2.07.053%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A12.2.07.053</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=5502">5502</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma67329">67329</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy" title="Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy">Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1422654" class="extiw" title="d:Q1422654">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>insular cortex</b> (also <b>insula</b> and <b>insular lobe</b>) is a portion of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> folded deep within the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_sulcus" title="Lateral sulcus">lateral sulcus</a> (the fissure separating the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal lobes</a>) within each <a href="/wiki/Brain_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain hemisphere">hemisphere</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammalian</a> <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. </p><p>The insulae are believed to be involved in <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and play a role in diverse functions usually linked to <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a> or the regulation of the body's <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>. These functions include <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">taste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">motor control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-awareness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive function">cognitive functioning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">interpersonal relationships</a>, and awareness of <a href="/wiki/Homeostatic_emotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeostatic emotion">homeostatic emotions</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Hunger_(physiology)" title="Hunger (physiology)">hunger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fatigue" title="Fatigue">fatigue</a>. In relation to these, it is involved in <a href="/wiki/Psychopathology" title="Psychopathology">psychopathology</a>. </p><p>The insular cortex is divided by the central sulcus of the insula, into two parts: the anterior insula and the posterior insula in which more than a dozen field areas have been identified. The cortical area overlying the insula toward the lateral surface of the brain is the <a href="/wiki/Operculum_(brain)" title="Operculum (brain)">operculum</a> (meaning <i>lid</i>). The opercula are formed from parts of the enclosing frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The insula is divided into an anterior and a posterior part by the <b>central sulcus of the insula</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kortz_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kortz-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connections">Connections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Connections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The anterior part of the insula is subdivided by shallow <a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">sulci</a> into three or four <b>short gyri</b>. </p><p>The anterior insula receives a direct projection from the basal part of the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_nuclear_group" title="Ventral nuclear group">ventral medial nucleus</a> of the thalamus and a particularly large input from the <a href="/wiki/Central_nucleus_of_the_amygdala" title="Central nucleus of the amygdala">central nucleus of the amygdala</a>. In addition, the anterior insula itself projects to the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>. </p><p>One study on rhesus monkeys revealed widespread reciprocal connections between the insular cortex and almost all subnuclei of the amygdaloid complex. The posterior insula projects predominantly to the dorsal aspect of the lateral and to the central amygdaloid nuclei. In contrast, the anterior insula projects to the anterior amygdaloid area as well as the medial, the cortical, the accessory basal magnocellular, the medial basal, and the lateral amygdaloid nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The posterior part of the insula is formed by a <b>long gyrus</b>. </p><p>The posterior insula connects reciprocally with the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Secondary somatosensory cortex">secondary somatosensory cortex</a> and receives input from <a href="/wiki/Spinothalamic_tract" title="Spinothalamic tract">spinothalamically</a> activated <a href="/wiki/Ventral_nuclear_group" title="Ventral nuclear group">ventral posterior inferior</a> thalamic nuclei. It has also been shown that this region receives inputs from the ventromedial nucleus (posterior part) of the thalamus that are highly specialized to convey homeostatic information such as pain, temperature, itch, local oxygen status, and sensual touch.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A human neuroimaging study using <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion MRI">diffusion tensor imaging</a> revealed that the anterior insula is interconnected to regions in the temporal and occipital lobe, opercular and orbitofrontal cortex, triangular and opercular parts of the inferior frontal gyrus. The same study revealed differences in the anatomical connection patterns between the left and right hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <b>circular sulcus of insula</b> (or <b>sulcus of Reil</b><sup id="cite_ref-Sobotta's_Atlas_and_Text-book_of_human_anatomy_1909_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sobotta's_Atlas_and_Text-book_of_human_anatomy_1909-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is a semicircular <a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">sulcus</a> or <i>fissure</i><sup id="cite_ref-Sobotta's_Atlas_and_Text-book_of_human_anatomy_1909_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sobotta's_Atlas_and_Text-book_of_human_anatomy_1909-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that separates the insula from the neighboring gyri of the <a href="/wiki/Operculum_(brain)" title="Operculum (brain)">operculum</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the front, above, and behind.<sup id="cite_ref-Sobotta's_Atlas_and_Text-book_of_human_anatomy_1909_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sobotta's_Atlas_and_Text-book_of_human_anatomy_1909-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cytoarchitecture">Cytoarchitecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cytoarchitecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The insular cortex has regions of variable cell structure or <a href="/wiki/Cytoarchitecture" title="Cytoarchitecture">cytoarchitecture</a>, changing from <a href="/wiki/Granule_cell" title="Granule cell">granular</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Posterior_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior (anatomy)">posterior</a> portion to agranular in the <a href="/wiki/Anterior" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior">anterior</a> portion. The insula also receives differential <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cortical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamic</a> input along its length. The anterior insular cortex contains a population of <a href="/wiki/Spindle_neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Spindle neurons">spindle neurons</a> (also called <i>von Economo neurons</i>), identified as characterising a distinctive subregion as the agranular frontal insula.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The insular cortex is considered a separate <a href="/wiki/Lobes_of_the_brain" title="Lobes of the brain">lobe</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Telencephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Telencephalon">telencephalon</a> by some authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other sources see the insula as a part of the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also sometimes grouped with limbic structures deep in the brain into a <a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">limbic lobe</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As a paralimbic cortex, the insular cortex is considered to be a relatively old structure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multimodal_sensory_processing,_sensory_binding"><span id="Multimodal_sensory_processing.2C_sensory_binding"></span>Multimodal sensory processing, sensory binding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Multimodal sensory processing, sensory binding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Functional imaging studies show activation of the insula during audio-visual integration tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taste">Taste</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Taste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The anterior insula is part of the primary <a href="/wiki/Gustatory_cortex" title="Gustatory cortex">gustatory cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research in rhesus monkeys has also reported that apart from numerous taste-sensitive neurons, the insular cortex also responds to non-taste properties of oral stimuli related to the texture (viscosity, grittiness) or temperature of food.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speech">Speech</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Speech"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sensory speech region, Wernicke’s area, and the motor speech region, Broca’s area, are interconnected by a large axonal fiber system known as the arcuate fasciculus which passes directly beneath the insular cortex. On account of this anatomical architecture, ischemic strokes in the insular region can disrupt the arcuate fasciculus.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Functional imaging studies on the cerebral correlates of language production also suggest that the anterior insula forms part of the brain network of speech motor control.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, electrical stimulation of the posterior insular can evoke speech disturbances such as speech arrest and reduced voice intensity.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lesion of the pre-central gyrus of the insula can also cause “pure speech apraxia” (i.e. the inability to speak with no apparent aphasic or orofacial motor impairments).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This demonstrates that the insular cortex forms part of a critical circuit for the coordination of complex articulatory movements prior to and during the execution of the motor speech plans.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Importantly, this specific cortical circuit is different from those that relate to the cognitive aspects of language production (e.g., Broca’s area on the inferior frontal gyrus).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subvocal, or silent, speech has also been shown to activate right insular cortex, further supporting the theory that the motor control of speech proceeds from the insula.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interoceptive_awareness">Interoceptive awareness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Interoceptive awareness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Interoception" title="Interoception">Interoception</a></div> <p>There is evidence that, in addition to its base functions, the insula may play a role in certain higher-level functions that operate only in humans and other <a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">great apes</a>. The spindle neurons found at a higher density in the right frontal insular cortex are also found in the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a>, which is another region that has reached a high level of specialization in great apes. It has been speculated that these neurons are involved in <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a>-<a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotional</a> processes that are specific to primates including great apes, such as <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metacognition" title="Metacognition">metacognitive</a> emotional feelings. This is supported by functional imaging results showing that the structure and function of the right frontal insula is correlated with the ability to feel one's own heartbeat, or to empathize with the pain of others. It is thought that these functions are not distinct from the lower-level functions of the insula but rather arise as a consequence of the role of the insula in conveying homeostatic information to <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The right anterior insula is engaged in <a href="/wiki/Interoception" title="Interoception">interoceptive</a> awareness of homeostatic emotions such as thirst, pain and fatigue,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the ability to time one's own <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heartbeat</a>. Moreover, greater right anterior insular <a href="/wiki/Gray_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray matter">gray matter</a> volume correlates with increased accuracy in this subjective sense of the inner body, and with <a href="/wiki/Negative_emotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative emotion">negative emotional</a> experience.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also involved in the control of <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Lamb_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamb-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in particular during and after exercise,<sup id="cite_ref-Lamb_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamb-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its activity varies with the amount of effort a person believes he/she is exerting.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The insular cortex also is where the sensation of <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> is judged as to its degree.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lesion of the insula is associated with dramatic loss of pain perception and isolated insular infarction can lead to contralateral elimination of pinprick perception.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, the insula is where a person imagines pain when looking at images of painful events while thinking about their happening to one's own body.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those with <a href="/wiki/Irritable_bowel_syndrome" title="Irritable bowel syndrome">irritable bowel syndrome</a> have abnormal processing of <a href="/wiki/Viscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscus">visceral</a> pain in the insular cortex related to dysfunctional inhibition of pain within the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Physiological studies in rhesus monkeys have shown that neurons in the insula respond to skin stimulation.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PET studies have also revealed that the human insula can also be activated by vibrational stimulation to the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another perception of the right anterior insula is the degree of nonpainful <a href="/wiki/Sense#Temperature" title="Sense">warmth</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or nonpainful coldness<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of a skin sensation. Other internal sensations processed by the insula include stomach or <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_distension" title="Abdominal distension">abdominal distension</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A full <a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">bladder</a> also activates the insular cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One brain imaging study suggests that the unpleasantness of subjectively perceived <a href="/wiki/Dyspnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyspnea">dyspnea</a> is processed in the right human anterior insula and <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cerebral cortex processing <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">vestibular</a> sensations extends into the insula,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with small lesions in the anterior insular cortex being able to cause loss of <a href="/wiki/Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">balance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vertigo_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertigo (medical)">vertigo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other noninteroceptive perceptions include passive listening to music,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> laughter and crying,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> empathy and compassion,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and language.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motor_control">Motor control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Motor control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In motor control, it contributes to hand-and-eye motor movement,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> swallowing,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gastric motility,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and speech articulation.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been identified as a "central command” centre that ensures that <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> increase at the onset of <a href="/wiki/Exercise_physiology" title="Exercise physiology">exercise</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research upon conversation links it to the capacity for long and complex spoken sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also involved in motor learning<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been identified as playing a role in the motor recovery from stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Homeostasis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It plays a role in a variety of homeostatic functions related to basic survival needs, such as taste, visceral sensation, and autonomic control. The insula controls autonomic functions through the regulation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Critchley_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Critchley-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has a role in regulating the immune system.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self">Self</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Self"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The insula has been identified as playing a role in the experience of bodily self-awareness,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sense of agency,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sense of body ownership.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_emotions">Social emotions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Social emotions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The anterior insula processes a person's sense of <a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">disgust</a> both to smells<sup id="cite_ref-Wicker_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wicker-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to the sight of contamination and mutilation<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — even when just imagining the experience.<sup id="cite_ref-Jabbi_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jabbi-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This associates with a <a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">mirror neuron</a>-like link between external and internal experiences. </p><p>In social experience, it is involved in the processing of norm violations,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> emotional processing,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> empathy,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and orgasms.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The insula is active during social decision making. Tiziana Quarto et al. measured <a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">emotional intelligence</a> (EI) (the ability to identify, regulate, and process emotions of themselves and of others) of sixty-three healthy subjects. Using <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">fMRI</a> EI was measured in correlation with left insular activity. The subjects were shown various pictures of <a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">facial expressions</a> and tasked with deciding to approach or avoid the person in the picture. The results of the social decision task yielded that individuals with high EI scores had left insular activation when processing fearful faces. Individuals with low EI scores had left insular activation when processing angry faces.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emotions">Emotions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Emotions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The insular cortex, in particular its most anterior portion, is considered a <a href="/wiki/Limbic" class="mw-redirect" title="Limbic">limbic</a>-related cortex. The insula has increasingly become the focus of attention for its role in body representation and subjective emotional experience. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Damasio" title="Antonio Damasio">Antonio Damasio</a> has proposed that this region plays a role in mapping visceral states that are associated with emotional experience, giving rise to conscious feelings. This is in essence a neurobiological formulation of the ideas of <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, who first proposed that subjective emotional experience (i.e., feelings) arise from our brain's interpretation of bodily states that are elicited by emotional events. This is an example of <a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">embodied cognition</a>. </p><p>In terms of function, the insula is believed to process convergent information to produce an <i>emotionally relevant context for sensory experience</i>. To be specific, the anterior insula is related more to <i>olfactory, gustatory, viscero-autonomic, and limbic function</i>, whereas the posterior insula is related more to <i>auditory-somesthetic-skeletomotor</i> function. <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">Functional imaging experiments</a> have revealed that the insula has an important role in <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> experience and the experience of a number of basic <a href="/wiki/Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">emotions</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">anger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">disgust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sadness" title="Sadness">sadness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The anterior insular cortex (AIC) is believed to be responsible for emotional feelings, including maternal and romantic love, anger, fear, sadness, happiness, sexual arousal, disgust, aversion, unfairness, inequity, indignation, uncertainty,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> disbelief, <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">social exclusion</a>, trust, empathy, sculptural beauty, a ‘state of union with God’, and hallucinogenic states.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Functional imaging studies have also implicated the insula in conscious desires, such as food craving and drug craving. What is common to all of these emotional states is that they each change the body in some way and are associated with highly salient subjective qualities. The insula is well-situated for the integration of information relating to bodily states into higher-order cognitive and emotional processes. The insula receives information from "homeostatic afferent" sensory pathways via the thalamus and sends output to a number of other limbic-related structures, such as the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_striatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral striatum">ventral striatum</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal cortex</a>, as well as to <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study using <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> found that the right anterior insula is significantly thicker in people that <a href="/wiki/Meditate" class="mw-redirect" title="Meditate">meditate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16272874_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16272874-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other research into <a href="/wiki/Brain_activity_and_meditation" title="Brain activity and meditation">brain activity and meditation</a> has shown an increase in grey matter in areas of the brain including the insular cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-Fox_48–73_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fox_48–73-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another study using voxel-based morphometry and MRI on experienced <a href="/wiki/Vipassana_meditation" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassana meditation">Vipassana meditators</a> was done to extend the findings of Lazar et al., which found increased grey matter concentrations in this and other areas of the brain in experienced meditators.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The strongest evidence against a causative role for the insula cortex in emotion comes from Damasio et al. (2012) <sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which showed that a patient who suffered bilateral lesions of the insula cortex expressed the full complement of human emotions, and was fully capable of emotional learning. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salience">Salience</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Salience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Functional_neuroimaging" title="Functional neuroimaging">Functional neuroimaging</a> research suggests the insula is involved in two types of <a href="/wiki/Salience_(neuroscience)" title="Salience (neuroscience)">salience</a>. Interoceptive information processing that links interoception with emotional salience to generate a subjective representation of the body. This involves, first, the anterior insular cortex with the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">pregenual anterior cingulate cortex</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_33" title="Brodmann area 33">Brodmann area 33</a>) and the anterior and <a href="/wiki/Posterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Posterior cingulate cortex">posterior mid-cingulate cortices</a>, and, second, a general <a href="/wiki/Salience_network" title="Salience network">salience network</a> concerned with environmental monitoring, response selection, and skeletomotor body orientation that involves all of the insular cortex and the mid-cingulate cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A related idea is that the anterior insula, as part of the salience network, interacts with the mid-posterior insula to combine salient stimuli with autonomic information, leading to a high state of physiological awareness of salient stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An alternative or perhaps complementary proposal is that the right anterior insular regulates the interaction between the salience of the <a href="/wiki/Selective_attention" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective attention">selective attention</a> created to achieve a task (the dorsal attention system) and the salience of <a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a> created to keep focused upon the relevant part of the environment (ventral attention system).<sup id="cite_ref-Eckert_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eckert-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This regulation of salience might be particularly important during challenging tasks where attention might <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(safety)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (safety)">fatigue</a> and so cause careless mistakes but if there is too much arousal it risks creating poor performance by turning into <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eckert_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eckert-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decision_making">Decision making</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Decision making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies have shown that damage or dysfunction in the insular cortex can impair decision-making, emotional regulation, and social behavior. The insula is considered a key brain structure in the neural circuitry underlying complex decision-making processes.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It plays a significant role in integrating internal and external cues to facilitate adaptive choices. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Auditory_perception">Auditory perception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Auditory perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research indicates that the insular cortex is involved in <a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">auditory perception</a>. Responses to sound stimuli were obtained using <a href="/wiki/Stereoelectroencephalography" title="Stereoelectroencephalography">intracranial EEG</a> recordings acquired from patients with epilepsy. The posterior part of the insula showed auditory responses that resemble those observed in <a href="/wiki/Heschl%27s_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Heschl's gyrus">Heschl's gyrus</a>, whereas the anterior part responded to the emotional contents of the auditory stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clinical data additionally shows that bilateral damage to the insula after ischemic injury or trauma can lead to auditory agnosia.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Functional magnetic resonance studies have also demonstrated that the insular cortex participates in many key auditory processes such as tuning into novel auditory stimuli and allocating auditory attention.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Direct recordings from the posterior part of the insula showed responses to unexpected sounds within regular auditory streams, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Mismatch_negativity" title="Mismatch negativity">auditory deviance detection</a>. Researchers observed a <a href="/wiki/Mismatch_negativity" title="Mismatch negativity">mismatch negativity</a> (MMN) potential, a well known <a href="/wiki/Event-related_potential" title="Event-related potential">event related potential</a>, as well as the high frequency activity signals originating from local neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Simple auditory illusions and hallucinations were elicited by electrical functional mapping.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Progressive_expressive_aphasia">Progressive expressive aphasia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Progressive expressive aphasia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Progressive <a href="/wiki/Expressive_aphasia" title="Expressive aphasia">expressive aphasia</a> is the deterioration of normal <a href="/wiki/Language_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Language function">language function</a> that causes individuals to lose the ability to communicate fluently while still being able to comprehend single words and intact other non-linguistic cognition. It is found in a variety of degenerative neurological conditions including <a href="/wiki/Pick%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pick's disease">Pick's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor neuron disease">motor neuron disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corticobasal_degeneration" title="Corticobasal degeneration">corticobasal degeneration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frontotemporal_dementia" title="Frontotemporal dementia">frontotemporal dementia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>. It is associated with hypometabolism<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and atrophy of the left anterior insular cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Addiction">Addiction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Addiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of functional brain imaging studies have shown that the insular cortex is activated when drug users are exposed to environmental cues that trigger cravings. This has been shown for a variety of drugs, including <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opiates" class="mw-redirect" title="Opiates">opiates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a>. Despite these findings, the insula has been ignored within the drug addiction literature, perhaps because it is not known to be a direct target of the mesocortical <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> system, which is central to current dopamine reward theories of addiction. Research published in 2007<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has shown that <a href="/wiki/Cigarette" title="Cigarette">cigarette</a> smokers suffering damage to the insular cortex, from a <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> for instance, have their addiction to cigarettes practically eliminated. These individuals were found to be up to 136 times more likely to undergo a disruption of smoking addiction than smokers with damage in other areas. Disruption of addiction was evidenced by self-reported behavior changes such as quitting smoking less than one day after the brain injury, quitting smoking with great ease, not smoking again after quitting, and having no urge to resume smoking since quitting. The study was conducted on average eight years after the strokes, which opens up the possibility that <a href="/wiki/Recall_bias" title="Recall bias">recall bias</a> could have affected the results.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent prospective studies, which overcome this limitation, have corroborated these findings<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests a significant role for the insular cortex in the neurological mechanisms underlying addiction to <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a> and other drugs, and would make this area of the brain a possible target for novel anti-addiction medication. In addition, this finding suggests that functions mediated by the insula, especially conscious feelings, may be particularly important for maintaining drug addiction, although this view is not represented in any modern research or reviews of the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A recent study in rats by Contreras et al.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> corroborates these findings by showing that reversible inactivation of the insula disrupts amphetamine <a href="/wiki/Conditioned_place_preference" title="Conditioned place preference">conditioned place preference</a>, an animal model of cue-induced drug craving. In this study, insula inactivation also disrupted "malaise" responses to <a href="/wiki/Lithium_chloride" title="Lithium chloride">lithium chloride</a> injection, suggesting that the representation of negative interoceptive states by the insula plays a role in addiction. However, in this same study, the conditioned place preference took place immediately after the injection of amphetamine, suggesting that it is the immediate, pleasurable interoceptive effects of amphetamine administration, rather than the delayed, aversive effects of amphetamine withdrawal that are represented within the insula. </p><p>A model proposed by Naqvi et al. (see above) is that the insula stores a representation of the pleasurable interoceptive effects of drug use (e.g., the airway sensory effects of nicotine, the cardiovascular effects of amphetamine), and that this representation is activated by exposure to cues that have previously been associated with drug use. A number of functional imaging studies have shown the insula to be activated during the administration of addictive psychoactive drugs. Several functional imaging studies have also shown that the insula is activated when drug users are exposed to drug cues, and that this activity is correlated with subjective urges. In the cue-exposure studies, insula activity is elicited when there is no actual change in the level of drug in the body. Therefore, rather than merely representing the interoceptive effects of drug use as it occurs, the insula may play a role in memory for the pleasurable interoceptive effects of past drug use, anticipation of these effects in the future, or both. Such a representation may give rise to conscious urges that feel as if they arise from within the body. This may make addicts feel as if their bodies need to use a drug, and may result in persons with lesions in the insula reporting that their bodies have forgotten the urge to use, according to this study. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subjective_certainty_in_ecstatic_seizures">Subjective certainty in ecstatic seizures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Subjective certainty in ecstatic seizures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecstatic_seizures" title="Ecstatic seizures">Ecstatic seizures</a></div> <p>A common quality in mystical experiences is a strong feeling of certainty which <a href="/wiki/Ineffability" title="Ineffability">cannot be expressed in words</a>. Fabienne Picard proposes a neurological explanation for this subjective certainty, based on clinical research of epilepsy.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Picard, this feeling of certainty may be caused by a dysfunction of the anterior insula, a part of the brain which is involved in <a href="/wiki/Interoception" title="Interoception">interoception</a>, self-reflection, and in avoiding uncertainty about the internal representations of the world by "anticipation of resolution of uncertainty or risk". This avoidance of uncertainty functions through the comparison between predicted states and actual states, that is, "signaling that we do not understand, i.e., that there is ambiguity."<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Picard notes that "the concept of insight is very close to that of certainty," and refers to Archimedes' "Eureka!"<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Picard hypothesizes that during ecstatic seizures the comparison between predicted states and actual states no longer functions, and that mismatches between predicted state and actual state are no longer processed, blocking "<a href="/wiki/Negative_emotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative emotion">negative emotions</a> and negative arousal arising from predictive uncertainty," which will be experienced as emotional confidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Picard_2013,_p.2498_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Picard_2013,_p.2498-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Picard concludes that "[t]his could lead to a spiritual interpretation in some individuals."<sup id="cite_ref-Picard_2013,_p.2498_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Picard_2013,_p.2498-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_clinical_conditions">Other clinical conditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Other clinical conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The insular cortex has been suggested to have a role in anxiety disorders,<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> emotion dysregulation,<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa" title="Anorexia nervosa">anorexia nervosa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gaudio2016_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaudio2016-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The insula was first described by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Christian_Reil" title="Johann Christian Reil">Johann Christian Reil</a> while describing cranial and spinal nerves and plexuses.<sup id="cite_ref-Binder_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binder-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Gray" title="Henry Gray">Henry Gray</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gray%27s_Anatomy" title="Gray's Anatomy">Gray's Anatomy</a> is responsible for it being known as the <i>Island of Reil</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Binder_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Binder-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Allman" title="John Allman">John Allman</a> and colleagues showed that anterior insular cortex contains <a href="/wiki/Spindle_neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Spindle neurons">spindle neurons</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Additional images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Insula_structure.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Location and structure of the insular cortex"><img alt="Location and structure of the insular cortex" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Insula_structure.png/120px-Insula_structure.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Insula_structure.png/180px-Insula_structure.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Insula_structure.png/240px-Insula_structure.png 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="364" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Location and structure of the insular cortex</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray717.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Coronal section of brain immediately in front of pons (Insula labeled at upper right)"><img alt="Coronal section of brain immediately in front of pons (Insula labeled at upper right)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Gray717.png/106px-Gray717.png" decoding="async" width="106" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Gray717.png/158px-Gray717.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Gray717.png/211px-Gray717.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="568" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Coronal section of brain immediately in front of pons (Insula labeled at upper right)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Telencephalon-Horiconatal.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Horizontal section of left cerebral hemisphere"><img alt="Horizontal section of left cerebral hemisphere" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Telencephalon-Horiconatal.jpg/105px-Telencephalon-Horiconatal.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Telencephalon-Horiconatal.jpg/157px-Telencephalon-Horiconatal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Telencephalon-Horiconatal.jpg/210px-Telencephalon-Horiconatal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="572" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Horizontal section of left cerebral hemisphere</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Insular_cortex_coronal_sections.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Insular cortex highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images"><img alt="Insular cortex highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Insular_cortex_coronal_sections.gif/112px-Insular_cortex_coronal_sections.gif" decoding="async" width="112" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Insular_cortex_coronal_sections.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="148" data-file-height="158" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Insular cortex highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Insular_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Insular cortex highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images"><img alt="Insular cortex highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Insular_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif/120px-Insular_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Insular_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif/180px-Insular_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Insular_cortex_sagittal_sections.gif 2x" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="158" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Insular cortex highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Insular_cortex_transversal_sections.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Insular cortex highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images"><img alt="Insular cortex highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Insular_cortex_transversal_sections.gif/96px-Insular_cortex_transversal_sections.gif" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Insular_cortex_transversal_sections.gif/144px-Insular_cortex_transversal_sections.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Insular_cortex_transversal_sections.gif 2x" data-file-width="148" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Insular cortex highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article uses <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">anatomical terminology</a>.</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">List of regions in the human brain</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_cortex&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kortz-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kortz_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKortzLillehei2024" class="citation web cs1">Kortz, Michael W.; Lillehei, Kevin O. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK570606/">"Insular Cortex"</a>. <i>StatPearls</i>. StatPearls Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=StatPearls&rft.atitle=Insular+Cortex&rft.date=2024&rft.aulast=Kortz&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rft.au=Lillehei%2C+Kevin+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK570606%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsular+cortex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMUFSONMESULAM,_MPANDYA,_D1981" class="citation journal cs1">MUFSON, E; MESULAM, M; PANDYA, D (1 July 1981). "Insular interconnections with the amygdala in the rhesus monkey". <i>Neuroscience</i>. <b>6</b> (7): 1231–1248. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0306-4522%2881%2990184-6">10.1016/0306-4522(81)90184-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6167896">6167896</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46366616">46366616</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Insular+interconnections+with+the+amygdala+in+the+rhesus+monkey&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1231-1248&rft.date=1981-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46366616%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6167896&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0306-4522%2881%2990184-6&rft.aulast=MUFSON&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=MESULAM%2C+M&rft.au=PANDYA%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsular+cortex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraigChenBandyReiman2000" class="citation journal cs1">Craig AD, Chen K, Bandy D, Reiman EM (2000). 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Location and literature citations for the insula</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whonamedit.com/synd.cfm/1212.html">synd/1212</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Who_Named_It%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="Who Named It?">Who Named It?</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141107120933/http://www.tk.de/rochelexikon/pics/s13048.000-1.html">"Anatomy diagram: 13048.000-1"</a>. <i>Roche Lexicon - illustrated navigator</i>. Elsevier. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tk.de/rochelexikon/pics/s13048.000-1.html">the original</a> on 2014-11-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Roche+Lexicon+-+illustrated+navigator&rft.atitle=Anatomy+diagram%3A+13048.000-1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tk.de%2Frochelexikon%2Fpics%2Fs13048.000-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsular+cortex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brainmaps.org/index.php?q=insular%20cortex">Stained brain slice images which include the "insular cortex"</a> at the <a href="/wiki/BrainMaps" title="BrainMaps">BrainMaps project</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_P._Naidicha2004" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas P. Naidicha; et al. 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(October 2005). "Intracerebral pain processing in a Yoga Master who claims not to feel pain during meditation". <i>Eur J Pain</i>. <b>9</b> (5): 581–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejpain.2004.12.006">10.1016/j.ejpain.2004.12.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16139187">16139187</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17598717">17598717</a>. <q>As for fMRI recording, there were remarkable changes in levels of activity in the...SII-insula (mainly the insula)</q></cite><span 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href="/wiki/Template:Cerebral_cortex" title="Template:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cerebral_cortex" title="Template talk:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cerebral_cortex" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_cerebral_cortex_of_the_human_brain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">Frontal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_gyrus" title="Superior frontal gyrus">Superior frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_frontal_gyrus" title="Middle frontal gyrus">Middle frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_9" title="Brodmann area 9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_46" title="Brodmann area 46">46</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Inferior frontal gyrus">Inferior frontal gyrus</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_47" title="Brodmann area 47">47</a>-<a href="/wiki/Orbital_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Orbital part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars orbitalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_44" title="Brodmann area 44">44</a>-<a href="/wiki/Opercular_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Opercular part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars opercularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_45" title="Brodmann area 45">45</a>-<a href="/wiki/Triangular_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangular part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars triangularis</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_sulcus" title="Superior frontal sulcus">Superior frontal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_sulcus" title="Inferior frontal sulcus">Inferior frontal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precentral_sulcus" title="Precentral sulcus">Precentral sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_gyrus" title="Superior frontal gyrus">Superior frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_frontal_gyrus" title="Medial frontal gyrus">Medial frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_9" title="Brodmann area 9">9</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paraterminal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraterminal gyrus">Paraterminal gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paraolfactory_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraolfactory area">Paraolfactory area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_12" title="Brodmann area 12">12</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_gyrus" title="Straight gyrus">Straight gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_gyri" title="Orbital gyri">Orbital gyri</a>/<a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">Orbitofrontal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_12" title="Brodmann area 12">12</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex" title="Ventromedial prefrontal cortex">Ventromedial prefrontal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcallosal_area" title="Subcallosal area">Subcallosal area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_25" title="Brodmann area 25">25</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory sulcus">Olfactory sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_sulcus" title="Orbital sulcus">Orbital sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_lobule" title="Paracentral lobule">Paracentral lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_sulcus" title="Paracentral sulcus">Paracentral sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex" title="Primary motor cortex">Primary motor cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premotor_cortex" title="Premotor cortex">Premotor cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area" title="Supplementary motor area">Supplementary motor area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_eye_field" title="Supplementary eye field">Supplementary eye field</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_eye_fields" title="Frontal eye fields">Frontal eye fields</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">Parietal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_parietal_lobule" title="Superior parietal lobule">Superior parietal lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_parietal_lobule" title="Inferior parietal lobule">Inferior parietal lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_40" title="Brodmann area 40">40</a>-<a href="/wiki/Supramarginal_gyrus" title="Supramarginal gyrus">Supramarginal gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_39" title="Brodmann area 39">39</a>-<a href="/wiki/Angular_gyrus" title="Angular gyrus">Angular gyrus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_operculum" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietal operculum">Parietal operculum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_43" title="Brodmann area 43">43</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intraparietal_sulcus" title="Intraparietal sulcus">Intraparietal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_lobule" title="Paracentral lobule">Paracentral lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precuneus" title="Precuneus">Precuneus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sulcus" title="Marginal sulcus">Marginal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus" title="Postcentral gyrus">Postcentral gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Primary somatosensory cortex">Primary somatosensory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas_3,_1_and_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2">3, 1 and 2</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Secondary somatosensory cortex">Secondary somatosensory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_parietal_cortex" title="Posterior parietal cortex">Posterior parietal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">Occipital lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_pole_of_cerebrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Occipital pole of cerebrum">Occipital pole of cerebrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_gyri" title="Occipital gyri">Occipital gyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_occipital_sulcus" title="Lateral occipital sulcus">Lateral occipital gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_18" title="Brodmann area 18">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_19" title="Brodmann area 19">19</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunate_sulcus" title="Lunate sulcus">Lunate sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_occipital_sulcus" title="Transverse occipital sulcus">Transverse occipital sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_17" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 17">17</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneus" title="Cuneus">Cuneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_gyrus" title="Lingual gyrus">Lingual gyrus</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcarine_sulcus" title="Calcarine sulcus">Calcarine sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">Temporal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_temporal_gyrus" title="Transverse temporal gyrus">Transverse temporal gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">Auditory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas_41_and_42" title="Brodmann areas 41 and 42">41 and 42</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_gyrus" title="Superior temporal gyrus">Superior temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_38" title="Brodmann area 38">38</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_22" title="Brodmann area 22">22</a>/<a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Planum_temporale" title="Planum temporale">Planum temporale</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_sulcus" title="Superior temporal sulcus">Superior temporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_temporal_gyrus" title="Middle temporal gyrus">Middle temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_21" title="Brodmann area 21">21</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipitotemporal_sulcus" title="Occipitotemporal sulcus">Occipitotemporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusiform_gyrus" title="Fusiform gyrus">Fusiform gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_37" title="Brodmann area 37">37</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_temporal_lobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial temporal lobe">Medial temporal lobe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_27" title="Brodmann area 27">27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_28" title="Brodmann area 28">28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_34" title="Brodmann area 34">34</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_35" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 35">35</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_36" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 36">36</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_temporal_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior temporal sulcus">Inferior temporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_temporal_gyrus" title="Inferior temporal gyrus">Inferior temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_20" title="Brodmann area 20">20</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">Interlobar<br />sulci/fissures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_sulcus" title="Central sulcus">Central (frontal+parietal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_sulcus" title="Lateral sulcus">Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parieto-occipital_sulcus" title="Parieto-occipital sulcus">Parieto-occipital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preoccipital_notch" title="Preoccipital notch">Preoccipital notch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_fissure" title="Longitudinal fissure">Longitudinal fissure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cingulate_sulcus" title="Cingulate sulcus">Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_fissure" title="Collateral fissure">Collateral (temporal+occipital)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callosal_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Callosal sulcus">Callosal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parahippocampal_gyrus" title="Parahippocampal gyrus">Parahippocampal gyrus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>anterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entorhinal_cortex" title="Entorhinal cortex">Entorhinal cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perirhinal_cortex" title="Perirhinal cortex">Perirhinal cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postrhinal_cortex" title="Postrhinal cortex">Postrhinal cortex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_parahippocampal_gyrus" title="Posterior parahippocampal gyrus">Posterior parahippocampal gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepyriform_area" title="Prepyriform area">Prepyriform area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">Cingulate cortex</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cingulate_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cingulate gyrus">gyrus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subgenual_area_25" class="mw-redirect" title="Subgenual area 25">Subgenual area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_25" title="Brodmann area 25">25</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">Anterior cingulate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_24" title="Brodmann area 24">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_32" title="Brodmann area 32">32</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_33" title="Brodmann area 33">33</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_cingulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior cingulate">Posterior cingulate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_23" title="Brodmann area 23">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_31" title="Brodmann area 31">31</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_cingulate_gyrus" title="Isthmus of cingulate gyrus">Isthmus of cingulate gyrus</a>: <a href="/wiki/Retrosplenial_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrosplenial region">Retrosplenial cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_26" title="Brodmann area 26">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_29" title="Brodmann area 29">29</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_30" title="Brodmann area 30">30</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_formation" title="Hippocampal formation">Hippocampal formation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_sulcus" title="Hippocampal sulcus">Hippocampal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbria_of_hippocampus" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria of hippocampus">Fimbria of hippocampus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentate_gyrus" title="Dentate gyrus">Dentate gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinal_sulcus" title="Rhinal sulcus">Rhinal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indusium_griseum" title="Indusium griseum">Indusium griseum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncus" title="Uncus">Uncus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Insular cortex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Insular cortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operculum_(brain)" title="Operculum (brain)">Operculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_of_cerebral_hemispheres" 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