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href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Labor+market+of+Japan%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" 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</div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Labour_force_of_Japan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Labour_force_of_Japan.svg/450px-Labour_force_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Labour_force_of_Japan.svg/675px-Labour_force_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Labour_force_of_Japan.svg/900px-Labour_force_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Labor force of Japan, current and future<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg/450px-Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg/675px-Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg/900px-Unemployment_rate_in_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Unemployment rate of Japan<sup id="cite_ref-OECDLF_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECDLF-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>labor force in Japan</b> numbered 65.9 million people in 2010, which was 59.6% of the population of 15 years old and older, and amongst them, 62.57 million people were employed, whereas 3.34 million people were unemployed which made the <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> rate 5.1%.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The structure of Japan's labor market experienced gradual change in the late 1980s and continued this trend throughout the 1990s. The structure of the labor market is affected by: 1) shrinking population, 2) replacement of postwar baby boom generation, 3) increasing numbers of <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Japan#Professional_life" title="Women in Japan">women in the labor force</a>, and 4) workers' rising education level. Also, an increase in the number of foreign nationals in the labor force is foreseen. </p><p>As of 2019, Japan's unemployment rate was the lowest in the <a href="/wiki/Group_of_Seven" class="mw-redirect" title="Group of Seven">G7</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OECDLF_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECDLF-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its employment rate for the working-age population (15-64) was the highest in the G7.<sup id="cite_ref-OECDLF_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECDLF-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 2021 the size of the labor force changed to 68.60 million, a decrease of 0.08 million from the previous year. Viewing by sex, the male labor force was 38.03 million, a decrease of 0.20 million, and the female labor force was 30.57 million, an increase of 0.13 million. The % of employed people increased to 62.1% from that of 59.6% in 2010. Breaking it by sex, the ratio of employed males was 71.3%, a decrease of 0.1 percent points from the previous year, and the ratio of the labor force of females was 53.5%, an increase of 0.3 percent points.<sup id="cite_ref-stats_by_theme_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stats_by_theme-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, the labor force aged 15-64 was 59.31 million, a decrease of 0.15 million. Viewing by sex, the male labor force aged 15-64 was 32.52 million, a decrease of 0.20 million, and the female labor force aged 15-64 was 26.79 million, an increase of 0.06 million. </p><p>The labor force participation rate of those aged 15-64 was 80.1%, an increase of 0.5 percent points. Viewing by sex, the participation rate of males aged 15-64 was 86.7%, an increase of 0.2 percent points.<sup id="cite_ref-stats_by_theme_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stats_by_theme-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Character">Character</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labor_market_of_Japan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Character"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic Japanese employment structure is known as "<a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_recruiting_of_new_graduates" title="Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates">Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates</a>" and "ranking hierarchy", which includes seniority wages and lifetime employment. It allows employees to learn broad skills to achieve in long-term perspective through job rotation and on-the-job training which is likely to be firm-specific.<sup id="cite_ref-arjan_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arjan-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since Japanese firms develop firm-specific skills throughout long-term employment, it is difficult to enter the internal labor market which is only open to new graduates from high school or university, or those who can be competitive in the market with their special qualification or knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Higuchi_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Higuchi-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This internal market worked well in Japanese firms.<sup id="cite_ref-arjan_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arjan-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Japan has shifted to <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</a>-type regulation and <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> after the burst of economic bubble, and Japanese firms have introduced two developments: 1) <a href="/wiki/Performance-related_pay" title="Performance-related pay">performance-related pay</a>, and 2) non-regular employment such as part-time, temporary and hiring through human resource agencies.<sup id="cite_ref-arjan_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arjan-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Performance-related pay requires short-term evaluation of employees' performance, which means that wage could reflect immediate job performance rather than the skills over the long-term. This could have negative effect on the long-term development. It was suggested that this system cannot be efficacious for typical Japanese firms where skill-based wages motivate employees to gain experience and build their abilities. However, the notion of non-regular employment was introduced by the employer's association Nikkeiren and has been promoted since the 1990s. The principal reason of innovation in flexible staffing is not for flexibility but economizing labor costs. Non-regular employees are common in the retailing and restaurant sectors: 44.3% in retailing and 63.4% in restaurant/hotel industry compared to 17.7% in construction and 21.4% in manufacturing industry in 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-arjan_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arjan-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographic_impact">Demographic impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labor_market_of_Japan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Demographic impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Labour_force_participation_rate_in_Japan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Labour_force_participation_rate_in_Japan.svg/450px-Labour_force_participation_rate_in_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Labour_force_participation_rate_in_Japan.svg/675px-Labour_force_participation_rate_in_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Labour_force_participation_rate_in_Japan.svg/900px-Labour_force_participation_rate_in_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Labor force participation rate (15-64 age) in Japan, by sex<sup id="cite_ref-OECDLF_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECDLF-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gender_wage_gap.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Gender_wage_gap.svg/450px-Gender_wage_gap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Gender_wage_gap.svg/675px-Gender_wage_gap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Gender_wage_gap.svg/900px-Gender_wage_gap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Gender wage gap in OECD<sup id="cite_ref-OECDemp_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECDemp-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> is now facing a shortage of labor caused by two major demographic problems: a shrinking population because of a low fertility rate, which was 1.4 per woman in 2009,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and replacement of the postwar generation which is the biggest population range<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who are now around retirement age. Employers find hiring a big challenge because of the labor shortage, together with the risk aversion nature of Japanese people. These challenges multiply if the company does not have a big brand name or wishes to hire bilingual people with Japanese and English language skills.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The population aged over 15 to 64 years old is 63.7% (80,730 thousand people) of the total population; most of them are considered as productive population who work and support those who are too old or too young to work, while the percentage of the population aged 65 and over is 23.1% of the total population in 2011<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This impacts the shortage of labor in the physical care of the aged people, and Japanese government started bring in care workers from overseas which is managed by bilateral agreements with Indonesia and the Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackie_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recently, Japan has seriously considered introducing "foreign workers" to the nation twice. The first was in the late 1980s, when there was the labor shortage because of the economic boom, however it was forgotten when the economy worsened. The second started in 1999 since the labor shortage caused by demographic change<sup id="cite_ref-Mackie_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Abe" title="Shinzo Abe">Shinzo Abe</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_Economic_Forum" title="World Economic Forum">Davos</a> in 2019, while Japan's labor force decreased by 4.5 million in the past six years, the employment of women and elderly people each increased by 2 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Takenaka_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Takenaka-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a shortage of work force, Japan has been trying to supplement the labor market with higher female participation.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socially, Japanese society has been reversing the traditional norms of domestic housewives, as more and more women are encouraged to work. Institutionally, Japanese government has been making efforts to close the wage gap and offer better family policies, as part of womenomics proposed under Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in 2013. Employment wise, female labor-participation rate has gone up from 62.7% in 1997, to 70.1% in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet a significant portion of female workers are participating in low wage and part-time jobs, while the wage gap was still the third highest in OECD countries in 2017 and women still felt limited in career development.<sup id="cite_ref-OECDemp_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECDemp-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another changing demographic of Japanese labor market is higher elder participation. As the share of population 65 and above jumped from 10% in 1990 to 26.6 percent in 2015, the elderly component of the workforce rose from 7.8% in 2006 to 11.8% in 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-Takenaka_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Takenaka-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On one hand, many elders are retired workers that are rehired to the work force as an irregular employee, which account for the majority of workers between 65 and 69.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, the regular and irregular employee structure can limit potentially higher elder participation, as "irregular" positions can be insecure and lower paying. As many elders still need to supplement their post-retirement income, the aged worker participation may continue to rise, as 42% of employees above 60 suggest they would like to continue working as long as able.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Workers'_changing_attitudes"><span id="Workers.27_changing_attitudes"></span>Workers' changing attitudes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labor_market_of_Japan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Workers' changing attitudes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The success of corporations in Japan is attributable to the remarkable motivation of its workers. Also behind this corporate prosperity is the workers' strong sense of loyalty to and identification with their employers. While many theories have evolved to explain the extraordinary attitude of Japanese workers, perhaps the most noteworthy is that of personnel management. This view holds that loyalty to the company has developed as a result of <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job security</a> and a wage system in which those with the greatest <a href="/wiki/Seniority" title="Seniority">seniority</a> reap the highest rewards. Such corporate structure presumably fostered not only a determined interest in the company but also a low percentage of workers who changed jobs. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Postwar_Japan" title="Postwar Japan">postwar</a> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle" title="Japanese economic miracle">economic reconstruction</a>, the backbone of the labor force was, of course, made up of people born before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. These people grew up in a Japan that was still largely an agriculturally based economy and had little material wealth. Moreover, they had suffered the hardships of war and had accepted hard work as a part of their lives. In the late twentieth century, these people were being replaced by generations born after the war, and there were indications that the newcomers had different attitudes toward work. Postwar generations were accustomed to prosperity and were also better educated than their elders. </p><p>As might be expected, these socioeconomic changes have affected workers' attitudes. Prior to World War II, surveys indicated that the aspect of life regarded as most worthwhile was work. During the 1980s, the percentage of people who felt this way was declining. Workers' identification with their employers was weakening as well. A survey by the Management and Coordination Agency revealed that a record 2.7 million workers changed jobs in the one-year period beginning October 1, 1986, and the ratio of those who switched jobs to the total labor force matched the previous high recorded in 1974 (one year after the first <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">oil crisis</a>). This survey also showed that the percentage of workers indicating an interest in changing jobs increased from 4.5 percent in 1971 to 9.9 percent in 1987. </p><p>Another indication of changing worker attitudes is the number of people meeting with corporate scouts to discuss the possibility of switching jobs. Corporations' treatment of older workers also affects attitudes: there are fewer positions for older workers, and many find themselves without the rewards that their predecessors had enjoyed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Workers_from_overseas">Workers from overseas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labor_market_of_Japan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Workers from overseas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditionally, Japan has had strict laws regarding the <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment</a> of foreigners, although exceptions were made for certain designated activities, provided that the workers have attended a Japanese university and have a high level of Japanese-language proficiency. Excepted categories have included executives and managers engaged in commercial activities, full-time scholars associated with research and education institutions, professional entertainers, engineers and others specializing in advanced technology, foreign-language teachers, and others with special skills unavailable among Japanese nationals. In 2019, restaurant, retail shop, and factory production line workers were added to the list.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Officially, in 2008 there were 486,400 foreign workers in Japan: 43.3% of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese</a>, 20.4% of <a href="/wiki/Brazilians" title="Brazilians">Brazilians</a>, 8.3% of <a href="/wiki/Filipinos" title="Filipinos">Filipinos</a> and others (A labor Ministry survey of Companies).<sup id="cite_ref-Mackie_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent studies suggest that Japan has struggled to attract potential migrants despite immigration laws being relatively lenient (especially for high-skilled workers) compared to other developed countries.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is also apparent when looking at Japan's work visa program for "specified skilled worker",<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which had less than 400 applicants, despite an annual goal of attracting 40,000 overseas workers, suggesting Japan faces major challenges in attracting migrants compared to other developed countries.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Gallup poll found that few potential migrants wished to migrate to Japan compared to other G7 countries, consistent with the country's low migrant inflow.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the now-reversed upward trend in the unemployment rate, many unpopular jobs go unfilled and the domestic labor market is sluggish. Imported labor is seen as a solution to this situation by some employers, who hire low-paid foreign workers, who are, in turn, enticed by comparatively high Japanese wages. The strict immigration laws are expected to remain on the books, however, although the influx of illegal aliens from nearby <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asian</a> countries (<a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">South-East Asian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle-Eastern</a> countries) to participate in the labor market is likely to increase. Japanese companies have also established foreign <a href="/wiki/Subsidiary" title="Subsidiary">subsidiaries</a> to profit from low wages overseas. This trend started in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> in the 1970s. The outsourcing helped to build local infrastructure and started a technological transfer, and some of the former subsidiaries and <a href="/wiki/Joint_venture" title="Joint venture">joint ventures</a> developed into fierce competitors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China_and_Vietnam">China and Vietnam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labor_market_of_Japan&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: China and Vietnam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> has become an exporter of labor to Japan to perform low wage "3K" jobs: Kitsui (demanding), Kitanai (dirty), and Kiken (dangerous). Chinese workers are hired by Chinese companies which contract with Japanese industry to provide labor. The <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Japan" title="Government of Japan">Japanese government</a> facilitates the import of labor under the <a href="/wiki/Technical_Intern_Training_Program" title="Technical Intern Training Program">Technical Intern Training Program</a> administered by the Japan International Training Cooperation Organization (JITCO).<sup id="cite_ref-APJ_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APJ-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hours are long, pay sub-standard, and the freedom of the workers while in Japan is restricted. The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">Vietnamese</a> workers customarily pay a substantial sum to enter the programs and may have to make a substantial deposit as a guarantee that once in Japan they will work for the assigned employer, nevertheless, once in Japan, a number abandon the program and seek illegal employment in Japan, only the most exploitive being available.<sup id="cite_ref-CLB_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CLB-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a substantial number of workers from <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-APJ_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APJ-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brazil">Brazil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labor_market_of_Japan&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Brazil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Brazilians" title="Japanese Brazilians">Japanese-Brazilians</a> are descendants of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_people" title="Japanese people">Japanese</a> who have immigrated to <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>. They were discovered as a new labor source around 1990 and around one fifth of them now reside in Japan, which increased even after the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_asset_price_bubble" title="Japanese asset price bubble">bubble economy</a> in 1990. They are mainly located in two less appreciated sectors: 1) comparatively stable but low wage level in small to medium size factories troubled by constant labor shortage, and 2) highly unstable in medium to large size firms needing flexible staffing.<sup id="cite_ref-Higuchi_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Higuchi-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The employers prefer Japanese-Brazilians to undocumented workers for racial or ethnocultural reasons. Earlier migrants were relatively fluent in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, and caused less xenophobic reaction in factories. Undocumented workers tend to find jobs based on their personal networks whereas <a href="/wiki/Brazilians" title="Brazilians">Brazilians</a> do so through institutionalized channels, including recruiting agencies, and are paid more.<sup id="cite_ref-Higuchi_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Higuchi-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During 2009, the national unemployment reached 5.7%, which is considerably high in Japan, especially in the manufacture industry which congregates in <a href="/wiki/T%C5%8Dkai_region" title="Tōkai region">Tōkai region</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Mackie_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where estimated 83,000 of Japanese-Brazilians and <a href="/wiki/Peruvians" title="Peruvians">Peruvians</a> work in the industry.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April, the Japanese government budgeted 1.08 billion <a href="/wiki/Japanese_yen" title="Japanese yen">yen</a> (valued 1.08 million <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US dollar</a> in 2009) for Japanese-Brazilian <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Japan" title="Immigration to Japan">immigrant</a> workers for <a href="/wiki/On-the-job_training" title="On-the-job training">training</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese language</a> lesson, but also offered 300,000 yen (average wage of 18 to 39 years old in manufacture industry is 241,200 yen<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) to any unemployed workers who wished to leave the country and 200,000 yen each to their family members on the condition of not returning to Japan within 3 years with the same status<sup id="cite_ref-Mackie_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labor_market_of_Japan&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1980s, the strong <a href="/wiki/Japanese_yen" title="Japanese yen">Japanese yen</a> allowed Japanese companies to buy several American firms, adding a large American workforce to Japanese companies. The crisis of the 1990s, the <a href="/wiki/Lost_Decades" title="Lost Decades">Lost Decade</a>, reversed the process, and western companies were buying major stakes in big Japanese companies, especially car makers. The process became like that of the 1980s by the early 2000s, when the country experienced a major recovery under the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan" title="Prime Minister of Japan">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Junichir%C5%8D_Koizumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Junichirō Koizumi">Koizumi</a> administration. During that time, western stakes were greatly reduced or eliminated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labor_market_of_Japan&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/42px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a 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title="Labor unions in Japan">Labor unions in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_employment#Japan" title="Permanent employment">Lifetime employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_work_environment" title="Japanese work environment">Japanese work environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_labour_law" title="Japanese labour law">Japanese labour law</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labor_market_of_Japan&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><i>OECD Economic Surveys: Japan 2019</i>, OECD, 2019, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1787%2Ffd63f374-en">10.1787/fd63f374-en</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789264610613" title="Special:BookSources/9789264610613"><bdi>9789264610613</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242830940">242830940</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=OECD+Economic+Surveys%3A+Japan+2019&rft.pub=OECD&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242830940%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2Ffd63f374-en&rft.isbn=9789264610613&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OECDLF-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OECDLF_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECDLF_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECDLF_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECDLF_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/employment/oecd-labour-force-statistics_23083387"><i>OECD Labour Force Statistics 2020</i></a>, OECD, 2020, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1787%2F23083387">10.1787/23083387</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789264687714" title="Special:BookSources/9789264687714"><bdi>9789264687714</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=OECD+Labour+Force+Statistics+2020&rft.pub=OECD&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2F23083387&rft.isbn=9789264687714&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd-ilibrary.org%2Femployment%2Foecd-labour-force-statistics_23083387&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Summary+of+the+2010+Yearly+Average+Results&rft.au=Japan+MIC+Statistic+Bureau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarp.da.ndl.go.jp%2Finfo%3Andljp%2Fpid%2F8200202%2Fwww.stat.go.jp%2Fenglish%2Fdata%2Froudou%2F154b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stats_by_theme-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stats_by_theme_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stats_by_theme_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.e-stat.go.jp/en/statistics-by-theme/">"Statistics by Theme"</a>. <i>Portal Site of Official Statistics of Japan</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-07-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mofa.go.jp&rft.atitle=What+is+the+SSW+%3F+%7C+Japan+is+looking+for+Specified+Skilled+Workers%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mofa.go.jp%2Fmofaj%2Fca%2Ffna%2Fssw%2Fus%2Foverview%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Japan-immigration/Japan-cries-Help-wanted-but-few-foreigners-heed-the-call">"Japan cries 'Help wanted,' but few foreigners heed the call"</a>. <i>Nikkei Asian Review</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nikkei+Asian+Review&rft.atitle=Japan+cries+%27Help+wanted%2C%27+but+few+foreigners+heed+the+call&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasia.nikkei.com%2FSpotlight%2FJapan-immigration%2FJapan-cries-Help-wanted-but-few-foreigners-heed-the-call&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInc2017" class="citation web cs1">Inc, Gallup (2017-06-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/211883/number-potential-migrants-worldwide-tops-700-million.aspx">"Number of Potential Migrants Worldwide Tops 700 Million"</a>. <i>Gallup.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gallup.com&rft.atitle=Number+of+Potential+Migrants+Worldwide+Tops+700+Million&rft.date=2017-06-08&rft.aulast=Inc&rft.aufirst=Gallup&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.gallup.com%2Fpoll%2F211883%2Fnumber-potential-migrants-worldwide-tops-700-million.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|last=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.oecd.org/chart/5StJ">"Interactive charts by the OECD"</a>. <i>OECD Data</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OECD+Data&rft.atitle=Interactive+charts+by+the+OECD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.oecd.org%2Fchart%2F5StJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-APJ-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-APJ_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-APJ_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamata_Satoshi" class="citation web cs1">Kamata Satoshi. Nobuko Adachi (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japanfocus.org/-Kamata-Satoshi/2820">"Japan's Internship Training Program for Foreign Workers: Education or Exploitation?"</a>. Translated by Adachi. The Asia-Pacific Journal, Shūkan Kin'yōbi April 25, 2008, pp. 30–33<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 14,</span> 2011</span>. <q>Although it is claimed that this system was designed to support foreigners in their acquisition of technical skills and knowledge of Japanese advanced technology, in it has often been used to make up for a shortage of unskilled labor in Japan. Because the Japanese government is reluctant to invite transnational migrant laborers into the country, companies have had to look for new ways to find workers. As a result, many foreigners enrolled in the training-internship program—with valid three-year work permits—become a source of cheap labor, and end up working under wretched conditions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Internship+Training+Program+for+Foreign+Workers%3A+Education+or+Exploitation%3F&rft.pub=The+Asia-Pacific+Journal%2C+Sh%C5%ABkan+Kin%27y%C5%8Dbi+April+25%2C+2008%2C+pp.+30%E2%80%9333&rft.au=Kamata+Satoshi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.japanfocus.org%2F-Kamata-Satoshi%2F2820&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CLB-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CLB_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120106105217/http://www.clb.org.hk/en/files/share/File/research_reports/Throwaway_Labour.pdf">"Throwaway Labour: The exploitation of Chinese "trainees" in Japan"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Hong Kong: China Labour Bulletin www.clb.org.hk. June 2011. p. 70. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.clb.org.hk/en/files/share/File/research_reports/Throwaway_Labour.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Research paper)</span> on January 6, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 14,</span> 2011</span>. <q>Since the 1980s, Japan's manufactures have found it increasingly difficult to recruit workers locally, particularly for low-paid, labour-intensive jobs in the so-called 3K industries. At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">China's economic</a> reforms created a huge labour surplus in that country, which had to find employment somewhere.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Throwaway+Labour%3A+The+exploitation+of+Chinese+%22trainees%22+in+Japan&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=China+Labour+Bulletin+www.clb.org.hk&rft.date=2011-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clb.org.hk%2Fen%2Ffiles%2Fshare%2FFile%2Fresearch_reports%2FThrowaway_Labour.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDepartment_of_Chibu_Economy,_Trade_and_Industry" class="citation web cs1">Department of Chibu Economy, Trade and Industry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chubu.meti.go.jp/koho/press_bkn/200705/190510_rodo_gaiyo.pdf">"Summary of labour"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Summary+of+labour&rft.au=Department+of+Chibu+Economy%2C+Trade+and+Industry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chubu.meti.go.jp%2Fkoho%2Fpress_bkn%2F200705%2F190510_rodo_gaiyo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2020">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinistry_of_Health,_Labour_and_Welfare" class="citation web cs1">Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/itiran/roudou/chingin/kouzou/z06/kekka1-5.html">"Wage in industries"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wage+in+industries&rft.au=Ministry+of+Health%2C+Labour+and+Welfare&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mhlw.go.jp%2Ftoukei%2Fitiran%2Froudou%2Fchingin%2Fkouzou%2Fz06%2Fkekka1-5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinistry_of_Health,_Labour_and_Welfare" class="citation web cs1">Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/houdou/2r98520000003rnz-img/2r98520000003rph.pdf">"summary: returning support project for unemployed Japanese descent workers"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=summary%3A+returning+support+project+for+unemployed+Japanese+descent+workers&rft.au=Ministry+of+Health%2C+Labour+and+Welfare&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mhlw.go.jp%2Fstf%2Fhoudou%2F2r98520000003rnz-img%2F2r98520000003rph.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabor+market+of+Japan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economy_of_Japan" title="Template:Economy of Japan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economy_of_Japan" title="Template talk:Economy of Japan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economy_of_Japan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economy of Japan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economy_of_Japan167" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Japan" title="Economy of Japan">Economy of Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Japan" title="Economic history of Japan">Economic history of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_commerce_and_shipping_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Foreign commerce and shipping of the Empire of Japan">Foreign commerce and shipping of the Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Agriculture in the Empire of Japan">Agriculture in the Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_Doubling_Plan" title="Income Doubling Plan">Income Doubling Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle" title="Japanese economic miracle">Japanese economic miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_asset_price_bubble" title="Japanese asset price bubble">Japanese asset price bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_Decades" title="Lost Decades">Lost Decades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93South_Korea_trade_dispute" title="Japan–South Korea trade dispute">Japan–South Korea trade dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaibatsu" title="Zaibatsu">Zaibatsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keiretsu" title="Keiretsu">Keiretsu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_and_fiscal_policy_of_Japan" title="Monetary and fiscal policy of Japan">Monetary and fiscal policy of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_policy_of_Japan" title="Industrial policy of Japan">Industrial policy of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_policy_of_Japan" title="Trade policy of Japan">Trade policy of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Japan" title="Taxation in Japan">Taxation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Japan" title="Bank of Japan">Bank of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Japanese_yen" title="Banknotes of the Japanese yen">Banknotes of the Japanese yen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Mint" title="Japan Mint">Japan Mint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_yen" title="Japanese yen">Japanese yen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Printing_Bureau" title="National Printing Bureau">National Printing Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_coinage" title="Tokugawa coinage">Tokugawa coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrip_of_Edo_period_Japan" title="Scrip of Edo period Japan">Scrip of Edo period Japan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bank" title="Bank">Banking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nikkei_225" title="Nikkei 225">Nikkei 225</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osaka_Exchange" title="Osaka Exchange">Osaka Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Stock_Exchange" title="Tokyo Stock Exchange">Tokyo Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_flows_in_Japan" title="Capital flows in Japan">Capital flows in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_services_in_Japan" title="Financial services in Japan">Financial services in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_financial_system" title="Japanese financial system">Japanese financial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Investment_Corporation" title="Japan Investment Corporation">Japan Investment Corporation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_agency" title="Government agency">Government agencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_Bank_of_Japan" title="Development Bank of Japan">Development Bank of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Trade_Commission_(Japan)" title="Fair Trade Commission (Japan)">Fair Trade Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Services_Agency" title="Financial Services Agency">Financial Services Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_External_Trade_Organization" title="Japan External Trade Organization">Japan External Trade Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture,_Forestry_and_Fisheries_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan)">Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Economy,_Trade_and_Industry" title="Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry">Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Finance (Japan)">Ministry of Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Tax_Agency" title="National Tax Agency">National Tax Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Land,_Infrastructure,_Transport_and_Tourism" title="Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism">Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Labor market</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_labour_law" title="Japanese labour law">Japanese labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_management_culture" title="Japanese management culture">Japanese management culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_work_environment" title="Japanese work environment">Japanese work environment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Labor market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_Japan" title="Labor unions in Japan">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_recruiting_of_new_graduates" title="Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates">Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%ABshin_koy%C5%8D" title="Shūshin koyō">Shūshin koyō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nenko_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Nenko System">Nenko System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salaryman" title="Salaryman">Salaryman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Japan" title="Energy in Japan">Energy in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Japan" title="Solar power in Japan">Solar power in Japan</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_natural_gas_companies" title="List of Japanese natural gas companies">List of Japanese natural gas companies</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Japan" title="List of power stations in Japan">List of power stations in Japan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rankings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Japan" title="International rankings of Japan">International rankings of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_Japanese_companies" title="List of largest Japanese companies">List of largest companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_prefectures_by_GDP" title="List of Japanese prefectures by GDP">Prefectures by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_prefectures_by_GDP_per_capita" title="List of Japanese prefectures by GDP per capita">Prefectures by GDP per capita</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture,_forestry,_and_fishing_in_Japan" title="Agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Japan">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Japan" title="Automotive industry in Japan">Automotive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_domestic_market" title="Japanese domestic market">domestic market</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Japan" title="Construction industry of Japan">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Japan" title="Defense industry of Japan">Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry_in_Japan" title="Electronics industry in Japan">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_Japan" title="Manufacturing in Japan">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Japan" title="Mining in Japan">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_enterprise_in_Japan" title="Private enterprise in Japan">Private enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_public_corporations" title="Japanese public corporations">Public corporations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Japan" title="Transport in Japan">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whaling_in_Japan" title="Whaling in Japan">Whaling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Association_of_Corporate_Executives" title="Japan Association of Corporate Executives">Japan Association of Corporate Executives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Automobile_Manufacturers_Association" title="Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association">Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Business_Federation" title="Japan Business Federation">Japan Business Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_relations_of_Japan" title="Economic relations of Japan">Economic relations of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government-business_relations_in_Japan" title="Government-business relations in Japan">Government-business relations in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Japan" title="List of exports of Japan">List of exports of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_Japan" title="National debt of Japan">National debt of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_development_in_Japan" title="Research and development in Japan">Research and development in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Japan" title="Science and technology in Japan">Science and technology in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemawashi" title="Nemawashi">Nemawashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_Japan" title="Standard of living in Japan">Standard of living in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amakudari" class="mw-redirect" title="Amakudari">Amakudari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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