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<li id="toc-Rise_of_the_Old_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_Old_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Rise of the Old Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_Old_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Height_of_the_Old_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Height_of_the_Old_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Height of the Old Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Height_of_the_Old_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fifth_Dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fifth_Dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Fifth Dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fifth_Dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_into_the_First_Intermediate_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_into_the_First_Intermediate_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Decline into the First Intermediate Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_into_the_First_Intermediate_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Old Kingdom of Egypt</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 67 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-67" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">67 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ou_Ryk_van_Egipte" title="Ou Ryk van Egipte – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ou Ryk van Egipte" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altes_Reich_(%C3%84gypten)" title="Altes Reich (Ägypten) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Altes Reich (Ägypten)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="المملكة المصرية القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المملكة المصرية القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_Antiguu_d%27Exiptu" title="Imperiu Antiguu d'Exiptu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu Antiguu d'Exiptu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_pad%C5%9Fahl%C4%B1q_(Misir)" title="Qədim padşahlıq (Misir) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim padşahlıq (Misir)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="میصر اسکی کراللیغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="میصر اسکی کراللیغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC_(%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B0)" title="পুরাতন রাজত্ব (মিশর) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পুরাতন রাজত্ব (মিশর)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai-ki%CC%8Dp_K%C3%B3%CD%98_%C3%94ng-kok" title="Ai-ki̍p Kó͘ Ông-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ai-ki̍p Kó͘ Ông-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_(%D0%95%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82)" title="Старое царства (Егіпет) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старое царства (Егіпет)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Старо царство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Старо царство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouantelezh_kozh_Henegipt" title="Rouantelezh kozh Henegipt – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Rouantelezh kozh Henegipt" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regne_Antic_d%27Egipte" title="Regne Antic d'Egipte – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Regne Antic d'Egipte" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D3%91%D1%85" title="Авалхи патшалӑх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Авалхи патшалӑх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%C3%A1_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Stará říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Stará říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Hen_Deyrnas" title="Yr Hen Deyrnas – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Hen Deyrnas" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altes_Reich" title="Altes Reich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altes Reich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%8C_%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF_(%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%91%CE%AF%CE%B3%CF%85%CF%80%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82)" title="Παλαιό βασίλειο (αρχαία Αίγυπτος) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παλαιό βασίλειο (αρχαία Αίγυπτος)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Antiguo_de_Egipto" title="Imperio Antiguo de Egipto – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio Antiguo de Egipto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnova_imperio_de_Egiptio" title="Malnova imperio de Egiptio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malnova imperio de Egiptio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egiptoko_Inperio_Zaharra" title="Egiptoko Inperio Zaharra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Egiptoko Inperio Zaharra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%87%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="پادشاهی کهن مصر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پادشاهی کهن مصر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancien_Empire" title="Ancien Empire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ancien Empire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Antigo_de_Exipto" title="Imperio Antigo de Exipto – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio Antigo de Exipto" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%A7%91%ED%8A%B8_%EA%B3%A0%EC%99%95%EA%B5%AD" title="이집트 고왕국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이집트 고왕국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsohuwar_Masarautar_Masar" title="Tsohuwar Masarautar Masar – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tsohuwar Masarautar Masar" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Եգիպտոսի հին թագավորություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եգիպտոսի հին թագավորություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro_egipatsko_kraljevstvo" title="Staro egipatsko kraljevstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Staro egipatsko kraljevstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Lama_Mesir" title="Kerajaan Lama Mesir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kerajaan Lama Mesir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamla_r%C3%ADki%C3%B0" title="Gamla ríkið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gamla ríkið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antico_Regno_(Egitto)" title="Antico Regno (Egitto) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Antico Regno (Egitto)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%94_(%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D)" title="הממלכה הקדומה (מצרים) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הממלכה הקדומה (מצרים)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="ეგვიპტის ძველი სამეფო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეგვიპტის ძველი სამეფო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnum_Vetus_Aegypti" title="Regnum Vetus Aegypti – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Regnum Vetus Aegypti" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalt_R%C3%A4ich_(Egypten)" title="Aalt Räich (Egypten) – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Aalt Räich (Egypten)" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senoji_Egipto_karalyst%C4%97" title="Senoji Egipto karalystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senoji Egipto karalystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyiptomi_%C3%93birodalom" title="Egyiptomi Óbirodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Egyiptomi Óbirodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Старо Кралство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Старо Кралство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_Voalohany_tao_Ejipta_tamin%27_ny_Andro_Taloha" title="Empira Voalohany tao Ejipta tamin' ny Andro Taloha – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Empira Voalohany tao Ejipta tamin' ny Andro Taloha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%87" title="المملكه القديمه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="المملكه القديمه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Lama_Mesir" title="Kerajaan Lama Mesir – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerajaan Lama Mesir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="အီဂျစ်ပြည်ဟောင်းခေတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အီဂျစ်ပြည်ဟောင်းခေတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oude_Rijk" title="Oude Rijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oude Rijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%82%B8%E3%83%97%E3%83%88%E5%8F%A4%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="エジプト古王国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エジプト古王国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_gamle_rike_i_Egypt" title="Det gamle rike i Egypt – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det gamle rike i Egypt" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancian_Emp%C3%A8ri_egipcian" title="Ancian Empèri egipcian – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ancian Empèri egipcian" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stare_Pa%C5%84stwo" title="Stare Państwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stare Państwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Antigo" title="Império Antigo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Antigo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vechiul_Regat_Egiptean" title="Vechiul Regat Egiptean – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Vechiul Regat Egiptean" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Древнее царство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древнее царство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Old Kingdom of Egypt" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%C3%A1_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a" title="Stará ríša – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stará ríša" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro_egip%C4%8Dansko_kraljestvo" title="Staro egipčansko kraljestvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Staro egipčansko kraljestvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Старо краљевство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Старо краљевство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro_kraljevstvo" title="Staro kraljevstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Staro kraljevstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanha_valtakunta" title="Vanha valtakunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vanha valtakunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamla_riket" title="Gamla riket – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gamla riket" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumang_Kaharian_ng_Ehipto" title="Lumang Kaharian ng Ehipto – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Lumang Kaharian ng Ehipto" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பழைய எகிப்து இராச்சியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பழைய எகிப்து இராச்சியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="ราชอาณาจักรเก่าแห่งอียิปต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชอาณาจักรเก่าแห่งอียิปต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eski_Krall%C4%B1k" title="Eski Krallık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eski Krallık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%94_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_(%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%84%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82)" title="Стародавнє царство (Стародавній Єгипет) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стародавнє царство (Стародавній Єгипет)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="قدیم مملکت مصر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قدیم مملکت مصر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%95_V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_qu%E1%BB%91c_Ai_C%E1%BA%ADp" title="Cổ Vương quốc Ai Cập – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cổ Vương quốc Ai Cập" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daan_nga_Ginhadian_han_Ehipto" title="Daan nga Ginhadian han Ehipto – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Daan nga Ginhadian han Ehipto" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F" title="古王国时期 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="古王国时期" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A%E5%8F%A4%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F" title="埃及古王國時期 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="埃及古王國時期" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F" title="古王國時期 – Chinese" lang="zh" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period in ancient Egyptian history (c. 2686–2181 BC)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Old Kingdom" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Old Kingdom (disambiguation)">Old Kingdom (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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.ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Old Kingdom of Egypt</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2686 BC</span>–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2181 BC</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:4th_Dynasty_of_Egypt-03.png" class="mw-file-description" title="During the Old Kingdom of Egypt (circa 2700 BC – circa 2200 BC), Egypt consisted of the Nile River region south to Abu (also known as Elephantine), as well as Sinai and the oases in the western desert, with Egyptian control/rule over Nubia reaching to the area south of the third cataract.[1]"><img alt="During the Old Kingdom of Egypt (circa 2700 BC – circa 2200 BC), Egypt consisted of the Nile River region south to Abu (also known as Elephantine), as well as Sinai and the oases in the western desert, with Egyptian control/rule over Nubia reaching to the area south of the third cataract.[1]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/4th_Dynasty_of_Egypt-03.png/250px-4th_Dynasty_of_Egypt-03.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="454" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/4th_Dynasty_of_Egypt-03.png/375px-4th_Dynasty_of_Egypt-03.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/4th_Dynasty_of_Egypt-03.png/500px-4th_Dynasty_of_Egypt-03.png 2x" data-file-width="1848" data-file-height="3356" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">During the Old Kingdom of Egypt (<i>circa</i> 2700 BC – <i>circa</i> 2200 BC), Egypt consisted of the <a href="/wiki/Nile_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile River">Nile River</a> region south to <a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Abu</a> (also known as Elephantine), as well as <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Oases" class="mw-redirect" title="Oases">oases</a> in the western desert, with Egyptian control/rule over Nubia reaching to the area south of the third cataract.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Ancient Egyptian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egyptian religion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult" title="Imperial cult">Divine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2686</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2649 BC</span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a> (first)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2184</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2181 BC</span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Last king depends on the scholar, <a href="/wiki/Neitiqerty_Siptah" class="mw-redirect" title="Neitiqerty Siptah">Neitiqerty Siptah</a> (6th Dynasty) or <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare" title="Neferirkare">Neferirkare</a> (7th/8th Dynasty)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Began </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2686 BC</span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Ended </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2181 BC</span></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 2500 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1.6 million<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg/20px-Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg/30px-Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg/40px-Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1577" data-file-height="3219" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Dynastic Period of Egypt">Early Dynastic Period of Egypt</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_period" class="mw-redirect" title="First Intermediate period">First Intermediate period</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse; background:#fff2e2"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Egypt" title="Category:History of Egypt">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:transparent; padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">History of <span class="fn org label">Egypt</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/140px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/210px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/280px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background:#F2E4C3"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt#Paleolithic" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Paleolithic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">300,000–17,000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt#Mesolithic" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Mesolithic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">17,000–9000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt#Neolithic_to_Proto-Dynastic" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Predynastic Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">6000–3000 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #E6FFF2"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">3150–2686 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">2686–2181 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">1st Intermediate Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">2181–2055 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">2055–1650 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">2nd Intermediate Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1650–1550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1550–1069 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">3rd Intermediate Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1069–664 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">664–332 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Greco-Roman Egypt</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #F2FFE6"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">332–310 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic dynasties</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">310–30 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman and Byzantine Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">30 BC–641 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Sasanian Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">619–629</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Medieval Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #F2E6FF"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">641–661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">750–935</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">868–905</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">935–969</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">969–1171</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1171–1250</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1250–1517</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a> Egypt</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #FFFACD"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1517–1867</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French occupation</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1798–1801</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty">Muhammad Ali dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1805–1953</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate of Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1867–1914</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_modern_Egypt" title="History of modern Egypt">Late Modern Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #E2EBEB"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">British occupation</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1882–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt" title="Sultanate of Egypt">Sultanate of Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1914–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Kingdom of Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1922–1953</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_republican_Egypt" title="History of republican Egypt">Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1953–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/16px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/24px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/32px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Egypt" title="Portal:Egypt">Egypt portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Egypt" title="Template:History of Egypt"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Egypt" title="Template talk:History of Egypt"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Egypt" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Egypt"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> history, the <b>Old Kingdom</b> is the period spanning <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2700</span>–2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty</a>, such as King <a href="/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Sneferu</a>, under whom the art of <a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">pyramid</a>-building was perfected, and the kings <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a>, who commissioned the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">pyramids at Giza</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a> attained its first sustained peak of civilization during the Old Kingdom, the first of three so-called "Kingdom" <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">periods</a> (followed by the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a>), which mark the high points of civilization in the lower <a href="/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Periodization_of_Ancient_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodization of Ancient Egypt">concept of an "Old Kingdom" as one of three "golden ages"</a> was coined in 1845 by the German <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_Charles_Josias_von_Bunsen" title="Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen">Baron von Bunsen</a>, and its definition evolved significantly throughout the 19th and the 20th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only was the last king of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a> related to the first two kings of the Old Kingdom, but the "capital", the royal residence, remained at <a href="/wiki/Ineb-Hedj" class="mw-redirect" title="Ineb-Hedj">Ineb-Hedj</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> name for <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>. The basic justification for separating the two periods is the revolutionary change in architecture accompanied by the effects on Egyptian society and the economy of large-scale building projects.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as the period from the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty</a> (2686–2181 BC). Information from the Fourth to the Sixth Dynasties of Egypt is scarce, and historians regard the history of the era as literally "written in stone" and largely architectural in that it is through the monuments and their inscriptions that scholars have been able to construct a history.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egyptologists also include the Memphite <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Seventh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighth</a> Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration, centralized at Memphis. While the Old Kingdom was a period of internal security and prosperity, it was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline referred to by Egyptologists as the <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="First Intermediate Period">First Intermediate Period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Old Kingdom, the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rulers_of_Egypt" title="Lists of rulers of Egypt">King of Egypt</a> (not called the <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a> until the New Kingdom) became a <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">living god</a> who ruled absolutely and could demand the services and wealth of his subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-Roebuck-56_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roebuck-56-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under King <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a>, the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the royal capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis, where Djoser established his court. A new era of building was initiated at <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a> under his reign. King Djoser's architect, <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a>, is credited with the development of building with stone and with the conception of the new <a href="/wiki/Architectural_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectural form">architectural form</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Step_pyramid" title="Step pyramid">step pyramid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Roebuck-56_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roebuck-56-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Old Kingdom is best known for a large number of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">pyramids</a> constructed at this time as burial places for Egypt's kings. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_the_Old_Kingdom">Rise of the Old Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rise of the Old Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty of Egypt</a></div> <p>The first King of the Old Kingdom was <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a> (sometime between 2691 and 2625 BC) of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty</a>, who ordered the construction of a pyramid (the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Djoser" title="Pyramid of Djoser">Step Pyramid</a>) in Memphis' necropolis, <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a>. An important person during the reign of Djoser was his <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Ancient_Egypt)" title="Vizier (Ancient Egypt)">vizier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a>. </p><p>It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as <a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">nomes</a>, under the rule of the king. The former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection. <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> in this era believed the king to be the incarnation of <a href="/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a>, linking the human and spiritual worlds. Egyptian views on the nature of time during this period held that the universe worked in cycles, and the Pharaoh on earth worked to ensure the stability of those cycles. They also perceived themselves as specially selected people.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saqqara_BW_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara."><img alt="The Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Saqqara_BW_5.jpg/120px-Saqqara_BW_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Saqqara_BW_5.jpg/180px-Saqqara_BW_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Saqqara_BW_5.jpg/240px-Saqqara_BW_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3794" data-file-height="2529" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Djoser" title="Pyramid of Djoser">Pyramid of Djoser</a> at <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Templo_de_Zoser_en_Saqqara.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Temple of Djoser at Saqqara"><img alt="The Temple of Djoser at Saqqara" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Templo_de_Zoser_en_Saqqara.jpg/120px-Templo_de_Zoser_en_Saqqara.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Templo_de_Zoser_en_Saqqara.jpg/180px-Templo_de_Zoser_en_Saqqara.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Templo_de_Zoser_en_Saqqara.jpg/240px-Templo_de_Zoser_en_Saqqara.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3910" data-file-height="2932" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Temple of Djoser at <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_of_a_King,_ca._2650-2600_B.C.E..jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The head of a King, c. 2650–2600 BC, Brooklyn Museum. The earliest representations of Egyptian Kings are on a small scale. From the Third Dynasty, statues were made showing the ruler life-size. This head wearing the crown of Upper Egypt is larger than human scale.[9]"><img alt="The head of a King, c. 2650–2600 BC, Brooklyn Museum. The earliest representations of Egyptian Kings are on a small scale. From the Third Dynasty, statues were made showing the ruler life-size. This head wearing the crown of Upper Egypt is larger than human scale.[9]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Head_of_a_King%2C_ca._2650-2600_B.C.E..jpg/91px-Head_of_a_King%2C_ca._2650-2600_B.C.E..jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Head_of_a_King%2C_ca._2650-2600_B.C.E..jpg/137px-Head_of_a_King%2C_ca._2650-2600_B.C.E..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Head_of_a_King%2C_ca._2650-2600_B.C.E..jpg/183px-Head_of_a_King%2C_ca._2650-2600_B.C.E..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1171" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The head of a King, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2650</span>–2600 BC, <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a>. The earliest representations of Egyptian Kings are on a small scale. From the Third Dynasty, statues were made showing the ruler life-size. This head wearing the crown of Upper Egypt is larger than human scale.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Height_of_the_Old_Kingdom">Height of the Old Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Height of the Old Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cairo,_Gizeh,_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khufu,_Egypt,_Oct_2004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Cairo%2C_Gizeh%2C_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khufu%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg/220px-Cairo%2C_Gizeh%2C_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khufu%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Cairo%2C_Gizeh%2C_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khufu%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg/330px-Cairo%2C_Gizeh%2C_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khufu%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Cairo%2C_Gizeh%2C_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khufu%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg/440px-Cairo%2C_Gizeh%2C_Sphinx_and_Pyramid_of_Khufu%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Sphinx_of_Giza" title="Great Sphinx of Giza">Great Sphinx of Giza</a> in front of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith under the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty</a> (2613–2494 BC). King Sneferu, the first king of the Fourth Dynasty, held territory from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">ancient Libya</a> in the west to the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a> in the east, to <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> in the south. An Egyptian settlement was founded at <a href="/wiki/Buhen" title="Buhen">Buhen</a> in Nubia which endured for 200 years.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Djoser, Sneferu was the next great pyramid builder. He commissioned the building of not one, but three pyramids. The first is called the <a href="/wiki/Meidum_Pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Meidum Pyramid">Meidum Pyramid</a>, named for its location in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Sneferu abandoned it after the outside casing fell off of the pyramid. The Meidum pyramid was the first to have an above-ground burial chamber.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Using more stones than any other Pharaoh, he commissioned the three pyramids: a now collapsed pyramid in <a href="/wiki/Meidum" title="Meidum">Meidum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bent_Pyramid" title="Bent Pyramid">Bent Pyramid</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dahshur" title="Dahshur">Dahshur</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Pyramid" title="Red Pyramid">Red Pyramid</a>, at North Dahshur. However, the full development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara, but during the building of the Great Pyramids at Giza.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sneferu was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a> (2589–2566 BC), who commissioned the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a>. After Khufu's death, his sons <a href="/wiki/Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a> (2566–2558 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a> (2558–2532 BC) may have quarrelled. The latter commissioned the second pyramid and (in traditional thinking) the <a href="/wiki/Great_Sphinx_of_Giza" title="Great Sphinx of Giza">Great Sphinx of Giza</a>. Recent re-examination of evidence has led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that the Sphinx was commissioned by <a href="/wiki/Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a> as a monument to his father Khufu.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to be the work of Khafre and Khufu himself. </p><p>There were military expeditions into <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, with Egyptian influence reaching up the Nile into what is today <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later kings of the Fourth Dynasty were <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> (2532–2504 BC), who commissioned the smallest of the three great pyramids in Giza; <a href="/wiki/Shepseskaf" title="Shepseskaf">Shepseskaf</a> (2504–2498 BC); and, perhaps, <a href="/wiki/Djedefptah" class="mw-redirect" title="Djedefptah">Djedefptah</a> (2498–2496 BC). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2273" data-file-height="3002" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a>, the builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fifth_Dynasty">Fifth Dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fifth Dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifth Dynasty</a> (2494–2345 BC) began with <a href="/wiki/Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a> (2494–2487 BC) and was marked by the growing importance of the cult of sun god <a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a>. Consequently, fewer efforts were devoted to the construction of pyramid complexes than during the Fourth Dynasty and more to the construction of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_sun_temple" title="Egyptian sun temple">sun temples</a> in <a href="/wiki/Abusir" title="Abusir">Abusir</a>. Userkaf was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Sahure" title="Sahure">Sahure</a> (2487–2475 BC), who commanded an expedition to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Punt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Punt">Punt</a>. Sahure was in turn succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare_Kakai" title="Neferirkare Kakai">Neferirkare Kakai</a> (2475–2455 BC), who was Sahure's son. Neferirkare introduced the <a href="/wiki/Prenomen_(Ancient_Egypt)" title="Prenomen (Ancient Egypt)">prenomen</a> in the royal titulary. He was followed by two short-lived kings, his son <a href="/wiki/Neferefre" title="Neferefre">Neferefre</a> (2455–2453 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Shepseskare" title="Shepseskare">Shepseskare</a>, the latter of uncertain parentage.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shepseskare may have been deposed by Neferefre's brother <a href="/wiki/Nyuserre_Ini" title="Nyuserre Ini">Nyuserre Ini</a> (2445–2421 BC), a long-lived pharaoh who commissioned extensively in Abusir and restarted royal activity in Giza. </p><p>The last pharaohs of the dynasty were <a href="/wiki/Menkauhor_Kaiu" title="Menkauhor Kaiu">Menkauhor Kaiu</a> (2421–2414 BC), <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Isesi" title="Djedkare Isesi">Djedkare Isesi</a> (2414–2375 BC), and <a href="/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a> (2375–2345), the earliest ruler to have the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_Texts" title="Pyramid Texts">Pyramid Texts</a> inscribed in his pyramid. </p><p>Egypt's expanding interests in trade goods such as <a href="/wiki/Ebony" title="Ebony">ebony</a>, incense such as <a href="/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">myrrh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a>, gold, copper, and other useful metals inspired the ancient Egyptians to build suitable ships for navigation of the open sea. They traded with Lebanon for <a href="/wiki/Cedrus_libani" title="Cedrus libani">cedar</a> and travelled the length of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Punt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Punt">Kingdom of Punt</a>- modern-day <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>—for ebony, ivory, and aromatic resins.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shipbuilders of that era did not use pegs (<a href="/wiki/Treenail" title="Treenail">treenails</a>) or metal fasteners, but relied on the rope to keep their ships assembled. Planks and the superstructure were tightly tied and bound together. This period also witnessed direct trade between Egypt and its Aegean neighbors and Anatolia.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rulers of the dynasty sent expeditions to the stone quarries and gold mines of Nubia and the mines of Sinai.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are references and depictions of military campaigns in Nubia and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_into_the_First_Intermediate_Period">Decline into the First Intermediate Period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Decline into the First Intermediate Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="First Intermediate Period">First Intermediate Period</a></div> <p>The sixth dynasty peaked during the reigns of Pepi I and Merenre I with flourishing trade, several mining and quarrying expeditions and major military campaigns. Militarily, aggressive expansion into Nubia marked Pepi I's reign.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least five military expeditions were sent into Canaan.<sup id="cite_ref-Grimal_1994_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grimal_1994-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is evidence that Merenre was not only active in Nubia like Pepi I but also sent officials to maintain Egyptian rule over Nubia from the northern border to the area south of the third cataract.<sup id="cite_ref-Grimal_1994_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grimal_1994-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty</a> (2345–2181 BC) the power of the pharaoh gradually weakened in favor of powerful <a href="/wiki/Nomarch" title="Nomarch">nomarchs</a> (regional governors). These no longer belonged to the royal family and their charge became hereditary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent from the central authority of the Pharaoh. However, Nile flood control was still the subject of very large works, including especially the canal to <a href="/wiki/Lake_Moeris" title="Lake Moeris">Lake Moeris</a> around 2300 BC, which was likely also the source of water to the <a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">Giza pyramid complex</a> centuries earlier. </p><p>Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign of <a href="/wiki/Pepi_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Pepi II">Pepi II</a> (2278–2184 BC) towards the end of the dynasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended heirs, might have created succession struggles. The country slipped into civil wars mere decades after the close of Pepi II's reign. </p><p>The final blow was the <a href="/wiki/22nd_century_BC_drought" class="mw-redirect" title="22nd century BC drought">22nd century BC drought</a> in the region that resulted in a drastic drop in precipitation. For at least some years between 2200 and 2150 BC, this prevented the normal flooding of the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whatever its cause, the collapse of the Old Kingdom was followed by decades of famine and strife. An important inscription on the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Ankhtifi" title="Ankhtifi">Ankhtifi</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nomarch" title="Nomarch">nomarch</a> during the early <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="First Intermediate Period">First Intermediate Period</a>, describes the pitiful state of the country when famine stalked the land. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art">Art</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most defining feature of <a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian art</a> is its function, as that was the entire purpose of creation. Art was not made for enjoyment in the strictest sense, but rather served a role of some kind in Egyptian religion and ideology.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This fact manifests itself in the artistic style, even as it evolved over the dynasties. The three primary principles of that style, frontality, composite composition, and hierarchy scale, illustrate this quite well.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These characteristics, initiated in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a><sup id="cite_ref-:5_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and solidified during the Old Kingdom, persisted with some adaptability throughout the entirety of ancient Egyptian history as the foundation of its art.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:False_door_from_the_tomb_of_Metjetji_MET_DT259192.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/False_door_from_the_tomb_of_Metjetji_MET_DT259192.jpg/220px-False_door_from_the_tomb_of_Metjetji_MET_DT259192.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/False_door_from_the_tomb_of_Metjetji_MET_DT259192.jpg/330px-False_door_from_the_tomb_of_Metjetji_MET_DT259192.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/False_door_from_the_tomb_of_Metjetji_MET_DT259192.jpg/440px-False_door_from_the_tomb_of_Metjetji_MET_DT259192.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/False_door" title="False door">False door</a> from the Tomb of Metjetji. ca. 2353–2323 BC, Dynasty 5–6, Old Kingdom. Tomb of Metjetji at Saqqara.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Frontality, the first principle, indicates that art was viewed directly from the front. One was meant to approach a piece as they would a living individual, for it was meant to be a place of manifestation. The act of interaction would bring forth the divine entity represented in the art.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was therefore imperative that whoever was represented be as identifiable as possible. The guidelines developed in the Old Kingdom and the later grid system developed in the Middle Kingdom ensured that art was axial, symmetrical, proportional, and most importantly reproducible and therefore recognizable.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Composite composition, the second principle, also contributes to the goal of identification. Multiple perspectives were used in order to ensure that the onlooker could determine precisely what they saw.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though Egyptian art almost always includes descriptive text, literacy rates were not high, so the art gave another method for communicating the same information. One of the best examples of composite composition is the human form. In most two-dimensional relief, the head, legs, and feet are seen in profile, while the torso faces directly front. Another common example is an aerial view of a building or location.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third principle, the hierarchy of scale, illustrates relative importance in society. The larger the figure, the more important the individual. The king is usually the largest, aside from deities. The similarity in size equated to similarity in position. However, this is not to say that physical differences were not shown as well. Women, for example, are usually shown as smaller than men. Children retain adult features and proportions but are substantially smaller in size.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aside from the three primary conventions, there are several characteristics that can help date a piece to a particular time frame. Proportions of the human figure are one of the most distinctive, as they vary between kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Old Kingdom male figures have characteristically broad shoulders and a long torso, with obvious musculature. On the other hand, females are narrower in the shoulders and waist, with longer legs and a shorter torso.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in the Sixth Dynasty, the male figures lose their muscularity and their shoulders narrow. The eyes also tend to get much larger.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to help maintain the consistency of these proportions, the Egyptians used a series of eight guidelines to divide the body. They occurred at the following locations: the top of the head, the hairline, the base of the neck, the underarms, the tip of the elbow or the bottom of the ribcage, the top of the thigh at the bottom of the buttocks, the knee, and the middle of the lower leg.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the soles of the feet to the hairline was also divided into thirds, one-third between the soles and the knee, another third between the knee and the elbow, and the final third from the elbow to the hairline. The broad shoulders that appeared in the Fifth Dynasty constituted roughly that one-third length as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These proportions not only help with the identification of representations and the reproduction of art but also tie into the Egyptian ideal of order, which tied into the solar aspect of their religion and the inundations of the Nile.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Menkaura.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Menkaura.jpg/220px-Menkaura.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Menkaura.jpg/330px-Menkaura.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Menkaura.jpg/440px-Menkaura.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1856" data-file-height="2784" /></a><figcaption>A statue of <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> with <a href="/wiki/Hathor" title="Hathor">Hathor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anput" title="Anput">Anput</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Museum" title="Egyptian Museum">Egyptian Museum</a> in Cairo. Demonstrates a group statue of graywacke with Old Kingdom features and proportions.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Though the above concepts apply to most, if not all, figures in Egyptian art, there are additional characteristics that applied to the representations of the king. Their appearance was not an exact rendering of the king's visage, though kings are somewhat identifiable through looks alone. Identification could be supplied by inscriptions or context.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A huge, more important part of a king's portrayal was about the idea of the office of kingship,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which were dependent on the time period. The Old Kingdom was considered a golden age for Egypt, a grandiose height to which all future kingdoms aspired.<sup id="cite_ref-Malek_1999_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malek_1999-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As such, the king was portrayed as young and vital, with features that agreed with the standards of beauty of the time. The musculature seen in male figures was also applied to kings. A royal rite, the jubilee run which was established during the Old Kingdom, involved the king running around a group of markers that symbolized the geographic borders of Egypt. This was meant to be a demonstration of the king's physical vigor, which determined his capacity to continue his reign.<sup id="cite_ref-Malek_1999_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malek_1999-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea of kingly youth and strength were pervasive in the Old Kingdom and thus shown in the art.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sculpture was a major product of the Old Kingdom. The position of the figures in this period was mostly limited to sitting or standing, either with feet together or in the striding pose. Group statues of the king with either gods or family members, typically his wife and children, were also common.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was not just the subject of sculpture that was important, but also the material: The use of hard stone, such as gneiss, graywacke, schist, and granite, was relatively common in the Old Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The color of the stone had a great deal of symbolism and was chosen deliberately.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Four colors were distinguished in the ancient Egyptian language: black, green, red, and white.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black was associated with Egypt due to the color of the soil after the Nile flood, green with vegetation and rebirth, red with the sun and its regenerative cycle, and white with purity.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_29-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The statue of <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> with <a href="/wiki/Hathor" title="Hathor">Hathor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anput" title="Anput">Anput</a> is an example of a typical Old Kingdom sculpture. The three figures display frontality and axiality, while fitting with the proportions of this time period. The graywacke came from the Eastern Desert in Egypt<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is therefore associated with rebirth and the rising of the sun in the east. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="King khufu statue at Cairo museum."><img alt="King khufu statue at Cairo museum." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg/91px-Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg/136px-Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg/182px-Kairo_Museum_Statuette_Cheops_03_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2273" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">King <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">khufu</a> statue at Cairo museum.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kairo_Museum_Sitzstatue_Chephren_06.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="King khafre statue at Cairo museum"><img alt="King khafre statue at Cairo museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kairo_Museum_Sitzstatue_Chephren_06.jpg/90px-Kairo_Museum_Sitzstatue_Chephren_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kairo_Museum_Sitzstatue_Chephren_06.jpg/135px-Kairo_Museum_Sitzstatue_Chephren_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kairo_Museum_Sitzstatue_Chephren_06.jpg/180px-Kairo_Museum_Sitzstatue_Chephren_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2626" data-file-height="3499" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">King <a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">khafre</a> statue at Cairo museum</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Greywacke statue of Menkaure and Queen Khamerernebty II at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts."><img alt="Greywacke statue of Menkaure and Queen Khamerernebty II at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png/57px-MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png" decoding="async" width="57" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png/86px-MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png/115px-MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="1966" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Greywacke statue of <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> and Queen <a href="/wiki/Khamerernebty_II" title="Khamerernebty II">Khamerernebty II</a> at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Rahotep_Nofret_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rahotep and Nofret statues at Cairo museum"><img alt="Rahotep and Nofret statues at Cairo museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Rahotep_Nofret_01.jpg/100px-%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Rahotep_Nofret_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Rahotep_Nofret_01.jpg/150px-%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Rahotep_Nofret_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Rahotep_Nofret_01.jpg/200px-%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Rahotep_Nofret_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3145" data-file-height="3770" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Prince_Rahotep" title="Prince Rahotep">Rahotep</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nofret" title="Nofret">Nofret</a> statues at Cairo museum</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kaaper around 2500 BC"><img alt="Kaaper around 2500 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_02.jpg/51px-%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="51" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_02.jpg/77px-%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_02.jpg/103px-%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1698" data-file-height="3938" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kaaper" title="Kaaper">Kaaper</a> around 2500 BC</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Egypte_louvre_280_homme.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Majordomo Keki statue,6th dynasty at Louvre museum."><img alt="Majordomo Keki statue,6th dynasty at Louvre museum." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Egypte_louvre_280_homme.jpg/49px-Egypte_louvre_280_homme.jpg" decoding="async" width="49" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Egypte_louvre_280_homme.jpg/73px-Egypte_louvre_280_homme.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Egypte_louvre_280_homme.jpg/98px-Egypte_louvre_280_homme.jpg 2x" data-file-width="808" data-file-height="1972" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Majordomo Keki statue,<a href="/wiki/6th_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="6th dynasty">6th dynasty</a> at <a href="/wiki/Louvre_museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre museum">Louvre museum</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGrimal1994" class="citation book cs1">Grimal, Nicolas (1994). <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Wiley-Blackwell (July 19, 1994). p. 85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell+%28July+19%2C+1994%29&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Grimal&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven_Snape2019" class="citation web cs1">Steven Snape (16 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brewminate.com/estimating-population-in-ancient-egypt/">"Estimating Population in Ancient Egypt"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Estimating+Population+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.date=2019-03-16&rft.au=Steven+Snape&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrewminate.com%2Festimating-population-in-ancient-egypt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt/">"Old Kingdom of Egypt"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Old+Kingdom+of+Egypt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FOld_Kingdom_of_Egypt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Malek, Jaromir. 2003. "The Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2160 BC)". In <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0192804587" title="Special:BookSources/978-0192804587">978-0192804587</a>, p.83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneider2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Schneider_(Egyptologist)" title="Thomas Schneider (Egyptologist)">Schneider, Thomas</a> (27 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BTMAu2LRbVUC&pg=PA182">"Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention, and Beyond"</a>. In Klaus-Peter Adam (ed.). <i>Historiographie in der Antike</i>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 181–197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-020672-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-020672-2"><bdi>978-3-11-020672-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Periodizing+Egyptian+History%3A+Manetho%2C+Convention%2C+and+Beyond&rft.btitle=Historiographie+in+der+Antike&rft.pages=181-197&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2008-08-27&rft.isbn=978-3-11-020672-2&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBTMAu2LRbVUC%26pg%3DPA182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carl Roebuck, <i>The World of Ancient Times</i>, pp. 55 & 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roebuck-56-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roebuck-56_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roebuck-56_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carl Roebuck, <i>The World of Ancient Times</i>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlin2003" class="citation web cs1">Herlin, Susan J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030823031522/http://www.louisville.edu/a-s/history/herlin/textsup.htm">"Ancient African Civilizations to ca. 1500: Pharaonic Egypt to Ca. 800 BC"</a>. p. 27. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.louisville.edu/a-s/history/herlin/textsup.htm">the original</a> on August 23, 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+African+Civilizations+to+ca.+1500%3A+Pharaonic+Egypt+to+Ca.+800+BC&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Herlin&rft.aufirst=Susan+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.louisville.edu%2Fa-s%2Fhistory%2Fherlin%2Ftextsup.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBothmer1974" class="citation book cs1">Bothmer, Bernard (1974). <i>Brief Guide to the Department of Egyptian and Classical Art</i>. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Museum. p. 22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brief+Guide+to+the+Department+of+Egyptian+and+Classical+Art&rft.place=Brooklyn%2C+NY&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Brooklyn+Museum&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Bothmer&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt/The-Old-Kingdom-c-2575-c-2130-bce-and-the-First-Intermediate-period-c-2130-1938-bce#ref134440">"The Old Kingdom (c. 2575–c. 2130 BCE) and the First Intermediate period (c. 2130–1938 BCE)"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Old+Kingdom+%28c.+2575%E2%80%93c.+2130+BCE%29+and+the+First+Intermediate+period+%28c.+2130%E2%80%931938+BCE%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2Fancient-Egypt%2FThe-Old-Kingdom-c-2575-c-2130-bce-and-the-First-Intermediate-period-c-2130-1938-bce%23ref134440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.penfield.edu/webpages/jgiotto/onlinetextbook.cfm?subpage=1525828">"Ancient Egypt – the Archaic Period and Old Kingdom"</a>. <i>Penfield High School</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Wiley-Blackwell (July 19, 1994). p. 76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell+%28July+19%2C+1994%29&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Grimal&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimal1994" class="citation book cs1">Grimal, Nicolas (1994). <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Wiley-Blackwell (July 19, 1994). pp. 76, 79.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=76%2C+79&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell+%28July+19%2C+1994%29&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Grimal&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerner2001b" class="citation book cs1">Verner, Miroslav (2001b). "Old Kingdom: An Overview". In <a href="/wiki/Donald_B._Redford" title="Donald B. Redford">Redford, Donald B.</a> (ed.). <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 585–591. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510234-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510234-5"><bdi>978-0-19-510234-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Old+Kingdom%3A+An+Overview&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Egypt%2C+Volume+2&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=585-591&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510234-5&rft.aulast=Verner&rft.aufirst=Miroslav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2003" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Ian (2003). 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Natural science in archaeology. Berlin; New-York: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-283-93479-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-283-93479-4"><bdi>978-1-283-93479-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gold+and+gold+mining+in+ancient+Egypt+and+Nubia+%3A+geoarchaeology+of+the+ancient+gold+mining+sites+in+the+Egyptian+and+Sudanese+eastern+deserts&rft.place=Berlin%3B+New-York&rft.series=Natural+science+in+archaeology&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-283-93479-4&rft.aulast=Klemm&rft.aufirst=Rosemarie&rft.au=Klemm%2C+Dietrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dky8bVJ_fYEAC%26pg%3DPA604&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerner2001b" class="citation book cs1">Verner, Miroslav (2001b). 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In Edwards, I. E. S.; Gadd, C. J.; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 1, Part 2. Early History of the Middle East</i> (3rd ed.). London, New york: Cambridge University Press. pp. 191–194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521077910" title="Special:BookSources/9780521077910"><bdi>9780521077910</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/33234410">33234410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Old+Kingdom+of+Egypt+and+the+Beginning+of+the+First+Intermediate+Period&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%2C+Volume+1%2C+Part+2.+Early+History+of+the+Middle+East&rft.place=London%2C+New+york&rft.pages=191-194&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33234410&rft.isbn=9780521077910&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=William+Stevenson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DslR7SFScEnwC%26q%3DPhiops%26pg%3DPA167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grimal_1994-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grimal_1994_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grimal_1994_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimal1994" class="citation book cs1">Grimal, Nicolas (19 July 1994). <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1994-07-19&rft.aulast=Grimal&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJean-Daniel_Stanley2003" class="citation journal cs1">Jean-Daniel Stanley; et al. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/files/24322095/POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS.PDF">"Nile flow failure at the end of the Old Kingdom, Egypt: Strontium isotopic and petrologic evidence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geoarchaeology_(journal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geoarchaeology (journal) (page does not exist)">Geoarchaeology</a></i>. <b>18</b> (3): 395–402. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fgea.10065">10.1002/gea.10065</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53571037">53571037</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoarchaeology&rft.atitle=Nile+flow+failure+at+the+end+of+the+Old+Kingdom%2C+Egypt%3A+Strontium+isotopic+and+petrologic+evidence&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=395-402&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fgea.10065&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53571037%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Jean-Daniel+Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.research.manchester.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Ffiles%2F24322095%2FPOST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_29-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobins2008" class="citation book cs1">Robins, Gay (2008). <i>The Art of Ancient Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Robins&rft.aufirst=Gay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSourouzian2010" class="citation book cs1">Sourouzian, Hourig (2010). <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt</i>. Vol. I. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 853–881.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=853-881&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing+Ltd.&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Sourouzian&rft.aufirst=Hourig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1999" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Dorothea (1999). <i>When the Pyramids Were Built: Egyptian Art of the Old Kingdom</i>. The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Rizzoli International Publications Inc. pp. 7–17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+the+Pyramids+Were+Built%3A+Egyptian+Art+of+the+Old+Kingdom&rft.pages=7-17&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art+and+Rizzoli+International+Publications+Inc.&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Dorothea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543907">"The Metropolitan Museum"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Metropolitan+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fart%2Fcollection%2Fsearch%2F543907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobins1994" class="citation book cs1">Robins, Gay (1994). <i>Proportion, and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art</i>. University of Texas Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proportion%2C+and+Style+in+Ancient+Egyptian+Art&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Robins&rft.aufirst=Gay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/detail.aspx?id=14994">"Statue of Menkaure with Hathor and Cynopolis"</a>. <i>The Global Egyptian Museum</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Global+Egyptian+Museum&rft.atitle=Statue+of+Menkaure+with+Hathor+and+Cynopolis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalegyptianmuseum.org%2Fdetail.aspx%3Fid%3D14994&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malek_1999-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Malek_1999_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malek_1999_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalek1999" class="citation book cs1">Malek, Jaromir (1999). <i>Egyptian Art</i>. London: Phaidon Press Limited.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Art&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Phaidon+Press+Limited&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Malek&rft.aufirst=Jaromir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2011" class="citation journal cs1">Morgan, Lyvia (2011). "Enlivening the Body: Color and Stone Statues in Old Kingdom Egypt". <i>Notes in the History of Art</i>. <b>30</b> (3): 4–11. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fsou.30.3.23208555">10.1086/sou.30.3.23208555</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191369829">191369829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notes+in+the+History+of+Art&rft.atitle=Enlivening+the+Body%3A+Color+and+Stone+Statues+in+Old+Kingdom+Egypt&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=4-11&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fsou.30.3.23208555&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191369829%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Lyvia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlemm2001" class="citation journal cs1">Klemm, Dietrich (2001). "The Building Stones of Ancient Egypt: A Gift of its Geology". <i>African Earth Sciences</i>. <b>33</b> (3–4): 631–642. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JAfES..33..631K">2001JAfES..33..631K</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.111.9099">10.1.1.111.9099</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0899-5362%2801%2900085-9">10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00085-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Earth+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Building+Stones+of+Ancient+Egypt%3A+A+Gift+of+its+Geology&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=631-642&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.111.9099%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0899-5362%2801%2900085-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001JAfES..33..631K&rft.aulast=Klemm&rft.aufirst=Dietrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrewer2005" class="citation book cs1">Brewer, Douglas J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/AncientEgypt-FoundationsOfACivilization"><i>Ancient Egypt: foundations of a civilization</i></a>. Harlow: <a href="/wiki/Longman" title="Longman">Longman</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-77253-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-77253-3"><bdi>978-0-582-77253-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt%3A+foundations+of+a+civilization&rft.place=Harlow&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-582-77253-3&rft.aulast=Brewer&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FAncientEgypt-FoundationsOfACivilization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCallender1998" class="citation book cs1">Callender, Gae (1998). <i>Egypt in the old kingdom: an introduction</i>. Melbourne: <a href="/wiki/Longman" title="Longman">Longman</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-81226-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-81226-0"><bdi>978-0-582-81226-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+in+the+old+kingdom%3A+an+introduction&rft.place=Melbourne&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-582-81226-0&rft.aulast=Callender&rft.aufirst=Gae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanawati1980" class="citation book cs1">Kanawati, Naguib (1980). <i>Governmental reforms in old Kingdom Egypt</i>. Modern Egyptology series. Warminster, England: <a href="/wiki/Aris_%26_Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="Aris & Phillips">Aris & Phillips</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85668-168-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85668-168-4"><bdi>978-0-85668-168-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Governmental+reforms+in+old+Kingdom+Egypt&rft.place=Warminster%2C+England&rft.series=Modern+Egyptology+series&rft.pub=Aris+%26+Phillips&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-85668-168-4&rft.aulast=Kanawati&rft.aufirst=Naguib&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanawatiWoodsAlexakis2009" class="citation book cs1">Kanawati, Naguib; Woods, Alexandra; Alexakis, Effy, eds. (2009). <i>Artists of the Old Kingdom: techniques and achievements</i>. Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquities Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-437-985-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-437-985-7"><bdi>978-977-437-985-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artists+of+the+Old+Kingdom%3A+techniques+and+achievements&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pub=Supreme+Council+of+Antiquities+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-977-437-985-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehner1997" class="citation book cs1">Lehner, Mark (1997). <i>The complete pyramids</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05084-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05084-2"><bdi>978-0-500-05084-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+complete+pyramids&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05084-2&rft.aulast=Lehner&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMálekForman1986" class="citation book cs1">Málek, Jaromír; Forman, Werner (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inshadowofpyrami0000male_a3n6"><i>In the shadow of the pyramids: Egypt during the Old Kingdom</i></a></span>. Norman, OK: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Press" title="University of Oklahoma Press">University of Oklahoma Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2027-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2027-0"><bdi>978-0-8061-2027-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+shadow+of+the+pyramids%3A+Egypt+during+the+Old+Kingdom&rft.place=Norman%2C+OK&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2027-0&rft.aulast=M%C3%A1lek&rft.aufirst=Jarom%C3%ADr&rft.au=Forman%2C+Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finshadowofpyrami0000male_a3n6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcFarlaneMourad2012" class="citation book cs1">McFarlane, Ann; Mourad, Anna-Latifa (2012). <i>Behind the scenes: daily life in Old Kingdom Egypt</i>. Studies. North Ryde: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Centre_for_Egyptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Centre for Egyptology">Australian Centre for Egyptology</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85668-860-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85668-860-7"><bdi>978-0-85668-860-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behind+the+scenes%3A+daily+life+in+Old+Kingdom+Egypt&rft.place=North+Ryde&rft.series=Studies&rft.pub=Australian+Centre+for+Egyptology&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-85668-860-7&rft.aulast=McFarlane&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft.au=Mourad%2C+Anna-Latifa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'NeillAllen1999" class="citation book cs1">O'Neill, John P.; Allen, James P., eds. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mxAZpKoo-YwC"><i>Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-907-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-907-9"><bdi>978-0-87099-907-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Art+in+the+Age+of+the+Pyramids&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-87099-907-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmxAZpKoo-YwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapazian2012" class="citation book cs1">Papazian, Hratch (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/788217545"><i>Domain of Pharaoh: the structure and components of the economy of Old Kingdom Egypt</i></a>. Hildesheimer Ägyptologische Beiträge. Hildesheim: Gerstenberg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8067-8761-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8067-8761-0"><bdi>978-3-8067-8761-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/788217545">788217545</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Domain+of+Pharaoh%3A+the+structure+and+components+of+the+economy+of+Old+Kingdom+Egypt&rft.place=Hildesheim&rft.series=Hildesheimer+%C3%84gyptologische+Beitr%C3%A4ge&rft.pub=Gerstenberg&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F788217545&rft.isbn=978-3-8067-8761-0&rft.aulast=Papazian&rft.aufirst=Hratch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2F788217545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyholt1997" class="citation book cs1">Ryholt, K. S. B. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ANRi7cM5ZwsC"><i>The political situation in Egypt during the second intermediate period, c. 1800-1550 B.C</i></a>. CNI publications. Copenhagen: <a href="/wiki/Museum_Tusculanum_Press" title="Museum Tusculanum Press">Museum Tusculanum Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7289-421-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-7289-421-8"><bdi>978-87-7289-421-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+political+situation+in+Egypt+during+the+second+intermediate+period%2C+c.+1800-1550+B.C&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.series=CNI+publications&rft.pub=Museum+Tusculanum+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-87-7289-421-8&rft.aulast=Ryholt&rft.aufirst=K.+S.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DANRi7cM5ZwsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowadaGrave2009" class="citation book cs1">Sowada, Karin N.; Grave, Peter (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bwJe63dlNxUC"><i>Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Old Kingdom: an archaeological perspective</i></a>. Orbis biblicus et orientalis. Fribourg, Göttingen: <a href="/wiki/Vandenhoeck_%26_Ruprecht" title="Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht">Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7278-1649-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7278-1649-9"><bdi>978-3-7278-1649-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/428025036">428025036</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:127449010">127449010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+in+the+Eastern+Mediterranean+during+the+Old+Kingdom%3A+an+archaeological+perspective&rft.place=Fribourg%2C+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=Orbis+biblicus+et+orientalis&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F428025036&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A127449010%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-3-7278-1649-9&rft.aulast=Sowada&rft.aufirst=Karin+N.&rft.au=Grave%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbwJe63dlNxUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanawatiStrudwick1992" class="citation book cs1">Kanawati, Naguib; Strudwick, Nigel (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gizapyramids.org/static/pdf%20library/strudwick_admininstration.pdf"><i>The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Studies in egyptology. Vol. 78. London: KPI. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3822094">10.2307/3822094</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-0107-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-0107-9"><bdi>978-0-7103-0107-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3822094">3822094</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:69046660">69046660</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Administration+of+Egypt+in+the+Old+Kingdom%3A+The+Highest+Titles+and+Their+Holders&rft.place=London&rft.series=Studies+in+egyptology&rft.pub=KPI&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3822094&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A69046660%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3822094%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-7103-0107-9&rft.aulast=Kanawati&rft.aufirst=Naguib&rft.au=Strudwick%2C+Nigel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gizapyramids.org%2Fstatic%2Fpdf%2520library%2Fstrudwick_admininstration.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarden2014" class="citation book cs1">Warden, Leslie Anne (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ffh0AQAAQBAJ"><i>Pottery and economy in Old Kingdom Egypt</i></a>. Culture and history of the ancient Near East. Leiden ; Boston: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25984-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25984-3"><bdi>978-90-04-25984-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pottery+and+economy+in+Old+Kingdom+Egypt&rft.place=Leiden+%3B+Boston&rft.series=Culture+and+history+of+the+ancient+Near+East&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-90-04-25984-3&rft.aulast=Warden&rft.aufirst=Leslie+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFfh0AQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2001" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ih2EAgAAQBAJ"><i>Early dynastic Egypt</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26011-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26011-4"><bdi>978-0-415-26011-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+dynastic+Egypt&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26011-4&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Toby+A.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dih2EAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Kingdom+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml">The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom</a> from BBC History</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060516022803/http://www.on-the-matrix.com/mideast/OldKingdom.asp">Middle East on The Matrix: Egypt, The Old Kingdom</a> – Photographs of many of the historic sites dating from the Old Kingdom</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aldokkan.com/egypt/old_kingdom.htm">Old Kingdom of Egypt- Aldokkan</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Dynastic Period of Egypt">Early Dynastic Period</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> Time Periods of Egypt </b><br />2686–2181 BC </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Egypt topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Egypt_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Egypt_artifacts" title="Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts">Glossary of artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ancient_Egypt%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of ancient Egypt–related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt/Main_topics" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt/Main topics">Main topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_obelisks" title="List of Egyptian obelisks">Obelisks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pylon_(architecture)" title="Pylon (architecture)">Pylon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portraiture_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Portraiture in ancient Egypt">Portraiture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_towns_and_cities" title="List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Clothing in ancient Egypt">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy" title="Ancient Egyptian race controversy">Ancient Egyptian race controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population history of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_cuisine" title="Ancient Egyptian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Dance in ancient Egypt">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Dynasties of ancient Egypt">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary practices">Funerary practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Geography of ancient Egypt">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Royal_Wife" title="Great Royal Wife">Great Royal Wives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_royal_consorts" title="List of ancient Egyptian royal consorts">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_hieroglyphs" title="Cursive hieroglyphs">Cursive hieroglyphs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Military of ancient Egypt">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptians" title="List of ancient Egyptians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Titulary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_pottery" title="Ancient Egyptian pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_scribes" title="List of ancient Egyptian scribes">Scribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_sites" title="List of ancient Egyptian sites">Sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Egypt" title="List of historical capitals of Egypt">Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">District</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" title="Egypt–Mesopotamia relations">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/100px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/150px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/200px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptologists" title="List of Egyptologists">Egyptologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_of_Egyptian_antiquities" title="List of museums of Egyptian antiquities">Museums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#decd87"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/16px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/24px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/32px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Ancient Egypt">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Egypt">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Outline of ancient Egypt">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Ancient_Egypt" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Ancient Egypt">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">Fire ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Sakman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_ships" title="Ancient Egyptian royal ships">Solar ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru_(boat)" title="Uru (boat)">Uru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels#History" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_propulsion" title="Marine propulsion">Propulsion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(boat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dugout (boat)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques#Framed_boat" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Framing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques#Frame-first" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Frame-first</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques#Shell-first" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Shell-first</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joinery" title="Joinery">Joinery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_joints" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenician joints">Phoenician joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarf_joint" title="Scarf joint">Scarf joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">Fire ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)#Navigation" title="Swell (ocean)">Ocean swell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands_stick_chart" title="Marshall Islands stick chart">Stick chart</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplus" title="Periplus">Periplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and<br />harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actium" title="Actium">Actium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Port" title="Alexandria Port">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Cyrenaica)" title="Apollonia (Cyrenaica)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitavecchia#History" title="Civitavecchia">Centumcellae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmutha" title="Charmutha">Charmutha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narbonne" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisida" title="Nisida">Nesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portus" title="Portus">Portus Augusti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisa#Ancient_times" title="Pisa">Portus Pisanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pozzuoli" title="Pozzuoli">Puteoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qal%27at_al-Bahrain" title="Qal'at al-Bahrain">Qal'at al-Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thapsus" title="Thapsus">Thapsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and<br />exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Mediterranean:</b>   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_exploration" title="Chinese exploration">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo–Mesopotamia relations">Indo–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Austronesian network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece%E2%80%93Ancient_India_relations#Trade" title="Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations">Greco–Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo–Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br />and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks<br />and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zambratija_shipwreck" title="Zambratija shipwreck">Zambratija</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qal%27at_al-Bahrain" title="Qal'at al-Bahrain">Qal'at al-Bahrain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental<br />archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ship_replica" title="Ship replica">Ship replica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl"><i>Ra</i> and <i>Ra II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li>Austronesian replicas <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa#Canoe" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa canoe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)"><i>Ivlia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and <br />conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and<br />memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_Museum,_Kolkata" title="Boat Museum, Kolkata">Boat Museum, Kolkata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Legend_and_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legend and literature</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_bulrushes" title="Ark of bulrushes">Ark of bulrushes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flood_myths" title="List of flood myths">Flood myths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative" title="Genesis flood narrative">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh_flood_myth" title="Gilgamesh flood myth">Gilgamesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_flood_myths" title="Ancient Greek flood myths">Greek</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)"><i>The Histories</i> (Herodotus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)"><i>The Histories</i> (Polybius)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" 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