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var a = axel * 10000000000000; document.write('<iframe src="https://2542116.fls.doubleclick.net/activityi;src=2542116;type=gblog;cat=googl0;ord=ord=' + a + '?" width="1" height="1" frameborder="0" style="display:none"></iframe>'); //]]> </script> <noscript> <img alt='' height='1' src='https://ad.doubleclick.net/ddm/activity/src=2542116;type=gblog;cat=googl0;ord=1?' width='1'/> </noscript>  <div class='header-outer'> <div class='header-inner'> <div class='section' id='header'><div class='widget Header' data-version='1' id='Header1'> <div class='header-left'> <div class='header-title'> <a class='google-logo' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/'> <img height='50' src='https://www.gstatic.com/images/branding/googlelogo/2x/googlelogo_color_150x54dp.png'/> </a> <a href='/.'> <h2> Testing Blog </h2> </a> </div> <div class='header-desc'> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </div>  <div class='cols-wrapper loading'> <div class='col-main-wrapper'> <div class='col-main'> <div class='section' id='main'><div class='widget Blog' data-version='1' id='Blog1'> <div class='post' data-id='7086735822667839051' itemscope='' itemtype='http://schema.org/BlogPosting'> <h2 class='title' itemprop='name'> <a href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2020/12/test-flakiness-one-of-main-challenges.html' itemprop='url' title='Test Flakiness - One of the main challenges of automated testing'> Test Flakiness - One of the main challenges of automated testing </a> </h2> <div class='post-header'> <div class='published'> <span class='publishdate' itemprop='datePublished'> Wednesday, December 16, 2020 </span> </div> </div> <div class='post-body'> <div class='post-content' itemprop='articleBody'> <script type='text/template'> By George Pirocanac<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Dealing with test flakiness is a critical skill in testing because automated tests that do not provide a consistent signal will slow down the entire development process. If you haven’t encountered flaky tests, this article is a must-read as it first tries to systematically outline the causes for flaky tests. If you have encountered flaky tests, see how many fall into the areas listed.</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><div>A follow-up article will talk about dealing with each of the causes.</div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Over the years I’ve seen a lot of reasons for flaky tests, but rather than review them one by one, let’s group the sources of flakiness by the components under which tests are run:</div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>The tests themselves</li><li>The test-running framework</li><li>The application or system under Test (SUT) and the services and libraries that the SUT and testing framework depend upon</li><li>The OS and hardware that the SUT and testing framework depend upon</li></ul><div><br /></div></div><div><div>This is illustrated below. Figure 1 first shows the hardware/software stack that supports an application or system under test. At the lowest level is the hardware. The next level up is the operating system followed by the libraries that provide an interface to the system. At the highest level, is the middleware, the layer that provides application specific interfaces.</div></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL7-sd5koCPql8mJeq-5b4Vjo8Ex1nWHlihjQ2w-0AHXbIZLWb0cL9zCuqzkoV0RspcxQTtXE_JSmJHk6nStrW7NUxQ8lvHEzCBw5dchj1Jowg4EHYb9G6U-ZyiOGsQIE3rzW9/s460/Test+Flakiness+-+Figure+1+%25281%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="460" data-original-width="439" height="346" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL7-sd5koCPql8mJeq-5b4Vjo8Ex1nWHlihjQ2w-0AHXbIZLWb0cL9zCuqzkoV0RspcxQTtXE_JSmJHk6nStrW7NUxQ8lvHEzCBw5dchj1Jowg4EHYb9G6U-ZyiOGsQIE3rzW9/w330-h346/Test+Flakiness+-+Figure+1+%25281%2529.jpg" width="330" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /><br /></div><div>In a distributed system, however, each of the services of the application and the services it depends upon can reside on a different hardware / software stack as can the test running service. This is illustrated in Figure 2 as the full test running environment.</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQLc8lZ3LethyhQkmibpBwkEqNMVvjznwN7b5MhDimx1AlC-QKtuvpfaGs6tUhuQJ715klFCvqzCjbT8juhTQT0ccn-eSfS2dCuekKvxK-bXBVv7w7PA2VCY1X0hfgAVbXn6k3/s726/Test+Flakiness+-+Figure+2+%25281%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="520" data-original-width="726" height="392" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQLc8lZ3LethyhQkmibpBwkEqNMVvjznwN7b5MhDimx1AlC-QKtuvpfaGs6tUhuQJ715klFCvqzCjbT8juhTQT0ccn-eSfS2dCuekKvxK-bXBVv7w7PA2VCY1X0hfgAVbXn6k3/w548-h392/Test+Flakiness+-+Figure+2+%25281%2529.jpg" width="548" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><div>As discussed above, each of these components is a potential area for flakiness.</div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><h3 style="text-align: left;">The tests themselves</h3></div><div><br /></div><div><div>The tests themselves can introduce flakiness. Typical causes include:</div></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Improper initialization or cleanup.</li><li>Invalid assumptions about the state of test data.</li><li>Invalid assumptions about the state of the system. An example can be the system time.</li><li>Dependencies on the timing of the application.</li><li>Dependencies on the order in which the tests are run. (Similar to the first case above.)</li></ul></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><h3 style="text-align: left;">The test-running framework</h3><div><br /></div><div>An unreliable test-running framework can introduce flakiness. Typical causes include:</div><div><br /></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Failure to allocate enough resources for the system under test thus causing it to fail coming up. </li><li>Improper scheduling of the tests so they “collide” and cause each other to fail.</li><li>Insufficient system resources to satisfy the test requirements.</li></ul></div><div><br /></div><h3 style="text-align: left;">The application or system under test and the services and libraries that the SUT and testing framework depend upon</h3><div><br /></div><div><div>Of course, the application itself (or the system under test) could be the source of flakiness. An application can also have numerous dependencies on other services, and each of those services can have their own dependencies. In this chain, each of the services can introduce flakiness. Typical causes include:</div></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Race conditions.</li><li>Uninitialized variables.</li><li>Being slow to respond or being unresponsive to the stimuli from the tests.</li><li>Memory leaks.</li><li>Oversubscription of resources.</li><li>Changes to the application (or dependent services) happening at a different pace than those to the corresponding tests.</li></ul></div><div><br /></div><div>Testing environments are called <i><a href="https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/10/hermetic-servers.html">hermetic</a></i> when they contain everything that is needed to run the tests (i.e. no external dependencies like servers running in production). Hermetic environments, in general, are less likely to be flaky.</div><div><br /></div><h3 style="text-align: left;">The OS and hardware that the SUT and testing framework depend upon</h3><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Finally, the underlying hardware and operating system can be the source of test flakiness. Typical causes include:</div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Networking failures or instability.</li><li>Disk errors.</li><li>Resources being consumed by other tasks/services not related to the tests being run.</li></ul></div><div><br /></div><div><div>As can be seen from the wide variety of failures, having low flakiness in automated testing can be quite a challenge. This article has both outlined the areas and the types of flakiness that can occur in those areas, so it can serve as a cheat sheet when triaging flaky tests.</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>In the follow-up of this blog we’ll look at ways of addressing these issues.</div></div><div><br /></div><h3 style="text-align: left;"><br /></h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">References</h3><div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><a href="https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/04/where-do-our-flaky-tests-come-from.html">Where do our flaky tests come from?</a></li><li><a href="https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/05/flaky-tests-at-google-and-how-we.html">Flaky Tests at Google and How We Mitigate Them</a></li><li><a href="https://testing.googleblog.com/2009/06/my-selenium-tests-arent-stable.html">My Selenium Tests Aren't Stable!</a></li><li><a href="https://testing.googleblog.com/2008/04/tott-avoiding-flakey-tests.html">TotT: Avoiding Flakey Tests</a></li></ul></div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div> <span itemprop='author' itemscope='itemscope' itemtype='http://schema.org/Person'> <meta content='https://plus.google.com/116899029375914044550' itemprop='url'/> </span> </script> <noscript> By George Pirocanac<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Dealing with test flakiness is a critical skill in testing because automated tests that do not provide a consistent signal will slow down the entire development process. If you haven’t encountered flaky tests, this article is a must-read as it first tries to systematically outline the causes for flaky tests. If you have encountered flaky tests, see how many fall into the areas listed.</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><div>A follow-up article will talk about dealing with each of the causes.</div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Over the years I’ve seen a lot of reasons for flaky tests, but rather than review them one by one, let’s group the sources of flakiness by the components under which tests are run:</div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>The tests themselves</li><li>The test-running framework</li><li>The application or system under Test (SUT) and the services and libraries that the SUT and testing framework depend upon</li><li>The OS and hardware that the SUT and testing framework depend upon</li></ul><div><br /></div></div><div><div>This is illustrated below. Figure 1 first shows the hardware/software stack that supports an application or system under test. At the lowest level is the hardware. The next level up is the operating system followed by the libraries that provide an interface to the system. At the highest level, is the middleware, the layer that provides application specific interfaces.</div></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL7-sd5koCPql8mJeq-5b4Vjo8Ex1nWHlihjQ2w-0AHXbIZLWb0cL9zCuqzkoV0RspcxQTtXE_JSmJHk6nStrW7NUxQ8lvHEzCBw5dchj1Jowg4EHYb9G6U-ZyiOGsQIE3rzW9/s460/Test+Flakiness+-+Figure+1+%25281%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="460" data-original-width="439" height="346" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL7-sd5koCPql8mJeq-5b4Vjo8Ex1nWHlihjQ2w-0AHXbIZLWb0cL9zCuqzkoV0RspcxQTtXE_JSmJHk6nStrW7NUxQ8lvHEzCBw5dchj1Jowg4EHYb9G6U-ZyiOGsQIE3rzW9/w330-h346/Test+Flakiness+-+Figure+1+%25281%2529.jpg" width="330" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /><br /></div><div>In a distributed system, however, each of the services of the application and the services it depends upon can reside on a different hardware / software stack as can the test running service. This is illustrated in Figure 2 as the full test running environment.</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQLc8lZ3LethyhQkmibpBwkEqNMVvjznwN7b5MhDimx1AlC-QKtuvpfaGs6tUhuQJ715klFCvqzCjbT8juhTQT0ccn-eSfS2dCuekKvxK-bXBVv7w7PA2VCY1X0hfgAVbXn6k3/s726/Test+Flakiness+-+Figure+2+%25281%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="520" data-original-width="726" height="392" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQLc8lZ3LethyhQkmibpBwkEqNMVvjznwN7b5MhDimx1AlC-QKtuvpfaGs6tUhuQJ715klFCvqzCjbT8juhTQT0ccn-eSfS2dCuekKvxK-bXBVv7w7PA2VCY1X0hfgAVbXn6k3/w548-h392/Test+Flakiness+-+Figure+2+%25281%2529.jpg" width="548" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><div>As discussed above, each of these components is a potential area for flakiness.</div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><h3 style="text-align: left;">The tests themselves</h3></div><div><br /></div><div><div>The tests themselves can introduce flakiness. Typical causes include:</div></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Improper initialization or cleanup.</li><li>Invalid assumptions about the state of test data.</li><li>Invalid assumptions about the state of the system. An example can be the system time.</li><li>Dependencies on the timing of the application.</li><li>Dependencies on the order in which the tests are run. (Similar to the first case above.)</li></ul></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><h3 style="text-align: left;">The test-running framework</h3><div><br /></div><div>An unreliable test-running framework can introduce flakiness. Typical causes include:</div><div><br /></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Failure to allocate enough resources for the system under test thus causing it to fail coming up. </li><li>Improper scheduling of the tests so they “collide” and cause each other to fail.</li><li>Insufficient system resources to satisfy the test requirements.</li></ul></div><div><br /></div><h3 style="text-align: left;">The application or system under test and the services and libraries that the SUT and testing framework depend upon</h3><div><br /></div><div><div>Of course, the application itself (or the system under test) could be the source of flakiness. An application can also have numerous dependencies on other services, and each of those services can have their own dependencies. In this chain, each of the services can introduce flakiness. Typical causes include:</div></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Race conditions.</li><li>Uninitialized variables.</li><li>Being slow to respond or being unresponsive to the stimuli from the tests.</li><li>Memory leaks.</li><li>Oversubscription of resources.</li><li>Changes to the application (or dependent services) happening at a different pace than those to the corresponding tests.</li></ul></div><div><br /></div><div>Testing environments are called <i><a href="https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/10/hermetic-servers.html">hermetic</a></i> when they contain everything that is needed to run the tests (i.e. no external dependencies like servers running in production). Hermetic environments, in general, are less likely to be flaky.</div><div><br /></div><h3 style="text-align: left;">The OS and hardware that the SUT and testing framework depend upon</h3><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Finally, the underlying hardware and operating system can be the source of test flakiness. Typical causes include:</div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Networking failures or instability.</li><li>Disk errors.</li><li>Resources being consumed by other tasks/services not related to the tests being run.</li></ul></div><div><br /></div><div><div>As can be seen from the wide variety of failures, having low flakiness in automated testing can be quite a challenge. This article has both outlined the areas and the types of flakiness that can occur in those areas, so it can serve as a cheat sheet when triaging flaky tests.</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>In the follow-up of this blog we’ll look at ways of addressing these issues.</div></div><div><br /></div><h3 style="text-align: left;"><br /></h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">References</h3><div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><a href="https://testing.googleblog.com/2017/04/where-do-our-flaky-tests-come-from.html">Where do our flaky tests come from?</a></li><li><a href="https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/05/flaky-tests-at-google-and-how-we.html">Flaky Tests at Google and How We Mitigate Them</a></li><li><a href="https://testing.googleblog.com/2009/06/my-selenium-tests-arent-stable.html">My Selenium Tests Aren't Stable!</a></li><li><a href="https://testing.googleblog.com/2008/04/tott-avoiding-flakey-tests.html">TotT: Avoiding Flakey Tests</a></li></ul></div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div> <span itemprop='author' itemscope='itemscope' itemtype='http://schema.org/Person'> <meta content='https://plus.google.com/116899029375914044550' itemprop='url'/> </span> </noscript> </div> </div> <div class='share'> <span class='twitter-custom social-wrapper' data-href='http://twitter.com/share?text=Google Testing Blog:Test Flakiness - One of the main challenges of automated testing&url=https://testing.googleblog.com/2020/12/test-flakiness-one-of-main-challenges.html&via=googletesting'> <img alt='Share on Twitter' height='24' src='https://www.gstatic.com/images/icons/material/system/2x/post_twitter_black_24dp.png' width='24'/> </span> <span class='fb-custom social-wrapper' data-href='https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://testing.googleblog.com/2020/12/test-flakiness-one-of-main-challenges.html'> <img alt='Share on Facebook' height='24' src='https://www.gstatic.com/images/icons/material/system/2x/post_facebook_black_24dp.png' width='24'/> </span> </div> <div class='comment-container'> <i class='comment-img material-icons'>  </i> <a href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2020/12/test-flakiness-one-of-main-challenges.html#comments' style='font-weight: 500; text-decoration: underline;'>9 comments</a> </div> <div class='post-footer'> <div class='cmt_iframe_holder' data-href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2020/12/test-flakiness-one-of-main-challenges.html' data-viewtype='FILTERED_POSTMOD'></div> <a href='https://plus.google.com/112374322230920073195' rel='author' style='display:none;'> Google </a> <div class='label-footer'> <span class='labels-caption'> Labels: </span> <span class='labels'> <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/George%20Pirocanac' rel='tag'> George Pirocanac </a> , <a class='label' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/search/label/Test%20Flakiness' rel='tag'> Test Flakiness </a> </span> </div> </div> </div> <div class='post' data-id='5619282728573005751' itemscope='' itemtype='http://schema.org/BlogPosting'> <h2 class='title' itemprop='name'> <a href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2020/12/testing-on-toilet-separation-of.html' itemprop='url' title='Testing on the Toilet: Separation of Concerns? That's a Wrap!'> Testing on the Toilet: Separation of Concerns? That's a Wrap! </a> </h2> <div class='post-header'> <div class='published'> <span class='publishdate' itemprop='datePublished'> Wednesday, December 09, 2020 </span> </div> </div> <div class='post-body'> <div class='post-content' itemprop='articleBody'> <script type='text/template'> <p><i><span style="font-family: times;">This article was adapted from a Google <a href="http://googletesting.blogspot.com/2007/01/introducing-testing-on-toilet.html">Testing on the Toilet</a> (TotT) episode. You can download a <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/16865gKSr3QXh6kRyKw8g9B6Q13L48t3lNNWfWdg21Ng/edit?usp=sharing" rel="nofollow">printer-friendly version</a> of this TotT episode and post it in your office.</span></i></p><div><i><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></i></div><div><span style="font-family: times;">By Stefan Kennedy</span></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><div>The following function decodes a byte array as an image using an API named SpeedyImg. What maintenance problems might arise due to referencing an API owned by a different team?</div><div><br /></div></span></div> <div style="overflow-x: auto;"> <table class="my-bordered-table" style="width: 613px;"><tbody> <tr><td style="background-color: #f4cccc; vertical-align: top; width: 607px;"><pre style="background-color: #f4cccc; border: 0px; color: black; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="font-family: consolas, "courier new", courier, monospace;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgImage</span> decodeImage(List<<span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgDecoder</span>> <span style="font-weight: bold;">decoders</span>, byte[] data) { <span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgOptions options</span> = getDefaultConvertOptions(); for (<span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgDecoder decoder</span> : <span style="font-weight: bold;">decoders</span>) { <span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgResult decodeResult</span> = <span style="font-weight: bold;">decoder</span>.decode(<span style="font-weight: bold;">decoder</span>.formatBytes(data)); <span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgImage image</span> = <span style="font-weight: bold;">decodeResult</span>.getImage(<span style="font-weight: bold;">options</span>); if (validateGoodImage(<span style="font-weight: bold;">image</span>)) { return <span style="font-weight: bold;">image</span>; } } throw new RuntimeException(); }</span></pre></td></tr> </tbody></table><br /> </div> <div style="overflow-x: auto;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;">Details about how to call the API are mixed with domain logic</span>, which can make the code harder to understand. For example, the call to <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">decoder.formatBytes()</span> is required by the API, but how the bytes are formatted isn’t relevant to the domain logic.</span></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><br /></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><span style="font-family: times;">Additionally, if this API is used in many places across a codebase, then <span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;">all usages may need to change if the way the API is used changes.</span> For example, if the return type of this function is changed to the more generic <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">SpeedyImgResult</span> type, usages of <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">SpeedyImgImage</span> would need to be updated.</span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><div><span style="font-family: times;">To avoid these maintenance problems, <span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;">create <i>wrapper types</i> to hide API details behind an abstraction</span>:</span></div></div><div><br /></div> <div style="overflow-x: auto;"> <table class="my-bordered-table" style="width: 613px;"><tbody> <tr><td style="background-color: #d9ead3; vertical-align: top; width: 607px;"><pre style="background-color: #d9ead3; border: 0px; color: black; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="font-family: consolas, "courier new", courier, monospace;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Image</span> decodeImage(List<<span style="font-weight: bold;">ImageDecoder</span>> <span style="font-weight: bold;">decoders</span>, byte[] data) { for (<span style="font-weight: bold;">ImageDecoder</span> decoder : decoders) { <span style="font-weight: bold;">Image decodedImage</span> = decoder.decode(data); if (validateGoodImage(<span style="font-weight: bold;">decodedImage</span>)) { return <span style="font-weight: bold;">decodedImage</span>; } } throw new RuntimeException(); }</span></pre></td></tr> </tbody></table> <div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;">Wrapping an external API follows the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_concerns">Separation of Concerns</a></span> principle, since the logic for how the API is called is separated from the domain logic. This has many benefits, including:</span></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: times;">If the way the API is used changes, encapsulating the API in a wrapper insulates how far those changes can propagate across your codebase.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">You can modify the interface or the implementation of types you own, but you can’t for API types.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">It is easier to switch or add another API, since they can still be represented by the introduced types (e.g. <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">ImageDecoder/Image</span>).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">Readability can improve as you don’t need to sift through API code to understand core logic.</span></li></ul><br /></div><div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;">Not all external APIs need to be wrapped</span>. For example, if an API would take a huge effort to separate or is simple enough that it doesn't pollute the codebase, it may be better not to introduce wrapper types (e.g. library types like <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">List</span> in Java or <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">std::vector</span> in C++). When in doubt, keep in mind that a wrapper should only be added if it will clearly improve the code (see the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_aren%27t_gonna_need_it">YAGNI</a> principle).</span></div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><p dir="ltr" style="font-family: times; line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Separation of Concerns” in the context of external APIs is also described by Martin Fowler in his blog post, </span><a href="https://martinfowler.com/articles/refactoring-external-service.html" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Refactoring code that accesses external services</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span></p><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div></div> </div> <span itemprop='author' itemscope='itemscope' itemtype='http://schema.org/Person'> <meta content='https://plus.google.com/116899029375914044550' itemprop='url'/> </span> </script> <noscript> <p><i><span style="font-family: times;">This article was adapted from a Google <a href="http://googletesting.blogspot.com/2007/01/introducing-testing-on-toilet.html">Testing on the Toilet</a> (TotT) episode. You can download a <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/16865gKSr3QXh6kRyKw8g9B6Q13L48t3lNNWfWdg21Ng/edit?usp=sharing" rel="nofollow">printer-friendly version</a> of this TotT episode and post it in your office.</span></i></p><div><i><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></i></div><div><span style="font-family: times;">By Stefan Kennedy</span></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><div>The following function decodes a byte array as an image using an API named SpeedyImg. What maintenance problems might arise due to referencing an API owned by a different team?</div><div><br /></div></span></div> <div style="overflow-x: auto;"> <table class="my-bordered-table" style="width: 613px;"><tbody> <tr><td style="background-color: #f4cccc; vertical-align: top; width: 607px;"><pre style="background-color: #f4cccc; border: 0px; color: black; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="font-family: consolas, "courier new", courier, monospace;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgImage</span> decodeImage(List<<span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgDecoder</span>> <span style="font-weight: bold;">decoders</span>, byte[] data) { <span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgOptions options</span> = getDefaultConvertOptions(); for (<span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgDecoder decoder</span> : <span style="font-weight: bold;">decoders</span>) { <span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgResult decodeResult</span> = <span style="font-weight: bold;">decoder</span>.decode(<span style="font-weight: bold;">decoder</span>.formatBytes(data)); <span style="font-weight: bold;">SpeedyImgImage image</span> = <span style="font-weight: bold;">decodeResult</span>.getImage(<span style="font-weight: bold;">options</span>); if (validateGoodImage(<span style="font-weight: bold;">image</span>)) { return <span style="font-weight: bold;">image</span>; } } throw new RuntimeException(); }</span></pre></td></tr> </tbody></table><br /> </div> <div style="overflow-x: auto;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;">Details about how to call the API are mixed with domain logic</span>, which can make the code harder to understand. For example, the call to <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">decoder.formatBytes()</span> is required by the API, but how the bytes are formatted isn’t relevant to the domain logic.</span></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><br /></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><span style="font-family: times;">Additionally, if this API is used in many places across a codebase, then <span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;">all usages may need to change if the way the API is used changes.</span> For example, if the return type of this function is changed to the more generic <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">SpeedyImgResult</span> type, usages of <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">SpeedyImgImage</span> would need to be updated.</span></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><div><span style="font-family: times;">To avoid these maintenance problems, <span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;">create <i>wrapper types</i> to hide API details behind an abstraction</span>:</span></div></div><div><br /></div> <div style="overflow-x: auto;"> <table class="my-bordered-table" style="width: 613px;"><tbody> <tr><td style="background-color: #d9ead3; vertical-align: top; width: 607px;"><pre style="background-color: #d9ead3; border: 0px; color: black; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="font-family: consolas, "courier new", courier, monospace;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Image</span> decodeImage(List<<span style="font-weight: bold;">ImageDecoder</span>> <span style="font-weight: bold;">decoders</span>, byte[] data) { for (<span style="font-weight: bold;">ImageDecoder</span> decoder : decoders) { <span style="font-weight: bold;">Image decodedImage</span> = decoder.decode(data); if (validateGoodImage(<span style="font-weight: bold;">decodedImage</span>)) { return <span style="font-weight: bold;">decodedImage</span>; } } throw new RuntimeException(); }</span></pre></td></tr> </tbody></table> <div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;">Wrapping an external API follows the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_concerns">Separation of Concerns</a></span> principle, since the logic for how the API is called is separated from the domain logic. This has many benefits, including:</span></div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: times;">If the way the API is used changes, encapsulating the API in a wrapper insulates how far those changes can propagate across your codebase.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">You can modify the interface or the implementation of types you own, but you can’t for API types.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">It is easier to switch or add another API, since they can still be represented by the introduced types (e.g. <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">ImageDecoder/Image</span>).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times;">Readability can improve as you don’t need to sift through API code to understand core logic.</span></li></ul><br /></div><div><div><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="color: #800180; font-weight: bold;">Not all external APIs need to be wrapped</span>. For example, if an API would take a huge effort to separate or is simple enough that it doesn't pollute the codebase, it may be better not to introduce wrapper types (e.g. library types like <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">List</span> in Java or <span style="color: #0f9d58; font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">std::vector</span> in C++). When in doubt, keep in mind that a wrapper should only be added if it will clearly improve the code (see the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_aren%27t_gonna_need_it">YAGNI</a> principle).</span></div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div></div><div style="overflow-x: auto;"><p dir="ltr" style="font-family: times; line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Separation of Concerns” in the context of external APIs is also described by Martin Fowler in his blog post, </span><a href="https://martinfowler.com/articles/refactoring-external-service.html" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Refactoring code that accesses external services</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span></p><div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div></div> </div> <span itemprop='author' itemscope='itemscope' itemtype='http://schema.org/Person'> <meta content='https://plus.google.com/116899029375914044550' itemprop='url'/> </span> </noscript> </div> </div> <div class='share'> <span class='twitter-custom social-wrapper' data-href='http://twitter.com/share?text=Google Testing Blog:Testing on the Toilet: Separation of Concerns? 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class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/09/'> Sep </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul 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class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/03/'> Mar </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2016/02/'> Feb </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/'> 2015 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(14)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul 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class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/02/'> Feb </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2015/01/'> Jan </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/'> 2014 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(24)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/09/'> Sep </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/07/'> Jul </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/06/'> Jun </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a 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class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2014/01/'> Jan </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/'> 2013 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(16)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/07/'> Jul </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/06/'> Jun </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/05/'> May </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/04/'> Apr </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/03/'> Mar </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2013/01/'> Jan </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/'> 2012 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(11)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/09/'> Sep </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(1)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2012/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(4)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/'> 2011 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(39)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(5)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/09/'> Sep </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/08/'> Aug </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(4)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/07/'> Jul </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(2)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/06/'> Jun </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(5)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/05/'> May </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(4)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/04/'> Apr </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/03/'> Mar </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(4)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/02/'> Feb </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(5)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2011/01/'> Jan </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2010/'> 2010 </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(37)</span> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2010/12/'> Dec </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2010/11/'> Nov </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(3)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2010/10/'> Oct </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(4)</span> </li> </ul> <ul class='hierarchy'> <li class='archivedate collapsed'> <a class='toggle' href='javascript:void(0)'> <span class='zippy'> ►  </span> </a> <a class='post-count-link' href='https://testing.googleblog.com/2010/09/'> Sep </a> <span class='post-count' dir='ltr'>(8)</span> </li> </ul> <ul 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