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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Idea of progress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idea_of_progress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_appointments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_appointments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Early appointments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_appointments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intendant_of_Limoges,_1761–1774" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intendant_of_Limoges,_1761–1774"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Intendant of Limoges, 1761–1774</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intendant_of_Limoges,_1761–1774-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Réflexions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Réflexions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span><i>Réflexions</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Réflexions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_minister,_1774–1776" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_minister,_1774–1776"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>As minister, 1774–1776</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-As_minister,_1774–1776-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle As minister, 1774–1776 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-As_minister,_1774–1776-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Appointment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appointment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Appointment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appointment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_government_spending" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_government_spending"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>On government spending</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_government_spending-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_free_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_free_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>On free trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_free_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suppression_of_Dijon_bread_riots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suppression_of_Dijon_bread_riots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Suppression of Dijon bread riots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suppression_of_Dijon_bread_riots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_feudal_obligations_and_protections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_feudal_obligations_and_protections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>On feudal obligations and protections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_feudal_obligations_and_protections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposals_for_a_representative_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposals_for_a_representative_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Proposals for a representative government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposals_for_a_representative_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>American Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Place_in_the_Ministry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Place_in_the_Ministry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Place in the Ministry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Place_in_the_Ministry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Fall</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commentary_on_Turgot" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commentary_on_Turgot"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Commentary on Turgot</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commentary_on_Turgot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Anne Robert Jacques Turgot</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%83_%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%88" title="آن روبير جاك تيرجو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="آن روبير جاك تيرجو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Rober_Jak_T%C3%BCrqo" title="Ann Rober Jak Türqo – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ann Rober Jak Türqo" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A2%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE" title="Ан Робер Жак Тюрго – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ан Робер Жак Тюрго" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD_%CE%A1%CE%BF%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%AD%CF%81_%CE%96%CE%B1%CE%BA_%CE%A4%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BA%CF%8C" title="Αν Ρομπέρ Ζακ Τυργκό – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αν Ρομπέρ Ζακ Τυργκό" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1_%DA%98%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF%D9%88" title="آن روبر ژاک تورگو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آن روبر ژاک تورگو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%88_%EB%A1%9C%EB%B2%A0%EB%A5%B4_%EC%9E%90%ED%81%AC_%ED%8A%80%EB%A5%B4%EA%B3%A0" title="안 로베르 자크 튀르고 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="안 로베르 자크 튀르고" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%B6_%D5%8C%D5%B8%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80_%D4%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF_%D5%8F%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%B8" title="Անն Ռոբեր Ժակ Տյուրգո – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անն Ռոբեր Ժակ Տյուրգո" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9F_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%96%27%D7%90%D7%A7_%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%95" title="אן רובר ז'אק טורגו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אן רובר ז'אק טורגו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%99_%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D" title="ან რობერ ჟაკ ტიურგო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ან რობერ ჟაკ ტიურგო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Тюрго Анн Робер Жак – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Тюрго Анн Робер Жак" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Robertus_Iacobus_Turgot" title="Anna Robertus Iacobus Turgot – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Anna Robertus Iacobus Turgot" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8B" title="ആൻ റോബർട്ട് ജാക്വസ് ടർഗോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആൻ റോബർട്ട് ജാക്വസ് ടർഗോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%83_%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%88" title="آن روبير جاك تيرجو – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="آن روبير جاك تيرجو" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1_%DA%98%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF%D9%88" title="آن روبر ژاک تورگو – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="آن روبر ژاک تورگو" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%83%86%E3%83%A5%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B4%E3%83%BC" title="ジャック・テュルゴー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジャック・テュルゴー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne-Robert-Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne-Robert-Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE,_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Тюрго, Анн Робер Жак – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тюрго, Анн Робер Жак" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%95%DB%86%D8%A8%DB%8E%D8%B1_%DA%98%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DA%AF%D9%88" title="ئان ڕۆبێر ژاک تۆرگو – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئان ڕۆبێر ژاک تۆرگو" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99_%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B8%8C%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81_%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%81" title="อาน รอแบร์ ฌัก ตูร์โก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อาน รอแบร์ ฌัก ตูร์โก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%BD-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A2%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE" title="Анн-Робер-Жак Тюрго – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Анн-Робер-Жак Тюрго" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E6%9D%9C%E9%98%81" title="安·罗伯特·雅克·杜阁 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">French economist and statesman (1727–1781)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Anne Robert Jacques Turgot</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_de_Turgot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Portrait_de_Turgot.jpg/220px-Portrait_de_Turgot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Portrait_de_Turgot.jpg/330px-Portrait_de_Turgot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Portrait_de_Turgot.jpg/440px-Portrait_de_Turgot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Hubert_Drouais" title="François-Hubert Drouais">François-Hubert Drouais</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1775</span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Minister of France">First Minister of State</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />24 August 1774 – 12 May 1776</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Nicolas_Charles_Augustin_de_Maupeou" title="René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou">René Nicolas de Maupeou</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Ph%C3%A9lypeaux,_Count_of_Maurepas" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas">The Count of Maurepas</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Controller-General_of_Finances" title="Controller-General of Finances">Controller-General of Finances</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />24 August 1774 – 12 May 1776</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Terray" title="Joseph Marie Terray">Joseph Marie Terray</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_%C3%89tienne_Bernard_Clugny_de_Nuits&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Étienne Bernard Clugny de Nuits (page does not exist)">Baron de Nuits</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Naval_Ministers_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Naval Ministers of France">Secretaries of State for the Navy</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />20 July 1774 – 24 August 1774</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_%C3%89tienne_Bourgeois_de_Boynes" title="Pierre Étienne Bourgeois de Boynes">Marquis de Boynes</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_de_Sartine" title="Antoine de Sartine">Antoine de Sartine</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1727-05-10</span>)</span>10 May 1727<br /><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, France</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">18 March 1781<span style="display:none">(1781-03-18)</span> (aged 53)<br />Paris, France</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">influenced</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Condorcet" class="mw-redirect" title="Condorcet">Condorcet</a> · <a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a> · <a href="/wiki/Rothbard" class="mw-redirect" title="Rothbard">Rothbard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Schumpeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a> · <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Signatur_Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Signatur_Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.PNG/128px-Signatur_Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.PNG" decoding="async" width="128" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Signatur_Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="144" data-file-height="55" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Academic career</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Field</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Political_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Political economics">Political economics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">School or<br />tradition</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physiocrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiocrats">Physiocrats</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Influences</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Quesnay" class="mw-redirect" title="Quesnay">Quesnay</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:22.0em; border:4px double #C5C12B; background:var( --background-color-base, #FFFFFF ); color: var( --color-base, inherit );"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism" title="Category:Liberalism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Yellow" title="Political colour"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/75px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/113px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/150px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_liberalism" title="History of liberalism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">List of liberal theorists</a> (contributions to liberal theory)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Equality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Legal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permissive_society" title="Permissive society">Permissive society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">To own property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">To bear arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_De_Gouges" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympe De Gouges">De Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Čapek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Badawi</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">Artigas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Kossuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_(politician)" title="Ferenc Deák (politician)">Deák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_Faustino_Sarmiento" title="Domingo Faustino Sarmiento">Sarmiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itagaki_Taisuke" title="Itagaki Taisuke">Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Levski" title="Vasil Levski">Levski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Kemal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Deakin" title="Alfred Deakin">Deakin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Milyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg" title="Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg">Ståhlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gokhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Rathenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Madero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Einaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Ohlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Balcerowicz" title="Leszek Balcerowicz">Balcerowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Liberal_Network" title="Africa Liberal Network">Africa Liberal Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberal_Federation" title="Arab Liberal Federation">Arab Liberal Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Asian_Liberals_and_Democrats" title="Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats">Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Democratic_Party" title="European Democratic Party">European Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Liberal_Youth" title="European Liberal Youth">European Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alliance_of_Libertarian_Parties" title="International Alliance of Libertarian Parties">International Alliance of Libertarian Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Liberal_Youth" title="International Federation of Liberal Youth">International Federation of Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_International" title="Liberal International">Liberal International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Network_for_Latin_America" title="Liberal Network for Latin America">Liberal Network for Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liberal_parties" title="Category:Liberal parties">Liberal parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_South_East_European_Network" title="Liberal South East European Network">Liberal South East European Network</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">Regional variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Albania" title="Liberalism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Armenia" title="Liberalism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Austria" title="Liberalism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Bolivia" title="Liberalism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Bulgaria" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Canada" title="Liberalism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Chile" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Liberalism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Liberalism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Croatia" title="Liberalism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cuba" title="Liberalism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cyprus" title="Liberalism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Czechia" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Czechia">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Denmark" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Ecuador" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Estonia" title="Liberalism and centrism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Finland" title="Liberalism and centrism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Georgia" title="Liberalism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Greece" title="Liberalism in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Honduras" title="Liberalism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Hungary" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_India" title="Liberalism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Iran" title="Liberalism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Israel" title="Liberalism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberism">Liberism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Japan" title="Liberalism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Latvia" title="Liberalism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Lithuania" title="Liberalism in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Luxembourg" title="Liberalism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Mexico" title="Liberalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Moldova" title="Liberalism in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Montenegro" title="Liberalism in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Liberalism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_liberalism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic liberalism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nicaragua" title="Liberalism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nigeria" title="Liberalism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Liberalism in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Norway" title="Liberalism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Panama" title="Liberalism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Paraguay" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Peru" title="Liberalism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Philippines" title="Liberalism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Poland" title="Liberalism in Poland">Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_School_of_Economics" title="Kraków School of Economics">Cracovian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Portugal" title="Liberalism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Senegal" title="Liberalism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Serbia" title="Liberalism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovakia" title="Liberalism in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovenia" title="Liberalism in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Africa" title="Liberalism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Korea" title="Liberalism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Spain" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Sweden" title="Liberalism and centrism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_Taiwan" title="Progressivism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Tunisia" title="Liberalism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Ukraine" title="Liberalism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobdenism" title="Cobdenism">Cobdenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">Gladstonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Arizona School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Uruguay" title="Liberalism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Venezuela)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Party (Venezuela)">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Liberalism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_American_academics" title="Political views of American academics">Bias in American academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Bias in the media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_Anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist Anarchism">Anarchist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">Land value tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sexually liberal feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Template:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blason-famille_fr_Turgot.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Blason-famille_fr_Turgot.svg/220px-Blason-famille_fr_Turgot.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Blason-famille_fr_Turgot.svg/330px-Blason-famille_fr_Turgot.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Blason-famille_fr_Turgot.svg/440px-Blason-famille_fr_Turgot.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption>Arms of Baron Turgot: <i>Ermine fretty of ten pieces gules, nailed or</i><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de l'Aulne</b><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ʊər/: 'our' in 'tour'">ʊər</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">toor-<span style="font-size:90%">GOH</span></i></a>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[tyʁgo]</a></span>; 10 May 1727 – 18 March 1781), commonly known as <b>Turgot</b>, was a French economist and statesman. Sometimes considered a <a href="/wiki/Physiocrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiocrat">physiocrat</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he is today best remembered as an early advocate for <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">economic liberalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is thought to have been the first political economist to have postulated something like the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_diminishing_marginal_returns" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of diminishing marginal returns">law of diminishing marginal returns</a> in agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Born in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, Turgot was the youngest son of <a href="/wiki/Michel-%C3%89tienne_Turgot" title="Michel-Étienne Turgot">Michel-Étienne Turgot</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Provost_(civil)" title="Provost (civil)">provost</a> of the merchants" of Paris, and Madeleine Francoise Martineau de Brétignolles, and came from an old <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Norman</a> family.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As one of four children, he had a younger sister and two older brothers, one of whom, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Fran%C3%A7ois_Turgot" title="Étienne-François Turgot">Étienne-François Turgot</a> (1721–1789), was a naturalist, and served as administrator of <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> and governor of <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>. Anne Robert Jacques was educated for the Church, and at the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_Sorbonne" class="mw-redirect" title="Collège de Sorbonne">Sorbonne</a>, to which he was admitted in 1749 (being then styled <i>abbé de Brucourt</i>). He delivered two remarkable <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> dissertations, <i>On the Benefits which the Christian Religion has conferred on Mankind</i>, and <i>On the Historical Progress of the Human Mind</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1750 he decided not to take holy orders, giving as his reason that "he could not bear to wear a mask all his life."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first sign of Turgot's interest in economics is a letter (1749) on paper money, written to his fellow-student the abbé de Cicé, refuting the abbé <a href="/wiki/Jean_Terrasson" title="Jean Terrasson">Jean Terrasson</a>'s defence of <a href="/wiki/John_Law_(economist)" title="John Law (economist)">John Law</a>'s system. He was fond of verse-making, and tried to introduce into French verse the rules of Latin prosody, his translation of the fourth book of the <i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i> into classical <a href="/wiki/Hexameter" title="Hexameter">hexameter</a> verses being greeted by <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> as "the only <i>prose</i> translation in which he had found any enthusiasm."<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Idea_of_progress">Idea of progress</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Idea of progress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first complete statement of the <a href="/wiki/Idea_of_Progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Idea of Progress">Idea of Progress</a> is that of Turgot, in his "A Philosophical Review of the Successive Advances of the Human Mind" (1750). For Turgot progress covers not simply the arts and sciences but, on their base, the whole of culture – manner, mores, institutions, legal codes, economy, and society.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_appointments">Early appointments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early appointments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1752, he became <i>substitut</i>, and later <i>conseiller</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris" title="Parlement of Paris">parlement of Paris</a>, and in 1753 <i><a href="/wiki/Ma%C3%AEtre_des_requ%C3%AAtes" class="mw-redirect" title="Maître des requêtes">maître des requêtes</a></i>. In 1754 he was a member of the <i>chambre royale</i> which sat during an exile of the <i>parlement</i>. In Paris he frequented the <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salons</a>, especially those of <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_d%27Issembourg_d%27Happoncourt,_Madame_de_Graffigny" class="mw-redirect" title="Françoise d'Issembourg d'Happoncourt, Madame de Graffigny">Mme de Graffigny</a> – whose niece, Mlle de Ligniville ("Minette"), later <a href="/wiki/Anne-Catherine_de_Ligniville,_Madame_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Anne-Catherine de Ligniville, Madame Helvétius">Mme Helvétius</a>, he is supposed at one time to have wished to marry; they remained lifelong friends – <a href="/wiki/Marie_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Rodet_Geoffrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin">Mme Geoffrin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Anne_de_Vichy-Chamrond,_marquise_du_Deffand" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Anne de Vichy-Chamrond, marquise du Deffand">Mme du Deffand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Julie_Eleonore_de_Lespinasse" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeanne Julie Eleonore de Lespinasse">Mlle de Lespinasse</a> and the Duchesse d'Enville. It was during this period that he met the leaders of the "<a href="/wiki/Physiocrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiocrat">physiocratic</a>" school, <a href="/wiki/Francois_Quesnay" class="mw-redirect" title="Francois Quesnay">Quesnay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vincent_de_Gournay" class="mw-redirect" title="Vincent de Gournay">Vincent de Gournay</a>, and with them Dupont de Nemours, the <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Morellet" title="André Morellet">abbé Morellet</a> and other economists.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1743 and 1756, he accompanied Gournay, the <a href="/wiki/Intendant" title="Intendant">intendant</a> of commerce, during Gournay's tours of inspection in the provinces. (Gournay's bye-word on the government's proper involvement in the economy – <i>"<a href="/wiki/Laissez_faire" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez faire">laisser faire, laisser passer</a>"</i> – would pass into the vocabulary of economics.) In 1760, while travelling in the east of France and Switzerland, he visited <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, who became one of his chief friends and supporters. All this time he was studying various branches of science, and languages both ancient and modern. In 1753 he translated the <i>Questions sur le commerce</i> from the English of <a href="/wiki/Josias_Tucker" class="mw-redirect" title="Josias Tucker">Josias Tucker</a>, and in 1754 he wrote his <i>Lettre sur la tolérance civile</i>, and a pamphlet, <i>Le Conciliateur</i>, in support of religious tolerance. Between 1755 and 1756 he composed various articles for the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and between 1757 and 1760 an article on <i>Valeurs des monnaies</i>, probably for the <i>Dictionnaire du commerce</i> of the abbé Morellet.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1759 appeared his work <i>Eloge de Gournay</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Intendant_of_Limoges,_1761–1774"><span id="Intendant_of_Limoges.2C_1761.E2.80.931774"></span>Intendant of Limoges, 1761–1774</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Intendant of Limoges, 1761–1774"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TurgotTardieu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/TurgotTardieu.jpg/220px-TurgotTardieu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/TurgotTardieu.jpg/330px-TurgotTardieu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/TurgotTardieu.jpg/440px-TurgotTardieu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="1486" /></a><figcaption>Turgot (by Tardieu)</figcaption></figure> <p>In August 1761, Turgot was appointed <i>intendant</i> (tax collector) of the <i>genéralité</i> of <a href="/wiki/Limoges" title="Limoges">Limoges</a>, which included some of the poorest and most over-taxed parts of France; here he remained for thirteen years. He was already deeply imbued with the theories of Quesnay and Gournay, and set to work to apply them as far as possible in his province. His first plan was to continue the work, already initiated by his predecessor Tourny, of making a fresh survey of the land (<a href="/wiki/Cadastre" title="Cadastre">cadastre</a>), in order to arrive at a more just assessment of the <i><a href="/wiki/Taille" title="Taille">taille</a></i>; he also obtained a large reduction in the contribution of the province. He published his <i>Avis sur l'assiette et la repartition de la taille</i> (1762–1770), and as president of the <i>Société d'agriculture de Limoges</i> offered prizes for essays on the principles of taxation. Quesnay and <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Mirabeau" class="mw-redirect" title="Honoré Mirabeau">Mirabeau</a> had advocated a <a href="/wiki/Flat_tax" title="Flat tax">proportional tax</a> (<i>impôt de quotité</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Turgot proposed a <a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">distributive tax</a> (<i>impôt de repartition</i>). Another reform was the substitution for the <i><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvée</a></i> of a tax in money levied on the whole province, the construction of roads being handed over to contractors, by which means Turgot was able to leave his province with a good system of highways, while distributing more justly the expense of their construction.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1769, he wrote his <i>Mémoire sur les prêts à intérêt</i>, on the occasion of a scandalous financial crisis at <a href="/wiki/Angoul%C3%AAme" title="Angoulême">Angoulême</a>, the particular interest of which is that in it the question of lending money at <a href="/wiki/Interest" title="Interest">interest</a> was for the first time treated scientifically, and not merely from the ecclesiastical point of view. Turgot's opinion was that a compromise had to be reached between both methods. Among other works written during Turgot's intendancy were the <i>Mémoire sur les mines et carrières</i>, and the <i>Mémoire sur la marque des fers</i>, in which he protested against state regulation and interference and advocated free competition. At the same time he did much to encourage agriculture and local industries, among others establishing the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Limoges_porcelain" title="Limoges porcelain">porcelain at Limoges</a>. During the famine of 1770–1771 he enforced on landowners "the obligation of relieving the poor" and especially the <i><a href="/wiki/Metayage" title="Metayage">métayers</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecroppers</a>) dependent upon them, and organized in every province <i>ateliers</i> and <i>bureaux de charité</i> for providing work for the able-bodied and relief for the infirm, while at the same time he condemned indiscriminate <a href="/wiki/Charity_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charity (virtue)">charity</a>. Turgot always made the curés the agents of his charities and reforms when possible. It was in 1770 that he wrote his famous <i>Lettres sur la liberté du commerce des grains</i>, addressed to the controller-general, the <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Terray" title="Joseph Marie Terray">abbé Terray</a>. Three of these letters have disappeared, having been sent to <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a> by Turgot at a later date and never recovered, but those remaining argue that free trade in grain is in the interest of landowner, farmer and consumer alike, and in forcible terms demand the removal of all restrictions.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Réflexions"><span id="R.C3.A9flexions"></span><i>Réflexions</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Réflexions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Formation_and_the_Distribution_of_Riches" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Reflections on the Formation and the Distribution of Riches">Reflections on the Formation and the Distribution of Riches</a></b></div></div></div> </div><p> Turgot's best known work, <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Formation_and_Distribution_of_Wealth" title="Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth">Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was written early in the period of his intendancy, ostensibly for the benefit of two young Chinese scholars who had studied in Paris, Louis Ko (Gao Leisi, 1732–1790) and Étienne Yang (Yang Dewang, 1733–98), on the occasion of their return to China.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Written in 1766, it appeared in 1769–1770 in Dupont's journal, the <i>Ephémérides du citoyen</i>, and was published separately in 1776. Dupont, however, made various alterations in the text, in order to bring it more into accordance with Quesnay's doctrines, which led to a coolness between him and Turgot.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <i>Réflexions</i>, after tracing the origin of commerce, Turgot develops Quesnay's theory that land is the only source of wealth, and divides society into three classes, the productive or agricultural, the salaried (the <i>classe stipendiée</i>) or artisan class, and the land-owning class (<i>classe disponible</i>). He also proposes a notable <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_fructification" title="Theory of fructification">theory of the interest rate</a>. After discussing the evolution of the different systems of cultivation, the nature of exchange and barter, money, and the functions of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>, he sets forth the theory of the <i>impôt unique</i>, i.e. that only the net product (<i>produit net</i>) of the land should be taxed. In addition he demanded the complete freedom of commerce and industry.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="As_minister,_1774–1776"><span id="As_minister.2C_1774.E2.80.931776"></span>As minister, 1774–1776</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: As minister, 1774–1776"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appointment">Appointment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Appointment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turgot-statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Turgot-statue.jpg/200px-Turgot-statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="580" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Turgot-statue.jpg/300px-Turgot-statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Turgot-statue.jpg/400px-Turgot-statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="471" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Turgot at the <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville,_Paris" title="Hôtel de Ville, Paris">Hôtel de Ville, Paris</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Turgot was summoned to the ministry of Louis XVI two months after his accession, and was appointed a month later as Controller-General of Finance. The king even defended the middle-class economist against the reaction of the aristocracy.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turgot owed his appointment as minister of the navy in July 1774 to <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Ph%C3%A9lypeaux,_comte_de_Maurepas" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, comte de Maurepas">Maurepas</a>, the "Mentor" of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a>, to whom he was warmly recommended by the abbé Very, a mutual friend. His appointment met with general approval, and was hailed with enthusiasm by the <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">philosophes</a></i>. A month later (24 August) he was appointed <a href="/wiki/Controller-General_of_Finances" title="Controller-General of Finances">Controller-General of Finances</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_government_spending">On government spending</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: On government spending"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>His first act was to submit to the king a statement of his guiding principles: "No bankruptcy, no increase of taxation, no borrowing." Turgot's policy, in face of the desperate financial position, was to enforce the most rigid economy in all departments. All departmental expenses were to be submitted for the approval of the controller-general, a number of <a href="/wiki/Sinecure" title="Sinecure">sinecures</a> were suppressed, the holders of them being compensated, and the abuse of the <i>acquits au comptant</i> was attacked, while Turgot appealed personally to the king against the lavish giving of places and pensions. He also contemplated a thorough-going reform of the <i><a href="/wiki/Ferme_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferme Générale">Ferme Générale</a></i>, but contented himself, as a beginning, with imposing certain conditions on the leases as they were renewed – such as a more efficient personnel, and the abolition for the future of the abuse of the <i>croupes</i> (the name given to a class of pensions), a reform which Terray had shirked on finding how many persons in high places were interested in them, and annulling certain leases, such as those of the manufacture of gunpowder and the administration of the royal mails, the former of which was handed over to a company with the scientist <a href="/wiki/Lavoisier" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a> as one of its advisers, and the latter superseded by a quicker and more comfortable service of <i>diligences</i> which were nicknamed <a href="/wiki/Stagecoach" title="Stagecoach"><i>"turgotines"</i></a>. </p><p>Turgot also prepared a regular budget. His measures succeeded in considerably reducing the deficit, and raised the national credit to such an extent that in 1776, just before his fall, he was able to negotiate a loan with some <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> bankers at 4%; but the deficit was still so large as to prevent him from attempting at once to realize his favourite scheme of substituting for indirect taxation a <a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">single tax on land</a>. Turgot suppressed, however, a number of <i><a href="/wiki/Octroi" title="Octroi">octrois</a></i> and minor duties,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and opposed, on grounds of economy, <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="France in the American Revolutionary War">the involvement of France</a> in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, though without success.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_free_trade">On free trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: On free trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Turgot at once set to work to establish free trade in grain, but his edict, which was signed on 13 September 1774, met with strong opposition even in the <i><a href="/wiki/Conseil_du_roi" class="mw-redirect" title="Conseil du roi">conseil du roi</a></i>. A striking feature was the preamble, setting forth the doctrines on which the edict was based, which won the praise of the <i>philosophes</i> and the ridicule of the wits; this Turgot rewrote three times, it is said, in order to make it "so clear that any village judge could explain it to the peasants." The opposition to the edict was strong. Turgot was hated by those who had been interested in the speculations in grain under the regime of the abbé Terray, among whom were included some of the princes of the blood. Moreover, the <i>commerce des blés</i> had been a favourite topic of the <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salons</a> for some years past, and the witty <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a>, the opponent of the <a href="/wiki/Physiocrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiocrats">physiocrats</a>, had a large following. The opposition was now continued by <a href="/wiki/Simon-Nicholas_Henri_Linguet" title="Simon-Nicholas Henri Linguet">Linguet</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Necker</a>, who in 1775 published his <i>Essai sur la législation et le commerce des grains</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suppression_of_Dijon_bread_riots">Suppression of Dijon bread riots</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Suppression of Dijon bread riots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Turgot's biggest challenge was the poor harvest of 1774, which led to a noticeable rise in the price of bread in the winter and early spring of 1774–1775. In April and early May, when peasants begged the governor of <a href="/wiki/Dijon" title="Dijon">Dijon</a> for bread, he uttered those famous words that would later be recalled during the French Revolution: "The grass has sprouted, go to the fields and browse on it." Houses of the wealthy were seized and occupied, flour-mills were destroyed, and furniture was smashed. Those extraordinary bread-riots are known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Guerre_des_farines" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerre des farines">guerre des farines</a></i>, which ominously predicted the coming <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. Turgot showed great firmness and decision in repressing the riots, but also some caution in using soldiers, as he had said that "every levy of soldiers led to a riot." In this, he even had conflict with the royalty, as Louis XVI wanted to go out onto the balcony and meet the crowds, to say that there would be a reduction in the price of bread, but Turgot admonished him against this, and the bread remained at high prices.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His position was strengthened by the entry of <a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes" title="Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes">Malesherbes</a> into the ministry (July 1775).<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_feudal_obligations_and_protections">On feudal obligations and protections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: On feudal obligations and protections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All this time Turgot had been preparing his famous <i>Six Edicts</i>, which were finally presented to the <i>conseil du roi</i> (January 1776). <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a> described these edicts as "very modest proposals" and summarized these as "abolition of statute labor, abolition of trade-wardens and a timid attempt to make the two privileged classes – the nobility and clergy – pay some of the taxes."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the six edicts four were of minor importance, but the two which met with violent opposition were, firstly, the edict suppressing the <i><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvées</a></i>, and secondly, that suppressing the <i>jurandes</i> and <i>maîtrises</i>, by which the craft <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a> maintained their privileges. In the preamble to the former Turgot boldly announced as his object the abolition of privilege, and the subjection of all three <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Estates of the realm</a> to taxation; the clergy were afterwards excepted, at the request of Maurepas. </p><p>In the preamble to the edict on the <i>jurandes</i> Turgot laid down as a principle the right of every man to work without restriction.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He obtained the registration of the edicts by the <i><a href="/wiki/Lit_de_justice" title="Lit de justice">lit de justice</a></i> of 12 March, but by that time he had nearly everybody against him. His attacks on privilege had won him the hatred of the nobles and the <i><a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">parlements</a></i>; his attempted reforms in the royal household, that of the court; his free trade legislation, that of the <i><a href="/wiki/Financiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Financiers">financiers</a></i>; his views on tolerance and his agitation for the suppression of the phrase that was offensive to <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> in the king's <a href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">coronation</a> oath, that of the clergy; and his edict on the <i>jurandes</i>, that of the rich bourgeoisie of Paris and others, such as the <a href="/wiki/Prince_de_Conti" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince de Conti">prince de Conti</a>, whose interests were involved. <a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">The queen</a> disliked him for opposing the grant of favours to her <a href="/wiki/Prot%C3%A9g%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Protégé">protégés</a>, and he had offended <a href="/wiki/Gabrielle_de_Polastron,_comtesse_de_Polignac" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabrielle de Polastron, comtesse de Polignac">Mme. de Polignac</a> in a similar manner.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The queen played a key role in his disgrace later.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proposals_for_a_representative_government">Proposals for a representative government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Proposals for a representative government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the physiocrats, he believed in an <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened political absolutism</a>, and looked to the king to carry through all reforms. As to the parlements, he opposed all interference on their part in legislation, considering that they had no competency outside the sphere of justice. He recognized the danger of the recap of the old parlement, but was unable effectively to oppose it since he had been associated with the dismissal of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Nicolas_Charles_Augustin_de_Maupeou" title="René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou">Maupeou</a> and Terray, and seems to have underestimated its power. He was opposed to the summoning of the <a href="/wiki/French_States-General" class="mw-redirect" title="French States-General">states-general</a> advocated by Malesherbes (6 May 1775), possibly on the ground that the two privileged orders would have too much power in them. His own plan is to be found in his <i>Mémoire sur les municipalités</i>, which was submitted informally to the king. </p><p>In Turgot's proposed system, <a href="/wiki/Landed_proprietor" class="mw-redirect" title="Landed proprietor">landed proprietors</a> alone were to form the <a href="/wiki/Constituency" class="mw-redirect" title="Constituency">electorate</a>, no distinction being made among the three orders; the members of the town and country municipalités were to elect representatives for the district municipalités, which in turn would elect to the provincial municipalités, and the latter to a grande municipalité, which should have no legislative powers, but should concern itself entirely with the administration of taxation. With this was to be combined a whole system of education, relief of the poor, and other activities. Louis XVI recoiled from this as being too great a leap in the dark, and such a fundamental difference of opinion between king and minister was bound to lead to a breach sooner or later.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turgot's only choice, however, was between "tinkering" at the existing system in detail and a complete revolution, and his attack on privilege, which might have been carried through by a popular minister and a strong king, was bound to form part of any effective scheme of reform.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Revolution">American Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: American Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As minister of the navy from 1774 to 1776, Turgot opposed financial support for the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. He believed in the virtue and inevitable success of the revolution but warned that France could neither financially nor socially afford to overtly aid it. French intellectuals saw America as the hope of mankind and magnified American virtues to demonstrate the validity of their ideals along with seeing a chance to avenge their defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>. Turgot, however, emphasized what he believed were American inadequacies. He complained that the new American state constitutions failed to adopt the physiocratic principle of distinguishing for purposes of taxation between those who owned land and those who did not, the principle of direct taxation of property holders had not been followed, and a complicated legal and administrative structure had been created to regulate commerce. On the social level, Turgot and his progressive contemporaries suffered further disappointment: a religious oath was required of elected officials and slavery was not abolished. Turgot died in 1781 before the conclusion of the war. Although disappointed, Turgot never doubted revolutionary victory.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Place_in_the_Ministry">Place in the Ministry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Place in the Ministry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All might yet have gone well if Turgot could have retained the confidence of the king, but the king could not fail to see that Turgot had not the support of the other ministers. Even his friend Malesherbes thought he was too rash, and was, moreover, himself discouraged and wished to resign. The alienation of Maurepas was also increasing. Whether through jealousy of the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ascendancy" class="extiw" title="wikt:ascendancy">ascendancy</a> which Turgot had acquired over the king, or through the natural incompatibility of their characters, he was already inclined to take sides against Turgot, and the reconciliation between him and the queen, which took place about this time, meant that he was henceforth the tool of the Polignac <a href="/wiki/Clique" title="Clique">clique</a> and the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Fran%C3%A7ois,_duc_de_Choiseul" class="mw-redirect" title="Étienne François, duc de Choiseul">Choiseul</a> party. About this time, too, appeared a pamphlet, <i>Le Songe de M. Maurepas</i>, generally ascribed to the comte de Provence (<a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVIII of France">Louis XVIII</a>), containing a bitter <a href="/wiki/Caricature" title="Caricature">caricature</a> of Turgot.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.jpg/170px-Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.jpg/255px-Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.jpg/340px-Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>Turgot after a portrait by <a href="/wiki/Charles-Nicolas_Cochin" title="Charles-Nicolas Cochin">Charles-Nicolas Cochin</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fall">Fall</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fall"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The immediate cause of Turgot's fall is uncertain. Some speak of a plot, of forged letters containing attacks on the queen shown to the king as Turgot's, of a series of notes on Turgot's budget prepared, it is said, by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Necker</a>, and shown to the king to prove his incapacity. Others attribute it to the queen, and there is no doubt that she hated Turgot for supporting <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gravier,_comte_de_Vergennes" title="Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes">Vergennes</a> in demanding the recall of the comte de Guînes, the <a href="/wiki/Ambassador_(diplomacy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambassador (diplomacy)">ambassador</a> in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, whose cause she had ardently espoused at the prompting of the Choiseul clique. Others attribute it to an intrigue of Maurepas. On the resignation of <a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes" title="Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes">Malesherbes</a> (April 1776), whom Turgot wished to replace by the abbé Very, Maurepas proposed to the king as his successor a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nonentity" class="extiw" title="wikt:nonentity">nonentity</a> named Amelot. </p><p>Turgot, on hearing of this, wrote an indignant letter to the king, in which he reproached him for refusing to see him, pointed out in strong terms the dangers of a weak ministry and a weak king, and complained bitterly of Maurepas's irresolution and subjection to court intrigues; this letter the king, though asked to treat it as confidential, is said to have shown to Maurepas, whose dislike for Turgot it still further embittered. With all these enemies, Turgot's fall was certain, but he wished to stay in office long enough to finish his project for the reform of the royal household before resigning. To his dismay, he was not allowed to do that. On 12 May 1776 he was ordered to send in his resignation. He at once retired to <a href="/wiki/La_Roche-Guyon" title="La Roche-Guyon">La Roche-Guyon</a>, the château of the Duchesse d'Enville, returning shortly to Paris, where he spent the rest of his life in scientific and literary studies, being made vice-president of the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Inscriptions_et_Belles-Lettres" title="Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres">Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</a> in 1777.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commentary_on_Turgot">Commentary on Turgot</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Commentary on Turgot"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In character Turgot was simple, honourable and upright, with a passion for justice and truth. He was an idealist, his enemies would say a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/doctrinaire" class="extiw" title="wikt:doctrinaire">doctrinaire</a>, and certainly the terms "natural rights," "natural law," frequently occur in his writings. His friends speak of his charm and gaiety in intimate intercourse, but among strangers he was silent and awkward, and produced the impression of being reserved and disdainful. On one point both friends and enemies agree, and that is his <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/brusquerie" class="extiw" title="wikt:brusquerie">brusquerie</a> and his lack of tact in the management of men; <a href="/w/index.php?title=August_Oncken&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="August Oncken (page does not exist)">August Oncken</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Oncken" class="extiw" title="de:August Oncken">de</a>]</span> points out with some reason the schoolmasterish tone of his letters, even to the king. As a statesman he has been very variously estimated, but it is generally agreed that a large number of the reforms and ideas of the Revolution were due to him; the ideas did not as a rule originate with him, but it was he who first gave them prominence. As to his position as an economist, opinion is also divided. Oncken, to take the extreme of condemnation, looks upon him as a bad physiocrat and a confused thinker, while <a href="/wiki/Leon_Say" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Say">Leon Say</a> considers that he was the founder of modern political economy, and that "though he failed in the 18th century he triumphed in the 19th."<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_7-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Dickson_White" title="Andrew Dickson White">Andrew Dickson White</a> wrote in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924011368218"><i>Seven Great Statesmen in the Warfare of Humanity with Unreason</i></a> (1915): </p> <blockquote> <p>TURGOT...I present today one of the three greatest statesmen who fought unreason in France between the close of the Middle Ages and the outbreak of the French Revolution – Louis XI and Richelieu being the two other. And not only this: were you to count the greatest men of the modern world upon your fingers, he would be of the number – a great thinker, writer, administrator, philanthropist, statesman, and above all, a great character and a great man. And yet, judged by ordinary standards, a failure. For he was thrown out of his culminating position, as Comptroller-General of France, after serving but twenty months, and then lived only long enough to see every leading measure to which he had devoted his life deliberately and malignantly undone; the flagrant abuses which he had abolished restored, apparently forever; the highways to national prosperity, peace, and influence, which he had opened, destroyed; and his country put under full headway toward the greatest catastrophe the modern world has seen. </p> </blockquote> <blockquote> <p>He now, in 1749, at the age of twenty two, wrote... a letter which has been an object of wonder among political thinkers ever since. Its subject was paper money. Discussing the ideas of John Law, and especially the essay of Terrasson which had supported them, he dissected them mercilessly, but in a way useful not only in those times but in these. ...As regards currency inflation ... It still remains one of the best presentations of this subject ever made; and what adds to our wonder is that it was not the result of a study of authorities, but was worked out wholly from his own observation and thought. Up to this time there were no authorities and no received doctrine on the subject; there were simply records of financial practice more or less vicious; it was reserved for this young student, in a letter not intended for publication, to lay down for the first time the great law in which the modern world, after all its puzzling and costly experiences, has found safety. </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also spelled "de Laune" or "de Launes".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an account of Turgot's financial administration, see Ch. Gomel, <i>Causes financiéres</i>, vol. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Turgot was opposed to all labour associations of employers or employed, in accordance with his belief in free competition.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bulletin00moulgoog"><i>Bulletin de la Société d'émulation du Bourbonnais</i></a> (in French). Moulins: Société d'émulation du Bourbonnais. 1920. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bulletin00moulgoog/page/n314">291</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2017</span>. <q>d'hermine, treillissé de gueules de dix pièces turgot.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bulletin+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+d%27%C3%A9mulation+du+Bourbonnais&rft.place=Moulins&rft.pages=291&rft.pub=Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+d%27%C3%A9mulation+du+Bourbonnais&rft.date=1920&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbulletin00moulgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVardi2012" class="citation book cs1">Vardi, Lianne (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ODwc2UsZAccC"><i>The Physiocrats and the World of the Enlightenment</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107021198" title="Special:BookSources/9781107021198"><bdi>9781107021198</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210603150024/https://books.google.com/books?id=ODwc2UsZAccC&q=turgot&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2020</span>. <q>William Doyle uses physiocracy to explain the freeing of the grain trade and treats Turgot as a physiocrat. [...] Jessica Riskin does the same [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Physiocrats+and+the+World+of+the+Enlightenment&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=1-2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781107021198&rft.aulast=Vardi&rft.aufirst=Lianne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DODwc2UsZAccC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVardi2012" class="citation book cs1">Vardi, Lianne (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ODwc2UsZAccC&q=turgot&pg=PA1"><i>The Physiocrats and the World of the Enlightenment</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107021198" title="Special:BookSources/9781107021198"><bdi>9781107021198</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210603150024/https://books.google.com/books?id=ODwc2UsZAccC&q=turgot&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Physiocrats+and+the+World+of+the+Enlightenment&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=9-10&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781107021198&rft.aulast=Vardi&rft.aufirst=Lianne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DODwc2UsZAccC%26q%3Dturgot%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Turgot.html">"Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727–1781)"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics">The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Economics_and_Liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Library of Economics and Liberty">Library of Economics and Liberty</a> (2nd ed.), <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</a>, 2008, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191202210659/https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Turgot.html">archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anne-Robert-Jacques+Turgot+%281727%E2%80%931781%29&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Economics&rft.series=Library+of+Economics+and+Liberty&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.econlib.org%2Flibrary%2FEnc%2Fbios%2FTurgot.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Turgot is a <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> surname, former first name (<a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>: <i>Thorgaut</i>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.viking.no/e/france/family-names.html">Norman family names of Viking origin</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200219224345/http://www.viking.no/e/france/family-names.html">Archived</a> 19 February 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geopatronyme.com/cgi-bin/carte/nomcarte.cgi?nom=turgot&client=cdip">Surname localization in France</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190517053054/http://www.viking.no/e/france/family-names.html">Archived</a> 17 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_7-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Turgot,_Anne_Robert_Jacques" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques">Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 415–17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Turgot%2C+Anne+Robert+Jacques&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=415-17&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._Packwood_Adams1914" class="citation cs2">H. Packwood Adams (1914), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pV9EAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31"><i>The French revolution</i></a>, McClurg, p. 31, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140702093619/http://books.google.com/books?id=pV9EAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31">archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+revolution&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=McClurg&rft.date=1914&rft.au=H.+Packwood+Adams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpV9EAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Nisbet, <i>History of the Idea of Progress</i> (1980) ch 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Fairs and markets" and "Fondations"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafkerChouillet1990" class="citation journal cs1">Kafker, Frank A.; Chouillet, Jacques (26 July 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/rde_0769-0886_1990_num_8_1_1057">"Notices sur les auteurs des 17 volumes de « discours » de l'Encyclopédie (suite et fin)"</a>. <i>Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 101–121. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924214701/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rde_0769-0886_1990_num_8_1_1057">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2021</span> – via www.persee.fr.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Recherches+sur+Diderot+et+sur+l%27Encyclop%C3%A9die&rft.atitle=Notices+sur+les+auteurs+des+17+volumes+de+%C2%AB+discours+%C2%BB+de+l%27Encyclop%C3%A9die+%28suite+et+fin%29&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=101-121&rft.date=1990-07-26&rft.aulast=Kafker&rft.aufirst=Frank+A.&rft.au=Chouillet%2C+Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Frde_0769-0886_1990_num_8_1_1057&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The <i>impôt de quotité</i> is the result of the application of a tax where the result cannot be calculated in advance.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/turgot/reflecti">"Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808102659/http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/turgot/reflecti">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+the+Formation+and+Distribution+of+Wealth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsocserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca%2F~econ%2Fugcm%2F3ll3%2Fturgot%2Freflecti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMe_NguyenBenoît_Malbranque2014" class="citation web cs1">Me Nguyen; Benoît Malbranque (25 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.institutcoppet.org/les-chinois-de-turgot/">"Les Chinois de Turgot"</a>. <i>Institute Coppet</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+Coppet&rft.atitle=Les+Chinois+de+Turgot&rft.date=2014-05-25&rft.au=Me+Nguyen&rft.au=Beno%C3%AEt+Malbranque&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.institutcoppet.org%2Fles-chinois-de-turgot%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The literary device adopted by Turgot allows for the presentation of the subject from the ground up, without appearing to undervalue the reader's intelligence. Compare the <i><a href="/wiki/Persian_Letters" title="Persian Letters">Persian Letters</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Secondat,_Baron_de_Montesquieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, with their solemn explication of European customs to an outsider, in Montesquieu a vehicle for satire.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_D._Groenewegen2002" class="citation cs2">Peter D. Groenewegen (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XthfFstAWOIC&pg=PA265"><i>Eighteenth-century Economics: Turgot, Beccaria and Smith and Their Contemporaries</i></a>, Psychology Press, p. 265, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203458785" title="Special:BookSources/9780203458785"><bdi>9780203458785</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140702094002/http://books.google.com/books?id=XthfFstAWOIC&pg=PA265">archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eighteenth-century+Economics%3A+Turgot%2C+Beccaria+and+Smith+and+Their+Contemporaries&rft.pages=265&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780203458785&rft.au=Peter+D.+Groenewegen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXthfFstAWOIC%26pg%3DPA265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kropotkin1909" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 5". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=217"><i>The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793</i></a>. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution%2C+1789%E2%80%931793&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Peter+Kropotkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revoltlib.com%2F%3Fid%3D217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kropotkin1909" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 5". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=217"><i>The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793</i></a>. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings. <q>Louis XVI, wanted to go out on the balcony of the palace to speak to them, to tell them that he would reduce the price of bread; but Turgot, like a true economist, opposed this. The reduction in the price of bread was not made.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution%2C+1789%E2%80%931793&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Peter+Kropotkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revoltlib.com%2F%3Fid%3D217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kropotkin1909" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 6". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=218"><i>The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793</i></a>. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution%2C+1789%E2%80%931793&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Peter+Kropotkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revoltlib.com%2F%3Fid%3D218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFraser2006">Fraser 2006</a>, p. 250</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kropotkin1909" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 5". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=217"><i>The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793</i></a>. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Representative Government," such as was established by the English after their revolution, and was advocated in the writings of the contemporary philosophers, also began to be spoken of. With this end in view, Turgot had even prepared a scheme of provincial assemblies, to be followed later on by representative government for all France in which the propertied classes would have been called upon to constitute a parliament. Louis XVI shrank from this proposal, and dismissed Turgot; but from that moment all educated France began to talk of a Constitution and national representation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution%2C+1789%E2%80%931793&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Peter+Kropotkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revoltlib.com%2F%3Fid%3D217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wendell (1979)</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrewer1987" class="citation cs2">Brewer, Anthony (1987), "Turgot: Founder of Classical Economics", <i><a href="/wiki/Economica" title="Economica">Economica</a></i>, <b>54</b> (216): 417–28, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2554177">10.2307/2554177</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2554177">2554177</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economica&rft.atitle=Turgot%3A+Founder+of+Classical+Economics&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=216&rft.pages=417-28&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2554177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2554177%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Brewer&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDakin1939" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Dakin" title="Douglas Dakin">Dakin, Douglas</a> (1939), <i>Turgot and the Ancien Régime in France</i>, London: Methuen</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turgot+and+the+Ancien+R%C3%A9gime+in+France&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=Dakin&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraser2006" class="citation book cs1">Fraser, Antonia (2006). <i>Marie Antoinette: the journey</i>. [Toronto]: Anchor Canada. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780385662871" title="Special:BookSources/9780385662871"><bdi>9780385662871</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marie+Antoinette%3A+the+journey&rft.place=%5BToronto%5D&rft.pub=Anchor+Canada&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780385662871&rft.aulast=Fraser&rft.aufirst=Antonia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroenewegen2002" class="citation cs2">Groenewegen, Peter D. (2002), <i>Eighteenth-Century Economics: Turgot, Beccaria and Smith and their Contemporaries</i>, London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415279402" title="Special:BookSources/0415279402"><bdi>0415279402</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eighteenth-Century+Economics%3A+Turgot%2C+Beccaria+and+Smith+and+their+Contemporaries&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0415279402&rft.aulast=Groenewegen&rft.aufirst=Peter+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hart, David (2008). "Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques (1727–1781)". In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC"><i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 515–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n315">10.4135/9781412965811.n315</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412965804"><bdi>978-1412965804</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Turgot%2C+Anne-Robert-Jacques+%281727%E2%80%931781%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=515-16&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n315&rft.isbn=978-1412965804&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplan1976" class="citation cs2">Kaplan, Steven L. (1976), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/breadpoliticspol00stev"><i>Bread, Politics and Political Economy in the Reign of Louis XV</i></a></span>, <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>: Martinus Nijhoff, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9024718732" title="Special:BookSources/9024718732"><bdi>9024718732</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bread%2C+Politics+and+Political+Economy+in+the+Reign+of+Louis+XV&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=9024718732&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Steven+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbreadpoliticspol00stev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLifschitz2004" class="citation cs2">Lifschitz, Avi (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/archive/LAT-2.pdf">"Language as the Key to the Epistemological Labyrinth: Turgot's Changing View of Human Perception"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Historiographia Linguistica</i>, <b>31</b> (2/3): 345–65, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fhl.31.2.07lif">10.1075/hl.31.2.07lif</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historiographia+Linguistica&rft.atitle=Language+as+the+Key+to+the+Epistemological+Labyrinth%3A+Turgot%27s+Changing+View+of+Human+Perception&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2%2F3&rft.pages=345-65&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fhl.31.2.07lif&rft.aulast=Lifschitz&rft.aufirst=Avi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Farchive%2FLAT-2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeek1976" class="citation cs2">Meek, Ronald L. (1976), <i>Social Science and the Ignoble Savage</i>, New York: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521209692" title="Special:BookSources/0521209692"><bdi>0521209692</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Science+and+the+Ignoble+Savage&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0521209692&rft.aulast=Meek&rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer1976" class="citation cs2">Palmer, R. R. (1976), "Turgot, Paragon of the Continental Enlightenment", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Law_and_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Law and Economics">Journal of Law and Economics</a></i>, <b>19</b> (3): 607–19, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F466889">10.1086/466889</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154818247">154818247</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Law+and+Economics&rft.atitle=Turgot%2C+Paragon+of+the+Continental+Enlightenment&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=607-19&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F466889&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154818247%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=R.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothbard1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard, Murray N.</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/system/tdf/The%20Great%20Austrian%20Economists_2.pdf?file=1&type=document">"Chapter 3. A.R.J. Turgot: Brief, Lucid, and Brilliant"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In <a href="/wiki/Randall_G._Holcombe" title="Randall G. Holcombe">Holcombe, Randall G.</a> (ed.). <i>The Great Austrian Economists</i>. <a href="/wiki/Auburn,_Alabama" title="Auburn, Alabama">Auburn, Alabama</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludwig von Mises Institute">Ludwig von Mises Institute</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0945466048" title="Special:BookSources/0945466048"><bdi>0945466048</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3.+A.R.J.+Turgot%3A+Brief%2C+Lucid%2C+and+Brilliant&rft.btitle=The+Great+Austrian+Economists&rft.place=Auburn%2C+Alabama&rft.pub=Ludwig+von+Mises+Institute&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0945466048&rft.aulast=Rothbard&rft.aufirst=Murray+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmises.org%2Fsystem%2Ftdf%2FThe%2520Great%2520Austrian%2520Economists_2.pdf%3Ffile%3D1%26type%3Ddocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luc-Normand_Tellier" title="Luc-Normand Tellier">Tellier, Luc-Normand</a>, <i>Face aux Colbert : les Le Tellier, Vauban, Turgot ... et l'avènement du libéralisme</i>, Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1987, 816 pages. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.puq.ca/catalogue/livres/face-aux-colbert-1409.html">Etext</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurgot_(baron_de_l'Aulne)2011" class="citation cs2">Turgot (baron de l'Aulne), Anne-Robert-Jacques (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/library/turgot-collection-writings-speeches-and-letters-anne-robert-jacques-turgot-baron-de-laune"><i>The Turgot Collection: Writings, Speeches, and Letters of Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludwig von Mises Institute">Ludwig von Mises Institute</a>, p. 560, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781933550947" title="Special:BookSources/9781933550947"><bdi>9781933550947</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Turgot+Collection%3A+Writings%2C+Speeches%2C+and+Letters+of+Anne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot%2C+Baron+de+Laune&rft.pages=560&rft.pub=Ludwig+von+Mises+Institute&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781933550947&rft.aulast=Turgot+%28baron+de+l%27Aulne%29&rft.aufirst=Anne-Robert-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmises.org%2Flibrary%2Fturgot-collection-writings-speeches-and-letters-anne-robert-jacques-turgot-baron-de-laune&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWendel1979" class="citation cs2">Wendel, Jacques M. (1979), "Turgot and the American Revolution", <i>Modern Age</i>, <b>23</b> (3): 282–89</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Age&rft.atitle=Turgot+and+the+American+Revolution&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=282-89&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Wendel&rft.aufirst=Jacques+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnne+Robert+Jacques+Turgot" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Anne Robert Jacques Turgot</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:<br /><b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Anne-Robert-Jacques_Turgot" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot">Anne Robert Jacques Turgot</a></i></b></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Anne_Robert-Jacques_Turgot" class="extiw" title="commons:Anne Robert-Jacques Turgot"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Andrew_Dickson_White" class="extiw" title="q:Andrew Dickson White">Andrew Dickson White's</a> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Andrew_Dickson_White#Seven_Great_Statesmen_in_the_Warfare_of_Humanity_with_Unreason_(1915)" class="extiw" title="q:Andrew Dickson White"><i>Seven Great Statesmen in the Warfare of Humanity with Unreason</i> (1915)</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/turgot/index.html">Turgot Page</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170204152431/http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/turgot/index.html">Archived</a> 4 February 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at McMaster</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15092c.htm">Jacques Turgot</a> at <i>Catholic Encyclopedia</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quebecoislibre.org/06/060730-3.htm">Turgot on progress and political economy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taieb.net/auteurs/Turgot/Turgot01.html">Notice Biographique</a> by Paulette Taïeb.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.herodote.net/histoire05121.htm">12 mai 1776: "Renvoi de Turgot"</a> by <i>Hérodote</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.turgot.org/">The Institut Turgot</a> in Paris</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.condorcet.nl/DutchConnection.html">Turgot & 18th and 19th century Dutch economics and politics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard243.html">The Brilliance of Turgot</a> by Murray N. Rothbard.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/11196">Works by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_%C3%89tienne_Bourgeois_de_Boynes" title="Pierre Étienne Bourgeois de Boynes">Pierre Étienne Bourgeois de Boynes</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Naval_Ministers_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Naval Ministers of France">Secretaries of State for the Navy</a> </b><br />20 July 1774 – 24 August 1774 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_de_Sartine" title="Antoine de Sartine">Antoine de Sartine</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Terray" title="Joseph Marie Terray">Joseph Marie Terray</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Finance_Ministers_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Finance Ministers of France">Controllers-General of Finances</a> </b><br />24 August 1774 – 12 May 1776 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_%C3%89tienne_Bernard_Clugny_de_Nuits&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Étienne Bernard Clugny de Nuits (page does not exist)">Jean Étienne Bernard Clugny de Nuits</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physiocrats" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physiocrats" title="Template:Physiocrats"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physiocrats" title="Template talk:Physiocrats"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physiocrats" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physiocrats"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physiocrats" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocrats</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anne Robert Jacques Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Claude_Marie_Vincent_de_Gournay" title="Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay">Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Law_(economist)" title="John Law (economist)">John Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Baudeau" title="Nicolas Baudeau">Nicolas Baudeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Le_Pesant,_sieur_de_Boisguilbert" title="Pierre Le Pesant, sieur de Boisguilbert">Pierre le Pesant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Samuel_du_Pont_de_Nemours" title="Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours">Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cantillon" title="Richard Cantillon">Richard Cantillon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Riqueti,_marquis_de_Mirabeau" title="Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau">Victor de Riqueti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Finance_ministers_of_France" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Finance_Ministers_of_France" title="Template:Finance Ministers of France"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Finance_Ministers_of_France" title="Template talk:Finance Ministers of France"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Finance_Ministers_of_France" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Finance Ministers of France"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Finance_ministers_of_France" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_finance_ministers_of_France" title="List of finance ministers of France">Finance ministers</a> of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superintendent_of_Finances" title="Superintendent of Finances">Superintendent of Finances</a> (1561–1661)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controller-General_of_Finances" title="Controller-General of Finances">Controller-General of Finances</a> (1661–1791)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">House of Valois</a><br />(1518–1589)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_de_Beaune&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacques de Beaune (page does not exist)">de Beaune</a> (1518–1524)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philibert_Babou" title="Philibert Babou">Babou</a> (1524–1544)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_du_Thiers" title="Jean du Thiers">du Thiers</a> (1544–1546)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_d%27Annebault" title="Claude d'Annebault">d'Annebault</a> (1546–1552)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Andr%C3%A9_Guillart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="André Guillart (page does not exist)">Guillart</a> (1552–1556)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_d%27Avan%C3%A7on&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean d'Avançon (page does not exist)">d'Avançon</a> (1556–1559)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles,_Cardinal_of_Lorraine" title="Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine">de Lorraine</a> (1559–1560)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artus_de_Coss%C3%A9-Brissac" class="mw-redirect" title="Artus de Cossé-Brissac">de Cossé-Brissac</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Louis_d%27Ongnyes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louis d'Ongnyes (page does not exist)">d'Ongnyes</a> (1561–1567)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_de_Birague" title="René de Birague">de Birague</a> (1568–1570)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponne_de_Belli%C3%A8vre" title="Pomponne de Bellièvre">de Bellièvre</a> (1574–1588)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_d%27O" title="François d'O">d'O</a> (1588–1589)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a><br />(1589–1792)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_d%27O" title="François d'O">d'O</a> (1589–1594)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_de_B%C3%A9thune,_Duke_of_Sully" title="Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully">de Béthune</a> (1598–1611)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Jeannin" title="Pierre Jeannin">Jeannin</a> (1614–1619)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Schomberg" title="Henri de Schomberg">de Schomberg</a> (1619–1622)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_La_Vieuville" title="Charles de La Vieuville">de La Vieuville</a> (1623–1624)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bochart_de_Champigny" title="Jean Bochart de Champigny">de Champigny</a>/<a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Marillac" title="Michel de Marillac">de Marillac</a> (1624–1626)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Co%C3%ABffier_de_Ruz%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine Coëffier de Ruzé">de Ruzé</a> (1626–1632)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_de_Bullion" title="Claude de Bullion">de Bullion</a>/<a href="/wiki/Claude_Bouthillier" title="Claude Bouthillier">Bouthillier</a> (1632–1640)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Bouthillier" title="Claude Bouthillier">Bouthillier</a> (1640–1643)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_de_Bailleul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicolas de Bailleul (page does not exist)">de Bailleul</a>/<a href="/wiki/Claude_de_Mesmes,_comte_d%27Avaux" title="Claude de Mesmes, comte d'Avaux">de Mesmes</a> (1643–1647)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Particelli_d%27Emery" title="Michel Particelli d'Emery">d'Emery</a> (1647–1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_La_Porte" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de La Porte">de La Porte</a> (1648–1649)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Particelli_d%27Emery" title="Michel Particelli d'Emery">d'Emery</a>/<a href="/wiki/Claude_de_Mesmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude de Mesmes">de Mesmes</a> (1649–1650)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_de_Longueil" title="René de Longueil">de Longueil</a> (1650–1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_La_Vieuville" title="Charles de La Vieuville">de La Vieuville</a> (1651–1653)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abel_Servien" title="Abel Servien">Servien</a>/<a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Fouquet" title="Nicolas Fouquet">Fouquet</a> (1653–1659)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Fouquet" title="Nicolas Fouquet">Fouquet</a> (1659–1661)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert" title="Jean-Baptiste Colbert">Colbert</a> (1661–1683)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Le_Pelletier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Claude Le Pelletier (page does not exist)">Le Pelletier</a> (1683–1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Ph%C3%A9lypeaux,_comte_de_Pontchartrain" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain">Phélypeaux</a> (1689–1699)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Chamillart" title="Michel Chamillart">Chamillart</a> (1699–1708)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Desmarets" title="Nicolas Desmarets">Desmarets</a> (1708–1715)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrien_Maurice_de_Noailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrien Maurice de Noailles">de Noailles</a> (1715–1718)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri-Jacques_Nompar_de_Caumont,_duc_de_La_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri-Jacques Nompar de Caumont, duc de La Force">de Caumont</a> (1718–January 1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc-Ren%C3%A9_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson_(1652%E2%80%931721)" title="Marc-René de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson (1652–1721)">de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson</a> (1718–January 1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Law_(economist)" title="John Law (economist)">Law</a> (January–May 1720)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Robert_Le_Peletier_des_Forts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michel Robert Le Peletier des Forts (page does not exist)">des Forts</a> (May–December 1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Le_Pelletier_de_La_Houssaye" title="Félix Le Pelletier de La Houssaye">de La Houssaye</a> (December 1720–1722)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Gaspard_Dodun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Gaspard Dodun (page does not exist)">Dodun</a> (1722–1726)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Robert_Le_Peletier_des_Forts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michel Robert Le Peletier des Forts (page does not exist)">des Forts</a> (1726–1730)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philibert_Orry" title="Philibert Orry">Orry</a> (1730–1745)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_de_Machault_d%27Arnouville" title="Jean-Baptiste de Machault d'Arnouville">d'Arnouville</a> (1745–1754)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Moreau_de_S%C3%A9chelles" title="Jean Moreau de Séchelles">de Séchelles</a> (1754–1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Marie_Peyrenc_de_Moras" title="François Marie Peyrenc de Moras">de Moras</a> (1756–1757)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Boullonges" title="Jean de Boullonges">de Boullonges</a> (1757–1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_Silhouette" title="Étienne de Silhouette">de Silhouette</a> (1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_L%C3%A9onard_Jean_Baptiste_Bertin" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri Léonard Jean Baptiste Bertin">Bertin</a> (1759–1763)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Laverdy" title="Clément Charles François de Laverdy">de Laverdy</a> (1763–1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Maynon_d%27Invault" title="Étienne Maynon d'Invault">d'Invault</a> (1768–1769)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Terray" title="Joseph Marie Terray">Terray</a> (1769–1774)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Turgot</a> (1774–1776)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_%C3%89tienne_Bernard_Ogier_de_Clugny&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Étienne Bernard Ogier de Clugny (page does not exist)">de Clugny</a> (1776)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louis-Gabriel_Taboureau_des_R%C3%A9aux&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louis-Gabriel Taboureau des Réaux (page does not exist)">des Réaux</a> (1776–1777)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Necker</a> (1777–1781)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Joly_de_Fleury" title="Jean-François Joly de Fleury">de Fleury</a> (1781–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Paule_Lef%C3%A8vre_d%27Ormesson" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri François de Paule Lefèvre d'Ormesson">d'Ormesson</a> (1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">de Calonne</a> (1783–1787)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Bouvard_de_Fourqueux&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michel Bouvard de Fourqueux (page does not exist)">de Fourqueux</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Charles_de_Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" title="Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne">de Brienne</a> (1787–1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Necker</a> (1788–1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Le_Tonnelier_de_Breteuil" title="Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil">de Breteuil</a> (1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Necker</a> (1789–1790)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Claude_Guillaume_Lambert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Claude Guillaume Lambert (page does not exist)">Lambert</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Antoine_de_Valdec_de_Lessart" title="Claude Antoine de Valdec de Lessart">de Lessart</a> (1790–1791)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louis_Hardouin_Tarb%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louis Hardouin Tarbé (page does not exist)">Tarbé</a> (1791–March 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Clavière</a> (March–13 June 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Duranthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine Duranthon">Duranthon</a> (13 June–18 June 1792)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jules_%C3%89mile_Fran%C3%A7ois_Herv%C3%A9_de_Beaulieu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jules Émile François Hervé de Beaulieu (page does not exist)">de Beaulieu</a> (18 June–29 July 1792)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Delaville-Leroulx&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Delaville-Leroulx (page does not exist)">Delaville-Leroulx</a> (29 July–10 August 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Clavière</a> (10 August–21 September 1792)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a><br />(1792–1804)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Clavière</a> (21 September 1792–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Gr%C3%A9goire_Deschamps_Destournelles" title="Louis Grégoire Deschamps Destournelles">Destournelles</a> (1793–1794)</li> <li><i>Vacant</i> (1794–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Charles_Faipoult" title="Guillaume-Charles Faipoult">Faipoult</a> (1795–1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique-Vincent_Ramel-Nogaret" title="Dominique-Vincent Ramel-Nogaret">Ramel-Nogaret</a> (1796–July 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Robert_Lindet" title="Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet">Lindet</a> (July–November 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin-Michel-Charles_Gaudin" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin-Michel-Charles Gaudin">Gaudin</a> (1799–1804)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">House of Bonaparte</a><br />(1804–1814)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin-Michel-Charles_Gaudin" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin-Michel-Charles Gaudin">Gaudin</a> (1804–1814)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">House of Bourbon</a><br />(1814–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (1814–1815)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">House of Bonaparte</a><br />(1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin-Michel-Charles_Gaudin" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin-Michel-Charles Gaudin">Gaudin</a> (March–July 1815)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">House of Bourbon</a><br />(1815–1830)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (July–September 1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Emmanuel_Corvetto" title="Louis-Emmanuel Corvetto">Corvetto</a> (September 1815–December 1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Roy" title="Antoine Roy">Roy</a> (7 December–29 December 1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (December 29, 1818–November 1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Roy" title="Antoine Roy">Roy</a> (1819–1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_de_Vill%C3%A8le" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Baptiste de Villèle">de Villèle</a> (1821–1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Roy" title="Antoine Roy">Roy</a> (1828–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christophe_de_Chabrol_de_Crouzol" title="Christophe de Chabrol de Crouzol">de Crouzol</a> (1829–May 1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Isidore_Baron_de_Montbel" title="Guillaume-Isidore Baron de Montbel">de Montbel</a> (May–July 1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (July–August 1830)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">House of Orléans</a><br />(1830–1848)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (August–November 1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Laffitte" title="Jacques Laffitte">Laffitte</a> (1830–1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (1831–1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Humann" title="Georges Humann">Humann</a> (1832–10 November 1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Passy" title="Hippolyte Passy">Passy</a> (10 November–18 November 1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Humann" title="Georges Humann">Humann</a> (18 November 1834–1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Maurice_Apollinaire_d%27Argout" title="Antoine Maurice Apollinaire d'Argout">d'Argout</a> (January–September 1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanneguy_Duch%C3%A2tel" title="Tanneguy Duchâtel">Duchâtel</a> (1836–1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lacave-Laplagne" title="Jean Lacave-Laplagne">Lacave-Laplagne</a> (1837–March 1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89lie_Gautier" title="Jean-Élie Gautier">Gautier</a> (March–May 1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Passy" title="Hippolyte Passy">Passy</a> (May 1839–March 1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pelet_de_la_Loz%C3%A8re" title="Joseph Pelet de la Lozère">de la Lozère</a> (March 1840–October 1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Humann" title="Georges Humann">Humann</a> (October 1840–1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lacave-Laplagne" title="Jean Lacave-Laplagne">Lacave-Laplagne</a> (1842–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Sylvain_Dumon" title="Pierre Sylvain Dumon">Dumon</a> (1847–February 1848)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a><br />(1848–1852)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Goudchaux" title="Michel Goudchaux">Goudchaux</a> (February–March 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Antoine_Garnier-Pag%C3%A8s" title="Louis-Antoine Garnier-Pagès">Garnier-Pagès</a> (March–May 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Duclerc" title="Charles Duclerc">Duclerc</a> (May–June 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Goudchaux" title="Michel Goudchaux">Goudchaux</a> (June–October 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariste_Jacques_Trouv%C3%A9-Chauvel" title="Ariste Jacques Trouvé-Chauvel">Trouvé-Chauvel</a> (October–December 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Passy" title="Hippolyte Passy">Passy</a> (December 1848–October 1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achille_Fould" title="Achille Fould">Fould</a> (October 1849–January 1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Le_B%C3%A8gue_de_Germiny" title="Charles Le Bègue de Germiny">de Germiny</a> (January–April 1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achille_Fould" title="Achille Fould">Fould</a> (April–October 1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Blondel" title="Antoine Blondel">Blondel</a> (October–November 1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier_Joseph_de_Casabianca" title="François-Xavier Joseph de Casabianca">de Casabianca</a> (November–December 1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achille_Fould" title="Achille Fould">Fould</a> (December 1851–January 1852)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">House of Bonaparte</a><br />(1852–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Martial_Bineau" title="Jean-Martial Bineau">Bineau</a> (January 1852–1855)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Magne" title="Pierre Magne">Magne</a> (1855–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_de_Forcade_La_Roquette" title="Adolphe de Forcade La Roquette">La Roquette</a> (1860–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achille_Fould" title="Achille Fould">Fould</a> (1861–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Rouher" title="Eugène Rouher">Rouher</a> (January–November 1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Magne" title="Pierre Magne">Magne</a> (1867–January 1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Buffet" title="Louis Buffet">Buffet</a> (January–April 1870)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Alexis_Segris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Émile Alexis Segris (page does not exist)">Segris</a> (April–August 1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Magne" title="Pierre Magne">Magne</a> (August–September 1870)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a><br />(1870–1940)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Picard" title="Ernest Picard">Picard</a> (September 1870–19 February 1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Buffet" title="Louis Buffet">Buffet</a> (19 February–25 February 1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustin_Pouyer-Quertier" title="Augustin Pouyer-Quertier">Pouyer-Quertier</a> (1871–1872)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Goulard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eugène de Goulard (page does not exist)">de Goulard</a> (April–December 1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Say" title="Léon Say">Say</a> (December 1872–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Magne" title="Pierre Magne">Magne</a> (1873–1874)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Mathieu-Bodet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Mathieu-Bodet (page does not exist)">Mathieu-Bodet</a> (1874–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Say" title="Léon Say">Say</a> (1875–May 1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Caillaux" title="Eugène Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (May 1877–November 1877)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Dutilleul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="François Dutilleul (page does not exist)">Dutilleul</a> (November–December 1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Say" title="Léon Say">Say</a> (1877–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Magnin" title="Pierre Magnin">Magnin</a> (1879–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Allain-Targ%C3%A9" title="François Allain-Targé">Allain-Targé</a> (1881–1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Say" title="Léon Say">Say</a> (January–August 1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Tirard" title="Pierre Tirard">Tirard</a> (August 1882–6 April 1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Clamageran" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Clamageran">Clamageran</a> (6 April–16 April 1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Fran%C3%A7ois_Sadi_Carnot" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie François Sadi Carnot">Carnot</a> (16 April 1885–December 1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Dauphin" title="Albert Dauphin">Dauphin</a> (December 1886–May 1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Rouvier" title="Maurice Rouvier">Rouvier</a> (May–December 1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Tirard" title="Pierre Tirard">Tirard</a> (December 1887–April 1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Peytral" title="Paul Peytral">Peytral</a> (April 1888–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Rouvier" title="Maurice Rouvier">Rouvier</a> (1889–1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Tirard" title="Pierre Tirard">Tirard</a> (1892–April 1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Peytral" title="Paul Peytral">Peytral</a> (April–December 1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Burdeau" title="Auguste Burdeau">Burdeau</a> (December 1893–May 1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Raymond Poincaré">Poincaré</a> (May 1894–January 1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Ribot" title="Alexandre Ribot">Ribot</a> (January–November 1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doumer" title="Paul Doumer">Doumer</a> (November 1895–1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cochery" title="Georges Cochery">Cochery</a> (1896–1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Peytral" title="Paul Peytral">Peytral</a> (1898–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (1899–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Rouvier" title="Maurice Rouvier">Rouvier</a> (1902–1905)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Merlou&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Merlou (page does not exist)">Merlou</a> (1905–March 1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Raymond Poincaré">Poincaré</a> (March–October 1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (October 1906–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cochery" title="Georges Cochery">Cochery</a> (1909–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Lucien_Klotz" title="Louis-Lucien Klotz">Klotz</a> (1910–March 1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (March–June 1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Lucien_Klotz" title="Louis-Lucien Klotz">Klotz</a> (June 1911–March 1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dumont_(politician)" title="Charles Dumont (politician)">Dumont</a> (March–December 1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (December 1913–March 1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Renoult" title="René Renoult">Renoult</a> (March–June 1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Cl%C3%A9mentel" title="Étienne Clémentel">Clémentel</a> (9 June–13 June 1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Noullens" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Noullens">Noullens</a> (June–August 1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Ribot" title="Alexandre Ribot">Ribot</a> (August 1914–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Thierry" title="Joseph Thierry">Thierry</a> (March–September 1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Lucien_Klotz" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Lucien Klotz">Klotz</a> (1917–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marsal" title="Frédéric François-Marsal">François-Marsal</a> (1920–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doumer" title="Paul Doumer">Doumer</a> (1921–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Lasteyrie" title="Charles de Lasteyrie">de Lasteyrie</a> (1922–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marsal" title="Frédéric François-Marsal">François-Marsal</a> (March–June 1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clementel" class="mw-redirect" title="Étienne Clementel">Clementel</a> (June 1924–3 April 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatole_de_Monzie" title="Anatole de Monzie">de Monzie</a> (3 April–17 April 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (April–October 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Painlev%C3%A9" title="Paul Painlevé">Painlevé</a> (October–November 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Loucheur" title="Louis Loucheur">Loucheur</a> (November–December 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doumer" title="Paul Doumer">Doumer</a> (December 1925–March 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoul_P%C3%A9ret" title="Raoul Péret">Péret</a> (March–June 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (June–July 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatole_de_Monzie" title="Anatole de Monzie">de Monzie</a> (19 July–23 July 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Raymond Poincaré">Poincaré</a> (July 1926–1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ch%C3%A9ron" title="Henry Chéron">Chéron</a> (1928–February 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dumont_(politician)" title="Charles Dumont (politician)">Dumont</a> (February–March 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Reynaud</a> (March–December 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Germain-Martin" title="Louis Germain-Martin">Germain-Martin</a> (December 1930–January 1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-%C3%89tienne_Flandin" title="Pierre-Étienne Flandin">Flandin</a> (January 1931–1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Germain-Martin" title="Louis Germain-Martin">Germain-Martin</a> (June–December 1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ch%C3%A9ron" title="Henry Chéron">Chéron</a> (December 1932–January 1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bonnet" title="Georges Bonnet">Bonnet</a> (January 1933–January 1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Pi%C3%A9tri" title="François Piétri">Piétri</a> (January–February 1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marchandeau" title="Paul Marchandeau">Marchandeau</a> (4 February–9 February 1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Germain-Martin" title="Louis Germain-Martin">Germain-Martin</a> (February 1934–June 1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (1 June–7 June 1935)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marcel_R%C3%A9gnier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marcel Régnier (page does not exist)">Régnier</a> (June 1935–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Auriol" title="Vincent Auriol">Auriol</a> (1936–1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bonnet" title="Georges Bonnet">Bonnet</a> (1937–January 1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marchandeau" title="Paul Marchandeau">Marchandeau</a> (January–March 1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Blum" title="Léon Blum">Blum</a> (March–April 1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marchandeau" title="Paul Marchandeau">Marchandeau</a> (April–November 1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Reynaud</a> (November 1938–March 1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Lamoureux_(France)" title="Lucien Lamoureux (France)">Lamoureux</a> (March–June 1940)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a><br />(1940–1944)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Bouthillier" title="Yves Bouthillier">Bouthillier</a> (1940–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Cathala" title="Pierre Cathala">Cathala</a> (1942–1944)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a><br />(1941–1944)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Pleven" title="René Pleven">Pleven</a> (1941–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Diethelm" title="André Diethelm">Diethelm</a> (1942–June 1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Couve_de_Murville" title="Maurice Couve de Murville">Couve de Murville</a> (June–November 1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mend%C3%A8s_France" title="Pierre Mendès France">France</a> (November 1943–September 1944)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a><br />(1944–1946)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_Lepercq" title="Aimé Lepercq">Lepercq</a> (September–November 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Pleven" title="René Pleven">Pleven</a> (November 1944–January 1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Philip" title="André Philip">Philip</a> (January–June 1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman" title="Robert Schuman">Schuman</a> (June–October 1946)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a><br />(1946–1958)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman" title="Robert Schuman">Schuman</a> (October–December 1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Philip" title="André Philip">Philip</a> (December 1946–January 1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman" title="Robert Schuman">Schuman</a> (January–November 1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Mayer" title="René Mayer">Mayer</a> (November 1947–July 1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Reynaud</a> (July–September 1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Pineau" title="Christian Pineau">Pineau</a> (5 September–11 September 1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Queuille" title="Henri Queuille">Queuille</a> (September 1948–January 1949)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Petsche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice Petsche (page does not exist)">Petsche</a> (1949–1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Mayer" title="René Mayer">Mayer</a> (1951–January 1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Faure</a> (January–March 1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Pinay" title="Antoine Pinay">Pinay</a> (March 1952–January 1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bourg%C3%A8s-Maunoury" title="Maurice Bourgès-Maunoury">Bourgès-Maunoury</a> (January–June 1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Faure</a> (1953–1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Buron" title="Robert Buron">Buron</a> (January–February 1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pflimlin" title="Pierre Pflimlin">Pflimlin</a> (February 1955–February 1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lacoste" title="Robert Lacoste">Lacoste</a> (1 February–14 February 1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ramadier" title="Paul Ramadier">Ramadier</a> (February 1956–June 1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Gaillard" title="Félix Gaillard">Gaillard</a> (June–November 1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pflimlin" title="Pierre Pflimlin">Pflimlin</a> (November 1957–May 1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Faure</a> (May–June 1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Pinay" title="Antoine Pinay">Pinay</a> (June–October 1958)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a><br />(1958–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Pinay" title="Antoine Pinay">Pinay</a> (October 1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilfrid_Baumgartner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilfrid Baumgartner (page does not exist)">Baumgartner</a> (1960–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d%27Estaing" title="Valéry Giscard d'Estaing">Giscard d'Estaing</a> (1962–1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Debr%C3%A9" title="Michel Debré">Debré</a> (1966–May 1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Couve_de_Murville" title="Maurice Couve de Murville">Couve de Murville</a> (May–July 1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier_Ortoli" title="François-Xavier Ortoli">Ortoli</a> (July 1968–June 1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d%27Estaing" title="Valéry Giscard d'Estaing">Giscard d'Estaing</a> (1969–1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Fourcade" title="Jean-Pierre Fourcade">Fourcade</a> (1974–1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Barre" title="Raymond Barre">Barre</a> (1976–1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Monory" title="René Monory">Monory</a> (1978–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Delors" title="Jacques Delors">Delors</a> (1981–1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_B%C3%A9r%C3%A9govoy" title="Pierre Bérégovoy">Bérégovoy</a> (1984–1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Balladur" title="Édouard Balladur">Balladur</a> (1986–1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_B%C3%A9r%C3%A9govoy" title="Pierre Bérégovoy">Bérégovoy</a> (1988–1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Sapin" title="Michel Sapin">Sapin</a> (1992–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Alphand%C3%A9ry" title="Edmond Alphandéry">Alphandéry</a> (1993–May 1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Madelin" title="Alain Madelin">Madelin</a> (May–August 1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Arthuis" title="Jean Arthuis">Arthuis</a> (August 1995–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_Strauss-Kahn" title="Dominique Strauss-Kahn">Strauss-Kahn</a> (1997–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Sautter" title="Christian Sautter">Sautter</a> (1999–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent_Fabius" title="Laurent Fabius">Fabius</a> (2000–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Mer" title="Francis Mer">Mer</a> (2002–2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Sarkozy" title="Nicolas Sarkozy">Sarkozy</a> (March–November 2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Gaymard" title="Hervé Gaymard">Gaymard</a> (November 2004–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_Breton" title="Thierry Breton">Breton</a> (2005–May 2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Borloo" title="Jean-Louis Borloo">Borloo</a> (May–June 2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Lagarde" title="Christine Lagarde">Lagarde</a> (June 2007–2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Baroin" title="François Baroin">Baroin</a> (2011–2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Moscovici" title="Pierre Moscovici">Moscovici</a> (2012–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Sapin" title="Michel Sapin">Sapin</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Le_Maire" title="Bruno Le Maire">Le Maire</a> (2017–2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Armand" title="Antoine Armand">Armand</a> (2024–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121208407">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/12316007">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/17563/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmtDYwxfrFTxBCfQtJMT3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118763202">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50051803">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119272595">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119272595">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00526892">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/VEAV551022">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35558214">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=skuk0001406&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1463112">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068278195">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques, baron de l'Aulne, 1727-1781"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000183016&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=212425">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000026141">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/tr574z6c40sk74k">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810687714605606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/119991">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007268999705171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058515129006706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14147695">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00997353?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/995375">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118763202.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118763202">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027747247">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6br8rd1">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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