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id="toc-Example:_dissolving_sugar_in_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aim" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aim"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Aim</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aim-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planning_the_experiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planning_the_experiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Planning the experiment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planning_the_experiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Running_the_experiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Running_the_experiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Running the experiment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Running_the_experiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drawing_conclusions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drawing_conclusions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Drawing conclusions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drawing_conclusions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repeatability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repeatability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Repeatability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repeatability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_pages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_pages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Related pages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_pages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_websites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_websites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Other websites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_websites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Scientific method</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 90 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-90" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">90 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenskaplike_metode" title="Wetenskaplike metode – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Wetenskaplike metode" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B3%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%88%B3%E1%8B%8A_%E1%8B%98%E1%8B%B4" title="ሳይንሳዊ ዘዴ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሳይንሳዊ ዘዴ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D8%AC_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A" title="منهج علمي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="منهج علمي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodo_cientifico" title="Metodo cientifico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Metodo cientifico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A8toda_scientifica" title="Mètoda scientifica – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Mètoda scientifica" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9todu_cient%C3%ADficu" title="Métodu científicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Métodu científicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmi_metod" title="Elmi metod – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elmi metod" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="বৈজ্ঞানিক পদ্ধতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৈজ্ঞানিক পদ্ধতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kho-ha%CC%8Dk-tek_hong-hoat" title="Kho-ha̍k-tek hong-hoat – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kho-ha̍k-tek hong-hoat" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Навуковы метад – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Навуковы метад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Навуковы мэтад – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Навуковы мэтад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%A1" title="साइंटिफिक मेथड – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="साइंटिफिक मेथड" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyentipikong_paagi" title="Siyentipikong paagi – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Siyentipikong paagi" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Научен метод – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Научен метод" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau%C4%8Dna_metoda" title="Naučna metoda – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Naučna metoda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A8tode_cient%C3%ADfic" title="Mètode científic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mètode científic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%87%C4%95" title="Ăслăх меслечĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ăслăх меслечĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%9Bdeck%C3%A1_metoda" title="Vědecká metoda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vědecká metoda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dull_gwyddonol" title="Dull gwyddonol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dull gwyddonol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturvidenskabelig_metode" title="Naturvidenskabelig metode – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Naturvidenskabelig metode" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaduslik_meetod" title="Teaduslik meetod – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teaduslik meetod" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%B8%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Επιστημονική μέθοδος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιστημονική μέθοδος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method – English" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Scientific method" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9todo_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Método científico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Método científico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienca_metodo" title="Scienca metodo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Scienca metodo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodo_zientifiko" title="Metodo zientifiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Metodo zientifiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C" title="روش علمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روش علمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9thode_scientifique" title="Méthode scientifique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Méthode scientifique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modh_eola%C3%ADochta" title="Modh eolaíochta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Modh eolaíochta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9todo_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Método científico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Método científico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99%EC%A0%81_%EB%B0%A9%EB%B2%95" title="과학적 방법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학적 방법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF" title="वैज्ञानिक विधि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वैज्ञानिक विधि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanstvena_metoda" title="Znanstvena metoda – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Znanstvena metoda" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencala_metodo" title="Ciencala metodo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ciencala metodo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metode_ilmiah" title="Metode ilmiah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Metode ilmiah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodo_scientific" title="Methodo scientific – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Methodo scientific" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metode_scientific" title="Metode scientific – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Metode scientific" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADsindaleg_a%C3%B0fer%C3%B0" title="Vísindaleg aðferð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vísindaleg aðferð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodo_scientifico" title="Metodo scientifico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Metodo scientifico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%98%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%AA" title="השיטה המדעית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="השיטה המדעית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paricara_%C3%A8lmiah" title="Paricara èlmiah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Paricara èlmiah" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ವೈಜ್ಞಾನಿಕ ವಿಧಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವೈಜ್ಞಾನಿಕ ವಿಧಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D3%99%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%81" title="Ғылыми әдіс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғылыми әдіс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9tod_syantifik" title="Métod syantifik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Métod syantifik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodus_scientifica" title="Methodus scientifica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Methodus scientifica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin%C4%81tnisk%C4%81_metode" title="Zinātniskā metode – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zinātniskā metode" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokslinis_metodas" title="Mokslinis metodas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mokslinis metodas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1nyos_m%C3%B3dszer" title="Tudományos módszer – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tudományos módszer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Научен метод – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Научен метод" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="ശാസ്ത്രീയ സമീപനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശാസ്ത്രീയ സമീപനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodu_xjentifiku" title="Metodu xjentifiku – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Metodu xjentifiku" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaedah_saintifik" title="Kaedah saintifik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kaedah saintifik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metode_ilmiah" title="Metode ilmiah – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Metode ilmiah" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Шинжлэх ухааны арга – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шинжлэх ухааны арга" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6%E1%80%94%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB_%E1%80%94%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="သိပ္ပံနည်းကျ နည်းလမ်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သိပ္ပံနည်းကျ နည်းလမ်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%83" title="वैज्ञानिक तवः – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="वैज्ञानिक तवः" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科学的方法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="科学的方法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saientifik_methud" title="Saientifik methud – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Saientifik methud" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met%C3%B2de_scientific" title="Metòde scientific – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Metòde scientific" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE" title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨਕ ਤਰੀਕਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨਕ ਤਰੀਕਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%85%DB%90%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AF" title="علمي مېتود – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="علمي مېتود" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayantifik_metod" title="Sayantifik metod – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Sayantifik metod" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A" title="ការស្រាវជ្រាវបែបវិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ការស្រាវជ្រាវបែបវិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metoda_badawcza" title="Metoda badawcza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Metoda badawcza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9todo_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Método científico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Método científico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metod%C4%83_%C8%99tiin%C8%9Bific%C4%83" title="Metodă științifică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Metodă științifică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Научный метод – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Научный метод" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienteefic_method" title="Scienteefic method – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Scienteefic method" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metoda_shkencore" title="Metoda shkencore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Metoda shkencore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="විද්‍යාත්මක ක්‍රමය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="විද්‍යාත්මක ක්‍රමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%88" title="سائنسي طريقو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سائنسي طريقو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedeck%C3%A1_met%C3%B3da" title="Vedecká metóda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vedecká metóda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanstvena_metoda" title="Znanstvena metoda – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Znanstvena metoda" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="میتۆدی زانستی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="میتۆدی زانستی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau%C4%8Dna_metoda" title="Naučna metoda – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Naučna metoda" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau%C4%8Dna_metoda" title="Naučna metoda – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Naučna metoda" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutkimusote" title="Tutkimusote – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tutkimusote" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskaplig_metod" title="Vetenskaplig metod – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vetenskaplig metod" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamamaraang_makaagham" title="Pamamaraang makaagham – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pamamaraang makaagham" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="அறிவியல் அறிவு வழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவியல் அறிவு வழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarrayt_tusnant" title="Tarrayt tusnant – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tarrayt tusnant" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ระเบียบวิธีแบบวิทยาศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระเบียบวิธีแบบวิทยาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_-_The_Epsom_Derby_-_WGA08637.jpg/220px-Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_-_The_Epsom_Derby_-_WGA08637.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_-_The_Epsom_Derby_-_WGA08637.jpg/330px-Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_-_The_Epsom_Derby_-_WGA08637.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_-_The_Epsom_Derby_-_WGA08637.jpg/440px-Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_-_The_Epsom_Derby_-_WGA08637.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1012" /></a><figcaption>The painting 'The Epsom Derby' (1821) by Théodore Gericault (1791-1824) shows a horse race. All the horses have their feet in the air, no horse foot touches the ground.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg/220px-The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg/330px-The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg/440px-The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5694" data-file-height="3510" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sallie_Gardner_at_a_Gallop&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sallie Gardner at a Gallop (not yet started)">Muybridge's photographs</a> of <i>The Horse in Motion,</i> 1878, were used to answer the question whether all four feet of a galloping horse are ever off the ground at the same time. This demonstrates a use of photography as an experimental tool in science. A more important use of photography in science was by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> in his <a href="/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man" title="The Descent of Man">The Descent of Man</a>, 1871.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>scientific method</b> refers to ways to get <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">facts</a>, correct <a href="/wiki/Error" title="Error">errors</a> and mistakes, and test <a href="/wiki/Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory">theories</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> says that scientific method is: "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century". It is <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiment</a>, plus the formulation, testing, and modification of <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A scientist gathers <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurable</a> <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>, and uses sound reasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New knowledge often needs adjusting, or fitting into, previous knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldhaber_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldhaber-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criterion">Criterion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Change section: Criterion" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Criterion"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>What distinguishes a scientific method of inquiry is a question known as <b>the criterion'</b>. It is an answer to the question: is there a way to tell whether a concept or theory is science, as opposed to some other kind of knowledge or belief? </p><p>There have been many ideas as to how it should be expressed. <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivists</a> thought a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">theory</a> was scientific if it could be verified (proved true).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> thought this was a mistake. He thought a theory was not scientific unless there was some way it might be <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">refuted</a> (shown to be wrong).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bunge_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunge-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, Paul Feyerabend thought there was no criterion. For him, "anything goes", or whatever works, works.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scientists try to let reality speak for itself. They support a theory when its predictions are confirmed, and challenge it when its predictions prove false. Scientific researchers offer hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiments</a> to test these hypotheses. Since big theories cannot be tested directly, it is done by testing predictions derived from the theory. These steps must be repeatable, to guard against mistake or confusion by any particular experimenter. </p><p>Scientific inquiry is generally intended to be as <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objective</a> as possible. To reduce <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">bias</a>, scientists publish their work, and so share <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> and methods with other scientists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stages">Stages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Change section: Stages" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Stages"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a> and things that are not science (such as <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>) are often distinguished by whether they use the scientific method. One of the first people to create an <a href="/wiki/Summary" title="Summary">outline</a> of the steps in the scientific method was <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no one scientific method. Some fields of science are based on mathematical models, such as physics. Other fields, such as social science, have rough theories. They rely more on patterns that emerge from their data. Sometimes scientists focus on testing and confirming <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>, but open-ended exploration is also important. Some scientific fields use laboratory experiments. Others collect observations from real-world situations. Many areas of science are quantitative, emphasizing numerical data and mathematical analysis. But some areas, especially in social science, use qualitative methods, such as interviews or detailed observations of human or animal behavior. Focusing too much one kind of method can lead us to ignore knowledge produced by other methods. </p><p>Some textbooks focus on a single, standard "scientific method". This idea of a single scientific method is based on experimental, hypothesis-testing. It doesn't apply very well to other areas of science. It is often written as a number of steps: </p> <ol><li><b>Ask a question about the world.</b> All scientific work begins with having a question to ask or a problem to solve.<sup id="cite_ref-Bunge_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunge-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>I, p9</sup> Sometimes just coming up with the right question is the hardest part for a scientist. The question should be answerable by means of an experiment.</li> <li><b>Create a <a href="https://simple.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypothesis" class="extiw" title="wikt:hypothesis">hypothesis</a> – one possible answer to the question.</b> A hypothesis in science is a word meaning "An educated guess about how something works". It should be possible to prove it right or wrong. For example, a statement like "Blue is a better color than green" is not a scientific hypothesis. It cannot be proved right or wrong. "More people like the color blue than green" <i>could</i> be a scientific hypothesis, because one could ask many people whether they like blue more than green and come up with an answer one way or the other.</li> <li><b>Design an <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiment</a>.</b> If the hypothesis is truly scientific, it should be possible to design an experiment to test it. An experiment should be able to tell the scientist if the hypothesis is wrong; it may not tell him or her if the hypothesis is right. As an example, think about how to show the Earth is round rather than flat. Usually scientists want to test only one thing at a time. To do this, they try to make every part of an experiment the same for everything, except for the thing they want to test.</li> <li><b>Experiment and collect the data.</b> Here the scientist tries to run the experiment they have designed before. Sometimes the scientist gets new ideas as the experiment is going on. Sometimes it is difficult to know when an experiment is finally over. Sometimes experimenting will be very difficult. Some scientists spend most of their lives learning how to do good experiments.</li> <li><b>Why-questions</b>. Explanations are answers to why-questions.<sup id="cite_ref-Bunge_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunge-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>II, p3</sup></li> <li><b>Draw conclusions from the experiment</b>. Sometimes results are not easy to understand. Sometimes the experiments themselves open up new questions. Sometimes results from an experiment can mean many different things. All of these need to be thought about carefully.</li> <li><b>Communicate them to others</b>. A key element of science is sharing the results of experiments, so that other scientists can then use the knowledge themselves and all of science can benefit. Usually scientists do not trust a new claim unless other scientists have looked it over first to make sure it sounds like real science. This is called <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> ("peer" here means other scientists who have knowledge about that subject). Work that passes peer review is published in a <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">scientific journal</a>.</li></ol> <p>Although written as a list, scientists may go back and forth between different steps a number of times before being satisfied with the answer. </p><p>Not all scientists use the above "scientific method" in their day-to-day work. Sometimes the actual work of science looks nothing like the above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Example:_dissolving_sugar_in_water">Example: dissolving sugar in water</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Change section: Example: dissolving sugar in water" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Example: dissolving sugar in water"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Let's say we are going to find out the effect of temperature on the way sugar <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">dissolves</a> in a glass of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>. Below is one way to do this, following the scientific method step by step. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aim">Aim</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Change section: Aim" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Aim"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Does sugar dissolve faster in hot water or cold water? Does the <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> affect how fast the sugar dissolves? This is a question we might want to ask. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planning_the_experiment">Planning the experiment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Change section: Planning the experiment" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Planning the experiment"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One simple experiment would be to dissolve sugar in water of different temperatures and to keep track of how much time it takes for the sugar to dissolve. This would be a <a href="/wiki/Test" title="Test">test</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">idea</a> that the <a href="https://simple.wiktionary.org/wiki/rate" class="extiw" title="wikt:rate">rate</a> of dissolving varies according to the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a>. </p><p>We want to make sure to use exactly the same amount of water in each trial, and exactly the same amount of sugar. We do this to make sure that the temperature alone causes the effect. It might be, for example, that the ratio of sugar to water is also a factor in the rate of dissolving. To be extra careful, we might also run the experiment so that the water temperature does not change during the experiment. </p><p>This is called "isolating a <a href="/wiki/Variable" title="Variable">variable</a>". This means that, of the <a href="https://simple.wiktionary.org/wiki/factor" class="extiw" title="wikt:factor">factors</a> which might have an effect, only one is being changed in the experiment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Running_the_experiment">Running the experiment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Change section: Running the experiment" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Running the experiment"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>We will do the experiment in three trials, which are exactly the same, except for the temperature of the water. </p> <ol><li>We put exactly 25 grams of sugar into exactly 1 liter of water almost as cold as ice. We do not stir. We notice that it takes 30 minutes before all the sugar is dissolved.</li> <li>We put exactly 25 grams of sugar into exactly 1 liter of room temperature water (20 °C). We do not stir. We notice that it takes 15 minutes before all the sugar is dissolved.</li> <li>We put exactly 25 grams of sugar into exactly 1 liter of warm water (50 °C). We do not stir. We notice that it takes 4 minutes before all the sugar is dissolved.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drawing_conclusions">Drawing conclusions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Change section: Drawing conclusions" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Drawing conclusions"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One way that makes it easy to see results is to make a table of them, listing all of the things that changed each time we ran the experiment. Ours might look like this: </p> <table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr bgcolor="#efefef"> <th>Temperature </th> <th>Dissolving time </th></tr> <tr> <td align="right">1 °C </td> <td align="right">30 min </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">20 °C </td> <td align="right">15 min </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">50 °C </td> <td align="right">4 min </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>If every other part of the experiment was the same (we did not use more sugar one time than the other, we did not stir one time or the other, etc.), then this would be very good evidence that heat affects how fast sugar is dissolved. </p><p>We cannot know for sure, though, that there is not something else affecting it. An example of a <i>hidden cause</i> might be that sugar dissolves faster each time more sugar is dissolved into the same pot. This is probably not true, but if it were, it could make the results exactly the same: three trials, and the last one would be fastest. We have no reason to think that this is true at this time, but we might want to note it as another possible answer. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r9671799">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Repeatability">Repeatability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Change section: Repeatability" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Repeatability"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Good science is repeatable. but that can be difficult or impossible. Experiments on people is an example of this. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> (in particular, <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>) and in <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, there can be failures of replication (cannot be repeated).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Change section: History" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: History"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Elements of scientific method were worked out by some early students of nature. </p> <ul><li>"We consider it a good principle to explain the phenomena by the simplest hypothesis possible." <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> (85–165 AD).<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is an early example of what we call <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen) (965–1039), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Grosseteste&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Grosseteste (not yet started)">Robert Grosseteste</a> (1175–1253) and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> (1214–1294), all made some progress in developing scientific method.</li> <li>Scientists in the 17th century started agreeing that the experimental method is the main way to find the truth. This was done in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">western Europe</a> by men like <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kepler" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler">Kepler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hooke" class="mw-redirect" title="Hooke">Hooke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Boyle">Boyle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halley" class="mw-redirect" title="Halley">Halley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton" class="mw-disambig" title="Newton">Newton</a>. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> were invented (in <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> was formed. Instruments, societies, and publishing all helped science greatly.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_pages">Related pages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Change section: Related pages" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Related pages"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_experiment" title="Blind experiment">Blind experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">Research</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Change section: References" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: References"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r9724317">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford English Dictionary - entry for <i>scientific</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Rules for the study of natural philosophy". Newton, Isaac 1687, 1713, 1726. <i>Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica</i>. 3rd ed, University of California Press. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r9724332">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-08817-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-08817-4">0-520-08817-4</a> From I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman's 1999 translation, pp. 794–6, from Book <b>3</b>, <i>The System of the World</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goldhaber-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Goldhaber_3-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldhaber, Alfred Scharff & Nieto, Michael Martin 2010. Photon and graviton mass limits. <i>Rev. Mod. Phys</i>. <b>82</b>: 939-979. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://rmp.aps.org/abstract/RMP/v82/i1/p939_1">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mach, Ernst (1905, 1926) 1976. <i>Knowledge and error: sketches on the psychology of enquiry</i>. Dordrecht: Reidel.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Schlick, Moritz (1925) 1974. <i>General theory of knowledge</i>. Vienna: Springer-Verlag.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayer A.J. 1936 [2nd ed 1946]. <i>Language, truth and logic</i>. Gollancz, London.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Popper, Karl 1959. <i>The logic of scientific discovery</i>. London & New York: Routledge Classics. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-27844-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-27844-9">0-415-27844-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuhn T.S. 1970. <i>The structure of scientific revolutions</i>. 2nd ed, University of Chicago Press. p206 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-45804-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-45804-0">0-226-45804-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bunge-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Bunge_9-0">9.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Bunge_9-1">9.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Bunge_9-2">9.2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Bunge, Mario 1967. <i>Scientific research</i>. Volume 1: The search for system; volume 2: The search for truth. Springer-Verlag, Berlin & New York. Reprinted as <i>Philosophy of science</i>, Transaction, 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ziman, John 1978. <i>Reliable knowledge: an exploration of the grounds for belief in science</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22087-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-22087-4">0-521-22087-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Feyerabend, Paul 1975. <i>Against method: outline of an anarchist theory of knowledge</i>. London: New Left. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-902308-91-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-902308-91-2">0-902308-91-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill/#SciMet">"John Stuart Mill (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)"</a>. plato.stanford.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Stuart+Mill+%28Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&rft.pub=plato.stanford.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmill%2F%23SciMet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100620214050/http://www.baam.emich.edu/baamsciencelessons/baammillsrules.htm">"BAAM Science Lessons--Mill's Methods"</a>. www.baam.emich.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.baam.emich.edu/baamsciencelessons/baammillsrules.htm">the original</a> on 2010-06-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BAAM+Science+Lessons--Mill%27s+Methods&rft.pub=www.baam.emich.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.baam.emich.edu%2Fbaamsciencelessons%2Fbaammillsrules.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFGary_Marcus2013" class="citation magazine cs1">Gary Marcus (May 1, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/the-crisis-in-social-psychology-that-isnt">"The crisis in Social Psychology that isn't"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+crisis+in+Social+Psychology+that+isn%27t&rft.date=2013-05-01&rft.au=Gary+Marcus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Ftech%2Felements%2Fthe-crisis-in-social-psychology-that-isnt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFJonah_Lehrer2010" class="citation magazine cs1">Jonah Lehrer (December 13, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/12/13/the-truth-wears-off">"The truth wears off"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+truth+wears+off&rft.date=2010-12-13&rft.au=Jonah+Lehrer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2010%2F12%2F13%2Fthe-truth-wears-off&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Feilden, Tom 2017. Most scientists 'cannot replicate studies by their peers'. <i>BBC News</i> Science & Environment. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39054778">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Franklin-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Franklin_17-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9724332"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin,_James2001" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, James (2001). <i>The science of conjecture: evidence and probability before Pascal</i>. The Johns Hopkins University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+science+of+conjecture%3A+evidence+and+probability+before+Pascal&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Franklin%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsimple.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></span>, 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> was a Greek who (probably) lived and worked in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>. 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