Mining | Definition, History, Examples, Types, Effects, & Facts

<!doctype html> <html lang="en" class="topic-desktop ui-ie7 ui-ie"> <head prefix="og: https://ogp.me/ns# fb: https://ogp.me/ns/fb#"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133"> <link rel="preload" as="script" href="https://www.googletagservices.com/tag/js/gpt.js" /> <link rel="icon" href="/favicon.png" /> <meta name="description" content="Mining, process of extracting useful minerals from the surface of the Earth, including the seas. A mineral, with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has a definite chemical composition and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure. (One organic" /> <meta name="keywords" content="mining, encyclopedia, encyclopeadia, britannica, article" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining" /> <title>Mining | Definition, History, Examples, Types, Effects, & Facts | Britannica</title>  <script> !function(){"use strict";function e(e){const t=e.match(/((?=([a-z0-9._!#$%+^&*()[\]<>-]+))\2@[a-z0-9._-]+\.[a-z0-9._-]+)/gi);return t?t[0]:""}function t(t){return e(a(t.toLowerCase()))}function a(e){return e.replace(/\s/g,"")}async function n(e){const t={sha256Hash:"",sha1Hash:""};if(!("msCrypto"in window)&&"https:"===location.protocol&&"crypto"in window&&"TextEncoder"in window){const a=(new TextEncoder).encode(e),[n,c]=await Promise.all([s("SHA-256",a),s("SHA-1",a)]);t.sha256Hash=n,t.sha1Hash=c}return t}async function s(e,t){const a=await crypto.subtle.digest(e,t);return Array.from(new Uint8Array(a)).map(e=>("00"+e.toString(16)).slice(-2)).join("")}function c(e){let t=!0;return Object.keys(e).forEach(a=>{0===e[a].length&&(t=!1)}),t}function i(e,t,a){e.splice(t,1);const n="?"+e.join("&")+a.hash;history.replaceState(null,"",n)}var o={checkEmail:e,validateEmail:t,trimInput:a,hashEmail:n,hasHashes:c,removeEmailAndReplaceHistory:i,detectEmails:async function(){const e=new URL(window.location.href),a=Array.from(e.searchParams.entries()).map(e=>`=`);let s,o;const r=["adt_eih","sh_kit"];if(a.forEach((e,t)=>{const a=decodeURIComponent(e),[n,c]=a.split("=");if("adt_ei"===n&&(s={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"url"}),r.includes(n)){o={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"sh_kit"===n?"urlhck":"urlh"}}}),s)t(s.value)&&n(s.value).then(e=>{if(c(e)){const t={value:e,created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(t)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",s.emsrc)}});else if(o){const e={value:{sha256Hash:o.value,sha1Hash:""},created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(e)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",o.emsrc)}s&&i(a,s.index,e),o&&i(a,o.index,e)},cb:"adthrive"};const{detectEmails:r,cb:l}=o;r()}(); </script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel"> window.$UI = {}; window.Constants = {"LICENSE_URL": "/bps/license","DEFAULT_TEST_VERSION": "A","DEFAULT_STATE": "XX","QUIZ_URL": "/quiz","SPOTLIGHT_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/spotlight","CONTENT_TYPE_TEXT": "text/plain;charset=UTF-8","TOPIC_FACTS_DATA_URL": "/facts","QUIZ_BROWSE_IMAGE_QUIZZES": "images","TOPIC_MEDIA_PATH": "/images-videos","USER_PROFILE_URL": "/user","DEBUG_URL": "/debug","ONE_GOOD_FACT_URL": "/one-good-fact","ERROR_404_URL": "/error404","PROCON_CITED_IN_THE_NEWS_URL": "/procon/ProCon-in-the-News","PROCON_URL": "/procon","TOPIC_PAGE_CONTENT_AJAX_URL": "/topic-content/page","INFINITE_SCROLL_PREFIX_URL": "/scroll","TOPIC_TOP_QUESTION_BROWSE_URL": "/questions","CC_USD": "USD","domain": "britannica.com","PROCON_EDITOR_ID": "12941390","SURVEY_URL": "/survey","CATEGORY_BROWSE_URL": "/browse","STORY_BROWSE_URL": "/stories","COUNTRY_US": "US","OPEN_MEDIA_OVERLAY_PARAMETER": "/media","NEWSLETTER_SUBSCRIPTION_URL": "/newsletter-subscription","MAINTENANCE_ERROR_URL": "https://maintenance.eb.com","IMARS_EDITOR_ID": "12365882","PROFILE_EB_EDITOR_URL": "/editor","WEB_INF_RESOURCES_PATH": "WEB-INF/resources","AI_ABOUT_PAGE_URL": "/about-britannica-ai","TOPIC_ADDITIONAL_INFO_PATH": "/additional-info","SUDOKU_GAME_URL": "/games/sudoku","CC_INR": "INR","ARTICLE_PRINT_URL": "/print/article","FIRST_EDITION_URL": "/subscriber/firstedition","WW1_PORTAL_URL": "/discover/World-War-I","MENDEL_COOKIE": "__mendel","topicUrlClasses": "[topic, animal, art, biography, event, place, plant, science, sports, technology, procon, money]","DEMYSTIFIED_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/demystified","LIST_BROWSE_URL": "/list/browse","PROFILE_EXPERT_URL": "/contributor","ASSEMBLY_IMAGE_URL": "/image/assembly","DAY_IN_HISTORY_URL": "/on-this-day","DEFAULT_CURRENCY": "USD","CONTENT_TYPE_XML": "text/xml;charset=UTF-8","PORTAL_FINANCE_BROWSE_URL_PREFIX": "/money/browse","MONEY_IMARS_CATEGORY": "13000","AJAX_PREFIX_URL": "/ajax","TOPIC_BROWSE_URL": "/topic-browse","MARKETING_CONTENT": "/marketing-content","ENV_RUNTIME": "runtime","GALLERY_URL": "/gallery","topicUrlClassesList": "topic|animal|art|biography|event|place|plant|science|sports|technology|procon","CONTENT_TYPE_HTML": "text/html;charset=UTF-8","ENV_LOCAL": "override","MEDIA_OVERLAY_URL": "/media-overlay","CHATBOT_PAGE_URL": "/chatbot","NEWSLETTER_PAGE_URL": "/newsletters","ENV_DEV": "development","MEDIA_URL": "/media","TOPIC_TOP_QUESTION_URL": "/question","PORTAL_FINANCE_URL_PREFIX": "/money","PODCASTS_URL": "/podcasts","STAND_ALONE_VIDEO_URL": "/video","MORE_ON_THIS_DAY_URL": "/more-on-this-day","TOPIC_QUOTES_URL": "/quotes","SEARCH_PAGE_URL": "/search","PROCON_CLASS": "PROCON","KUSTOM_MENDEL_APPLICATION_ID": "1","TOPIC_CONTENT_AJAX_URL": "/topic-content/topic","ENV_BRANCH": "branch","ERROR_URL": "/error","MAIN_VERSION": "mainVersion","TOPIC_COLLECTION_URL": "/summary","LOGINBOX_URL": "/auth/loginbox","PROCON_DEBATE_TOPICS_URL": "/procon/Debate-Topics","ONE_GOOD_FACT_BROWSE_URL": "/one-good-fact/all-good-facts","QUIZ_BROWSE_URL": "/quiz/browse","BIO_BROWSE_URL": "/browse/biographies","LIST_URL": "/list","TIGHTROPE_QUIZ_URL": "/quiz/tightrope","ALPHA_BROWSE_URL": "/sitemap","CONTENT_TYPE_JSON": "application/json","DICTIONARY_URL": "/dictionary","COBRAND_IMAGE_URL": "/image/cobrand","PROCON_IN_THE_NEWS_URL": "/procon/pro-and-con-issues-in-the-news","PROCON_BROWSE_URL": "/procon","QUIZ_BROWSE_VOCAB_QUIZZES": "vocabulary-quizzes","SUBMISSION_URL": "/submission","EB_LOG_OUT": "/auth2/logout","ENV_PRODUCTION": "production","EXPLORE_PORTAL_URL": "/explore","TOPIC_AJAX_URL": "/ajax/topic","TOPIC_SUMMARY_BROWSE_URL": "/summaries","WTFACT_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/wtfact","VIDEO_CHANNEL_URL": "/videos","GALLERY_BROWSE_URL": "/gallery/browse","CACHE_URL": "/cache","PROCON_ABOUT_URL": "/procon/About-ProCon","COMPANION_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/companion","MEDIA_FOLDER": "/eb-media","SHOW_ALL_CONTRIBUTORS": "/additional-info#contributors","BRITANNICA_EDITORS_ID": "4419","ENV_CACHE_DISABLED": "mendelCache","CALCULATORS_BROWSE_URL": "/calculators","STORY_URL": "/story","DEFAULT_COUNTRY": "US","NAVBAR_URL": "/ajax/navbar","EB_LOGIN_URL": "/auth/eb-login","NEW_ARTICLES_URL": "/new-articles",}; window.CDN = "https://cdn.britannica.com"; window.CAM_SETTINGS_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com/settings"; window.CAM_LOGIN_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com/login"; window.CAM_SIGN_UP_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com/registration" window.Mendel = { "config" : { "domain": "britannica.com", "page": "Topic", "videoPlayerId": "UyMCoK2v", "sharedUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining", "amuselabsUrl": "https://cdn3.amuselabs.com", "resourcesPrefixUrl": "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/[url]?v=3.133.48", "date": 20250301, "userInfo": { "type": "ANONYMOUS" ,"currency": "AUUS" ,"country": "SG" ,"state": "XX" ,"timezone": "Asia/Singapore" ,"bcomId": "5152546094699043066" ,"hasAds": true ,"testVersion": "C" ,"adsTestVersion": "C" ,"consumerId": "" ,"instId": "" ,"consumerUserName": "" ,"instUserName": "" ,"cognito": null }, "tvs":{ "r":[25,25,25,25], "a": [25,25,45,5]}, "isLoggedInAsUser": false, "isPhone": false, "isDesktop": true, "logoutUrl": "/auth2/logout", "selfServiceUrl": "https://myaccount.britannica.com", "cdnUrl": "https://cdn.britannica.com", "chatbotApi": "https://www.britannica.com/chat-api", "fetchOffset": 800, "mendelCookieName": "__mendel", "mendelCookie": {"surveyShown":false,"visitedTopicId":384099,"currentDate":20250301}, "autocompleteToSearchPage": false,"topicUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining", "freeTopicReason": "NO_REFERRER", "topicId": 384099, "template": "DESKTOP", "type": "CORE", "hasToc": true, "chatbotApi": "https://www.britannica.com/chat-api", "showPreview": false, }, "GA": {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true,"hasAiTopQuestions":false,"hasSimplifyButton":false} }; </script> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="1887621861548296"/ <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@britannica" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/27/1527-004-244E7EFA/development-workings-mine.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Mining, process of extracting useful minerals from the surface of the Earth, including the seas. A mineral, with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has a definite chemical composition and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure. (One organic"/> <meta property="og:type" content="ARTICLE"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Mining | Definition, History, Examples, Types, Effects, & Facts | Britannica"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Mining, process of extracting useful minerals from the surface of the Earth, including the seas. A mineral, with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has a definite chemical composition and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure. (One organic"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopedia Britannica" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/27/1527-004-244E7EFA/development-workings-mine.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg" /> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="init opengraph"> Mendel.openGraph = {"type":"ARTICLE","title":"Mining | Definition, History, Examples, Types, Effects, & Facts","description":"Mining, process of extracting useful minerals from the surface of the Earth, including the seas. A mineral, with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has a definite chemical composition and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure. (One organic","imageUrl":"https://cdn.britannica.com/27/1527-004-244E7EFA/development-workings-mine.jpg","imageType":"image/jpeg","pageUrl":"https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining"}</script> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/" > <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons"> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/vendor-bundle.css?v=3.133.48" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/mendel-css.css?v=3.133.48" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.css?v=3.133.48" rel="stylesheet" /> <script type="text/javascript"> if (self !== top) { top.location = self.location; } </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/at.js?v=3.133.48" async ></script> <script> dataLayer = []; </script> <script type="text/javascript">(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= '//www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-5W6NC8'); </script> <meta name="last-modified" content="2025-02-20" /> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"headline":"Mining | Definition, History, Examples, Types, Effects, & Facts","image":{"url":"https://cdn.britannica.com/27/1527-004-244E7EFA/development-workings-mine.jpg","@type":"ImageObject"},"author":[{"name":"William Andrew Hustrulid","url":"https://www.britannica.com/contributor/William-Andrew-Hustrulid/4063","@type":"Person"},{"name":"George B. Clark","url":"https://www.britannica.com/contributor/George-B-Clark/563","@type":"Person"}],"keywords":"mining","wordcount":13477,"url":"https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining","datePublished":"1998-10-30T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2025-02-20T00:00:00Z","description":"Mining, process of extracting useful minerals from the surface of the Earth, including the seas. A mineral, with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has a definite chemical composition and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure. (One organic","publisher":{"name":"Encyclopedia Britannica","@type":"Organization","logo":{"url":"https://corporate.britannica.com/wp-content/themes/eb-corporate/_img/logo.png","@type":"ImageObject"}},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"article"} </script> </head> <body data-leg="C" class="new-topic topic-desktop first-page-true user-ANONYMOUS user-ads md-desktop leg-c b-ie">  <script>Mendel.config.adProvider='cafemedia';</script> <script data-no-optimize="1" data-cfasync="false"> (function(w, d) { w.adthrive = w.adthrive || {}; w.adthrive.cmd = w. adthrive.cmd || []; w.adthrive.plugin = 'adthrive-ads-manual'; w.adthrive.host = 'ads.adthrive.com';var s = d.createElement('script'); s.async = true; s.referrerpolicy='no-referrer-when-downgrade'; s.src = 'https://' + w.adthrive.host + '/sites/61575e5c934c481d714b3ca9/ads.min.js?referrer=' + w.encodeURIComponent(w.location.href) + '&cb=' + (Math.floor(Math.random() * 100) + 1); var n = d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; n.parentNode.insertBefore(s, n); })(window, document); </script> <div class="ie-warning d-flex align-items-center align-self-center justify-content-center site-alert bg-orange"> <div> You are using an <strong>outdated</strong> browser. Please <a class="text-white text-underscore" href="https://browsehappy.com/">upgrade your browser</a> to improve your experience and security. </div> </div> <script id="json-navbar-info" type="application/json"> {"topSectionLinks":[{"title":"Ask the Chatbot","url":"/chatbot","navbarId":"CHATBOT"},{"title":"Games & Quizzes","url":"/quiz/browse","navbarId":"QUIZZES"},{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society","navbarId":"HISTORY"},{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech","selected":true,"navbarId":"SCIENCE"},{"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies","navbarId":"BIOS"},{"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature","navbarId":"ANIMALS"},{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel","navbarId":"GEOGRAPHY"},{"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture","navbarId":"ART"},{"title":"ProCon","url":"/procon","navbarId":"PROCON"},{"title":"Money","url":"/money","navbarId":"MONEY"},{"title":"Videos","url":"/videos","navbarId":"VIDEOS"}],"selectedSuperCategory":{"id":6,"title":"Science & Tech","url":"Science-Tech","description":"Explore science and technology; astronomy; biology; chemistry; earth science; mathematics; physics; technology, agriculture, cars, computers, engineering, industry, inventions, communication","keywords":"astronomy; biology; chemistry; earth science; mathematics; physics; technology, agriculture, cars, computers, engineering, industry, inventions, communication","classId":"SCIENCE","sortOrder":2},"selectedNavbarLink":{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech","selected":true,"navbarId":"SCIENCE"}} </script> <script id="json-hamburger-menu" type="application/json"> {"britannicaMenu1":[{"title":"Home","url":"/"},{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society"},{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech"},{"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies"},{"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature"},{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel"},{"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture"},{"title":"ProCon","url":"/procon"},{"title":"Money","url":"/money"}],"britannicaMenu2":[{"title":"Games & Quizzes","url":"/quiz/browse"},{"title":"Videos","url":"/videos"},{"title":"On This Day","url":"/on-this-day"},{"title":"One Good Fact","url":"/one-good-fact"},{"title":"Dictionary","url":"/dictionary"},{"title":"New Articles","url":"/new-articles"}],"browseByCategory":[{"title":{"id":5,"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society"},"links":[{"title":"Lifestyles & Social Issues","url":"/browse/Lifestyles-Social-Issues"},{"title":"Philosophy & Religion","url":"/browse/Philosophy-Religion"},{"title":"Politics, Law & Government","url":"/browse/Politics-Law-Government"},{"title":"World History","url":"/browse/World-History"}]},{"title":{"id":6,"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech"},"links":[{"title":"Health & Medicine","url":"/browse/Health-Medicine"},{"title":"Science","url":"/browse/Science"},{"title":"Technology","url":"/browse/Technology"}]},{"title":{"id":3,"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies"},"links":[{"title":"Browse Biographies","url":"/browse/biographies"}]},{"title":{"id":1,"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature"},"links":[{"title":"Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates","url":"/browse/Birds-Reptiles-Vertebrates"},{"title":"Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates","url":"/browse/Bugs-Mollusks-Invertebrates"},{"title":"Environment","url":"/browse/Environment"},{"title":"Fossils & Geologic Time","url":"/browse/Fossil-Geologic-Time"},{"title":"Mammals","url":"/browse/Mammals"},{"title":"Plants","url":"/browse/Plants"}]},{"title":{"id":4,"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel"},"links":[{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/browse/Geography-Travel"}]},{"title":{"id":2,"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture"},"links":[{"title":"Entertainment & Pop Culture","url":"/browse/Entertainment-Pop-Culture"},{"title":"Literature","url":"/browse/Literature"},{"title":"Sports & Recreation","url":"/browse/Sports-Recreation"},{"title":"Visual Arts","url":"/browse/Visual-Arts"}]}],"browseByFeature":[{"title":"Companions","url":"/stories/companion"},{"title":"Demystified","url":"/stories/demystified"},{"title":"Image Galleries","url":"/gallery/browse"},{"title":"Lists","url":"/list/browse"},{"title":"Podcasts","url":"/podcasts"},{"title":"Spotlight","url":"/stories/spotlight"},{"title":"Summaries","url":"/summary"},{"title":"The Forum","url":"/stories/the-forum"},{"title":"Top Questions","url":"/question"},{"title":"#WTFact","url":"/stories/wtfact"}],"moreFromBritannica":[{"title":"Britannica Kids","url":"https://kids.britannica.com/","newTab":true}],"menuType":"DEFAULT"} </script> <header id="header" class="bg-navy-dark"> <div class="global-nav-top-bar"> <div class="grid gx-0 h-100 justify-content-between align-items-center container-lg mx-auto p-0 position-relative"> <div class="d-flex align-items-center"> <button class="d-flex align-items-center justify-self-start js-toggle js-toggle-hamburger btn btn-link link-white btn-sm rounded-0 p-10"> <div class="hamburger-tooltip"> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block font-24" id="nav-toggle" data-icon="menu"></em> </div> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block font-24 global-nav-search-icon" id="nav-search-icon" data-icon="search" ></em> </button> <a href="/" class="d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center ml-10"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png" alt="Encyclopedia Britannica" class="global-nav-logo global-nav-logo-left" /> </a> <div class="global-nav-top-search-bar global-nav-top-search-container global-nav-search-container" id="global-nav-top-search-bar"> <form method="get" action="/search" id="global-nav-search" class="md-search-form m-0 global-nav-search-bar-small"> <div class="search-box position-relative col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="global-nav-search-query">Search Britannica</label> <input name="query" id="global-nav-search-query" placeholder="Search Britannica..." class="form-control form-control-lg rounded-lg font-16 search-query pl-20 pr-70 shadow-sm" maxlength="200" autocomplete="off" aria-label="Search Britannica" /> <button class="search-reset-btn btn btn-link px-10 position-absolute top-0 h-100 d-none" type="reset"> <em class="material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </button> <button class="search-submit btn btn-link text-blue px-10 position-absolute top-0 right-0 h-100" type="submit" disabled> <span class="sr-only">Click here to search</span> <em class="material-icons search-icon" data-icon="search"></em> </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <a href="/" class="d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png" alt="Encyclopedia Britannica" class="global-nav-center global-nav-logo non-homepage-logo" /> </a> <form method="get" action="/search" id="global-nav-search" class="md-search-form m-0 global-nav-search-bar-small global-nav-center search global-nav-center-search-container"> <div class="search-box position-relative col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="global-nav-search-query">Search Britannica</label> <input name="query" id="global-nav-search-query" placeholder="Search Britannica..." class="form-control form-control-lg rounded-lg font-16 search-query pl-20 pr-70 shadow-sm" maxlength="200" autocomplete="off" aria-label="Search Britannica" /> <button class="search-reset-btn btn btn-link px-10 position-absolute top-0 h-100 d-none" type="reset"> <em class="material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </button> <button class="search-submit btn btn-link text-blue px-10 position-absolute top-0 right-0 h-100" type="submit" disabled> <span class="sr-only">Click here to search</span> <em class="material-icons search-icon" data-icon="search"></em> </button> </div> </form> <div class="col-35 col-sm-auto text-right order-3 mr-lg-15 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-end"> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block"> <SPAN class="marketing-HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_DESKTOP2 marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_DESKTOP2"><a href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=global-nav&utm_campaign=evergreen-cap" class="subscribe-link btn btn-sm btn-orange py-5 mr-10" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> SUBSCRIBE </a></SPAN></div> <div class="d-inline-block d-md-none mr-5 mr-sm-10"> <SPAN class="marketing-HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_MOBILE marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_MOBILE"><a href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=global-nav-mobile&utm_campaign=evergreen" class="subscribe-link btn btn-xs btn-orange p-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> SUBSCRIBE </a></SPAN></div> <button class="js-toggle-user-dropdown js-toggle btn btn-sm btn-link link-white rounded-0 px-md-15 pl-5 pr-5"> <span class="d-none d-md-inline-block mr-5">Login</span> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block d-md-none font-16 font-sm-20" data-icon="account_circle"></em> <div class="d-none dropdown-menu-subscription-link">https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=nav-login-box&utm_campaign=evergreen</div> <em class="material-icons inactive-icon d-inline-block font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_down"></em> <em class="material-icons active-icon d-inline-block font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_up"></em> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-none hamburger-menu-subscription-link"><DIV class="marketing-HAMBURGER_MENU_CTA marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HAMBURGER_MENU_CTA"><a href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=hamburger-menu&utm_campaign=evergreen" class="subscribe-link btn btn-sm btn-orange py-5" target="_blank"> SUBSCRIBE </a></DIV></div> <div id="global-nav-react"> <div class="d-none"> <ul> <li><a href="/">Home</a></li> <li><a href="/History-Society">History & Society</a></li> <li><a href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a></li> <li><a href="/Biographies">Biographies</a></li> <li><a href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/procon">ProCon</a></li> <li><a href="/money">Money</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/quiz/browse">Games & Quizzes</a></li> <li><a href="/videos">Videos</a></li> <li><a href="/on-this-day">On This Day</a></li> <li><a href="/one-good-fact">One Good Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/dictionary">Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/new-articles">New Articles</a></li> </ul> <a href="/History-Society">History & Society</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Lifestyles-Social-Issues">Lifestyles & Social Issues</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Philosophy-Religion">Philosophy & Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Politics-Law-Government">Politics, Law & Government</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/World-History">World History</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Health-Medicine">Health & Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Technology">Technology</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Biographies">Biographies</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/biographies">Browse Biographies</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Birds-Reptiles-Vertebrates">Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Bugs-Mollusks-Invertebrates">Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Environment">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Fossil-Geologic-Time">Fossils & Geologic Time</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Mammals">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Plants">Plants</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Entertainment-Pop-Culture">Entertainment & Pop Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Sports-Recreation">Sports & Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Visual-Arts">Visual Arts</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/stories/companion">Companions</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/demystified">Demystified</a></li> <li><a href="/gallery/browse">Image Galleries</a></li> <li><a href="/list/browse">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/podcasts">Podcasts</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/spotlight">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/summary">Summaries</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/the-forum">The Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/question">Top Questions</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/wtfact">#WTFact</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="https://kids.britannica.com/">Britannica Kids</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </header> <div class="bg-navy-dark"> <div class="container-lg p-0 d-flex justify-content-center global-nav-categories-bar overflow-hidden"> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 global-nav-slider category-snap-slider"> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex font-14 overflow-hidden text-nowrap mx-5"> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-CHATBOT " href="/chatbot">Ask the Chatbot</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-QUIZZES " href="/quiz/browse">Games & Quizzes</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-HISTORY " href="/History-Society">History & Society</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-SCIENCE selected selected" href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-BIOS " href="/Biographies">Biographies</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-ANIMALS " href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-GEOGRAPHY " href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-ART " href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-PROCON " href="/procon">ProCon</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-MONEY " href="/money">Money</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-VIDEOS " href="/videos">Videos</a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <script> Object.assign( window.Mendel.config, { "infiniteScrollList": [{"p":12,"t":384099},{"p":1,"t":429685},{"p":1,"t":516095},{"p":1,"t":89586},{"p":1,"t":1341009},{"p":21,"t":383675},{"p":1,"t":278207},{"p":7,"t":122975},{"p":1,"t":56513},{"p":1,"t":1686247}], "sequence": 1, "topics": {} }); </script> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="384099"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining">mining</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/technology/mining">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref81255"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining#ref81255">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref81256"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Prospecting-and-exploration">Prospecting and exploration</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81257"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Prospecting-and-exploration#ref81257">Prospecting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81258"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Prospecting-and-exploration#ref81258">Exploration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81259"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Prospecting-and-exploration#ref81259">Delineation</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref81260"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Surface-mining">Surface mining</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81261"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Surface-mining#ref81261">Open-pit mining</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81262"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Surface-mining#ref81262">Pit geometry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81263"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Surface-mining#ref81263">Ore reserves</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81264"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Surface-mining#ref81264">Unit operations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81265"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Quarrying">Quarrying</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81266"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Quarrying#ref81266">Pit geometry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81267"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Quarrying#ref81267">Unit operations</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref81268"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Underground-mining">Underground mining</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81269"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Underground-mining#ref81269">Mine development</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81270"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Underground-mining#ref81270">Vertical openings: shafts and raises</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81271"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Horizontal-openings-drifts">Horizontal openings: drifts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81272"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Ventilation-and-lighting">Ventilation and lighting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81273"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Ventilation-and-lighting#ref81273">Water control</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81274"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Ventilation-and-lighting#ref81274">Mining flat-lying deposits</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81275"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Ventilation-and-lighting#ref81275">Room-and-pillar mining</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81276"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Ventilation-and-lighting#ref81276">Longwall mining</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81277"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Ventilation-and-lighting#ref81277">Mining steeply dipping deposits</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81278"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Blasthole-stoping">Blasthole stoping</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81279"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Blasthole-stoping#ref81279">Shrinkage stoping</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81280"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Blasthole-stoping#ref81280">Cut-and-fill mining</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81281"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Blasthole-stoping#ref81281">Sublevel caving</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81282"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Blasthole-stoping#ref81282">Mining massive deposits</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref81283"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Placer-mining">Placer mining</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81284"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Placer-mining#ref81284">Land-based operations</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81285"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Placer-mining#ref81285">Panning</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81286"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Placer-mining#ref81286">Sluicing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81287"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Placer-mining#ref81287">Mechanized methods</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81288"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Placer-mining#ref81288">Floating-plant operations</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81289"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Placer-mining#ref81289">Dragline or backhoe</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81290"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Dredging">Dredging</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref81291"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Dredging#ref81291">Marine mining</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81292"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Dredging#ref81292">Seawater</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81293"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Dredging#ref81293">Evaporation of seawater</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref81294"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Dredging#ref81294">Evaporation of effluents</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81295"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Marine-beaches-and-continental-shelves">Marine beaches and continental shelves</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81296"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Marine-beaches-and-continental-shelves#ref81296">The seafloor</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref81297"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Solution-mining">Solution mining</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81298"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Solution-mining#ref81298">Brine solution mining</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref81299"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/mining/Solution-mining#ref81299">Frasch sulfur recovery</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/mining">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/27/1527-004-244E7EFA/development-workings-mine.jpg" data-href="/media/1/384099/1517" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/27/1527-004-244E7EFA/development-workings-mine.jpg" alt="development workings of an underground mine" height="50" /> </a> <a href="/video/Iron-ore-mining-Kiruna-Sweden/16555" data-href="/media/1/384099/16555" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <div class="position-relative --aspect-ratio: 16/9"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/79/21979-138-D31005EC/Iron-ore-mining-Kiruna-Sweden.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Study how iron ore is mined with explosives and crushed and concentrated with remote-controlled machines" class="col-100" /> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; left:50%; transform: translate(-50%, -50%)"> <em class="material-icons font-14" data-icon="play_arrow" > </em> </div> </div> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1528-004-48EDAE1B/Room-and-pillar-mining-ore-body.jpg" data-href="/media/1/384099/1519" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1528-004-48EDAE1B/Room-and-pillar-mining-ore-body.jpg" alt="room-and-pillar mining" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/29/1529-004-1969E204/stoping-drilling-blastholes-loading-ore-points-bottom.jpg" data-href="/media/1/384099/1533" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/29/1529-004-1969E204/stoping-drilling-blastholes-loading-ore-points-bottom.jpg" alt="blasthole stoping" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/31/1531-004-B7D9D70A/Shrinkage-stoping.jpg" data-href="/media/1/384099/2926" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/31/1531-004-B7D9D70A/Shrinkage-stoping.jpg" alt="shrinkage stoping" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/61/1561-004-478F9402/mining.jpg" data-href="/media/1/384099/2932" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/61/1561-004-478F9402/mining.jpg" alt="overhand cut-and-fill mining" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/32/1532-004-5ABE54CC/caving-Sublevel-LHD-machine-ore-pass-waste.jpg" data-href="/media/1/384099/1523" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/32/1532-004-5ABE54CC/caving-Sublevel-LHD-machine-ore-pass-waste.jpg" alt="sublevel caving" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/33/1533-004-41876CC1/Panel-caving-ore-body.jpg" data-href="/media/1/384099/1521" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/33/1533-004-41876CC1/Panel-caving-ore-body.jpg" alt="panel caving" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/10515-004-4ADCE404/diamond-mining-Kenema-Sierra-Leone.jpg" data-href="/media/1/384099/12303" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/15/10515-004-4ADCE404/diamond-mining-Kenema-Sierra-Leone.jpg" alt="alluvial diamond mining" height="50" /> </a> <a href="/video/Gold-mineral-deposits-parts-Amazon-River-basin/16416" data-href="/media/1/384099/16416" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <div class="position-relative --aspect-ratio: 16/9"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/14/21914-138-771DA82B/Gold-mineral-deposits-parts-Amazon-River-basin.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Learn about effects of mercury used in gold mining on drinking water of innocent wildlife in Amazon Basin" class="col-100" /> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; left:50%; transform: translate(-50%, -50%)"> <em class="material-icons font-14" data-icon="play_arrow" > </em> </div> </div> </a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-student-links"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> For Students </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/summary/mining"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/64/128864-050-741F8486/Argyle-Diamonds-open-pit-mine-Western-Australia-Lake.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="open-pit diamond mine" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/summary/mining" >mining summary</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-discover"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Discover </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/americas-5-most-notorious-cold-cases-including-one-you-may-have-thought-was-already-solved"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/71/196471-131-8FEA8DDD/Daily-Police-Bulletin-Elizabeth-Short-Black-Dahlia-January-1947.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Los Angeles Police Department wanted flyer on Elizabeth Short, aka the "Black Dahlia," who was brutally murdered in January 1947. The FBI supported the Los Angeles Police Department in the case, including by identifying Short through her fingerprints that" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/americas-5-most-notorious-cold-cases-including-one-you-may-have-thought-was-already-solved" >America’s 5 Most Notorious Cold Cases (Including One You May Have Thought Was Already Solved)</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/the-assassination-of-leon-trotsky"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/35/28235-131-19392D4F/Leon-Trotsky.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Leon Trotsky" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/the-assassination-of-leon-trotsky" >The Assassination of Leon Trotsky</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/nostradamus-and-his-prophecies"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/39/193239-131-181E3553/Statue-Nostradamus.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Statue of Nostradamus" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/nostradamus-and-his-prophecies" >Nostradamus and His Prophecies</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/whats-the-difference-between-great-britain-and-the-united-kingdom"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/43/193443-131-17ABE1C9/Union-Jack-flag-Great-Britain-united-kingdom.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Union Jack flag of Great Britain, united kingdom" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/whats-the-difference-between-great-britain-and-the-united-kingdom" >What’s the Difference Between Great Britain and the United Kingdom?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/9-things-you-might-not-know-about-adolf-hitler"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/58/156058-131-22083D0A/Adolf-Hitler.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Adolf Hitler (Nazi, nazism, German leader)." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/9-things-you-might-not-know-about-adolf-hitler" >9 Things You Might Not Know About Adolf Hitler</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/history-of-technology-timeline"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/84/203584-131-357FBE7D/speed-internet-technology-background.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Abstract vector hi speed internet technology background" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/history-of-technology-timeline" >History of Technology Timeline</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/how-fast-is-the-worlds-fastest-human"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/53/189853-131-02462668/Footraces-distances-Summer-Olympics.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Start of Men's 100 meter sprint where Usain Bolt wins and sets a new world record at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games August 18, 2008 in Beijing, China." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/how-fast-is-the-worlds-fastest-human" >How Fast Is the World’s Fastest Human?</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="drawerToggle btn position-sticky border btn-xs btn-white btn-circle rounded-sm d-none d-lg-flex " type="button" aria-label="Toggle Drawer"> <em class="material-icons font-18 text-blue" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="h-100 ml-0 pr-lg-0 "> <div class="h-100 grid gx-0 gx-lg-20"> <div class="h-100 col-sm"> <div class="h-100 infinite-pagination-container d-flex flex-column position-relative"> <div class="position-absolute top-0 h-100 w-100"> <div class="toc-sticky-header d-none d-lg-none bg-gray-50 px-10 px-sm-30 position-sticky w-100 "> <div class="toc-sticky-header-inner-container align-items-center d-flex mx-auto h-100 w-100"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-sm btn-white text-blue border-2 border-gray-100 gtm-mobile-toc-header-button js-sections-button d-lg-none p-10"> <em class="material-icons my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Contents </button> <div class="header-ai-simplify-button-placeholder"></div> <div class="header-ai-ask-button-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="grey-box w-100 grey-box-top"> <div class="grey-box-content mx-auto w-100"> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context" : "https://schema.org", "@type" : "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement" : [ { "@type" : "ListItem", "position" : 1, "item" : { "@id" : "https://www.britannica.com/browse/Technology", "name": "Technology" } } , { "@type" : "ListItem", "position" : 2, "item" : { "@id" : "https://www.britannica.com/browse/Industry", "name": "Industry" } } ] } </script> <nav class="breadcrumb mt-20"> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Technology">Technology</a> </span> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Industry">Industry</a> </span> </nav> <div class="page2ref-true topic-content topic-type-REGULAR" data-student-article="false"> <script class="page-description-json" type="application/json"> { "url": "/technology/mining", "shareUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining", "browserTitle": "Mining | Definition, History, Examples, Types, Effects, & Facts", "firstTopicPage": true, "topicId":384099 } </script> <div class="reading-channel"> <div class="desktop-header-image module-spacing"> <figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-20 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="13684" data-asm-type="image"> <div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"> <a style="min-height: 160px;" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/27/1527-004-244E7EFA/development-workings-mine.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/384099/1517"> <picture> <source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/27/1527-004-244E7EFA/development-workings-mine.jpg?w=300"> <img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/27/1527-004-244E7EFA/development-workings-mine.jpg?w=400&h=300&c=crop" alt="development workings of an underground mine" loading="eager" /> </picture> <button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"> <em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em> </button> </a> </div> <figcaption class="card-body"> <div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"> <span> <a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/27/1527-004-244E7EFA/development-workings-mine.jpg" data-href="/media/1/384099/1517">development workings of an underground mine</a> <span><span>Typical development workings of an underground mine.</span></span> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <span class="link-blue">(more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </div><div class="topic-header"> <div class="d-flex align-items-top justify-content-between"> <div class="d-flex flex-column"> <div> <div> <h1>mining</h1></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-none d-sm-flex flex-row"> <div class="mr-10 mb-15"> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 px-sm-5 px-md-10 js-inline-ai-ask-button"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="d-block md-topic-tools qa-action-buttons mb-15" data-topic-id="384099"> <button class="js-tooltip btn btn-sm btn-outline-blue border pr-10 border-2 text-nowrap" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="more_vert"></em> More Actions </button> <div class="md-more-popover popover popover-sm p-0 font-14 z-1"> <div> <button class="js-print-modal-button js-modal gtm-topic-tool btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=384099] .md-print-modal" > <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="print"></em> Print </button> <div class="md-print-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10">print</em> Print </div> <div class="mt-20 mb-10"> Please select which sections you would like to print: </div> <form action="/print/article/384099" method="post" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> <div class="print-box-items"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li><label><input class="mr-10" type="checkbox" name="sequence[]" value="0">Table Of Contents</label></li> </ul> </div> <input type="submit" class="btn btn-blue md-disabled" value="Print" /> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-modal qa-cite-modal-button btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=384099] .md-cite-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="verified"></em> Cite </button> <div class="md-cite-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom mb-15"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10">verified</em>Cite </div> <div class="font-serif"> While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. </div> <div class="label mt-20 mb-10">Select Citation Style</div> <select class="js-citation-format-select form-select"> <option selected value="mla">MLA</option> <option value="apa">APA</option> <option value="chicago">Chicago Manual of Style</option> </select> <div class="citation font-serif border rounded p-15 mt-20" data-authors="Hustrulid, William Andrew, Clark, George B., Mero, John Lawrence" data-authors-initial="Hustrulid, W.A., Clark, G.B., Mero, J.L." data-title="mining" data-published-date="20 Feb. 2025" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining" > <div class="citation-text"></div> </div> <button class="js-copy-citation-button mt-20 btn btn-xs btn-outline-blue border shadow-sm pr-10" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="file_copy"></em> <span class="js-citation-status-text">Copy Citation</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-share-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=384099] .md-share-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="share"></em> Share </button> <div class="md-share-modal size-lg d-none qa-share-modal"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10" data-icon="share"></em> Share </div> <div class="label my-20">Share to social media</div> <div class="md-social-toolbar-circle d-flex align-items-start inverted" data-value="share" title="mining" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining" > <a class="social-icon facebook justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>Facebook</span></a> <a class="social-icon x justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="x" href="https://x.com/britannica" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>X</span></a> </div> <div class="label pt-20 mt-20 mb-5 border-top">URL</div> <a class="font-serif text-truncate d-inline-block" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining">https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining</a> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-feedback-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal=".md-feedback-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="message"></em> Feedback </button> </div> <div> <button class="qa-external-website-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=384099] .md-websites-modal"> <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 mr-5" data-icon="link"></em> External Websites </button> </div> </div> <div class="md-feedback-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom"> Feedback </div> <form method="post" action="/submission/feedback/384099"> <div class="my-20"> Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://environmental-geol.pressbooks.tru.ca/chapter/mining-and-ore-processing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Thompson Rivers University - Environmental Geology - Mining and Ore Processing</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geology/Fundamentals_of_Geology_(Schulte)/12%3A_Geological_Implications/12.09%3A_Mining" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Geosciences LibreTexts - Mining</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2016/finalwebsite/solutions/mining.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Massachusetts Institute of Technology - Mining</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="http://www.miningusa.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">MiningUSA.com</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/mining/353469" target="_blank" rel="noopener">mining - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/mining/275852" target="_blank" rel="noopener">mining - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 d-none mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10 px-sm-5 px-md-10 js-header-ai-ask-button"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/William-Andrew-Hustrulid/4063" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">William Andrew Hustrulid</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Mining, Colorado School of Mines, Golden. Editor, <i>Underground Mining Methods Handbook.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> William Andrew Hustrulid</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/George-B-Clark/563" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">George B. Clark</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Mining Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, 1976–84. Coauthor of <i>Elements of Mining.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> George B. Clark</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-20T00:00:00CST" >Feb 20, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 module-spacing js-inline-ai-ask-button p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Cecil-Rhodes" topicid="501604">Cecil Rhodes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/money/Mikhail-Prokhorov" topicid="1815608">Mikhail Prokhorov</a></dd> <dd><a href="/money/Patrice-Tlhopane-Motsepe" topicid="1473964">Patrice Tlhopane Motsepe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/money/Clive-Palmer" topicid="1956596">Clive Palmer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/money/Georgina-Hope-Rinehart" topicid="1798020">Georgina Hope Rinehart</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/technology/coal-mining" topicid="122975">coal mining</a></dd> <dd><a href="/technology/mine-gas" topicid="383652">mine gas</a></dd> <dd><a href="/technology/hydraulic-mining" topicid="278207">hydraulic mining</a></dd> <dd><a href="/technology/adit" topicid="5978">adit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/technology/stoping" topicid="567458">stoping</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>On the Web: </dt> <dd><a href="https://environmental-geol.pressbooks.tru.ca/chapter/mining-and-ore-processing/" target="_blank">Thompson Rivers University - Environmental Geology - Mining and Ore Processing</a> (Feb. 20, 2025)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/mining"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref622338"></span>mining</strong>, process of extracting useful <span id="ref622339"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/mineral-chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">minerals</a> from the surface of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Earth" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Earth</a>, including the seas. A <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/mineral-chemical-compound" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">mineral</a>, with a few exceptions, is an inorganic substance occurring in nature that has a definite chemical <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="composition" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/composition" data-type="MW">composition</a> and distinctive physical properties or molecular structure. (One organic substance, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/coal-fossil-fuel" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">coal</a>, is often discussed as a mineral as well.) <span id="ref622340"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ore-mining" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ore</a> is a metalliferous <span id="ref622342"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/mineral-deposit" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">mineral</a>, or an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="aggregate" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aggregate" data-type="MW">aggregate</a> of metalliferous minerals and <span id="ref622341"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/gangue" class="md-crosslink ">gangue</a> (associated <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/rock-geology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">rock</a> of no economic value), that can be mined at a profit. <em>Mineral deposit</em> designates a natural occurrence of a useful mineral, while <em><span id="ref622343"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ore-deposit" class="md-crosslink ">ore deposit</a></em> denotes a mineral deposit of sufficient extent and concentration to invite exploitation.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">When evaluating mineral deposits, it is extremely important to keep profit in mind. The total quantity of mineral in a given deposit is referred to as the <span id="ref622344"></span>mineral inventory, but only that quantity which can be mined at a profit is termed the <em><span id="ref622345"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ore-reserve" class="md-crosslink ">ore reserve</a></em>. As the selling price of the mineral rises or the extraction costs fall, the proportion of the mineral inventory classified as ore increases. Obviously, the opposite is also true, and a mine may <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="cease" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/cease" data-type="EB">cease</a> production because (1) the mineral is exhausted or (2) the prices have dropped or costs risen so much that what was once ore is now only mineral.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="md-signature font-12"><a href="/contributor/William-Andrew-Hustrulid/4063">William Andrew Hustrulid</a></span> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref81255"> <h2 class="h1">History</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Archaeological discoveries indicate that mining was conducted in prehistoric times. Apparently, the first mineral used was <span id="ref622346"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/flint-mineral" class="md-crosslink ">flint</a>, which, because of its conchoidal fracturing pattern, could be broken into sharp-edged pieces that were useful as scrapers, knives, and arrowheads. During the <span id="ref622347"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Neolithic" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Neolithic Period</a>, or New Stone Age (about 8000–2000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>), shafts up to 100 metres (330 feet) deep were sunk in soft <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chalk" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">chalk</a> deposits in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/France" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">France</a> and Britain in order to extract the flint pebbles found there. Other minerals, such as red ochre and the copper mineral <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/malachite" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">malachite</a>, were used as pigments. The oldest known underground mine in the world was sunk more than 40,000 years ago at <span id="ref622348"></span>Bomvu Ridge in the Ngwenya mountains, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Eswatini" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Swaziland</a>, to mine ochre used in burial ceremonies and as body colouring.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref622349"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/gold-chemical-element" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gold</a> was one of the first metals <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="utilized" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/utilized" data-type="EB">utilized</a>, being mined from streambeds of sand and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/gravel" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">gravel</a> where it occurred as a pure <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/metal-chemistry" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">metal</a> because of its chemical stability. Although chemically less stable, <span id="ref622350"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/copper" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">copper</a> occurs in native form and was probably the second metal discovered and used. <span id="ref622351"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/silver" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Silver</a> was also found in a pure state and at one time was valued more highly than gold.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">According to historians, the <span id="ref622352"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Egyptians</a> were mining copper on the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sinai-Peninsula" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sinai Peninsula</a> as long ago as 3000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>, although some <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/bronze-alloy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">bronze</a> (copper alloyed with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/tin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">tin</a>) is dated as early as 3700 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>. <span id="ref622353"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/iron-chemical-element" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Iron</a> is dated as early as 2800 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>; Egyptian records of iron ore <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/smelting" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">smelting</a> date from 1300 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>. Found in the ancient ruins of <span id="ref622354"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Troy-ancient-city-Turkey" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Troy</a>, <span id="ref622355"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/lead-processing" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">lead</a> was produced as early as 2500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">One of the earliest evidences of building with <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="quarried" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/quarried" data-type="EB">quarried</a> <span id="ref622356"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/stone-material" class="md-crosslink ">stone</a> was the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/construction" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">construction</a> (2600 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>) of the great <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/pyramid-architecture" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">pyramids</a> in Egypt, the largest of which (<span id="ref622357"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Khufu" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Khufu</a>) is 236 metres (775 feet) along the base sides and contains approximately 2.3 million blocks of two types of <span id="ref622358"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/limestone" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">limestone</a> and red <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/granite" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">granite</a>. The limestone is believed to have been quarried from across the Nile. Blocks weighing as much as 15,000 kg (33,000 pounds) were transported long distances and elevated into place, and they show precise cutting that resulted in fine-fitting <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/masonry" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">masonry</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">One of the most complete early treatments of mining methods in Europe is by the German scholar <span id="ref622359"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georgius-Agricola" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Georgius Agricola</a> in his <em><span id="ref622360"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/De-re-metallica" class="md-crosslink ">De re metallica</a></em> (1556). He describes detailed methods of driving <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="shafts" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/shafts" data-type="EB">shafts</a> and tunnels. Soft ore and rock were laboriously mined with a pick and harder ore with a pick and hammer, wedges, or heat (fire setting). Fire setting involved piling a heap of logs at the rock face and burning them. The heat weakened or fractured the rock because of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/thermal-expansion" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">thermal expansion</a> or other processes, depending on the type of rock and ore. Crude ventilation and pumping systems were utilized where necessary. Hoisting up shafts and inclines was done with a windlass; haulage was in “trucks” and wheelbarrows. Timber support systems were employed in tunnels.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=august-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Great progress in mining was made when the secret of <span id="ref622362"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/black-powder" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">black powder</a> reached the West, probably from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">China</a> in the late Middle Ages. This was replaced as an <span id="ref622363"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/explosive" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">explosive</a> in the mid-19th century with <span id="ref622364"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/dynamite" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">dynamite</a>, and since 1956 both <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ammonium-nitrate" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ammonium nitrate</a> fuel-blasting agents and slurries (mixtures of water, fuels, and oxidizers) have come into <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="extensive" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/extensive" data-type="EB">extensive</a> use. A steel drill with a wedge point and a hammer were first used to drill holes for placement of explosives, which were then loaded into the holes and detonated to break the rock. Experience showed that proper placement of holes and firing order are important in obtaining maximum rock breakage in mines.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/invention-technology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">invention</a> of mechanical <span id="ref622365"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/drill-tool" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">drills</a> powered by compressed <span id="ref622366"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/air-drill" class="md-crosslink ">air</a> (pneumatic hammers) increased markedly the capability to mine hard rock, decreasing the cost and time for excavation severalfold. It is reported that the Englishman <span id="ref622367"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Trevithick" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Richard Trevithick</a> invented a rotary steam-driven drill in 1813. Mechanical <span id="ref622368"></span>piston drills <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="utilizing" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/utilizing" data-type="EB">utilizing</a> attached bits on drill rods and moving up and down like a piston in a cylinder date from 1843. In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Germany</a> in 1853 a drill that resembled modern air drills was invented. Piston drills were superseded by <span id="ref622369"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/hammer-drill" class="md-crosslink ">hammer drills</a> run by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/compressed-air" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">compressed air</a>, and their performance improved with better design and the availability of quality steel.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Developments in drilling were accompanied by improvements in loading methods, from handloading with shovels to various types of mechanical loaders. Haulage likewise evolved from human and animal portage to mine cars drawn by electric locomotives and conveyers and to rubber-tired vehicles of large capacity. Similar developments took place in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/surface-mining" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">surface mining</a>, increasing the volume of production and lowering the cost of metallic and nonmetallic products drastically. Large stripping machines with excavating wheels used in surface <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/coal-mining" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">coal mining</a> are employed in other types of open-pit mines.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref622371"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/water" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Water</a> inflow was a very important problem in underground mining until <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Watt" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">James Watt</a> invented the <span id="ref622372"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/steam-engine" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">steam engine</a> in the 18th century. After that, steam-driven pumps could be used to remove water from the deep mines of the day. Early <span id="ref622373"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/lighting" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">lighting</a> systems were of the open-flame type, consisting of candles or oil-wick lamps. In the latter type, coal oil, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/whale-oil" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">whale oil</a>, or kerosene was burned. Beginning in the 1890s, flammable acetylene gas was generated by adding water to calcium carbide in the base of a lamp and then released through a jet in the centre of a bright metal reflector. A flint sparker made these so-called <span id="ref622374"></span>carbide lamps easy to light. In the 1930s battery-powered <span id="ref622464"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/cap-lamp" class="md-crosslink ">cap lamps</a> began entering mines, and since then various improvements have been made in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/luminous-intensity" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">light intensity</a>, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="battery" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/battery" data-type="EB">battery</a> life, and weight.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Although a great deal of mythic lore and romance has accumulated around miners and mining, in modern mining it is machines that provide the strength and trained miners who provide the brains needed to prevail in this highly competitive <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/industry" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">industry</a>. Technology has developed to the point where gold is now mined underground at depths of 4,000 metres (about 13,100 feet), and the deepest surface mines have been excavated to more than 700 metres (about 2,300 feet).</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature font-12"><a href="/contributor/George-B-Clark/563">George B. Clark</a></span> <span class="md-signature font-12"><a href="/contributor/William-Andrew-Hustrulid/4063">William Andrew Hustrulid</a></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-simplify-root"></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":12,"pageId":384099,"pageLength":1233,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.48"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.48' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true,"hasAiTopQuestions":false,"hasSimplifyButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Mining | Definition, History, Examples, Types, Effects, & Facts | Britannica