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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Min_dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Min_dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Min dialects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Min_dialects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Min dialects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Min_dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Separation_from_common_Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation_from_common_Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Separation from common Chinese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation_from_common_Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strata" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strata"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Strata</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strata-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subgroups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subgroups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Subgroups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subgroups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Initials</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Initials-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Initials subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Initials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Voiceless_stops_and_affricates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voiceless_stops_and_affricates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Voiceless stops and affricates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voiceless_stops_and_affricates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voiced_stops_and_affricates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voiced_stops_and_affricates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Voiced stops and affricates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voiced_stops_and_affricates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sonorants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sonorants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Sonorants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sonorants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fricatives_and_others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fricatives_and_others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Fricatives and others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fricatives_and_others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Tones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Finals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound_changes_leading_to_modern_varieties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_changes_leading_to_modern_varieties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Sound changes leading to modern varieties</span> </div> </a> <ul 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id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Proto-Min</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyue" title="Minyue – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Minyue" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%8B%9C%EB%AF%BC%EC%96%B4" title="원시민어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원시민어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Proto-Min" title="Bahasa Proto-Min – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Proto-Min" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Proto-Min" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E9%96%A9%E8%AA%9E" title="原始閩語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="原始閩語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q19646347#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Reconstructed ancestor of Min languages</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: salmon;">Proto-Min</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reconstruction of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min Chinese</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data">Fujian</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data">c. 4th century AD</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Reconstructed<br />ancestors</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sino-Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Sino-Tibetan">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han Chinese</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: salmon;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">原始閩語</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">原始闽语</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Yuánshǐ Mǐnyǔ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Goân-sí Bân-gí</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a> <a href="/wiki/Foochow_Romanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Foochow Romanized">BUC</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Dong Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="cdo-Latn">Nguòng-sṳ̄ Mìng-ngṳ̄</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Pu-Xian_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu-Xian Min">Pu-Xian Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pu-Xian_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu-Xian Min">Hinghwa</a> <a href="/wiki/Hinghwa_Romanized" title="Hinghwa Romanized">BUC</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Pu-Xian Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="cpx-Latn">Ngé̤ng-sî Máng-gṳ̂</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou_dialect" title="Jian'ou dialect">Jian'ou</a> <a href="/wiki/Kienning_Colloquial_Romanized" title="Kienning Colloquial Romanized">Romanized</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Bei Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="mnp-Latn">Ngûing-sǐ Mâing-ngṳ̌</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Proto-Min</b> (pMǐn) is a <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">comparative reconstruction</a> of the common ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> group of <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Chinese languages</a>. Min varieties developed in the relative isolation of the Chinese province of <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> and eastern <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, and have since spread to <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, and other parts of the world. They contain reflexes of distinctions not found in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> or most other modern varieties, and thus provide additional data for the reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> reconstructed the sound system of Proto-Min from popular vocabulary in a range of Min varieties, including new data on varieties from inland Fujian. The system has a six-way manner contrast in <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricates</a>, compared with the three-way contrast in Middle Chinese and modern <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu varieties</a> and the two-way contrast in most modern Chinese varieties. A two-way contrast in <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a> is also reconstructed, compared with the single series of Middle Chinese and all modern varieties. Evidence from early loans into other languages suggests that the additional contrasts may reflect consonant clusters or <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">minor syllables</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Min_dialects">Min dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Min dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min Chinese</a></div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:227px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:302px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:-278px; top:-173px; width:600px; position:absolute;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Location of Fujian in eastern China"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg/600px-China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="600" height="478" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg/900px-China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg/1200px-China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1968" data-file-height="1567" /></a></span></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_161x191" style="position:absolute; left:161px; top:191px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><b>Fujian</b></span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg/600px-China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="600" height="478" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg/900px-China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg/1200px-China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1968" data-file-height="1567" /></a></span></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg" title="File:China edcp relief location map.jpg"> </a></div>Location of Fujian in eastern China</div> </div></div> <p>The Min homeland consists of most of the province of <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, and the adjacent eastern part of <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>. The area features rugged mountainous terrain, with short rivers that flow into the <a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a>. After the area was first settled by Chinese during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, most subsequent migration from north to south China passed through the valleys of the <a href="/wiki/Xiang_River" title="Xiang River">Xiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gan_River_(Jiangxi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gan River (Jiangxi)">Gan</a> rivers to the west. Min varieties have thus developed in relative isolation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988210,_228_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988210,_228-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separation_from_common_Chinese">Separation from common Chinese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Separation from common Chinese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As described in <a href="/wiki/Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">rhyme dictionaries</a> such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a></i> (601 AD), <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> initial <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricate consonants</a> showed a three-way contrast between voiceless <a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">unaspirated</a>, voiceless <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> consonants. There were four tones, with the fourth, the "entering tone", a <a href="/wiki/Checked_tone" title="Checked tone">checked tone</a> comprising syllables ending in stops (<i>-p</i>, <i>-t</i> or <i>-k</i>). </p><p>This syllable structure was also found in neighbouring languages of the <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia_linguistic_area" title="Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area">Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area</a> – <a href="/wiki/Proto-Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_language" title="Proto-Hmong–Mien language">Proto-Hmong–Mien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Tai_language" title="Proto-Tai language">Proto-Tai</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> – and is largely preserved by early loans between the languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198854–55_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198854–55-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Towards the end of the first millennium AD, all of these languages experienced a tone split conditioned by initial consonants. Each tone split into an upper (<span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">yīn</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">阴</span></span>/<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">陰</span></span>) register consisting of words with voiceless initials and a lower (<span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">yáng</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">阳</span></span>/<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">陽</span></span>) register of words with voiced initials. When voicing was lost in most varieties, the register distinction became phonemic, yielding up to eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198852–54_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852–54-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditional classification of <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> distinguished seven groups according to the reflexes of Middle Chinese voiced initials in various tonal categories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988181_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988181-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, voiced stops are preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Old Xiang</a> groups, have merged with aspirated or unaspirated stops depending on the tone in Mandarin, and have uniformly become aspirated stops in <a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988191,_199–200,_204–205_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988191,_199–200,_204–205-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinguishing characteristic of Min varieties is that voiced stops yield both aspirated and unaspirated stops in all tonal categories. Further, the distribution is consistent across Min varieties, suggesting a common ancestor in which two types of voiced stop were distinguished.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988228–229_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988228–229-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_tree.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chinese_tree.svg/220px-Chinese_tree.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chinese_tree.svg/330px-Chinese_tree.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chinese_tree.svg/440px-Chinese_tree.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Simplified model of the evolution of varieties of Chinese</figcaption></figure> <p>Min must have diverged before two changes in other Chinese varieties (including Middle Chinese) that are not reflected in Min: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> finals <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-jaj</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-je</span> merged after velar initials. This merger is reflected in a change in poetic rhyme between the <a href="/wiki/Western_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Han">Western Han</a> (206 BC to 9 AD) and Eastern Han (25–220 AD) periods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETing19839–10_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETing19839–10-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Old Chinese velar initials <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalized</a> in certain environments during the Western Han period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Middle Chinese <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">tsye</i></span> 'branch' <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%94%AF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:支">支</a></span>/<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9E%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:枝">枝</a></span> is believed to reflect palatalization of an Old Chinese initial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*k-</span> because other words written with the same phonetic component, such as <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">gje<sup>X</sup></i></span> 'skill' <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:伎">伎</a></span>/<span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%8A%80#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:技">技</a></span>, have velar initials. The Proto-Min form *ki<sup>A</sup> 'branch' retains the original initial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201479_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201479-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>However, the palatalization of <a href="/wiki/Dental_stop" title="Dental stop">dental stop</a> initials, which had occurred in some dialects by the Eastern Han period, is common to Middle Chinese and Min.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201476_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201476-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Baxter and Sagart suggest that the later part of the Proto-Min period may have overlapped with <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Middle Chinese">Early Middle Chinese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014388n._49_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014388n._49-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pointing to features of Min varieties that are also found in Hakka and Yue varieties, <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> suggests that the three groups are descended from a variety spoken in the lower <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> region during the Han period, which he calls Old Southern Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988211–214_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988211–214-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues that this dialect belonged to the group of dialects known as Wu (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">吳</span></span>) or Jiangdong (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">江東</span></span>) in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Jin" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Jin">Western Jin</a> period, when the writer <a href="/wiki/Guo_Pu" title="Guo Pu">Guo Pu</a> (early 4th century AD) described them as quite distinct from other Chinese varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b334–336_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b334–336-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the distinctive Jiangdong words mentioned by Guo Pu appear to be preserved in modern Min varieties, including Proto-Min *gi<sup>A</sup> 'leech' and *lhɑn<sup>C</sup> 'young fowl'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b335–336_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b335–336-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This language entered Fujian after the area was opened to Chinese settlement by the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Minyue" title="Minyue">Minyue</a> state by the armies of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu of Han</a> in 110 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b328_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b328-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norman argues that Hakka and Yue have resulted from overlays of this language by successive waves of influence from northern China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988214_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988214-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Chinese soldiers and settlers moved south from their homeland in the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a>, they came into contact with speakers of <a href="/wiki/Tai%E2%80%93Kadai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai–Kadai languages">Tai–Kadai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic languages</a>. Early loans from Chinese into these languages date from around Han times and thus contain evidence of the sounds of Chinese as spoken in the south at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201434–37_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201434–37-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strata">Strata</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Strata"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Norman identifies four main layers in the vocabulary of modern Min varieties: </p> <ol><li>A non-Chinese <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">substratum</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Minyue_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Minyue language">original languages of Minyue</a>, which Norman believes were <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Austroasiatic">Austroasiatic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b331–332_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b331–332-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These etymologies have been disputed by <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Laurent Sagart</a>, and there is no other evidence for an early Austroasiatic presence in southeast China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagart2008141–143_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart2008141–143-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The earliest Chinese layer, brought to Fujian by settlers from Zhejiang to the north during the Han dynasty<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b334–336_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b334–336-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (compare <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han Chinese</a>).</li> <li>A layer from the <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a> period, largely consistent with the phonology of the <i><a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a></i> dictionary, which was published in 601 AD but based on earlier dictionaries that are now lost<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b336_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b336-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Early Middle Chinese</a>).</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">literary layer</a> based on the <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koiné</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a>, the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b337_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b337-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Late Middle Chinese).</li></ol> <p>Since the latter two layers can largely be derived from the <i>Qieyun</i>, Norman sought to focus on the earlier layers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b336_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b336-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subgroups">Subgroups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Subgroups"><span>edit</span></a><span 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SpringGreen_pog.svg/12px-SpringGreen_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SpringGreen_pog.svg/16px-SpringGreen_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Sanming" title="Sanming">Sanming</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:48.462%;left:33.455%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Yong'an"><img alt="Yong'an" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SpringGreen_pog.svg/8px-SpringGreen_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SpringGreen_pog.svg/12px-SpringGreen_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SpringGreen_pog.svg/16px-SpringGreen_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Yong%27an" title="Yong'an">Yong'an</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:23.077%;left:36.364%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Shaowu"><img alt="Shaowu" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Purple_pog.svg/8px-Purple_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Purple_pog.svg/12px-Purple_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Purple_pog.svg/16px-Purple_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Shaowu" title="Shaowu">Shaowu</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:34.288%;left:35.818%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Jiangle"><img alt="Jiangle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Purple_pog.svg/8px-Purple_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Purple_pog.svg/12px-Purple_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Purple_pog.svg/16px-Purple_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Jiangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiangle">Jiangle</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Fujian_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:China Fujian adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Locations of Min varieties in Fujian and eastern Guangdong</div></div></div> <p>Early classifications, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li Fang-Kuei</a> in 1937 and <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Jiahua" title="Yuan Jiahua">Yuan Jiahua</a> in 1960, divided Min into Northern and Southern subgroups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201049_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201049-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988233_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988233-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in a 1963 report on a survey of Fujian, Pan Maoding and colleagues argued that the primary split was between inland and coastal groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006121_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006121-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inland varieties are distinguished by consistently having two distinct reflexes of Middle Chinese <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988233_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988233-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two groups also have differences in their vocabulary, including their pronoun systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988233–234_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988233–234-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The coastal dialects are divided into three subgroups:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201052_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201052-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a></dt> <dd>including <a href="/wiki/Fuzhou" title="Fuzhou">Fuzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ningde" title="Ningde">Ningde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fu%27an" title="Fu'an">Fu'an</a> in northeast Fujian</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Pu-Xian_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu-Xian Min">Pu-Xian Min</a></dt> <dd>including <a href="/wiki/Putian" title="Putian">Putian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xianyou_County" title="Xianyou County">Xianyou</a> on the central Fujian coast</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></dt> <dd>including <a href="/wiki/Xiamen" title="Xiamen">Xiamen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou" title="Zhangzhou">Zhangzhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quanzhou" title="Quanzhou">Quanzhou</a> in southern Fujian, and <a href="/wiki/Chaozhou" title="Chaozhou">Chaozhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jieyang" title="Jieyang">Jieyang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shantou" title="Shantou">Shantou</a> in eastern Guangdong</dd></dl> <p>They divided the inland dialects into two subgroups: </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern Min</a></dt> <dd>including <a href="/wiki/Jianyang_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Jianyang District">Jianyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou" title="Jian'ou">Jian'ou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wuyishan,_Fujian" title="Wuyishan, Fujian">Chong'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhenghe_County" title="Zhenghe County">Zhenghe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shibei" class="mw-redirect" title="Shibei">Shibei</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central Min</a></dt> <dd>including <a href="/wiki/Sanming" title="Sanming">Sanming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yong%27an" title="Yong'an">Yong'an</a> in western Fujian</dd></dl> <p>Several varieties in the far west of Fujian include features of Min and the neighbouring Gan and Hakka groups, making them difficult to classify. In the <a href="/wiki/Shao-Jiang_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Shao-Jiang Min">Shaojiang</a> dialects, spoken in the northwestern Fujian counties of <a href="/wiki/Shaowu" title="Shaowu">Shaowu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jiangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiangle">Jiangle</a>, the reflexes of Middle Chinese voiced stops are uniformly aspirated, as in Gan and Hakka, leading some workers to assign them to one of these groups. Pan et al. described them as intermediate between Min and Hakka.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006122_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006122-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Norman showed that their tonal development could only be explained in terms of the same two classes of voiced initial assumed for Min dialects. He suggested that they were inland Min dialects that had been subject to heavy Gan or Hakka influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988235,_241_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988235,_241-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norman's student David Prager Branner argued that the varieties of <a href="/wiki/Longyan" title="Longyan">Longyan</a> and the township of Wan'an, in the southwestern part of the province, were coastal Min varieties, but outside of the three subgroups identified by Pan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranner199937,_78_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner199937,_78-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranner2000115–116_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner2000115–116-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Initials">Initials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Initials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a series of papers from 1973, Jerry Norman sought to reconstruct the initial consonants of Proto-Min by applying the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">comparative method</a> to pronunciations in modern Min varieties. For this purpose, rather than the traditional approach of soliciting readings of character lists, he focussed on everyday vocabulary and excluded words of literary origin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2010b28–29_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2010b28–29-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Initials of Proto-Min<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1974231_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1974231-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197428–30_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197428–30-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Labial </th> <th>Dental </th> <th>Lateral </th> <th>Sibilant </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant" title="Alveolo-palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th>Velar </th> <th>Glottal </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Voiceless stops<br />and affricates </th> <th><small>aspirated</small> </th> <td>ph</td> <td>th</td> <td></td> <td>tsh</td> <td>tšh</td> <td>kh</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>unaspirated</small> </th> <td>p</td> <td>t</td> <td></td> <td>ts</td> <td>tš</td> <td>k</td> <td>ʔ </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>"softened"</small> </th> <td>-p</td> <td>-t</td> <td></td> <td>-ts</td> <td>-tš</td> <td>-k</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Voiced stops<br />and affricates </th> <th><small>aspirated</small> </th> <td>bh</td> <td>dh</td> <td></td> <td>dzh</td> <td>džh</td> <td>gh</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>unaspirated</small> </th> <td>b</td> <td>d</td> <td></td> <td>dz</td> <td>dž</td> <td>g</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>"softened"</small> </th> <td>-b</td> <td>-d</td> <td></td> <td>-dz</td> <td>-dž</td> <td>-g</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Sonorants </th> <th><small>plain</small> </th> <td>m</td> <td>n</td> <td>l</td> <td></td> <td>ń</td> <td>ŋ</td> <td>∅ </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>aspirated</small> </th> <td>mh</td> <td>nh</td> <td>lh</td> <td></td> <td>(ńh)</td> <td>ŋh</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Fricatives </th> <th><small>voiceless</small> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>s</td> <td>š</td> <td>x</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>voiced</small> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>z</td> <td>ž</td> <td>ɣ</td> <td>ɦ </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The inventory of Proto-Min initials differs from that of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> (as deduced from the <i><a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a></i> rhyme book and its successors) in several ways: </p> <ul><li>Middle Chinese has two series of <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> initials that are not found in Proto-Min.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988231_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988231-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014102,_104,_108_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014102,_104,_108-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Whereas Middle Chinese obstruents have a three-way manner distinction, proto-Min has a six-way distinction: both voiced and voiceless stops may be aspirated or unaspirated, and also have an additional series that Norman called "softened".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197428_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197428-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Proto-Min has two series of sonorants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973231_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973231-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Proto-Min distinguishes voiced fricatives *ɣ and *ɦ.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197428_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197428-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The most controversial have been the "softened" stops and affricates, so named because they have lateral or fricative reflexes in some Northern Min varieties centred on Jianyang. These initials also have distinct tonal reflexes in the Northern Min and Shaojiang groups, but have merged with unaspirated stops and affricates in coastal varieties. Other scholars have suggested that the patterns observed in northwest Fujian can be explained as a mixture of forms from neighbouring Wu, Gan and Hakka varieties, though this does not explain the regularity of the correspondences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel200349–50_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel200349–50-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the forms of many of the words in the proposed donor varieties do not match the Min reflexes, and some of the words occur only in Min.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201489_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201489-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the pioneering reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren" title="Bernhard Karlgren">Bernhard Karlgren</a>, Old Chinese has been reconstructed by projecting the categories of Middle Chinese back onto the rhyming patterns of the <i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a></i> and the shared phonetic components of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>. Thus Old Chinese is usually reconstructed with the same three-way manner distinction in obstruent initials found in Middle Chinese. However this does not preclude additional manner distinctions that merged in Middle Chinese, because rhyme gives no information about initials and sharing of phonetic components indicates initials with the same <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place of articulation</a> but not necessarily the same manner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2010a_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2010a-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several scholars have attempted to incorporate Proto-Min data into their reconstructions of Old Chinese. The most systematic attempt to date is the <a href="/wiki/Reconstructions_of_Old_Chinese#Baxter–Sagart_(2014)" title="Reconstructions of Old Chinese">reconstruction of Baxter and Sagart</a>, who derive the additional initials from a number of initial consonant clusters and <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">minor syllables</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201484–93_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201484–93-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voiceless_stops_and_affricates">Voiceless stops and affricates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Voiceless stops and affricates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All modern Min varieties have a two-way contrast between unaspirated and aspirated voiceless stops and affricates.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where these initials occur with upper register tones, they are projected back into Proto-Min, and correspond to unaspirated and aspirated voiceless initials in Middle Chinese. However, some Middle Chinese voiceless unaspirated initials correspond to fricatives or laterals in Northern Min, and also have a special tonal development in Northern Min and Shao–Jiang. Norman called these initials voiceless "softened" stops and affricates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973228–231_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973228–231-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Voiceless stop and affricate initials<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973229–231_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973229–231-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197432–33_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197432–33-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1986380–382_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1986380–382-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>pMin </th> <th>Xiamen</th> <th>Fuzhou</th> <th>Jian'ou</th> <th>Jianyang</th> <th>Shaowu </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td>*ph </td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>pʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%8B%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:拍">拍</a></span> hit, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A0%B4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:破">破</a></span> break, broken, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B0%BF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:簿">簿</a></span> register (n.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9C%82#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蜂">蜂</a></span> bee </td></tr> <tr> <td>*p </td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>p </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%AB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:八">八</a></span> eight, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%88%86#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:分">分</a></span> share, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:半">半</a></span> half, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9D%BF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:板">板</a></span> board </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-p </td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>p/∅</td> <td>v/∅</td> <td>pʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:反">反</a></span> reverse (v.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B4%A9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:崩">崩</a></span> collapse, fall over, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A5%93#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:楓">楓</a></span> maple, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B2%B8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:沸">沸</a></span> boil (v.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%99%BC#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:發">發</a></span> emit, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A3%9C#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:補">補</a></span> repair, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A3%9B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:飛">飛</a></span> fly (v.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>*th </td> <td>tʰ</td> <td>tʰ</td> <td>tʰ</td> <td>h</td> <td>tʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:天">天</a></span> sky, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%82%AD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:炭">炭</a></span> charcoal, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%85%BF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:腿">腿</a></span> leg, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%90%B5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:鐵">鐵</a></span> iron </td></tr> <tr> <td>*t </td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>t </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%96%AE#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:單">單</a></span> list, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B8%B6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:帶">帶</a></span> belt, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A1%8C#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:桌">桌</a></span> table, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9F%AD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:短">短</a></span> short </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-t </td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>l</td> <td>tʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%93%94#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:擔">擔</a></span> carry on the shoulder, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B3%AD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:賭">賭</a></span> wager, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BD%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:轉">轉</a></span> turn </td></tr> <tr> <td>*tsh </td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tsʰ/tʰ</td> <td>tsʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A7%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:秋">秋</a></span> autumn, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8D%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:草">草</a></span> grass, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8F%9C#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:菜">菜</a></span> vegetable, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9D%92#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:青">青</a></span> green </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ts </td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%81%9A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:做">做</a></span> make, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A7%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:姊">姊</a></span> elder sister, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AB%88#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:竈">竈</a></span> stove, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AF%80#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:節">節</a></span> holiday, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%85%92#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:酒">酒</a></span> liquor </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-ts </td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>l</td> <td>tsʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%AD%95#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:䭕">䭕</a></span> insipid, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:早">早</a></span> early, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B7%A1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:淡">淡</a></span> unsalty, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B0%AA#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:簪">簪</a></span> hairpin, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%86%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:醉">醉</a></span> drunk </td></tr> <tr> <td>*tšh </td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tsʰ/tʰ</td> <td>tʃʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%94%B1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:唱">唱</a></span> to lead (in singing), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:戍">戍</a></span> house, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:深">深</a></span> deep, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%87%AD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:臭">臭</a></span> smelly, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%86%92#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:醒">醒</a></span> awake </td></tr> <tr> <td>*tš </td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>tʃ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AD%A3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:正">正</a></span> correct, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%81#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:汁">汁</a></span> juice, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B4%99#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:紙">紙</a></span> paper, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%87%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:針">針</a></span> needle </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-tš </td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>∅</td> <td>tʃ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%8C%87#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:指">指</a></span> finger </td></tr> <tr> <td>*kh </td> <td>kʰ</td> <td>kʰ</td> <td>kʰ</td> <td>kʰ</td> <td>kʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8B%B8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:勸">勸</a></span> advise, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%A2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:客">客</a></span> guest, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8B%A6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:苦">苦</a></span> bitter, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%96%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:開">開</a></span> open, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AA%B9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:骹">骹</a></span> foot </td></tr> <tr> <td>*k </td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>k </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AB%81#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:嫁">嫁</a></span> marry, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%95%91#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:救">救</a></span> save, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%95%99#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:教">教</a></span> teach, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9E%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:枝">枝</a></span> branch, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A1%94#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:桔">桔</a></span> tangerine, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%93%9C#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:瓜">瓜</a></span> melon, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B9%AD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:繭">繭</a></span> cocoon, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%82%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:肝">肝</a></span> liver, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A7%92#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:角">角</a></span> horn, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A8%98#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:記">記</a></span> remember, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9B%9E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:雞">雞</a></span> chicken, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9F%AE#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:韮">韮</a></span> type of leek </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-k </td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>∅</td> <td>∅/h</td> <td>k </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%89%B2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:割">割</a></span> cut (v.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8B%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:狗">狗</a></span> dog, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BC%B8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:缸">缸</a></span> jar, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%86%8F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:膏">膏</a></span> lard, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A3%A2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:飢">飢</a></span> hungry </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In loans from southern Chinese into proto-Hmong–Mien, softened obstruents are often represented by <a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">prenasalized consonants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1986381–383_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1986381–383-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norman suggests the Proto-Min initials were also prenasalized,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1986381_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1986381-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas Baxter and Sagart derive them from stops preceded by <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">minor syllables</a>, arguing that the intervocalic environment caused the stops to weaken to fricatives in some dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488–89_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488–89-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voiced_stops_and_affricates">Voiced stops and affricates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Voiced stops and affricates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most varieties of Chinese that have lost the voicing of Middle Chinese initials, the aspiration of the resulting initials is conditioned by tone, though the relationship varies between dialect groups. In Min varieties however, both aspirated and unaspirated voiceless initials are found in lower register tones. These initials must therefore be distinguished in Proto-Min as aspirated and unaspirated voiced consonants. In Shao–Jiang these initials are uniformly aspirated, but the same distinction is reflected in the tonal development. As with the voiceless initials, there is a third group of formerly voiced initials with fricative or lateral reflexes in some Northern Min varieties, which Norman called "softened" voiced initials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973224–227_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973224–227-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Eastern Min varieties, voiced unaspirated affricates typically yielded plain <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranner199940_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner199940-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Voiced stop and affricate initials<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973226–228_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973226–228-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197433–35_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197433–35-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1986382–383_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1986382–383-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988229–230_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988229–230-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>pMin </th> <th>Xiamen</th> <th>Fuzhou</th> <th>Jian'ou</th> <th>Jianyang</th> <th>Shaowu </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td>*bh </td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>pʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BC%B4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:伴">伴</a></span> escort, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9B%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:曝">曝</a></span> shine, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%AE#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:皮">皮</a></span> skin, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A8%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:稗">稗</a></span> tare, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%96%B8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:薸">薸</a></span> duckweed, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A2%AB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:被">被</a></span> cover, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9B%B9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:雹">雹</a></span> hail, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BC%BB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:鼻">鼻</a></span> nose </td></tr> <tr> <td>*b </td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>pʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B9%B3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:平">平</a></span> level, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%AC#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:爬">爬</a></span> climb, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%97%85#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:病">病</a></span> ill, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%99%BD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:白">白</a></span> white, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9B%A4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:盤">盤</a></span> dish, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%99#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:耙">耙</a></span> harrow, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%82%A5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:肥">肥</a></span> fat (adj.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A3%AF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:飯">飯</a></span> rice </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-b </td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>v</td> <td>pʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%A0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:吠">吠</a></span> bark (v.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A9%A6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:婦">婦</a></span> daughter-in-law, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%8B%94#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:拔">拔</a></span> pull, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AD%A5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:步">步</a></span> stride, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B5%AE#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:浮">浮</a></span> float (v.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%93%B6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:瓶">瓶</a></span> vase, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9B%86#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:盆">盆</a></span> bowl, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B0%B0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:簰">簰</a></span> raft, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%96%84#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:薄">薄</a></span> thin </td></tr> <tr> <td>*dh </td> <td>tʰ</td> <td>tʰ</td> <td>tʰ</td> <td>h</td> <td>tʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%95%BC#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:啼">啼</a></span> weep, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9D%96#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:杖">杖</a></span> staff, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9F%B1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:柱">柱</a></span> pillar, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A1%83#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:桃">桃</a></span> peach, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:椎">椎</a></span> hammer, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%96%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:疊">疊</a></span> stack up, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9F%B2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蟲">蟲</a></span> bug, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A0%AD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:頭">頭</a></span> head, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A4%B3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:餳">餳</a></span> sugar </td></tr> <tr> <td>*d </td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>tʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BD%8F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:住">住</a></span> reside, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BC%9F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:弟">弟</a></span> younger brother, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%96%B7#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:斷">斷</a></span> break off, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9B%B4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:直">直</a></span> straight, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AD%92#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:筒">筒</a></span> tube, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8C%B6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:茶">茶</a></span> tea, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B1%86#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:豆">豆</a></span> bean, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B8%8F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:踏">踏</a></span> step on, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B9%84#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蹄">蹄</a></span> hoof, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%87%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:重">重</a></span> heavy </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-d </td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>l</td> <td>tʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%80%A4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:値">値</a></span> worth, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8B%95#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:動">動</a></span> move, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AF%92#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:毒">毒</a></span> poison, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%84%B0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:脰">脰</a></span> neck, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%88%B5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:舵">舵</a></span> rudder, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A2%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:袋">袋</a></span> bag, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%8A%85#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:銅">銅</a></span> copper, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%95%B7#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:長">長</a></span> long </td></tr> <tr> <td>*dzh </td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tsʰ/tʰ</td> <td>tsʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9F%B4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:柴">柴</a></span> wood, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%89%80#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:牀">牀</a></span> bed, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%94%B0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:田">田</a></span> field, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B3%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:賊">賊</a></span> thief </td></tr> <tr> <td>*dz </td> <td>ts</td> <td>s/ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>tsʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9D%90#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:坐">坐</a></span> sit, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%AA#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:截">截</a></span> to cut off, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%99%B4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:晴">晴</a></span> clear (weather), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A7%BD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:槽">槽</a></span> trough, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:自">自</a></span> self (adv.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%8C%A2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:錢">錢</a></span> money </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-dz </td> <td>ts</td> <td>s/ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>l</td> <td>tsʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:字">字</a></span> character, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BD%AA#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:罪">罪</a></span> crime, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AC%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:謝">謝</a></span> decline, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BD%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:齊">齊</a></span> together </td></tr> <tr> <td>*džh </td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>tsʰ</td> <td>s</td> <td>s/tsʰ</td> <td>ʃ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B8%AD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:席">席</a></span> mat, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A8%B9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:樹">樹</a></span> tree, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B1%A1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:象">象</a></span> resemble, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B1%94#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:鱔">鱔</a></span> eel </td></tr> <tr> <td>*dž </td> <td>ts</td> <td>s</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ʃ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:上">上</a></span> top, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:石">石</a></span> stone, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%96%AF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:薯">薯</a></span> yam, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A3%B3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:裳">裳</a></span> clothing </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-dž </td> <td>ts</td> <td>s</td> <td>∅</td> <td>∅</td> <td>ʃ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:上">上</a></span> ascend, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%98%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:嘗">嘗</a></span> taste (v.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%88%8C#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:舌">舌</a></span> tongue, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%88%B9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:船">船</a></span> boat, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9B%87#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蛇">蛇</a></span> snake </td></tr> <tr> <td>*gh </td> <td>kʰ</td> <td>kʰ</td> <td>kʰ</td> <td>kʰ</td> <td>kʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9F%BF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:柿">柿</a></span> persimmon, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%87%BC#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:臼">臼</a></span> mortar, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B8%A6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:踦">踦</a></span> stand, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A8%8E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:騎">騎</a></span> ride </td></tr> <tr> <td>*g </td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>kʰ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A6%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:妗">妗</a></span> aunt, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A9%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:橋">橋</a></span> bridge, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:汗">汗</a></span> sweat (n.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%88%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:舊">舊</a></span> old, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8C%84#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:茄">茄</a></span> eggplant, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B7%AA#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:跪">跪</a></span> kneel </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-g </td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>k/∅</td> <td>kʰ/h </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:厚">厚</a></span> thick, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%AB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:含">含</a></span> hold in the mouth, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%92%AC#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:咬">咬</a></span> bite, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BB%91#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:滑">滑</a></span> slippery, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8C%B4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:猴">猴</a></span> monkey, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%90%83#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:球">球</a></span> ball, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B8%A3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:縣">縣</a></span> district </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There are several cases where an adjective or intransitive verb beginning with an unaspirated voiced stop is paired with a transitive verb differing only in aspiration of the voiced stop, suggesting that the contrast reflects an early morphological process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b340–341_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b340–341-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early loans from southern Chinese into Proto-Hmong–Mien have prenasalized stops corresponding to both aspirated and softened voiced stops in Proto-Min.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Baxter and Sagart derive aspirated voiced stops from tightly bound nasal preinitials in Old Chinese, and softened voiced stops from voiced stops preceded by minor syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sonorants">Sonorants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sonorants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Inland Min varieties are characterized by having two distinct reflexes of Middle Chinese <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>, which Norman labels as Proto-Min *l and *lh. The two have merged in coastal varieties. In modern Southern Min varieties such as <a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> comprise a single phoneme, realized as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> before <a href="/wiki/Nasalized_vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasalized vowels">nasalized vowels</a> and as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> in other syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973231_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973231-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two series of nasals can also be distinguished based on their tonal reflexes in Eastern Min and Shao-Jiang. They generally produce a single series of nasal initials in modern varieties except in Southern Min. In those varieties, the Proto-Min initials *nh and *ŋh have become /h/ before high front vowels, *m, *n and *ŋ denasalized to *b, *l and *g respectively before oral vowels, but *mh and other occurrences of *nh and *ŋh often yield nasals in that context.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991a207–208_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991a207–208-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988237-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Sonorant initials<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973233–235_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973233–235-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988230,_233_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988230,_233-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>pMin </th> <th>Xiamen</th> <th>Fuzhou</th> <th>Jian'ou</th> <th>Jianyang</th> <th>Shaowu </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td>*l </td> <td>l</td> <td>l</td> <td>l</td> <td>l</td> <td>l </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BE%86#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:來">來</a></span> come, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B5%81#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:流">流</a></span> flow (v.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8A%81#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:犁">犁</a></span> plow, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B1%A0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:籠">籠</a></span> cage, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B6%A0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:綠">綠</a></span> green, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%90%BD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:落">落</a></span> fall (v.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A0%9F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蠟">蠟</a></span> wax, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BE%A3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:辣">辣</a></span> pungent </td></tr> <tr> <td>*lh </td> <td>l/n</td> <td>l</td> <td>s</td> <td>s</td> <td>s </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%A9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:兩">兩</a></span> two, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%AD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:六">六</a></span> six, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:利">利</a></span> sharp, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8A%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:劉">劉</a></span> a surname, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:卵">卵</a></span> egg, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9D%8E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:李">李</a></span> plum, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%95%99#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:留">留</a></span> remain, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AC%A0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:笠">笠</a></span> rain-hat, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B1%83#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:籃">籃</a></span> basket, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%B1%AE#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:籮">籮</a></span> hamper, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%81#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:老">老</a></span> old, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%81%BE#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:聾">聾</a></span> deaf, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%98%86#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蘆">蘆</a></span> reed, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9E%BA#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:螺">螺</a></span> snail, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B2%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:貍">貍</a></span> wildcat, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%83%8E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:郎">郎</a></span> young man, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9B%B7#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:雷">雷</a></span> thunder, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9C%B2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:露">露</a></span> dew, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B1%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:鱗">鱗</a></span> scale (or fish or reptile) </td></tr> <tr> <td>*m </td> <td>m/b</td> <td>m</td> <td>m</td> <td>m</td> <td>m </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%91%BD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:命">命</a></span> life, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%85%A2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:慢">慢</a></span> slow, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A2%85#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:梅">梅</a></span> plum, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%85%A4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:煤">煤</a></span> coal, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9B%B2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:盲">盲</a></span> blind, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A3%A8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:磨">磨</a></span> grind, whet, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9C%9C#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蜜">蜜</a></span> honey, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B3%A3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:賣">賣</a></span> sell, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%96%80#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:門">門</a></span> gate, door, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BA%A5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:麥">麥</a></span> wheat </td></tr> <tr> <td>*mh </td> <td>m/b</td> <td>m</td> <td>m</td> <td>m</td> <td>m </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:名">名</a></span> name, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%95%8F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:問">問</a></span> ask, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:夢">夢</a></span> dream, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A6%B9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:妹">妹</a></span> sister, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9B%AE#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:目">目</a></span> eye, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BD%B5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:罵">罵</a></span> scold, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9A%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蚊">蚊</a></span> mosquito, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B2%93#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:貓">貓</a></span> cat, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9D%A2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:面">面</a></span> face, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BA%BB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:麻">麻</a></span> hemp </td></tr> <tr> <td>*n </td> <td>n/l</td> <td>n</td> <td>n</td> <td>n</td> <td>n </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:南">南</a></span> south, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%B5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:念">念</a></span> read </td></tr> <tr> <td>*nh </td> <td>n/h/l</td> <td>n</td> <td>n</td> <td>n</td> <td>n </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B9%B4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:年">年</a></span> year, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%82%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:肉">肉</a></span> meat, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%86%BF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:膿">膿</a></span> pus, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AE%93#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:讓">讓</a></span> allow (want) </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ń </td> <td>l/dz</td> <td>n</td> <td>n</td> <td>n</td> <td>n </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:二">二</a></span> two, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:日">日</a></span> day, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AA%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:認">認</a></span> recognize, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%96%8F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:閏">閏</a></span> intercalary </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ŋ </td> <td>ŋ/g/h</td> <td>ŋ</td> <td>ŋ</td> <td>ŋ</td> <td>ŋ/n </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%94#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:五">五</a></span> five, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:外">外</a></span> outside, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%88#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:月">月</a></span> moon, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8E%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:玉">玉</a></span> jade, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%8A%80#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:銀">銀</a></span> silver, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AD%9A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:魚">魚</a></span> fish, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B5%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:鵝">鵝</a></span> goose </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ŋh </td> <td>h</td> <td>ŋ</td> <td>ŋ</td> <td>ŋ</td> <td>ŋ/n </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A1%AF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:硯">硯</a></span> ink-stone, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%89%BE#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:艾">艾</a></span> moxa, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A1%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:額">額</a></span> forehead </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As the initials *mh, *nh, etc. follow the same tonal development as voiced aspirated initials throughout Min, Norman suggests that they were characterized by <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991a212_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991a212-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Hakka dialects, nasals appear in both lower and upper register tones, suggesting a protolanguage with both voiced and voiceless nasals. Moreover, the occurrence of these initials corresponds to the plain and aspirated nasals of Proto-Min.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991a208_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991a208-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norman suggests that they derive from voiced and voiceless nasals in Old Southern Chinese. Further evidence for a voicing distinction comes from early loans into <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mienic_languages" title="Mienic languages">Mienic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tai_languages" title="Tai languages">Tai languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991a211–212_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991a211–212-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norman later abandoned the *ń initial, treating the dz-/z- initials in some Southern Min varieties as arising from *n followed by a high front vowel *i or *y.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman198516_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman198516-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZheng201684–92_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZheng201684–92-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Norman suggests that Old Southern Chinese voiceless sonorants derive from sonorants preceded by voiceless consonants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973233_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973233-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_H._Baxter" title="William H. Baxter">William Baxter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Laurent Sagart</a> have incorporated this proposal into their reconstruction of Old Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014171–173_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014171–173-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A different set of voiceless resonant initials is proposed in most recent reconstructions of <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>, with aspirate or fricative reflexes in Middle Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201446_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201446-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Old Chinese <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*n̥</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*l̥</span> have the same reflexes as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*tʰ</span>, yielding Middle Chinese <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">th</i></span> and Proto-Min *th in non-palatal environments and Middle Chinese <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">sy</i></span> and Proto-Min *tšh in palatal environments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014114,_116_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014114,_116-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fricatives_and_others">Fricatives and others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Fricatives and others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fricatives in upper and lower registers are assumed to derive from voiceless and voiced fricatives respectively, broadly corresponding to the voiceless and voiced fricatives of Middle Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197428_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197428-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zero initials show three distinct patterns of tonal development, reconstructed as initials *ɦ, *ʔ and a Proto-Min zero initial. The latter occurs only before the high front vowels *i and *y.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197428–29_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197428–29-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Fricative and zero initials<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197432–35_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197432–35-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992210,_834_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992210,_834-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>pMin </th> <th>Xiamen</th> <th>Fuzhou</th> <th>Jianyang</th> <th>Yongan </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td>*s </td> <td>s</td> <td>s</td> <td>s</td> <td>s </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:三">三</a></span> three, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%9B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:四">四</a></span> four, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:山">山</a></span> mountain, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%83%B3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:想">想</a></span> think </td></tr> <tr> <td>*z </td> <td>s</td> <td>s</td> <td>s</td> <td>ʃ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BF%BC#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:翼">翼</a></span> wing, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A0%85#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蠅">蠅</a></span> fly, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B9%BD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:鹽">鹽</a></span> salt (n.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B9%BD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:鹽">鹽</a></span> to salt </td></tr> <tr> <td>*š </td> <td>s</td> <td>s</td> <td>s</td> <td>ʃ/s </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BD%BF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:使">使</a></span> use, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%81%B2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:聲">聲</a></span> voice, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9D%A8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:蝨">蝨</a></span> louse, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A9%A9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:詩">詩</a></span> poetry, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%BA%AB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:身">身</a></span> body </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ž </td> <td>s</td> <td>s</td> <td>s</td> <td>s/ʃ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%90#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:成">成</a></span> become, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%AF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:是">是</a></span> is, are, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%99%82#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:時">時</a></span> time, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%86%9F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:熟">熟</a></span> mature </td></tr> <tr> <td>*x </td> <td>h</td> <td>h</td> <td>x</td> <td>h/ʃ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A5%BD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:好">好</a></span> good, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:海">海</a></span> sea, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:火">火</a></span> fire, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:花">花</a></span> flower (n.), <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%99%8E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:虎">虎</a></span> tiger, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A8%B1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:許">許</a></span> Xu (surname) </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ɣ </td> <td>h</td> <td>h</td> <td>x</td> <td>h/ʃ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%92#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:園">園</a></span> garden, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B7#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:巷">巷</a></span> lane, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A9%AB#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:橫">橫</a></span> horizontal, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9B%A8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:雨">雨</a></span> rain </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ʔ </td> <td>∅</td> <td>∅</td> <td>∅</td> <td>∅ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%95%9E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:啞">啞</a></span> mute, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%87%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:應">應</a></span> answer, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A4%85#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:椅">椅</a></span> chair, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A3%B2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:飲">飲</a></span> rice-water </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ɦ </td> <td>∅</td> <td>∅</td> <td>∅/h</td> <td>∅ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:下">下</a></span> down, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%B8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:學">學</a></span> learn, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%83#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:會">會</a></span> able, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9E%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:鞋">鞋</a></span> shoe </td></tr> <tr> <td>*∅ </td> <td>∅</td> <td>∅</td> <td>∅</td> <td>∅ </td> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%93#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:圓">圓</a></span> round, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BE%8C#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:後">後</a></span> after, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:有">有</a></span> have, exist, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:羊">羊</a></span> goat, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%91%AF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:葯">葯</a></span> medicine, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%96%91#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:閑">閑</a></span> idle, <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BB%83#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:黃">黃</a></span> yellow </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In Central Min, *s and *x merged as /ʃ/ before high front vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZheng2016119_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZheng2016119-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tones">Tones</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proto-Min had four tone classes, corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Four_tones_(Middle_Chinese)" title="Four tones (Middle Chinese)">four tones of Middle Chinese</a>: syllables with vocalic or nasal endings belonged to class *A, *B or *C, whereas class *D consisted of the syllables ending in a stop (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973223_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973223-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with Middle Chinese and other languages of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, each of these classes split into upper and lower registers, depending on whether the original initial was voiceless or voiced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel200349_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel200349-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When voicing was lost,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the register distinction became phonemic, yielding tone classes conventionally numbered 1 to 8, with tones 1 and 2 naming the upper and lower registers of Proto-Min class A*, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973223_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973223-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All 8 classes are retained by the Chaozhou dialect, but some have merged in other varieties. Some northern varieties, including the Jianyang dialect, have an additional tone class (tone 9), reflecting a partial merger of tone classes that cannot be predicted from Middle Chinese forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel200355,_68–72_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel200355,_68–72-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Reflexes of Proto-Min tone classes for various types of initials<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973226,_229,_232–233_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973226,_229,_232–233-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197431–32_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197431–32-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel200358–59_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel200358–59-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="8">Tone class *A </th> <th colspan="9">Tone class *B </th> <th colspan="8">Tone class *C </th> <th colspan="8">Tone class *D </th></tr> <tr> <th><small>*th</small></th> <th><small>*t</small></th> <th><small><span class="nowrap">*-t</span></small> </th> <th><small>*n</small></th> <th><small>*nh</small> </th> <th><small>*dh</small></th> <th><small>*d</small></th> <th><small><span class="nowrap">*-d</span></small> </th> <th><small>*th</small></th> <th><small>*t</small></th> <th><small><span class="nowrap">*-t</span></small> </th> <th colspan="2"><small>*n</small></th> <th><small>*nh</small> </th> <th><small>*dh</small></th> <th><small>*d</small></th> <th><small><span class="nowrap">*-d</span></small> </th> <th><small>*th</small></th> <th><small>*t</small></th> <th><small><span class="nowrap">*-t</span></small> </th> <th><small>*n</small></th> <th><small>*nh</small> </th> <th><small>*dh</small></th> <th><small>*d</small></th> <th><small><span class="nowrap">*-d</span></small> </th> <th><small>*th</small></th> <th><small>*t</small></th> <th><small><span class="nowrap">*-t</span></small> </th> <th><small>*n</small></th> <th><small>*nh</small> </th> <th><small>*dh</small></th> <th><small>*d</small></th> <th><small><span class="nowrap">*-d</span></small> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Chaozhou </th> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#faa">1</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#fdd">2 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td colspan="6" style="background-color:#ffa">4 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#afa">5</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#dfd">6 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#bcf">7</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#def">8 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Xiamen </th> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#faa">1</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#fdd">2 </td> <td colspan="4" style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#dfd">6 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#afa">5</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#dfd">6 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#bcf">7</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#def">8 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Fuzhou </th> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#faa">1</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#fdd">2 </td> <td colspan="4" style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#dfd">6 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#afa">5</td> <td style="background-color:#dfd">6</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#afa">5</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#dfd">6 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#bcf">7</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#def">8 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Yong'an </th> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#faa">1</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#fdd">2 </td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td colspan="4" style="background-color:#ffa">4 </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#afa">5</td> <td>?<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#afa">5 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#bcf">7</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffa">4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Jianyang </th> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#faa">1</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd">9</td> <td colspan="4" style="background-color:#fdd">2</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd">9 </td> <td colspan="4" style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#afa">5 </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#afa">5</td> <td style="background-color:#ddd">9</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#dfd">6 </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#bcf">7</td> <td style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#def">8 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Jian'ou </th> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#faa">1</td> <td style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td colspan="4" style="background-color:#afa">5</td> <td style="background-color:#ee9">3 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffa">4</td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#dfd">6</td> <td style="background-color:#ffa">4 </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#afa">5</td> <td style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td colspan="5" style="background-color:#dfd">6 </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#bcf">7</td> <td style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td style="background-color:#ffa">4</td> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#dfd">6</td> <td style="background-color:#ffa">4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Shaowu </th> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#faa">1</td> <td style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td style="background-color:#fdd">2</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#bcf">7</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#fdd">2 </td> <td colspan="9" style="background-color:#ee9">3 </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#afa">5</td> <td>?</td> <td style="background-color:#dfd">6</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#afa">5</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#dfd">6 </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#bcf">7</td> <td style="background-color:#ee9">3</td> <td style="background-color:#dfd">6</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#bcf">7</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color:#dfd">6 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Stop and affricate initials at other points of articulation produce the same tonal reflexes as the dental examples in the above table. Voiceless fricatives have the same tonal reflexes as voiceless aspirated and unaspirated stops. Voiced fricatives are more varied:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197429–30_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197429–30-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The initials *z and *ɣ have the same tonal reflexes as aspirated nasals and voiced aspirated stops.</li> <li>The initial *ž follows voiced unaspirated stops.</li> <li>The initial *ɦ follows softened voiced stops.</li></ul> <p>The zero initial has the same tonal development as plain sonorants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197430_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197430-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Finals">Finals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Finals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Norman reconstructs Proto-Min finals as consisting of: </p> <ul><li>an optional medial *i, *u or *y,</li> <li>a nuclear vowel *i, *u, *y, *e, *ə, *o, *a or *ɑ, and</li> <li>an optional coda *i, *u, *m, *n, *ŋ, *p, *t or *k.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198135_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198135-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The possible combinations were: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Finals of Proto-Min<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198135–36_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198135–36-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*e </td> <td> </td> <td>*o </td> <td>*a </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*i </td> <td> </td> <td>*ie </td> <td> </td> <td>*io </td> <td>*ia </td> <td>(*iɑ)<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>(*uə)<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td>*ua </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*y </td> <td> </td> <td>*ye </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*əi </td> <td>*oi </td> <td> </td> <td>*ɑi </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*iɑi </td></tr> <tr> <td>(*ui)<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>(*uəi)<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td>(*uai)<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*uɑi </td></tr> <tr> <td>*yi </td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>(*yəi)<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*eu </td> <td>*əu </td> <td> </td> <td>*au </td> <td>*ɑu </td></tr> <tr> <td>*iu </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*iau </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*em/p </td> <td>(*əm/p)<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td>*am/p </td> <td>*ɑm/p </td></tr> <tr> <td>*im/p </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*iam/p </td> <td>*iɑm/p </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*ən/t </td> <td>*on/t<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*an/t </td> <td>*ɑn/t </td></tr> <tr> <td>*in/t </td> <td>*iun/t </td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*ion/t </td> <td>*ian/t </td> <td>*iɑn/t<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>l<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*un/t </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>(*uon/t)<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>m<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>(*uan/t)<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*uɑn/t </td></tr> <tr> <td>(*yn/t)<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>o<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>(*yan)<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>p<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*eŋ/k </td> <td>*əŋ/k </td> <td>*oŋ/k </td> <td>*aŋ/k </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*ioŋ/k </td> <td>*iaŋ/k </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*uoŋ/k </td> <td>(*uaŋ/k)<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>q<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*yŋ/k </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>*yok </td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The close vowels *i, *u, *y, *e and *ə were short, with stronger following consonants, whereas the open vowels *o, *a and *ɑ were longer, with weaker following consonants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198136_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198136-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19855-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proto-Min also had a single word with a syllabic nasal, the usual negator *m<sup>C</sup> (cognate with Middle Chinese <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">mjɨjH</i></span> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AA" class="extiw" title="wikt:未">未</a> 'not have').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198156_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198156-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988234_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988234-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sound_changes_leading_to_modern_varieties">Sound changes leading to modern varieties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sound changes leading to modern varieties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most inland varieties have reduced the nasal codas to a single category.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988237-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coastal varieties went through a series of changes that each affected part of the area, and interacted with nasal initials: </p> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pu-Xian_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu-Xian Min">Pu-Xian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainan</a> varieties, nasal codas disappeared after open vowels, leaving <a href="/wiki/Nasalized_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasalized vowel">nasalized vowels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198136_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198136-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19855-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In Southern Min, Pu–Xian and Hainan Min, nasal initials became voiced stops or flaps except before nasalized vowels or nasal codas. In Hokkien, denasalization also occurred before nasal codas, but not before nasalized vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855–9_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19855–9-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988235–236_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988235–236-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Pu-Xian, these initials later devoiced, merging with the voiceless unaspirated stops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19857_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19857-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Vowels subsequently lost their nasalization in Putian and Hainan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19855-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006136_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006136-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A later merger of nasal codas as /ŋ/ occurred in Pu–Xian and some Eastern Min dialects, including Fuzhou, Fuding and Gutian, but not Fu'an and Ningde.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19855-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006138_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006138-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A partial merger occurred in Chaozhou, Jieyang and Shantou, where -n merged with -ŋ.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19857_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19857-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988237-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Sample developments of nasal codas </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Southern </th> <th colspan="2">Eastern </th> <th colspan="2">Northern </th> <th>Central </th> <th>Shao–Jiang </th></tr> <tr> <th>word</th> <th>Proto-Min</th> <th>Jieyang</th> <th>Xiamen</th> <th>Fuzhou</th> <th>Fu'an</th> <th>Jian'ou</th> <th>Jianyang</th> <th>Yong'an</th> <th>Jiangle </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:南">南</a></span> south<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973235_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973235-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198153–54_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198153–54-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*nəm<sup>A</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nam</span><sup>2</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">lam</span><sup>2</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">naŋ</span><sup>2</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nam</span><sup>2</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">naŋ</span><sup>5</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">naŋ</span><sup>2</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nɔ̃</span><sup>2</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">naŋ</span><sup>9</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%85%A2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:慢">慢</a></span> slow<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973234_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973234-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198158_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198158-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*mən<sup>C</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maŋ</span><sup>6</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ban</span><sup>6</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maiŋ</span><sup>6</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">mɛn</span><sup>2</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maiŋ</span><sup>6</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">maiŋ</span><sup>6</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">mĩ</span><sup>5</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">mãi</span><sup>6</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B4%A9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:崩">崩</a></span> collapse<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198166_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198166-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1986382_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1986382-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*-peŋ<sup>A</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">paŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">paŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">puŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">poŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">paiŋ</span><sup>3</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">vaiŋ</span><sup>9</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pĩ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pʰãi</span><sup>3</sup> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:三">三</a></span> three<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197432_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197432-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198154–55_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198154–55-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b352_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b352-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*sɑm<sup>A</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sã</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sã</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sam</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sɔ̃</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saŋ</span><sup>1</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:山">山</a></span> mountain<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197432_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197432-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b352_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b352-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198160_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198160-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*sɑn<sup>A</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">suã</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">suã</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">san</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sueŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sueŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sũm</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʃuãi</span><sup>1</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:生">生</a></span> give birth<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b352_129-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b352-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198169_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198169-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*saŋ<sup>A</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sẽ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sĩ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">saŋ</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sɔ̃</span><sup>1</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʃaŋ</span><sup>1</sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In most inland varieties stop codas have disappeared, but are marked with separate tonal categories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988237-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In coastal varieties, stop codas underwent changes corresponding to those affecting nasal codas: </p> <ul><li>Final stops following open vowels merged as a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> in Southern Min, Pu–Xian and Hainan Min.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198136_114-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198136-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19855-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Eastern Min, only final *k changed to a glottal stop in this environment.</li> <li>This glottal stop then disappeared in Pu–Xian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19855-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Stop codas merged as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> in Pu–Xian, Fuzhou, Fuding and Gutian, but not Fu'an and Ningde,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19855-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006138_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006138-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and -t merged with -k in Chaozhou, Jieyang and Shantou.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19857_119-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19857-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988237-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Sample developments of stop codas </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Southern </th> <th colspan="2">Eastern </th> <th colspan="2">Northern </th> <th>Central </th> <th>Shao–Jiang </th></tr> <tr> <th>word</th> <th>Proto-Min</th> <th>Jieyang</th> <th>Xiamen</th> <th>Fuzhou</th> <th>Fu'an</th> <th>Jian'ou</th> <th>Jianyang</th> <th>Yong'an</th> <th>Jiangle </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%B4%BF#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:鴿">鴿</a></span> dove<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198153–54_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198153–54-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*kəp<sup>D</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kap</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kap</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kak</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kap</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kɔ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kɔ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kɯ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ko</span><sup>7</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B3%8A#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:賊">賊</a></span> thief<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198158_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198158-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*dzhət<sup>D</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰak</span><sup>8</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰat</span><sup>8</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰeik</span><sup>8</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰɛt</span><sup>8</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰɛ</span><sup>6</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰe</span><sup>8</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰa</span><sup>4</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰa</span><sup>5</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:北">北</a></span> north<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198166_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198166-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*pek<sup>D</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pak</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pak</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">poik</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pœk</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pɛ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pe</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pa</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pa</span><sup>3</sup> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8A%A6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:劦">劦</a></span> fit, agree<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198154–55_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198154–55-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*ɣɑp<sup>D</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">haʔ</span><sup>8</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">haʔ</span><sup>8</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">hak</span><sup>8</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">hap</span><sup>8</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xɔ</span><sup>6</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xɔ</span><sup>8</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">haɯ</span><sup>4</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ho</span><sup>8</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%91%9B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:葛">葛</a></span> dolichos<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198160_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198160-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*kɑt<sup>D</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kuaʔ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kuaʔ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kak</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kat</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kuɛ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kue</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kuo</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kuai</span><sup>7</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%A2#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:客">客</a></span> guest<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198169_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198169-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*khak<sup>D</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰeʔ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰeʔ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰaʔ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰaʔ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰa</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰa</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰɔ</span><sup>7</sup></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰa</span><sup>3</sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most Min vocabulary corresponds directly to cognates in other Chinese varieties, but a significant number of distinctively Min words can be reconstructed in proto-Min. In some cases a semantic shift has occurred in Min or the rest of Chinese: </p> <ul><li>*tiaŋ<sup>B</sup> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BC%8E#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:鼎">鼎</a></span> 'wok'. The Min form preserves the original meaning 'cooking pot', but in other Chinese varieties this word (MC <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">tengX</i></span> > <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">dǐng</i></span>) has become specialized to refer to ancient ceremonial tripods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988231_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988231-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>*dzhən<sup>A</sup> 'rice field'. In Min this form has displaced the common Chinese term <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">tián</i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%94%B0#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:田">田</a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198158_125-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198158-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988231–232_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988231–232-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many scholars identify the Min word with <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">chéng</i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A1%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:塍">塍</a></span> (MC <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">zying</i></span>) 'raised path between fields', but Norman argues that it is cognate with <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">céng</i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%A4#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:層">層</a></span> (MC <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">dzong</i></span>) 'additional layer or floor', reflecting the <a href="/wiki/Terrace_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrace (agriculture)">terraced</a> fields commonly found in Fujian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201459–60_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201459–60-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>*tšhio<sup>C</sup> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:厝">厝</a></span> 'house'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198147_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198147-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norman argues that the Min word is cognate with <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">shù</i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:戍">戍</a></span> (MC <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">syuH</i></span>) 'to guard'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988232_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988232-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>*tshyi<sup>C</sup> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%96%99#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:喙">喙</a></span> 'mouth'. In Min this form has displaced the common Chinese term <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">kǒu</i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A3#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:口">口</a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198141_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198141-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is believed to be cognate with <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">huì</i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%96%99#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:喙">喙</a></span> (MC <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">xjwojH</i></span>) 'beak, bill, snout; to pant'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Norman and <a href="/wiki/Mei_Tsu-lin" title="Mei Tsu-lin">Mei Tsu-lin</a> have suggested an <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Austroasiatic">Austroasiatic</a> origin for some Min words: </p> <ul><li>*-dəŋ<sup>A</sup> 'shaman' may be compared with <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">đồng</i></span> (/ɗoŋ<sup>2</sup>/) 'to shamanize, to communicate with spirits' and <a href="/wiki/Mon_language" title="Mon language">Mon</a> doŋ 'to dance (as if) under demonic possession'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198818–19_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198818–19-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976296–297_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976296–297-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Laurent Sagart</a> argues that this word is cognate with Chinese <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">tóng</i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AB%A5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:童">童</a></span> (MC <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">duwng</i></span>) 'child, servant'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagart2008142_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart2008142-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>*kiɑn<sup>B</sup> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:囝">囝</a></span> 'son' appears to be related to Vietnamese <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">con</i></span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kɔn/</span>) and Mon <span title="Mon-language romanization"><i lang="mnw-Latn">kon</i></span> 'child'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198163_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198163-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976297–298_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976297–298-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In other cases, the origin of the Min word is obscure. Such words include *khau<sup>A</sup> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%AA%B9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:骹">骹</a></span> 'foot',<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198144_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198144-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> *-tsiɑm<sup>B</sup> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%AD%95#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:䭕">䭕</a></span> 'insipid'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198156_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198156-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and *dzyŋ<sup>C</sup> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A7%9A%94#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:𧚔">𧚔</a></span> 'to wear'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988232_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988232-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern Min varieties also have voiced stops and affricates, which are derived from earlier nasal initials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988237-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The voiced initials in modern Southern Min varieties are derived from Proto-Min nasal initials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988235–236_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988235–236-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For Yong'an, Norman found only one example of a class *C word with a softened voiceless initial, having tone 2.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197432_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197432-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The only example of this final, *kiɑ<sup>A</sup> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8C%84#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:茄">茄</a></span> 'eggplant' (Xiamen <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kio</span><sup>2</sup>) is probably a relatively late loan from a <a href="/wiki/Tai_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai language">Tai language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198148_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198148-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This final is found only after coronal initials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198150_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198150-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This final is found only after velar and glottal initials, and is distinguished from *i only in Southern Min.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198141_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198141-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman describes the reconstruction of this final as ad hoc, based on only two sets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198150_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198150-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This final is found only after dental initials, and completely consistent examples are rare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198148_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198148-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman describes the reconstruction of this final as ad hoc, based on only two sets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198151_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198151-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This final is required to account for Southern Min developments, but few examples are attested across Min.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198154_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198154-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are very few examples of *ot.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198159_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198159-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The sole example of *iɑt is found only in coastal Min.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198163_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198163-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman describes the reconstruction of this final as ad hoc, based on only two sets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198164_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198164-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are few examples of these finals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198165_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198165-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This final is found only after velar initials, and the few examples of *yt are confined to the coastal dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198157_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198157-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are only two examples of this final, and none of *yat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198165_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198165-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The reconstruction of this final is based on only two sets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198171_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198171-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988210,_228-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988210,_228_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 210, 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198854–55-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198854–55_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 54–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198852–54-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198852–54_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 52–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988181-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988181_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988191,_199–200,_204–205-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988191,_199–200,_204–205_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 191, 199–200, 204–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988228–229-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988228–229_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 228–229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETing19839–10-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETing19839–10_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTing1983">Ting (1983)</a>, pp. 9–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201479-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201479_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201476-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201476_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014388n._49-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014388n._49_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 388, n. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988211–214-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988211–214_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 211–214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b334–336-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b334–336_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b334–336_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991b">Norman (1991b)</a>, pp. 334–336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b335–336-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b335–336_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991b">Norman (1991b)</a>, pp. 335–336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b328-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b328_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991b">Norman (1991b)</a>, p. 328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988214-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988214_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201434–37-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201434–37_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 34–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b331–332-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b331–332_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991b">Norman (1991b)</a>, pp. 331–332.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart2008141–143-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagart2008141–143_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSagart2008">Sagart (2008)</a>, pp. 141–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b336-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b336_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b336_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991b">Norman (1991b)</a>, p. 336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b337-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b337_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991b">Norman (1991b)</a>, p. 337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201049-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201049_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988233-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988233_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988233_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006121-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006121_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988233–234-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988233–234_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 233–234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201052-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201052_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKurpaska2010">Kurpaska (2010)</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006122-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006122_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988235,_241-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988235,_241_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 235, 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner199937,_78-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranner199937,_78_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranner1999">Branner (1999)</a>, pp. 37, 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner2000115–116-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranner2000115–116_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranner2000">Branner (2000)</a>, pp. 115–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2010b28–29-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2010b28–29_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2010b">Handel (2010b)</a>, pp. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1974231-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1974231_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, p. 231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197428–30-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197428–30_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, pp. 28–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988231-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988231_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988231_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014102,_104,_108-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014102,_104,_108_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 102, 104, 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197428-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197428_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197428_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197428_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973231-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973231_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973231_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, p. 231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel200349–50-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel200349–50_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2003">Handel (2003)</a>, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201489-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201489_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2010a-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2010a_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2010a">Handel (2010a)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201484–93-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201484–93_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 84–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988237-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988237_42-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973228–231-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973228–231_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, pp. 228–231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973229–231-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973229–231_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, pp. 229–231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197432–33-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197432–33_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, pp. 32–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1986380–382-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1986380–382_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1986">Norman (1986)</a>, pp. 380–382.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1986381–383-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1986381–383_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1986">Norman (1986)</a>, pp. 381–383.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1986381-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1986381_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1986">Norman (1986)</a>, p. 381.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488–89-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488–89_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 88–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973224–227-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973224–227_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, pp. 224–227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBranner199940-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBranner199940_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranner1999">Branner (1999)</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973226–228-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973226–228_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, pp. 226–228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197433–35-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197433–35_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, pp. 33–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1986382–383-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1986382–383_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1986">Norman (1986)</a>, pp. 382–383.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988229–230-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988229–230_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 229–230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b340–341-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b340–341_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991b">Norman (1991b)</a>, pp. 340–341.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201488_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991a207–208-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991a207–208_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991a">Norman (1991a)</a>, pp. 207–208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973233–235-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973233–235_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, pp. 233–235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988230,_233-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988230,_233_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 230, 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991a212-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991a212_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991a">Norman (1991a)</a>, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991a208-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991a208_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991a">Norman (1991a)</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991a211–212-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991a211–212_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991a">Norman (1991a)</a>, pp. 211–212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman198516-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman198516_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodman1985">Bodman (1985)</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZheng201684–92-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZheng201684–92_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZheng2016">Zheng (2016)</a>, pp. 84–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973233-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973233_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014171–173-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014171–173_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 171–173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201446-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201446_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014114,_116-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014114,_116_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 114, 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197428–29-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197428–29_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, pp. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197432–35-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197432–35_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, pp. 32–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992210,_834-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992210,_834_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 210, 834.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZheng2016119-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZheng2016119_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZheng2016">Zheng (2016)</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973223-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973223_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973223_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel200349-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel200349_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2003">Handel (2003)</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988235–236-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988235–236_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988235–236_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 235–236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel200355,_68–72-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel200355,_68–72_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2003">Handel (2003)</a>, pp. 55, 68–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973226,_229,_232–233-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973226,_229,_232–233_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, pp. 226, 229, 232–233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197431–32-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197431–32_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, pp. 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel200358–59-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel200358–59_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2003">Handel (2003)</a>, pp. 58–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197432-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197432_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197432_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197432_83-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197429–30-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197429–30_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, pp. 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman197430-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman197430_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1974">Norman (1974)</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198135-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198135_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198135–36-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198135–36_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, pp. 35–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198148-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198148_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198148_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198150-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198150_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198150_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198141-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198141_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198141_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198151-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198151_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198154-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198154_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198159-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198159_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198163-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198163_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198163_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198164-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198164_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198165-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198165_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198165_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198157-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198157_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198171-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198171_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198136-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198136_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198136_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198136_114-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19855-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855_115-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodman1985">Bodman (1985)</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198156-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198156_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198156_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988234-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988234_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19855–9-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19855–9_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodman1985">Bodman (1985)</a>, pp. 5–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodman19857-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19857_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19857_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodman19857_119-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodman1985">Bodman (1985)</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006136-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006136_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan2006138-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006138_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan2006138_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYan2006">Yan (2006)</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973235-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973235_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198153–54-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198153–54_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198153–54_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, pp. 53–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1973234-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1973234_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1973">Norman (1973)</a>, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198158-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198158_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198158_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198158_125-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198166-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198166_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198166_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1986382-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1986382_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1986">Norman (1986)</a>, p. 382.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198154–55-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198154–55_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198154–55_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, pp. 54–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1991b352-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b352_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b352_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1991b352_129-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1991b">Norman (1991b)</a>, p. 352.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198160-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198160_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198160_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198169-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198169_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198169_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988231–232-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988231–232_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 231–232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201459–60-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201459–60_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 59–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198147-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198147_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988232-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988232_135-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988232_135-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198818–19-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198818–19_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976296–297-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976296–297_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNormanMei1976">Norman & Mei (1976)</a>, pp. 296–297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart2008142-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagart2008142_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSagart2008">Sagart (2008)</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976297–298-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENormanMei1976297–298_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNormanMei1976">Norman & Mei (1976)</a>, pp. 297–298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198144-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198144_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1981">Norman (1981)</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBaxter1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/William_H._Baxter" title="William H. Baxter">Baxter, William H.</a> (1992), <i>A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology</i>, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1"><bdi>978-3-11-012324-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Old+Chinese+Phonology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-11-012324-1&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaxterSagart2014" class="citation cs2">Baxter, William H.; <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Sagart, Laurent</a> (2014), <i>Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994537-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994537-5"><bdi>978-0-19-994537-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Chinese%3A+A+New+Reconstruction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-994537-5&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft.au=Sagart%2C+Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodman1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Bodman" title="Nicholas Bodman">Bodman, Nicholas C.</a> (1985), "The Reflexes of Initial Nasals in Proto-Southern Min-Hingua", in Acson, Veneeta; Leed, Richard L. (eds.), <i>For Gordon H. Fairbanks</i>, Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 2–20, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-0992-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-0992-8"><bdi>978-0-8248-0992-8</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20006706">20006706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Reflexes+of+Initial+Nasals+in+Proto-Southern+Min-Hingua&rft.btitle=For+Gordon+H.+Fairbanks&rft.series=Oceanic+Linguistics+Special+Publications&rft.pages=2-20&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20006706%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-0992-8&rft.aulast=Bodman&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranner1999" class="citation cs2">Branner, David Prager (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191016102313/https://brannerchinese.com/publications/Branner_Longyan_Classification.pdf">"The classification of Longyan"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, in Simmons, Richard VanNess (ed.), <i>Issues in Chinese Dialect Description and Classification</i>, Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, Chinese University Press, Project on Linguistic Analysis, pp. 36–83, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23825676">23825676</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43076011">43076011</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brannerchinese.com/publications/Branner_Longyan_Classification.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-10-16<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-10-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+classification+of+Longyan&rft.btitle=Issues+in+Chinese+Dialect+Description+and+Classification&rft.series=Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics+Monograph+Series&rft.pages=36-83&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press%2C+Project+on+Linguistic+Analysis&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43076011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23825676%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Branner&rft.aufirst=David+Prager&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrannerchinese.com%2Fpublications%2FBranner_Longyan_Classification.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranner2000" class="citation cs2">——— (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brannerchinese.com/publications/Branner_Classification_book_1_TextOnly"><i>Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology – the Classification of Miin and Hakka</i></a>, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-015831-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-015831-1"><bdi>978-3-11-015831-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+in+Comparative+Chinese+Dialectology+%E2%80%93+the+Classification+of+Miin+and+Hakka&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-11-015831-1&rft.aulast=Branner&rft.aufirst=David+Prager&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrannerchinese.com%2Fpublications%2FBranner_Classification_book_1_TextOnly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandel2003" class="citation cs2">Handel, Zev (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200805021125/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files/publication/j2003_1_03_1298.pdf">"Northern Min tone values and the reconstruction of 'softened initials'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Language and Linguistics</i>, <b>4</b> (1): 47–84, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files/publication/j2003_1_03_1298.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-08-05<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-01-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Northern+Min+tone+values+and+the+reconstruction+of+%27softened+initials%27&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47-84&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Handel&rft.aufirst=Zev&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ling.sinica.edu.tw%2Ffiles%2Fpublication%2Fj2003_1_03_1298.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandel2010a" class="citation cs2">——— (2010a), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3500703">"Old Chinese and Min"</a>, <i>Chûgoku Gogaku</i>, <b>257</b>: 34–68.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ch%C3%BBgoku+Gogaku&rft.atitle=Old+Chinese+and+Min&rft.volume=257&rft.pages=34-68&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Handel&rft.aufirst=Zev&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3500703&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandel2010b" class="citation cs2">——— (2010b), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3500710">"Competing methodologies of Chinese dialect fieldwork, and their implications for the study of the history of the Northern Min dialects"</a>, in Coblin, Weldon South; Yue-Hashimoto, Anne O. (eds.), <i>Studies in Honor of Jerry Norman</i>, Hong Kong: Ng Tor-Tai Chinese Language Research Centre, Institute of Chinese Studies, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, pp. 13–39, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-7330-21-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-7330-21-9"><bdi>978-962-7330-21-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Competing+methodologies+of+Chinese+dialect+fieldwork%2C+and+their+implications+for+the+study+of+the+history+of+the+Northern+Min+dialects&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Honor+of+Jerry+Norman&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pages=13-39&rft.pub=Ng+Tor-Tai+Chinese+Language+Research+Centre%2C+Institute+of+Chinese+Studies%2C+the+Chinese+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-962-7330-21-9&rft.aulast=Handel&rft.aufirst=Zev&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3500710&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurpaska2010" class="citation cs2">Kurpaska, Maria (2010), <i>Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"</i>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021914-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021914-2"><bdi>978-3-11-021914-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Language%28s%29%3A+A+Look+Through+the+Prism+of+%22The+Great+Dictionary+of+Modern+Chinese+Dialects%22&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-11-021914-2&rft.aulast=Kurpaska&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1973" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1973), "Tonal development in Min", <i>Journal of Chinese Linguistics</i>, <b>1</b> (2): 222–238, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23749795">23749795</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Tonal+development+in+Min&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222-238&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23749795%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1974" class="citation cs2">——— (1974), "The initials of Proto-Min", <i>Journal of Chinese Linguistics</i>, <b>2</b> (1): 27–36, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23749809">23749809</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+initials+of+Proto-Min&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-36&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23749809%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1981" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script">——— (1981), "The Proto-Min finals", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/item/zh-tw?act=publish_book&code=view&bookID=131"><i>Dì yī jiè guójì hànxué huìyì lùnwén jí: Yǔyán yǔ wénzì zǔ</i> <bdi lang="zh">第一屆國際漢學會議論文集：語言與文字組</bdi></a> [<i>Proceedings of the First International Conference on Sinology (Section on Linguistics and Paleography)</i>], Taipei: Academia Sinica, pp. 35–73, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9522150">9522150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Proto-Min+finals&rft.btitle=D%C3%AC+y%C4%AB+ji%C3%A8+gu%C3%B3j%C3%AC+h%C3%A0nxu%C3%A9+hu%C3%ACy%C3%AC+l%C3%B9nw%C3%A9n+j%C3%AD%3A+Y%C7%94y%C3%A1n+y%C7%94+w%C3%A9nz%C3%AC+z%C7%94+%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E5%B1%86%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%B8%E6%9C%83%E8%AD%B0%E8%AB%96%E6%96%87%E9%9B%86%EF%BC%9A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E8%88%87%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E7%B5%84&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pages=35-73&rft.pub=Academia+Sinica&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9522150&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ling.sinica.edu.tw%2Fitem%2Fzh-tw%3Fact%3Dpublish_book%26code%3Dview%26bookID%3D131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1986" class="citation cs2">——— (1986), "The origin of Proto-Min softened stops", in McCoy, John; Light, Timothy (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jdYUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA375"><i>Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies</i></a>, Leiden: E. J. Brill, pp. 375–384, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07850-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07850-5"><bdi>978-90-04-07850-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+Proto-Min+softened+stops&rft.btitle=Contributions+to+Sino-Tibetan+studies&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=375-384&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07850-5&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjdYUAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation cs2">——— (1988), <i>Chinese</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29653-3&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1991a" class="citation cs2">——— (1991a), "Nasals in Old Southern Chinese", in Boltz, William G.; Shapiro, Michael C. (eds.), <i>Studies in the Historical Phonology of Asian Languages</i>, Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, vol. 77, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 205–213, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fcilt.77.10nor">10.1075/cilt.77.10nor</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3574-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3574-9"><bdi>978-90-272-3574-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nasals+in+Old+Southern+Chinese&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+Historical+Phonology+of+Asian+Languages&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.series=Current+Issues+in+Linguistic+Theory&rft.pages=205-213&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fcilt.77.10nor&rft.isbn=978-90-272-3574-9&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1991b" class="citation cs2">——— (1991b), "The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective", in Wang, William S.-Y. (ed.), <i>Languages and Dialects of China</i>, <i>Journal of Chinese Linguistics</i> Monograph Series, Chinese University Press, pp. 325–360, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23827042">23827042</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/600555701">600555701</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+M%C7%90n+dialects+in+historical+perspective&rft.btitle=Languages+and+Dialects+of+China&rft.series=%27%27Journal+of+Chinese+Linguistics%27%27+Monograph+Series&rft.pages=325-360&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F600555701&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23827042%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNormanMei1976" class="citation cs2">Norman, Jerry; Mei, Tsu-lin (1976), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tlmei.com/tm17web/1976a_austroasiatics.pdf">"The Austroasiatics in ancient South China: some lexical evidence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Monumenta Serica</i>, <b>32</b>: 274–301, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.1976.11731121">10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40726203">40726203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=The+Austroasiatics+in+ancient+South+China%3A+some+lexical+evidence&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=274-301&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02549948.1976.11731121&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40726203%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft.au=Mei%2C+Tsu-lin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftlmei.com%2Ftm17web%2F1976a_austroasiatics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagart2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Sagart, Laurent</a> (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3077307">"The expansion of <i>Setaria</i> farmers in East Asia"</a>, in Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie (eds.), <i>Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics</i>, Routledge, pp. 133–157, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39923-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39923-4"><bdi>978-0-415-39923-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+expansion+of+Setaria+farmers+in+East+Asia&rft.btitle=Past+Human+Migrations+in+East+Asia%3A+Matching+Archaeology%2C+Linguistics+and+Genetics&rft.pages=133-157&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-415-39923-4&rft.aulast=Sagart&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3077307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTing1983" class="citation cs2">Ting, Pang-Hsin (1983), "Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese", <i>Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology</i>, <b>54</b> (4): 1–14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Institute+of+History+and+Philology&rft.atitle=Derivation+time+of+colloquial+Min+from+Archaic+Chinese&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Ting&rft.aufirst=Pang-Hsin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYan2006" class="citation cs2">Yan, Margaret Mian (2006), <i>Introduction to Chinese Dialectology</i>, LINCOM Europa, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-629-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-629-6"><bdi>978-3-89586-629-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Chinese+Dialectology&rft.pub=LINCOM+Europa&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-89586-629-6&rft.aulast=Yan&rft.aufirst=Margaret+Mian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZheng2016" class="citation cs2">Zheng, Zhijun (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholars.cityu.edu.hk/en/theses/theses(26f9bfb1-0f13-40cf-be62-1b4bbb96abba).html"><i>The Subgrouping of the Min Dialects</i></a> (PhD thesis), City University of Hong Kong.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Subgrouping+of+the+Min+Dialects&rft.pub=City+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Zheng&rft.aufirst=Zhijun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholars.cityu.edu.hk%2Fen%2Ftheses%2Ftheses%2826f9bfb1-0f13-40cf-be62-1b4bbb96abba%29.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Min&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mei, Tsu-lin (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806165456/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/j2015_2_01_4829.pdf">"Shì shì "Yánshì jiāxùn" lǐ de 'nán rǎn wúyuè, běi zá yí lǔ' – jiān lùn xiàndài Mǐnyǔ de láiyuán" <bdi lang="zh">試釋《顏氏家訓》裡的「南染吳越，北雜夷虜」 ──兼論現代閩語的來源</bdi></a> [The 'Wu dialect' of Southern dynasties and the origin of modern Min; plus an exegesis of Yan Zhitui's dictum, 'The South is tainted by Wu and Yue features, and the North is intermixed with barbaric tongues of Yi and Lu'] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Language and Linguistics</i> (in Chinese), <b>16</b> (2): 119–138, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1606822X14556607">10.1177/1606822X14556607</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/j2015_2_01_4829.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-08-06<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Sh%C3%AC+sh%C3%AC+%22Y%C3%A1nsh%C3%AC+ji%C4%81x%C3%B9n%22+l%C7%90+de+%27n%C3%A1n+r%C7%8En+w%C3%BAyu%C3%A8%2C+b%C4%9Bi+z%C3%A1+y%C3%AD+l%C7%94%27+%E2%80%93+ji%C4%81n+l%C3%B9n+xi%C3%A0nd%C3%A0i+M%C7%90ny%C7%94+de+l%C3%A1iyu%C3%A1n+%E8%A9%A6%E9%87%8B%E3%80%8A%E9%A1%8F%E6%B0%8F%E5%AE%B6%E8%A8%93%E3%80%8B%E8%A3%A1%E7%9A%84%E3%80%8C%E5%8D%97%E6%9F%93%E5%90%B3%E8%B6%8A%EF%BC%8C%E5%8C%97%E9%9B%9C%E5%A4%B7%E8%99%9C%E3%80%8D+%E2%94%80%E2%94%80%E5%85%BC%E8%AB%96%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E9%96%A9%E8%AA%9E%E7%9A%84%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=119-138&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1606822X14556607&rft.aulast=Mei&rft.aufirst=Tsu-lin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ling.sinica.edu.tw%2FFiles%2FLL%2FDocments%2FJournals%2Fj2015_2_01_4829.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Zheng, Zhijun (2018), "A new proposal for Min subgrouping based on a maximum-parsimony algorithm for generating phylogenetic trees", <i>Lingua</i>, <b>206</b>: 67–84, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.lingua.2018.01.008">10.1016/j.lingua.2018.01.008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lingua&rft.atitle=A+new+proposal+for+Min+subgrouping+based+on+a+maximum-parsimony+algorithm+for+generating+phylogenetic+trees&rft.volume=206&rft.pages=67-84&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.lingua.2018.01.008&rft.aulast=Zheng&rft.aufirst=Zhijun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Min" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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branches</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/West_Himalayish_languages" title="West Himalayish languages">West Himalayish</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tamangic_languages" title="Tamangic languages">Tamangic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newaric_languages" title="Newaric languages">Newaric</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newar</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baram%E2%80%93Thangmi_languages" title="Baram–Thangmi languages">Baram–Thangmi</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kiranti_languages" title="Kiranti languages">Kiranti</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimalish_languages" title="Dhimalish languages">Dhimalish</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhimal_language" title="Dhimal language">Dhimal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Toto_language" title="Toto language">Toto</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lhokpu_language" title="Lhokpu language">Lhokpu</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Magaric" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magaric_languages" title="Greater Magaric languages">Greater Magaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magaric_languages" title="Magaric languages">Magaric</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kham_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kham language">Kham</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepangic_languages" title="Chepangic languages">Chepangic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chepang_language" title="Chepang language">Chepang</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhujel_language" title="Bhujel language">Bhujel</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raji%E2%80%93Raute_languages" title="Raji–Raute languages">Raji–Raute</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dura_language" title="Dura language">Dura</a></i>–<i><a href="/wiki/Tandrange_language" title="Tandrange language">Tandrange</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages"><img alt="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/200px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/300px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/400px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="2115" data-file-height="2792" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Bodish_languages" title="Bodish languages">Bodish</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Bodish_languages" title="East Bodish languages">East Bodish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tshangla_language" title="Tshangla language">Tshangla</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_language" title="Nam language">Nam</a></i>?</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gongduk_language" title="Gongduk language">Gongduk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCOle_language" title="ʼOle language">ʼOle</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tani_languages" title="Tani languages">Tani</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamdo_languages" title="Chamdo languages">Chamdo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> and Indo-<br />Burmese border</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mruic_languages" title="Mruic languages">Mruic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mru_language" title="Mru language">Mru</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anu-Hkongso_language" title="Anu-Hkongso language">Hkongso</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pyu_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Pyu language (Sino-Tibetan)">Pyu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taman_language_(Myanmar)" title="Taman language (Myanmar)">Taman</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Naga_languages" title="Naga languages">Naga</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ao_languages" title="Ao languages">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angami%E2%80%93Pochuri_languages" title="Angami–Pochuri languages">Angami–Pochuri</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhulic_languages" title="Tangkhulic languages">Tangkhulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemeic_languages" title="Zemeic languages">Zeme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boro%E2%80%93Garo_languages" title="Boro–Garo languages">Boro–Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konyak_languages" title="Konyak languages">Konyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingpho%E2%80%93Luish_languages" title="Jingpho–Luish languages">Jingpho–Luish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nungish_languages" title="Nungish languages">Nungish</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Karenic_languages" title="Karenic languages">Karenic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gong_language" title="Gong language">Gong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai–Long</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Burmo-Qiangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmo-Qiangic_languages" title="Burmo-Qiangic languages">Burmo-Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyalrongic_languages" title="Gyalrongic languages">Gyalrongic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersuic_languages" title="Ersuic languages">Ersuic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naic_languages" title="Naic languages">Naic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo-Burmese</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></b></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Dubious</a> (possible<br /><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolates</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hruso_language" title="Hruso language">Hruso</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a></b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Puroik_language" title="Puroik language">Puroik</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju–Meyor</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Songlin_language" title="Songlin language">Songlin</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Siangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Siangic_languages" title="Greater Siangic languages">Greater Siangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Koro_language_(India)" title="Koro language (India)">Koro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Milang_language" title="Milang language">Milang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Idu–Taraon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Central Tibeto-Burman languages">Central Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin%E2%80%93Naga_languages" title="Kuki-Chin–Naga languages">Kuki-Chin–Naga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahakiranti_languages" title="Mahakiranti languages">Mahakiranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rung_languages" title="Rung languages">Rung</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Kanauri_languages" title="Tibeto-Kanauri languages">Tibeto-Kanauri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language" title="Proto-Sino-Tibetan language">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman_language" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman language">Proto-Tibeto-Burman</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Loloish_language" title="Proto-Loloish language">Proto-Loloish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Karenic_language" title="Proto-Karenic language">Proto-Karenic</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Min</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><i>Italics</i> indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Min_Chinese" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Min_Chinese" title="Template:Min Chinese"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Min_Chinese" title="Template talk:Min Chinese"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Min_Chinese" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Min Chinese"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Min_Chinese" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min Chinese</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Languages</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Houguan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuqing_dialect" title="Fuqing dialect">Fuqing dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changle_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Changle dialect">Changle dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dialect" title="Gutian dialect">Gutian dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Funing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiapu_dialect" title="Xiapu dialect">Xiapu dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu%27an_dialect" title="Fu'an dialect">Fu'an dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningde_dialect" title="Ningde dialect">Ningde dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manjiang_dialect" title="Manjiang dialect">Manjiang dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan Min</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longdu_dialect" title="Longdu dialect">Longdu dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanlang_dialect" title="Nanlang dialect">Nanlang dialect</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Min_Languages.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A map showing the geographical distribution of the primary varieties of Min Chinese."><img alt="A map showing the geographical distribution of the primary varieties of Min Chinese." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Min_Languages.svg/150px-Min_Languages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Min_Languages.svg/225px-Min_Languages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Min_Languages.svg/300px-Min_Languages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teochew Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_dialect" title="Swatow dialect">Swatow dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Amoy dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhou_dialects" title="Quanzhou dialects">Quanzhou dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hui%27an_dialect" title="Hui'an dialect">Hui'an dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongchun_dialect" title="Yongchun dialect">Yongchun dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou_dialects" title="Zhangzhou dialects">Zhangzhou dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chawan_dialect" title="Chawan dialect">Chawan dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longyan_dialect" title="Longyan dialect">Longyan dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banana_colloquial_speech" title="Banana colloquial speech">Banana colloquial speech</a></li></ul></li> <li>Northern <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Straits" class="mw-redirect" title="Malacca Straits">Malacca Straits</a> Hokkien <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penang_Hokkien" title="Penang Hokkien">Penang Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medan_Hokkien" title="Medan Hokkien">Medan Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelantan_Peranakan_Hokkien" title="Kelantan Peranakan Hokkien">Kelantan Peranakan Hokkien</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippine Hokkien</a></li> <li>Southern <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Straits" class="mw-redirect" title="Malacca Straits">Malacca Straits</a> Hokkien <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Peninsular_Malaysian_Hokkien" title="Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien">Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singaporean Hokkien</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Datian_Min" title="Datian Min">Datian Min</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Houlu_dialect" title="Houlu dialect">Houlu dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haklau_Min" title="Haklau Min">Haklau Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhenan_Min" title="Zhenan Min">Zhenan Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan Min</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanxiang_dialect" title="Sanxiang dialect">Sanxiang dialect</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Pu–Xian Min</a><br />(Hinghwa)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Putian_dialect" title="Putian dialect">Putian dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianyou_dialect" title="Xianyou dialect">Xianyou dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou_dialect" title="Jian'ou dialect">Jian'ou dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianyang_dialect" title="Jianyang dialect">Jianyang dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shao–Jiang Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaowu_dialect" title="Shaowu dialect">Shaowu dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangle_dialect" title="Jiangle dialect">Jiangle dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanming_dialect" title="Sanming dialect">Sanming dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaxian_dialect" title="Shaxian dialect">Shaxian dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%27an_dialect" title="Yong'an dialect">Yong'an dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Min" title="Leizhou Min">Leizhou Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang_dialect" title="Zhanjiang dialect">Zhanjiang dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainanese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haikou_dialect" title="Haikou dialect">Haikou dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenchang_dialect" title="Wenchang dialect">Wenchang dialect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Writing_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">Pe̍h-ōe-jī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Romanization" title="Teochew Romanization">Pe̍h-ūe-jī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainan_Romanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Hainan Romanized">Hainan Romanized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foochow_Romanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Foochow Romanized">Foochow Romanized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinghwa_Romanized" title="Hinghwa Romanized">Hinghwa Romanized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kienning_Colloquial_Romanized" title="Kienning Colloquial Romanized">Kienning Colloquial Romanized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Taiwanese Romanization System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Language_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet">Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daighi_tongiong_pingim" class="mw-redirect" title="Daighi tongiong pingim">Daighi tongiong pingim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bb%C3%A1nl%C3%A1m_p%C3%ACngy%C4%ABm" title="Bbánlám pìngyīm">Bbánlám pìngyīm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peng%27im" title="Peng'im">Peng'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_Transliteration_Scheme" title="Fuzhou Transliteration Scheme">Fuzhou Transliteration Scheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese_Transliteration_Scheme" title="Hainanese Transliteration Scheme">Hainanese Transliteration Scheme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A0n-l%C3%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="Hàn-lô">Hàn-lô</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Research" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Min language">Proto-Min</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rime dictionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qi_Lin_Bayin" title="Qi Lin Bayin">Qi Lin Bayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianzhou_Ba_Yin" title="Jianzhou Ba Yin">Jianzhou Ba Yin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_language" title="Template:Chinese language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_language" title="Template talk:Chinese language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changchun_dialect" title="Changchun dialect">Changchun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbin_dialect" title="Harbin dialect">Harbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenyang_Mandarin" title="Shenyang Mandarin">Shenyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taz_dialect" title="Taz dialect">Taz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Jilu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_dialect" title="Tianjin dialect">Tianjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalian_dialect" title="Dalian dialect">Dalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingdao_dialect" title="Qingdao dialect">Qingdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihai_dialect" title="Weihai dialect">Weihai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dongping_dialect" title="Dongping dialect">Dongping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangou_language" title="Gangou language">Gangou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanzhong_dialect" title="Guanzhong dialect">Guanzhong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi'an dialect">Xi'an</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoyang_dialect" title="Luoyang dialect">Luoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhou_dialect" title="Xuzhou dialect">Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengdu-Chongqing_dialect" title="Chengdu-Chongqing dialect">Chengdu–Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leshan_dialect" title="Leshan dialect">Leshan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renshou%E2%80%93Fushun_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renshou–Fushun Mandarin (page does not exist)">Renshou–Fushun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zigong_dialect" title="Zigong dialect">Zigong</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gui%E2%80%93Liu_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gui–Liu Mandarin (page does not exist)">Gui–Liu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuming_Mandarin" title="Wuming Mandarin">Wuming</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Jianghuai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lanyin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Lanzhou dialect</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B0%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:兰州话">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urumqi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urumqi dialect (page does not exist)">Urumqi dialect</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:乌鲁木齐话">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junjiahua" title="Junjiahua">Junjiahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinjiang_Mandarin" title="Qinjiang Mandarin">Qinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyami language">Gyami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou%E2%80%93Hohhot_dialect" title="Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect">Zhangjiakou–Hohhot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi-Yan_dialect" title="Zhi-Yan dialect">Zhi–Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxi_dialect" title="Wuxi dialect">Wuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangyin_dialect" title="Jiangyin dialect">Jiangyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadi_dialect" title="Shadi dialect">Shadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Oujiang</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rui%27an_dialect" title="Rui'an dialect">Rui'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wencheng_dialect" title="Wencheng dialect">Wencheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Qu_Wu" title="Chu–Qu Wu">Chu–Qu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuancheng_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuancheng dialect">Xuancheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ji-She&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ji-She (page does not exist)">Ji-She</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%A9%E6%AD%99%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:绩歙片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiu-Yi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiu-Yi (page does not exist)">Xiu-Yi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%91%E9%BB%9F%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:休黟片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qi-De&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qi-De (page does not exist)">Qi-De</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%81%E5%A9%BA%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:祁婺片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Yanzhou</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%8C%E5%8D%A0%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:旌占片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jing-Zhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jing-Zhan (page does not exist)">Jing-Zhan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A5%E5%B7%9E%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:严州片">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang%E2%80%93Du_Gan" title="Chang–Du Gan">Chang–Du</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi%E2%80%93Liu_Gan" title="Yi–Liu Gan">Yi–Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying%E2%80%93Yi_Gan" title="Ying–Yi Gan">Ying–Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%E2%80%93Tong_Gan" title="Da–Tong Gan">Da–Tong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">Changyi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Loushao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangxiang_dialect" title="Xiangxiang dialect">Xiangxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wugang_dialect" title="Wugang dialect">Wugang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji%E2%80%93Xu_Xiang" title="Ji–Xu Xiang">Ji–Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Quan_Xiang" title="Yong–Quan Xiang">Yong–Quan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyang_dialect" title="Qiyang dialect">Qiyang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Houguan_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Houguan language group (page does not exist)">Houguan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuqing_dialect" title="Fuqing dialect">Fuqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changle_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Changle dialect">Changle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dialect" title="Gutian dialect">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fu%E2%80%93Ning_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fu–Ning language group (page does not exist)">Fu–Ning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ningde_dialect" title="Ningde dialect">Ningde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu%27an_dialect" title="Fu'an dialect">Fu'an</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manjiang_dialect" title="Manjiang dialect">Manjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longdu_dialect" title="Longdu dialect">Longdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanlang_dialect" title="Nanlang dialect">Nanlang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhou dialect">Quanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangzhou dialect">Zhangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chawan_dialect" title="Chawan dialect">Chawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medan_Hokkien" title="Medan Hokkien">Pedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penang_Hokkien" title="Penang Hokkien">Penang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Peninsular_Malaysian_Hokkien" title="Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien">Malaysian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teochew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_dialect" title="Swatow dialect">Swatow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haklau_Min" title="Haklau Min">Haklau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanxiang_dialect" title="Sanxiang dialect">Sanxiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhenan_Min" title="Zhenan Min">Zhenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longyan_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Longyan Min">Longyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou_dialect" title="Jian'ou dialect">Jian'ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianyang_dialect" title="Jianyang dialect">Jianyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Pu–Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shao–Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Min" title="Leizhou Min">Leizhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang_dialect" title="Zhanjiang dialect">Zhanjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenchang_dialect" title="Wenchang dialect">Wenchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haikou_dialect" title="Haikou dialect">Haikou</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Banqiao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Banqiao dialect (page does not exist)">Banqiao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhua_dialect" title="Wuhua dialect">Wuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingzhou_dialect" title="Tingzhou dialect">Tingzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changting_dialect" title="Changting dialect">Changting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Sixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hailu_dialect" title="Hailu dialect">Hailu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoping_Hakka" title="Raoping Hakka">Raoping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yuehai_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuehai dialects">Yuehai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Cantonese" title="Malaysian Cantonese">Malaysia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiguan_dialect" title="Xiguan dialect">Xiguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiujiang_dialect" title="Jiujiang dialect">Jiujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiqi_dialect" title="Shiqi dialect">Shiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weitou_dialect" title="Weitou dialect">Weitou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapeng_dialect" title="Dapeng dialect">Dapeng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xinhui_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xinhui dialect (page does not exist)">Xinhui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gao%E2%80%93Yang_Yue" title="Gao–Yang Yue">Gao–Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%E2%80%93Hua_Yue" title="Wu–Hua Yue">Wu–Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Xun_Yue" title="Yong–Xun Yue">Yong–Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo%E2%80%93Guang_Yue" title="Luo–Guang Yue">Luo–Guang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin%E2%80%93Lian_Yue" title="Qin–Lian Yue">Qin–Lian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongdao_Pinghua" title="Tongdao Pinghua">Tongdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younian_dialect" title="Younian dialect">Younian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Yongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guandao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guandao dialect (page does not exist)">Guandao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Rongjiang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badong_Yao_language" title="Badong Yao language">Badong Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeheni_language" title="Yeheni language">Yeheni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai-Long</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuanqing_people#Language" title="Chuanqing people">Laobeizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/350px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="785" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/525px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/700px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="920" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_national_standards_of_Chinese" title="Comparison of national standards of Chinese">Standard<br />forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_Standard_Chinese" title="Sichuanese Standard Chinese">Sichuanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Mandarin">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Mandarin" title="Malaysian Mandarin">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Standard Singaporean Mandarin">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singdarin" title="Singdarin">Singdarin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka">Hakka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_National_Pronunciation" title="Old National Pronunciation">Old National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">Classifiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_honorifics" title="Chinese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Idioms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chengyu" title="Chengyu">Chengyu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xiehouyu" title="Xiehouyu">Xiehouyu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_input_methods_for_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese input methods for computers">Input</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biaoxingma_method" title="Biaoxingma method">Biaoxingma</a></li> <li>Boshiamy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Cangjie" title="Simplified Cangjie">Simplified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CKC_Chinese_Input_System" title="CKC Chinese Input System">CKC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayi_method" title="Dayi method">Dayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin method">Pinyin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Pinyin" title="Google Pinyin">Google</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Pinyin_IME" title="Microsoft Pinyin IME">Microsoft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogou_Pinyin" title="Sogou Pinyin">Sogou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_count_method" title="Stroke count method">Stroke count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wubi_method" title="Wubi method">Wubi (Wang Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengma_method" title="Zhengma method">ZhengMa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Middle Mandarin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gan_Chinese" title="History of Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Literary<br /> forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Official" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">in Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Vernacular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabets" title="Dungan alphabets">Written Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Hokkien" title="Written Hokkien">Written Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_characters" title="Sichuanese characters">Written Sichuanese</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Logographic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">Logographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Script_styles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Script_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Script styles">Script styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_punctuation" title="Chinese punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Phonetic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language#Writing_system" title="Dungan language">Dungan Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Phonetic_Symbols_II" title="Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II">MPS II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFEO_Chinese_transcription" title="EFEO Chinese transcription">EFEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessing-Othmer" title="Lessing-Othmer">Lessing-Othmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Bopomofo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese Bopomofo">Cantonese Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Phonetic_Symbols" title="Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols">Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_kana" title="Taiwanese kana">Taiwanese kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hangul" title="Taiwanese Hangul">Taiwanese Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao%27erjing" title="Xiao'erjing">Xiao'erjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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