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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="إلهيات عصبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إلهيات عصبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroteologie" title="Neuroteologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Neuroteologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotheologie" title="Neurotheologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neurotheologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroteolog%C3%ADa" title="Neuroteología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Neuroteología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86" title="علوم اعصاب دین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علوم اعصاب دین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroth%C3%A9ologie" title="Neurothéologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Neurothéologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroteologia" title="Neuroteologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Neuroteologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="რელიგიის ნეირომეცნიერება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რელიგიის ნეირომეცნიერება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroteologija" title="Neuroteologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Neuroteologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroteol%C3%B3gia" title="Neuroteológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Neuroteológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroteologia" title="Neuroteologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Neuroteologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroteologia" title="Neuroteologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Neuroteologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нейротеология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нейротеология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Неуротеологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Неуротеологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroteologia" title="Neuroteologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Neuroteologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Attempts to explain religious experience in neuroscientific terms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"God spot" redirects here. For the stage lighting, see <a href="/wiki/Godspot" title="Godspot">Godspot</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">neuroethology</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Neuroscience of 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Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Ref_expand plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs more complete <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citations</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Help:Footnotes" title="Help:Footnotes">add missing citation information</a> so that sources are clearly identifiable.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>neuroscience of religion</b>, also known as <b>neurotheology</b>, and as <b>spiritual neuroscience</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-Biello_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biello-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attempts to explain <a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">religious experience</a> and behaviour in <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscientific</a> terms.<sup id="cite_ref-AaenStockdale_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AaenStockdale-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the study of correlations of <a href="/wiki/Neural" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural">neural</a> phenomena with subjective experiences of <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a> and hypotheses to explain these phenomena. This contrasts with the <a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">psychology of religion</a> which studies mental, rather than neural states. </p><p>Supporters of the neuroscience of religion say there is a <a href="/wiki/Neurological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological">neurological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary">evolutionary</a> basis for <a href="/wiki/Subjective_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjective experience">subjective experiences</a> traditionally categorized as spiritual or religious.<sup id="cite_ref-gajilan2007_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gajilan2007-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The field has formed the basis of several <a href="/wiki/Popular_science" title="Popular science">popular science</a> books.<sup id="cite_ref-Alper_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alper-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zen1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zen1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zen2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zen2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Neurotheology" is a <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a> that describes the scientific study of the neural correlates of religious or spiritual beliefs, experiences and practices. Other researchers prefer to use terms like "spiritual neuroscience" or "neuroscience of religion". Researchers in the field attempt to explain the neurological basis for religious experiences, such as:<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The perception that <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a> or <a href="/wiki/Self-awareness" title="Self-awareness">self-consciousness</a> have dissolved</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Spiritual</a> awe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystical_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystical experience">Oneness with the universe</a></li> <li>Ecstatic <a href="/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousness" title="Altered state of consciousness">trance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Subitism">Sudden enlightenment</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altered_states_of_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Altered states of consciousness">Altered states of consciousness</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Aldous Huxley</a> used the term <i>neurotheology</i> for the first time in the utopian novel <i><a href="/wiki/Island_(Huxley_novel)" title="Island (Huxley novel)">Island</a></i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The discipline studies the cognitive neuroscience of <a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">religious experience</a> and spirituality. The term is also sometimes used in a less <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> context or a philosophical context. Some of these uses, according to the mainstream scientific community, qualify as <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>. Huxley used it mainly in a philosophical context.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_work">Theoretical work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Theoretical work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an attempt to focus and clarify what was a growing interest in this field, in 1994 educator and businessman Laurence O. McKinney published the first book on the subject, titled "Neurotheology: Virtual Religion in the 21st Century", written for a popular audience but also promoted in the theological journal <i>Zygon</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to McKinney, neurotheology sources the basis of religious inquiry in relatively recent developmental neurophysiology. According to McKinney's theory, pre-frontal development, in humans, creates an illusion of chronological time as a fundamental part of normal adult cognition past the age of three. The inability of the adult brain to retrieve earlier images experienced by an infantile brain creates questions such as "where did I come from" and "where does it all go", which McKinney suggests led to the creation of various religious explanations. The experience of death as a peaceful regression into timelessness as the brain dies won praise from readers as varied as writer <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a>, eminent theologian <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Cox" title="Harvey Cox">Harvey Cox</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tenzin_Gyatso,_14th_Dalai_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a> and sparked a new interest in the field. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>What <a href="/wiki/Andrew_B._Newberg" title="Andrew B. Newberg">Andrew B. Newberg</a> and others "discovered is that intensely focused spiritual contemplation triggers an alteration in the activity of the brain that leads one to perceive transcendent religious experiences as solid, tangible reality. In other words, the sensation that <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhists</a> call <i>oneness with the universe</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Orientation_(mental)" title="Orientation (mental)">orientation</a> area requires sensory input to do its calculus. "If you block sensory inputs to this region, as you do during the intense concentration of <a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a>, you prevent the brain from forming the distinction between <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">self</a> and not-self," says Newberg. With no information from the senses arriving, the left orientation area cannot find any boundary between the self and the world. As a result, the brain seems to have no choice but "to perceive the self as endless and intimately interwoven with everyone and everything." "The right orientation area, equally bereft of sensory data, defaults to a feeling of infinite space. The meditators feel that they have touched infinity."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The radical Catholic theologian <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Drewermann" title="Eugen Drewermann">Eugen Drewermann</a> developed a two-volume critique of traditional conceptions of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> and a reinterpretation of religion (Modern Neurology and the Question of God) based on current neuroscientific research.<sup id="cite_ref-Drewermann_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drewermann-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, it has also been argued "that neurotheology should be conceived and practiced within a theological framework."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_work">Experimental work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Experimental work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1969, British biologist <a href="/wiki/Alister_Hardy" title="Alister Hardy">Alister Hardy</a> founded a Religious Experience Research Centre (RERC) at Oxford after retiring from his post as Linacre Professor of Zoology. Citing <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>'s <i>The Varieties of Religious Experience</i> (1902), he set out to collect first-hand accounts of <a href="/wiki/Numinous" title="Numinous">numinous</a> experiences. He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Templeton_Prize" title="Templeton Prize">Templeton Prize</a> before his death in 1985. His successor David Hay suggested in <i>God's Biologist: A Life of Alister Hardy</i> (2011) that the RERC later dispersed as investigators turned to newer techniques of scientific investigation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetic_stimulation_studies">Magnetic stimulation studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Magnetic stimulation studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/God_helmet" title="God helmet">God helmet</a></div> <p>During the 1980s <a href="/wiki/Michael_Persinger" title="Michael Persinger">Michael Persinger</a> stimulated the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobes" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporal lobes">temporal lobes</a> of human subjects with a weak <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> using an apparatus that popularly became known as the "<a href="/wiki/God_helmet" title="God helmet">God helmet</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-PMID_6664802_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMID_6664802-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and reported that many of his subjects claimed to experience a "sensed presence" during stimulation.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work has been <a href="/wiki/Scientific_criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific criticism">criticised</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-AaenStockdale_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AaenStockdale-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Granqvist_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Granqvist-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Larsson_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsson-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though some researchers<sup id="cite_ref-Tinoca_Oritz_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tinoca_Oritz-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have published a replication of one God Helmet experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-Richards_1993_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richards_1993-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Granqvist <i>et al.</i> claimed that Persinger's work was not <a href="/wiki/Blind_experiment#Double-blind_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind experiment">double-blind</a>. Participants were often <a href="/wiki/Graduate_student" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate student">graduate students</a> who knew what sort of results to expect, and there was the risk that the <a href="/wiki/Experimenter_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimenter bias">experimenters' expectations</a> would be transmitted to subjects by unconscious cues. The participants were frequently given an idea of the purpose of the study by being asked to fill in questionnaires designed to test their suggestibility to <a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">paranormal</a> experiences before the trials were conducted. Granqvist <i>et al.</i> failed to <a href="/wiki/Replication_(scientific_method)" class="mw-redirect" title="Replication (scientific method)">replicate</a> Persinger's experiments double-blinded, and concluded that the presence or absence of the magnetic field had no relationship with any religious or spiritual experience reported by the participants, but was predicted entirely by their suggestibility and personality traits. Following the publication of this study, Persinger <i>et al.</i> dispute this.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One published attempt to create a "haunted room" using environmental "complex" electromagnetic fields based on Persinger's theoretical and experimental work did not produce the sensation of a "sensed presence" and found that reports of unusual experiences were uncorrelated with the presence or absence of these fields. As in the study by Granqvist <i>et al.,</i> reports of unusual experiences were instead predicted by the personality characteristics and suggestibility of participants.<sup id="cite_ref-French_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One experiment with a commercial version of the God helmet found no difference in response to graphic images whether the device was on or off.<sup id="cite_ref-GendleMcGrath_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GendleMcGrath-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AaenStockdaleMurphy_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AaenStockdaleMurphy-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuropsychology_and_neuroimaging">Neuropsychology and neuroimaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Neuropsychology and neuroimaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first researcher to note and catalog the abnormal experiences associated with <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe_epilepsy" title="Temporal lobe epilepsy">temporal lobe epilepsy</a> (TLE) was neurologist <a href="/wiki/Norman_Geschwind" title="Norman Geschwind">Norman Geschwind</a>, who noted a set of religious behavioral traits associated with TLE seizures.<sup id="cite_ref-WaxmanGeschwind_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WaxmanGeschwind-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include <a href="/wiki/Hypergraphia" title="Hypergraphia">hypergraphia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyperreligiosity" title="Hyperreligiosity">hyperreligiosity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypoactive_sexual_desire_disorder" title="Hypoactive sexual desire disorder">reduced sexual interest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(medicine)" title="Syncope (medicine)">fainting spells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pedantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedantic">pedantism</a>, often collectively ascribed to a condition known as <a href="/wiki/Geschwind_syndrome" title="Geschwind syndrome">Geschwind syndrome</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vilayanur_S._Ramachandran" class="mw-redirect" title="Vilayanur S. Ramachandran">Vilayanur S. Ramachandran</a> explored the neural basis of the hyperreligiosity seen in TLE using the <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_skin_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Galvanic skin response">galvanic skin response</a> (GSR), which correlates with emotional arousal, to determine whether the hyperreligiosity seen in TLE was due to an overall heightened emotional state or was specific to religious stimuli. Ramachandran presented two subjects with neutral, sexually arousing and religious words while measuring GSR. Ramachandran was able to show that patients with TLE showed enhanced emotional responses to the religious words, diminished responses to the sexually charged words, and normal responses to the neutral words. This study was presented as an abstract at a neuroscience conference and referenced in Ramachandran's book, <i><a href="/wiki/Phantoms_in_the_Brain" title="Phantoms in the Brain">Phantoms in the Brain</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was not published as a <a href="/wiki/Peer-review" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-review">peer-reviewed</a> scientific article. </p><p>Research by <a href="/wiki/Mario_Beauregard" title="Mario Beauregard">Mario Beauregard</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Montreal" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Montreal">University of Montreal</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">fMRI</a> on <a href="/wiki/Carmelites" title="Carmelites">Carmelite</a> nuns, has purported to show that religious and spiritual experiences include several brain regions and not a single 'God spot'. As Beauregard has said, "There is no God spot in the brain. Spiritual experiences are complex, like intense experiences with other human beings."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The neuroimaging was conducted when the nuns were asked to <i>recall</i> past mystical states, not while actually undergoing them; "subjects were asked to remember and relive (eyes closed) the most intense mystical experience ever felt in their lives as a member of the Carmelite Order."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2011 study by researchers at the <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke University Medical Center">Duke University Medical Center</a> found <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampal</a> atrophy is associated with older adults who report life-changing religious experiences, as well as those who are "<a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">born-again Protestants</a>, Catholics, and those with no religious affiliation".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2016 study using fMRI found "a recognizable feeling central to ... (<a href="/wiki/Mormon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mormon">Mormon</a>)... devotional practice was reproducibly associated with activation in <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex" title="Ventromedial prefrontal cortex">ventromedial prefrontal cortex</a>, and frontal attentional regions. <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">Nucleus accumbens</a> activation preceded peak spiritual feelings by 1–3 s and was replicated in four separate tasks. ... The association of abstract ideas and brain reward circuitry may interact with frontal attentional and emotive salience processing, suggesting a mechanism whereby doctrinal concepts may come to be intrinsically rewarding and motivate behavior in religious individuals."<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27834117_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27834117-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychopharmacology">Psychopharmacology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Psychopharmacology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some scientists working in the field hypothesize that the basis of <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual experience">spiritual experience</a> arises in neurological physiology. Speculative suggestions have been made that an increase of <a href="/wiki/N,N-dimethyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N,N-dimethyltryptamine">N,N-dimethyltryptamine</a> levels in the <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a> contribute to <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_experiences" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual experiences">spiritual experiences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been suggested that stimulation of the temporal lobe by psychoactive ingredients of <a href="/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">magic mushrooms</a> mimics religious experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-Mushrooms_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mushrooms-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypothesis</a> has found laboratory validation with respect to <a href="/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">psilocybin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PMID_18593735_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMID_18593735-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PMID_16826400_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMID_16826400-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicameral_mentality" title="Bicameral mentality">Bicameral mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychedelic crisis">Psychedelic crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_schizophrenia" title="Religion and schizophrenia">Religion and schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholarly_approaches_to_mysticism" title="Scholarly approaches to mysticism">Scholarly approaches to mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_psychology" title="Transpersonal psychology">Transpersonal psychology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Biello-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Biello_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBiello2007" class="citation magazine cs1">Biello, David (October 2007). "Searching for God in the Brain". <i>Scientific American</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm?volumeID=25&editionID=215&ArticleID=2097">the original</a> on 28 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Neuroscience+for+the+Soul&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=520-523&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Aaen-Stockdale&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thepsychologist.org.uk%2Farchive%2Farchive_home.cfm%3FvolumeID%3D25%26editionID%3D215%26ArticleID%3D2097&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gajilan2007-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gajilan2007_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGajilan2007" class="citation web cs1">Gajilan, A. Chris (5 April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010030507/http://cnn.health.printthis.clickability.com/pt/cpt?action=cpt&title=Are+humans+hard-wired+for+faith%3F+-+CNN.com&expire=&urlID=21822630&fb=Y&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2007%2FHEALTH%2F04%2F04%2Fneurotheology%2Findex.html&partnerID=2012">"Are humans hard-wired for faith?"</a>. <i>CNN.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cnn.health.printthis.clickability.com/pt/cpt?action=cpt&title=Are+humans+hard-wired+for+faith%3F+-+CNN.com&expire=&urlID=21822630&fb=Y&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2007%2FHEALTH%2F04%2F04%2Fneurotheology%2Findex.html&partnerID=2012">the original</a> on 10 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN.com&rft.atitle=Are+humans+hard-wired+for+faith%3F&rft.date=2007-04-05&rft.aulast=Gajilan&rft.aufirst=A.+Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcnn.health.printthis.clickability.com%2Fpt%2Fcpt%3Faction%3Dcpt%26title%3DAre%2Bhumans%2Bhard-wired%2Bfor%2Bfaith%253F%2B-%2BCNN.com%26expire%3D%26urlID%3D21822630%26fb%3DY%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.cnn.com%252F2007%252FHEALTH%252F04%252F04%252Fneurotheology%252Findex.html%26partnerID%3D2012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alper-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alper_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlper2008" class="citation book cs1">Alper, Matthew (2008). <i>The "God" Part of the Brain: A Scientific Interpretation of Human Spirituality and God</i>. 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Burton">Burton, Robert A.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PsYEOdPj78gC&pg=PT33">"Neurotheology"</a>. <i>On Being Certain. Believing You Are Right Even When You're Not</i>. 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(2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3068149">"Religious factors and hippocampal atrophy in late life"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>6</b> (3): e17006. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PLoSO...617006O">2011PLoSO...617006O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0017006">10.1371/journal.pone.0017006</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3068149">3068149</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21479219">21479219</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Religious+factors+and+hippocampal+atrophy+in+late+life&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=e17006&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3068149%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21479219&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0017006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PLoSO...617006O&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=A.+D.&rft.au=Hayward%2C+R.+D.&rft.au=Koenig%2C+H.+G.&rft.au=Steffens%2C+D.+C.&rft.au=Payne%2C+M.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3068149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid27834117-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid27834117_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFergusonNielsenKingDai2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ferguson, M. 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(2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:35015066">"Reward, salience, and attentional networks are activated by religious experience in devout Mormons"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Neuroscience_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Neuroscience (journal)">Social Neuroscience</a></i>. <b>13</b> (1): 104–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17470919.2016.1257437">10.1080/17470919.2016.1257437</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5478470">5478470</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27834117">27834117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Reward%2C+salience%2C+and+attentional+networks+are+activated+by+religious+experience+in+devout+Mormons.&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=104-116&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5478470%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27834117&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17470919.2016.1257437&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+J.+A.&rft.au=King%2C+J.+B.&rft.au=Dai%2C+L.&rft.au=Giangrasso%2C+D.+M.&rft.au=Holman%2C+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnrs.harvard.edu%2Furn-3%3AHUL.InstRepos%3A35015066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrassman2001" class="citation book cs1">Strassman, R. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dmtspiritmolecul00rick"><i>DMT: The Spiritual Molecule</i></a>. Inner Traditions Bear and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89281-927-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89281-927-0"><bdi>978-0-89281-927-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=DMT%3A+The+Spiritual+Molecule&rft.pub=Inner+Traditions+Bear+and+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-89281-927-0&rft.aulast=Strassman&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdmtspiritmolecul00rick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHood2005" class="citation book cs1">Hood, Ralph W. and Jacob A. Belzen Jr. (2005). <i>"Research Methods in the Psychology of Religion", in Handbook of the Psychology of Religion And Spirituality, ed. by Raymond F. Paloutzian and Crystal L. Park</i>. New York: Guilford Press. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-922-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-922-7"><bdi>978-1-57230-922-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Research+Methods+in+the+Psychology+of+Religion%22%2C+in+Handbook+of+the+Psychology+of+Religion+And+Spirituality%2C+ed.+by+Raymond+F.+Paloutzian+and+Crystal+L.+Park&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Guilford+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57230-922-7&rft.aulast=Hood&rft.aufirst=Ralph+W.+and+Jacob+A.+Belzen+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mushrooms-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mushrooms_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkatssoon2006" class="citation news cs1">Skatssoon, Judy (12 July 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/health/HealthRepublish_1682610.htm">"Magic mushrooms hit the God spot"</a>. ABC Science Online<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Magic+mushrooms+hit+the+God+spot&rft.date=2006-07-12&rft.aulast=Skatssoon&rft.aufirst=Judy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fscience%2Fnews%2Fhealth%2FHealthRepublish_1682610.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PMID_18593735-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PMID_18593735_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsRichardsJohnsonMcCann2008" class="citation journal cs1">Griffiths, Rr; Richards, Wa; Johnson, Mw; McCann, Ud; Jesse, R (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3050654">"Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the attribution of personal meaning and spiritual significance 14 months later"</a>. <i>Journal of Psychopharmacology</i>. <b>22</b> (6): 621–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0269881108094300">10.1177/0269881108094300</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3050654">3050654</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18593735">18593735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Psychopharmacology&rft.atitle=Mystical-type+experiences+occasioned+by+psilocybin+mediate+the+attribution+of+personal+meaning+and+spiritual+significance+14+months+later.&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=621-32&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3050654%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18593735&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0269881108094300&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=Rr&rft.au=Richards%2C+Wa&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Mw&rft.au=McCann%2C+Ud&rft.au=Jesse%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3050654&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PMID_16826400-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PMID_16826400_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsRichardsMcCannJesse2006" class="citation journal cs1">Griffiths, R R; Richards, W A; McCann, U; Jesse, R (2006). "Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance". <i>Psychopharmacology</i>. <b>187</b> (3): 268–83, discussion 284–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00213-006-0457-5">10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16826400">16826400</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7845214">7845214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychopharmacology&rft.atitle=Psilocybin+can+occasion+mystical-type+experiences+having+substantial+and+sustained+personal+meaning+and+spiritual+significance.&rft.volume=187&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=268-83%2C+discussion+284-92&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7845214%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16826400&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00213-006-0457-5&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=R+R&rft.au=Richards%2C+W+A&rft.au=McCann%2C+U&rft.au=Jesse%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1">Begley, Sharon (7 May 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051202132412/http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/neuro/neuronewswk.htm">"Your Brain on Religion: Mystic visions or brain circuits at work?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/neuro/neuronewswk.htm">the original</a> on 2 December 2005 – via Center for Cognitive Liberty & Ethics.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Your+Brain+on+Religion%3A+Mystic+visions+or+brain+circuits+at+work%3F&rft.date=2001-05-07&rft.aulast=Begley&rft.aufirst=Sharon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cognitiveliberty.org%2Fneuro%2Fneuronewswk.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1">Hitt, Jack (1 November 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/7.11/persinger.html">"This Is Your Brain on God"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=This+Is+Your+Brain+on+God&rft.date=1999-11-01&rft.aulast=Hitt&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fwired%2Farchive%2F7.11%2Fpersinger.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Neher, Andrew (1990). <i>The Psychology of Transcendence</i> (2nd ed.). Dover. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-26167-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-26167-0"><bdi>0-486-26167-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Transcendence&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-486-26167-0&rft.aulast=Neher&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Newberg, Andrew B. (1999). <i>The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious Experience</i>. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-3163-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-3163-3"><bdi>0-8006-3163-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mystical+Mind%3A+Probing+the+Biology+of+Religious+Experience&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8006-3163-3&rft.aulast=Newberg&rft.aufirst=Andrew+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNamara2009" class="citation book cs1">McNamara, Patrick (2009). <i>The Neuroscience of Religious Experience</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88958-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88958-2"><bdi>978-0-521-88958-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Neuroscience+of+Religious+Experience&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88958-2&rft.aulast=McNamara&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2007" class="citation web cs1">Powell, Victoria (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130614132506/http://www.clinicallypsyched.com/neurotheologywithgodinmind.htm">"Neurotheology: With God in Mind"</a>. <i>Clinically Psyched</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clinicallypsyched.com/neurotheologywithgodinmind.htm">the original</a> on 14 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clinically+Psyched&rft.atitle=Neurotheology%3A+With+God+in+Mind&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clinicallypsyched.com%2Fneurotheologywithgodinmind.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2006" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Thomas B. (2006). "Chemical Input — Religious Output: Entheogens". In McNamara, Robert (ed.). <i>Where God and Science Meet: The Psychology of Religious Experience</i>. Vol. 3. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98791-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98791-6"><bdi>978-0-275-98791-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chemical+Input+%E2%80%94+Religious+Output%3A+Entheogens&rft.btitle=Where+God+and+Science+Meet%3A+The+Psychology+of+Religious+Experience&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98791-6&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Thomas+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRunehov2007" class="citation book cs1">Runehov, Anne L. C. (2007). <i>Sacred or Neural? The Potential of Neuroscience to Explain Religious Experience</i>. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-525-56980-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-525-56980-1"><bdi>978-3-525-56980-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+or+Neural%3F+The+Potential+of+Neuroscience+to+Explain+Religious+Experience&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+and+Ruprecht&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-525-56980-1&rft.aulast=Runehov&rft.aufirst=Anne+L.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_religion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2003/godonbrain.shtml"><i>God on the Brain</i> - programme summary</a> at <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nfb.ca/film/mystical_brain"><i>Mystical Brain</i></a> at <a href="/wiki/National_Film_Board_of_Canada" title="National Film Board of Canada">National Film Board of Canada</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2010/12/15/132078267/neurotheology-where-religion-and-science-collide"><i>The Science Of Spirituality: Is This Your Brain On God?</i></a> at <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">Brain mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-reading" title="Brain-reading">Brain-reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_neuroscience" title="Cellular neuroscience">Cellular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_genetics" title="Imaging genetics">Imaging genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_neuroscience" title="Integrative neuroscience">Integrative neuroscience</a></li> <li><a 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title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/130px-Gray739.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/195px-Gray739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/260px-Gray739.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neurology" title="Behavioral neurology">Behavioral neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptology">Epileptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocardiology" title="Neurocardiology">Neurocardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepidemiology" title="Neuroepidemiology">Neuroepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system#Function" title="Enteric nervous system">Neurogastroenterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmunology" title="Neuroimmunology">Neuroimmunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurointensive_care" title="Neurointensive care">Neurointensive care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-oncology" title="Neuro-oncology">Neuro-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-ophthalmology" title="Neuro-ophthalmology">Neuro-ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorehabilitation" title="Neurorehabilitation">Neurorehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotology" title="Neurotology">Neurotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurovirology" title="Neurovirology">Neurovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_neuroscience" title="Nutritional neuroscience">Nutritional neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cellular_cognition" title="Molecular cellular cognition">Molecular cellular cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">Sensory neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social cognitive neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_neuroscience" title="Consumer neuroscience">Consumer neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">Educational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_neurosurgery" title="Global neurosurgery">Global neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurobiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocriminology" title="Neurocriminology">Neurocriminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">Neuroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepistemology" title="Neuroepistemology">Neuroepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurohistory" title="Neurohistory">Neurohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolaw" title="Neurolaw">Neurolaw</a></li> <li><a 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">Development of the nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Neural network (artificial)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">Neural network (biological)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detection_theory" title="Detection theory">Detection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraoperative_neurophysiological_monitoring" title="Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring">Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochip" title="Neurochip">Neurochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Neurodegenerative disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">Neurodevelopmental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">Neurogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmune_system" title="Neuroimmune system">Neuroimmune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromanagement" title="Neuromanagement">Neuromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">Neuromodulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self" title="Neural basis of self">Self-awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span 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