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href="#Contemporary_usage_of_the_word_and_the_usage_of_other_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Contemporary usage of the word and the usage of other terms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_usage_of_the_word_and_the_usage_of_other_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_and_expansion_during_Stalin's_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_and_expansion_during_Stalin's_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Formation and expansion during Stalin's rule </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_and_expansion_during_Stalin's_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-During_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#During_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 During World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-During_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_role" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Political role </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_role" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Economic role </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 After World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_toll" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_toll"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Death toll </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Death_toll-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Death toll subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Death_toll-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mortality_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mortality_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Mortality rate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mortality_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gulag_administrators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gulag_administrators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Gulag administrators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gulag_administrators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Conditions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conditions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Conditions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gulag_and_famine_(1932–1933)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gulag_and_famine_(1932–1933)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Gulag and famine (1932–1933) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gulag_and_famine_(1932–1933)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Social conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Geography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personnel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personnel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Personnel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personnel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Special institutions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Special_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Historiography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Historiography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_and_functions_of_the_Gulag" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_and_functions_of_the_Gulag"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Origins and functions of the Gulag </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_and_functions_of_the_Gulag-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archival_documents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archival_documents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Archival documents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archival_documents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_Gulag_population_estimates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_Gulag_population_estimates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 History of Gulag population estimates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_Gulag_population_estimates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Impact </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impact subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1.1 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Colonization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_after_a_term_was_served" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_after_a_term_was_served"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.4 Life after a term was served </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_after_a_term_was_served-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memorialization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memorialization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Memorialization </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Memorialization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Memorialization subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Memorialization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gulag_memorials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gulag_memorials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Gulag memorials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gulag_memorials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gulag_Museum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gulag_Museum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Gulag Museum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gulag_Museum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17.1 Articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memoirs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memoirs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17.2 Memoirs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memoirs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17.3 Fiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Gulag</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 81 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-81" aria-hidden="true" > 81 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goelag" title="Goelag – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Goelag" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="جولاج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جولاج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/QULAQ" title="QULAQ – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="QULAQ" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="ГУЛаг – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="ГУЛаг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goulag" title="Goulag – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Goulag" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwlag" title="Gwlag – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwlag" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/GULAG" title="GULAG – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="GULAG" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BA" title="Γκουλάγκ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γκουλάγκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulago" title="Gulago – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gulago" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%AF" title="گولاگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گولاگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goulag" title="Goulag – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Goulag" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/GULag" title="GULag – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="GULag" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaichean_Gulag" title="Campaichean Gulag – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Campaichean Gulag" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%B4%EB%9D%BC%ED%81%AC" title="굴라크 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="굴라크" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%A3" title="Գուլագ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գուլագ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97" title="गुलाग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गुलाग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BAlag" title="Gúlag – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gúlag" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92" title="גולאג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גולאג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="გულაგი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გულაგი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulagia" title="Gulagia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gulagia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulags" title="Gulags – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gulags" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulagas" title="Gulagas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gulagas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Гулаг – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Гулаг" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97" title="गुलाग – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="गुलाग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="გულაგი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გულაგი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goelag" title="Goelag – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Goelag" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B0%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B0" title="グラーグ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="グラーグ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%97" title="ਗੁਲਾਗ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗੁਲਾਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%AF" title="گولاگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گولاگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C5%82ag" title="Gułag – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gułag" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulagu" title="Gulagu – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gulagu" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag_(1930_%E2%80%93_1960)" title="Gulag (1930 – 1960) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Gulag (1930 – 1960)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Гулаг – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гулаг" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81" title="กูลัก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กูลัก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93" title="ГУЛАГ – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="ГУЛАГ" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%AF" title="گولاگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گولاگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A1i_c%E1%BA%A3i_t%E1%BA%A1o_lao_%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng_c%E1%BB%A7a_Li%C3%AAn_X%C3%B4" title="Trại cải tạo lao động của Liên Xô – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Trại cải tạo lao động của Liên Xô" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Gulag" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%8B%89%E6%A0%BC" title="古拉格 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="古拉格" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%8B%89%E6%A0%BC" title="古拉格 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古拉格" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%8B%89%E6%A0%BC" title="古拉格 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古拉格" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Soviet forced penal labour camp system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Gulag_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Gulag (disambiguation)">Gulag (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">Kulak</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Gulag</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:GULAG_Logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/GULAG_Logo.svg/120px-GULAG_Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/GULAG_Logo.svg/250px-GULAG_Logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1126" data-file-height="1055" /></a> <div class="center">Trademark logo (1939)</div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><a href="/wiki/File:Gulag_Location_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Gulag_Location_Map.svg/250px-Gulag_Location_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Gulag_Location_Map.svg/330px-Gulag_Location_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Gulag_Location_Map.svg/500px-Gulag_Location_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a> <div class="center">Map of the camps between 1923 and 1961<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left"> <ul><li>18,000,000 people passed through the Gulag's camps<a href="#cite_note-Healey-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft1999-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rosefielde7677-4">[3]</a></li> <li>53 Gulag camp directorates (colloquially referred to as simply "camps") and 423 labor colonies in the Soviet Union as of March 1940<a href="#cite_note-GRZ-5">[4]</a></li> <li>The tentative consensus in contemporary Soviet historiography is that roughly 1,600,000<a href="#cite_note-10">[b]</a> died due to detention in the camps.<a href="#cite_note-Healey-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft1999-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rosefielde7677-4">[3]</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="infobox" style="width: 22em"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size: 125%; color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Gulag</td></tr><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ГУЛАГ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Gulag</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Main Administration of Camps / General Authority of Camps</td></tr><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Mass repression in the Soviet Union</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#E9E9E9;padding:0.1em 0;;font-size:95%;"> Economic repression</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">Dekulakization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Kazakh famine of 1930–1933">Kazakhstan</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#E9E9E9;padding:0.1em 0;;font-size:95%;"> <a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purges_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Purges of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gulag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Punitive psychiatry</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#E9E9E9;padding:0.1em 0;;font-size:95%;"> <a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War">1917–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">1921–1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">1928–1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1958%E2%80%931964)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)">1958–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1970s%E2%80%931987)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1987)">1975–1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Islam in the Soviet Union">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-religious_legislation" title="Soviet anti-religious legislation">Legislation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Repression of science in the Soviet Union">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Images</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhdanov_Doctrine" title="Zhdanov Doctrine">Art</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#E9E9E9;padding:0.1em 0;;font-size:95%;"> Ethnic repression</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De-Cossackization" title="De-Cossackization">De-Cossackization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">National operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_repressions_of_Polish_citizens_(1939%E2%80%931946)" title="Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)">Repressions of Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Ukrainian_language_suppression" title="Chronology of 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class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1956%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/240px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="605" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">  </td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Leadership</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice President of the Soviet Union">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Council of the Soviet Union">State Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Council_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Presidential Council of the Soviet Union">Presidential Council</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">History</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo" title="Orgburo">Orgburo</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Legislature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Executive_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union">Central Executive Committee</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_the_Union" title="Soviet of the Union">Soviet of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_Nationalities" title="Soviet of Nationalities">Soviet of Nationalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" title="Presidium of the Supreme Soviet">Presidium</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union#Chairmen_of_the_Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1989–1990)" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Speaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1989 Soviet Union legislative election">1989 Legislative election</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Governance</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Official_names_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Official names of the Soviet Union">Official names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1924 Soviet Constitution">1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1977 Soviet Constitution">1977</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministries_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ministries of the Soviet Union">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Committee of the Soviet Union">State Committees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">Cabinets</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premiership</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrator_of_Affairs_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Administrator of Affairs of the Soviet Union">Administrator of Affairs</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Judiciary</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Court_(Soviet_Union)" title="People's Court (Soviet Union)">People's Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procurator_General_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Procurator General of the Soviet Union">Procurator General</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Ideology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_democracy" title="Soviet democracy">Soviet democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchevism" class="mw-redirect" title="Khrushchevism">Khrushchevism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Society</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_goods_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Consumer goods in the Soviet Union">Consumer goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union">Five-Year Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">Kosygin reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_balance_planning" title="Material balance planning">Material balance planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_phraseology" title="Soviet phraseology">Phraseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Repression</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gulag system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/17px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/26px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/34px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:Politics of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:Politics of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vorkuta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Vorkuta.jpg/220px-Vorkuta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Vorkuta.jpg/330px-Vorkuta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Vorkuta.jpg/440px-Vorkuta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption>A punishment cell block in one of the subcamps of <a href="/wiki/Vorkutlag" title="Vorkutlag">Vorkutlag</a>, 1945</figcaption></figure> The Gulag<a href="#cite_note-12">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[d]</a> was a system of <a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">forced labor camps</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Applebaum,_Anne_2003,_pp._50-11">[9]</a> The word Gulag originally referred only to the division of the <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">Soviet secret police</a> that was in charge of running the forced labor camps from the 1930s to the early 1950s during <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s rule, but in English literature the term is popularly used for the system of forced labor throughout the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet era">Soviet era</a>. The abbreviation GULAG (ГУЛАГ) stands for "Гла́вное Управле́ние исправи́тельно-трудовы́х ЛАГере́й" (Main Directorate of <a href="/wiki/Correctional_Labour_Camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Correctional Labour Camp">Correctional Labour Camps</a>), but the full official name of the agency <a href="#Etymology">changed several times</a>. The Gulag is recognized as a major instrument of <a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">political repression in the Soviet Union</a>. The camps housed both ordinary criminals and <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a>, a large number of whom were convicted by simplified procedures, such as <a href="/wiki/NKVD_troika" title="NKVD troika">NKVD troikas</a> or other instruments of <a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_punishment" title="Extrajudicial punishment">extrajudicial punishment</a>. The agency was established in 1930 and initially was administered by the <a href="/wiki/Joint_State_Political_Directorate" title="Joint State Political Directorate">OGPU</a> (1923–1934), later known as the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> (1934–1946), and the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">Ministry of Internal Affairs</a> (MVD) in the final years. The <a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">internment</a> system grew rapidly, reaching a population of 100,000 in the 1920s. By the end of 1940, the population of the Gulag camps amounted to 1.5 million.<a href="#cite_note-Ellman_SRS-16">[12]</a> The emergent consensus among scholars is that, of the 14 million prisoners who passed through the Gulag camps and the 4 million prisoners who passed through the Gulag colonies from 1930 to 1953, roughly 1.5 to 1.7 million prisoners perished there or died soon after they were released.<a href="#cite_note-Healey-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft1999-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rosefielde7677-4">[3]</a> Some journalists and writers who question the reliability of such data heavily rely on <a href="/wiki/Memoir" title="Memoir">memoir</a> sources that come to higher estimations.<a href="#cite_note-Healey-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[7]</a> Archival researchers have found "no plan of destruction" of the gulag population and no statement of official intent to kill them, and prisoner releases vastly exceeded the number of deaths in the Gulag.<a href="#cite_note-Healey-2">[1]</a> This policy can partially be attributed to the common practice of releasing prisoners who were suffering from incurable diseases as well as prisoners who were near death.<a href="#cite_note-Ellman_SRS-16">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Applebaum583-17">[13]</a> Almost immediately after the <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">death of Stalin</a>, the Soviet establishment started to dismantle the Gulag system. A <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_of_1953" title="Amnesty of 1953">mass general amnesty</a> was granted in the immediate aftermath of Stalin's death, but it was only offered to non-political prisoners and political prisoners who had been sentenced to a maximum of five years in prison. Shortly thereafter, <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> was elected <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">First Secretary</a>, initiating the processes of <a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">de-Stalinization</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a>, triggering a mass release and <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">rehabilitation</a> of political prisoners. Six years later, on 25 January 1960, the Gulag system was officially abolished when the remains of its administration were dissolved by Khrushchev. The legal practice of sentencing convicts to <a href="/wiki/Penal_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal labor">penal labor</a> continues to exist in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a>, but its capacity is greatly reduced.<a href="#cite_note-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-19">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>, winner of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>, who survived eight years of Gulag incarceration, gave the term its international repute with the publication of <a href="/wiki/The_Gulag_Archipelago" title="The Gulag Archipelago">The Gulag Archipelago</a> in 1973. The author likened the scattered camps to "<a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">a chain of islands</a>", and as an eyewitness, he described the Gulag as a system where people were worked to death.<a href="#cite_note-Applebaum_2003-20">[16]</a> In March 1940, there were 53 Gulag camp directorates (simply referred to as "camps") and 423 labor colonies in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-GRZ-5">[4]</a> Many mining and industrial towns and cities in northern Russia, eastern Russia and <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Karaganda" title="Karaganda">Karaganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norilsk" title="Norilsk">Norilsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vorkuta" title="Vorkuta">Vorkuta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magadan" title="Magadan">Magadan</a>, were blocks of camps which were originally built by prisoners and subsequently run by ex-prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-21">[17]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (January 2022)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> GULAG (ГУЛАГ) stands for "Гла́вное управле́ние исправи́тельно-трудовы́х лагере́й" (Main Directorate of <a href="/wiki/Correctional_Labour_Camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Correctional Labour Camp">Correctional Labour Camps</a>). It was renamed several times, e.g., to Main Directorate of <a href="/wiki/Corrective_labor_colony" title="Corrective labor colony">Correctional Labor Colonies</a> (Главное управление исправительно-трудовых колоний (ГУИТК)), which names can be seen in the documents describing the subordination of various camps.<a href="#cite_note-22">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yagoda_kanal_Moskva_Volga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Yagoda_kanal_Moskva_Volga.jpg/250px-Yagoda_kanal_Moskva_Volga.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Yagoda_kanal_Moskva_Volga.jpg/330px-Yagoda_kanal_Moskva_Volga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Yagoda_kanal_Moskva_Volga.jpg/500px-Yagoda_kanal_Moskva_Volga.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="1048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Genrikh_Yagoda" title="Genrikh Yagoda">Genrikh Yagoda</a> (middle) inspecting the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Canal" title="Moscow Canal">Moscow-Volga canal</a>, 1935. Behind his right shoulder is <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>.</figcaption></figure> Some historians estimate that 14 million people were imprisoned in the Gulag labor camps from 1929 to 1953 (the estimates for the period from 1918 to 1929 are more difficult to calculate).<a href="#cite_note-ConquestGRZ-23">[19]</a> Other calculations, by historian <a href="/wiki/Orlando_Figes" title="Orlando Figes">Orlando Figes</a>, refer to 25 million prisoners of the Gulag in 1928–1953.<a href="#cite_note-24">[20]</a> A further 6–7 million were <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union#Timeline" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">deported and exiled</a> to remote areas of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a>, and 4–5 million passed through <a href="/wiki/Corrective_labor_colony" title="Corrective labor colony">labor colonies</a>, plus 3.5 million who were already in, or had been sent to, <a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">labor settlements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ConquestGRZ-23">[19]</a> According to some estimates, the total population of the camps varied from 510,307 in 1934 to 1,727,970 in 1953.<a href="#cite_note-GRZ-5">[4]</a> According to other estimates, at the beginning of 1953 the total number of prisoners in prison camps was more than 2.4 million of which more than 465,000 were political prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-gulag2-25">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[22]</a> Between the years 1934 to 1953, 20% to 40% of the Gulag population in each given year were released.<a href="#cite_note-27">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[24]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Institutional_analysis" title="Institutional analysis">institutional analysis</a> of the Soviet concentration system is complicated by the formal distinction between GULAG and GUPVI. GUPVI (ГУПВИ) was the <a href="/wiki/Main_Administration_for_Affairs_of_Prisoners_of_War_and_Internees" title="Main Administration for Affairs of Prisoners of War and Internees">Main Administration for Affairs of Prisoners of War and Internees</a> (Главное управление по делам военнопленных и интернированных, Glavnoye upravleniye po delam voyennoplennyh i internirovannyh), a department of NKVD (later MVD) in charge of handling of foreign <a href="/wiki/Civilian_internee" title="Civilian internee">civilian internees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a> (prisoners of war) in the Soviet Union during and in the aftermath of World War II (1939–1953). In many ways the GUPVI system was similar to GULAG.<a href="#cite_note-29">[25]</a> Its major function was the organization of foreign <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">forced labor in the Soviet Union</a>. The top management of GUPVI came from the GULAG system. The major memoir noted distinction from GULAG was the absence of convicted criminals in the GUPVI camps. Otherwise the conditions in both camp systems were similar: hard labor, poor nutrition and living conditions, and high mortality rate.<a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a> For the Soviet political prisoners, like <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>, all foreign civilian detainees and foreign POWs were imprisoned in the GULAG; the surviving foreign civilians and POWs considered themselves prisoners in the GULAG. According to the estimates, in total, during the whole period of the existence of the GUPVI, there were over 500 POW camps (within the Soviet Union and abroad), which imprisoned over 4,000,000 POW.<a href="#cite_note-31">[27]</a> Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although significant numbers of political prisoners could be found in the camps at any one time.<a href="#cite_note-gulag2-25">[21]</a> Petty crimes and jokes about the Soviet government and officials were punishable by imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-32">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[29]</a> About half of political prisoners in the Gulag camps were imprisoned "<a href="/wiki/By_administrative_means" class="mw-redirect" title="By administrative means">by administrative means</a>", i.e., without trial at courts; official data suggest that there were over 2.6 million sentences to imprisonment on cases investigated by the secret police throughout 1921–53.<a href="#cite_note-organy1-34">[30]</a> Maximum sentences varied depending on the type of crime and changed over time. From 1953, the maximum sentence for petty theft was six months,<a href="#cite_note-35">[31]</a> having previously been one year and seven years. Theft of state property however, had a minimum sentence of seven years and a maximum of twenty five.<a href="#cite_note-36">[32]</a> In 1958, the maximum sentence for any crime was reduced from twenty five to fifteen years.<a href="#cite_note-37">[33]</a> In 1960, the <a href="/wiki/Ministerstvo_Vnutrennikh_Del" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministerstvo Vnutrennikh Del">Ministerstvo Vnutrennikh Del</a> (MVD) ceased to function as the Soviet-wide administration of the camps in favour of individual republic MVD branches. The centralised detention administrations temporarily ceased functioning.<a href="#cite_note-38">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_usage_of_the_word_and_the_usage_of_other_terms">Contemporary usage of the word and the usage of other terms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Contemporary usage of the word and the usage of other terms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_fence_at_the_old_GULag_in_Perm-36.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/The_fence_at_the_old_GULag_in_Perm-36.JPG/250px-The_fence_at_the_old_GULag_in_Perm-36.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/The_fence_at_the_old_GULag_in_Perm-36.JPG/330px-The_fence_at_the_old_GULag_in_Perm-36.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/The_fence_at_the_old_GULag_in_Perm-36.JPG/500px-The_fence_at_the_old_GULag_in_Perm-36.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>The fence at the old Gulag camp in <a href="/wiki/Perm-36" title="Perm-36">Perm-36</a>, founded in 1943, turned into a museum. Many <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Ukrainian_Nationalists" title="Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists">Ukrainian nationalists</a> were repressed and held at this camp.</figcaption></figure> Although the term Gulag was originally used in reference to a government agency, in English and many other languages, the acronym acquired the qualities of a common noun, denoting the Soviet system of <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">prison</a>-based, <a href="/wiki/Unfree_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labor">unfree labor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-anneapplebaum-40">[36]</a> <blockquote>Even more broadly, "Gulag" has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that prisoners once called the "meat-grinder": the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the early and unnecessary deaths.</blockquote> Western authors use the term Gulag to denote all the prisons and internment camps in the Soviet Union. The term's contemporary usage is at times notably not directly related to the USSR, such as in the expression "<a href="/wiki/Prison_camps_in_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison camps in North Korea">North Korea's Gulag</a>"<a href="#cite_note-41">[37]</a> for camps operational today.<a href="#cite_note-guardianunlimitedkorea-42">[38]</a> The word Gulag was not often used in Russian, either officially or colloquially; the predominant terms were the camps (лагеря, lagerya) and the zone (зона, zona), usually singular, for the labor camp system and for the individual camps. The official term, "<a href="/wiki/Correctional_labour_camp" title="Correctional labour camp">correctional labour camp</a>", was suggested for official use by the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> in the session of July 27, 1929. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:V.M._Doroshevich-Sakhalin._Part_I._Prisoners_on_Steamship_of_Voluntary_Fleet.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/V.M._Doroshevich-Sakhalin._Part_I._Prisoners_on_Steamship_of_Voluntary_Fleet.png/250px-V.M._Doroshevich-Sakhalin._Part_I._Prisoners_on_Steamship_of_Voluntary_Fleet.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/V.M._Doroshevich-Sakhalin._Part_I._Prisoners_on_Steamship_of_Voluntary_Fleet.png/330px-V.M._Doroshevich-Sakhalin._Part_I._Prisoners_on_Steamship_of_Voluntary_Fleet.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/V.M._Doroshevich-Sakhalin._Part_I._Prisoners_on_Steamship_of_Voluntary_Fleet.png/500px-V.M._Doroshevich-Sakhalin._Part_I._Prisoners_on_Steamship_of_Voluntary_Fleet.png 2x" data-file-width="2701" data-file-height="1794" /></a><figcaption>Prisoners on a ship on their way to <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a>, remote prison island, c. 1903</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> both used forced <a href="/wiki/Exile" title="Exile">exile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">forced labour</a> as forms of judicial punishment. <a href="/wiki/Katorga" title="Katorga">Katorga</a>, a category of punishment which was reserved for those who were convicted of the most serious crimes, had many of the features which were associated with labor-camp imprisonment: confinement, simplified facilities (as opposed to the facilities which existed in prisons), and forced labor, usually involving hard, unskilled or semi-skilled work. According to historian <a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">Anne Applebaum</a>, katorga was not a common sentence; approximately 6,000 <a href="/wiki/Katorga" title="Katorga">katorga</a> convicts were serving sentences in 1906 and 28,600 of them were serving sentences in 1916.<a href="#cite_note-43">[39]</a> Under the Imperial Russian penal system, those who were convicted of less serious crimes were sent to corrective prisons and they were also made to work.<a href="#cite_note-44">[40]</a> Forced exile to <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> had been in use for a wide range of offenses since the seventeenth century and it was a common punishment for political dissidents and revolutionaries. In the nineteenth century, the members of the failed <a href="/wiki/Decembrist_revolt" title="Decembrist revolt">Decembrist revolt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sybirak" title="Sybirak">Polish nobles who resisted Russian rule</a> were sent into exile. <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a> was sentenced to die for reading banned literature in 1849, but the sentence was commuted to banishment to Siberia. Members of various socialist revolutionary groups, including <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sergo_Ordzhonikidze" title="Sergo Ordzhonikidze">Sergo Ordzhonikidze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> were also sent into exile.<a href="#cite_note-45">[41]</a> Convicts who were serving labor sentences and exiles were sent to the underpopulated areas of Siberia and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a> – regions that lacked towns or food sources as well as organized transportation systems. Despite the isolated conditions, some prisoners successfully escaped to populated areas. Stalin himself escaped three of the four times after he was sent into exile.<a href="#cite_note-46">[42]</a> Since these times, Siberia gained its fearful connotation as a place of punishment, a reputation which was further enhanced by the Soviet GULAG system. The Bolsheviks' own experiences with exile and forced labor provided them with a model which they could base their own system on, including the importance of strict enforcement. From 1920 to 1950, the leaders of the Communist Party and the Soviet state considered repression a tool that they should use to secure the normal functioning of the Soviet state system and preserve and strengthen their positions within their social base, the working class (when the Bolsheviks took power, peasants represented 80% of the population).<a href="#cite_note-Земсков-47">[43]</a> In the midst of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>, Lenin and the Bolsheviks established a "special" prison camp system, separate from its traditional prison system and under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[44]</a> These camps, as Lenin envisioned them, had a distinctly political purpose.<a href="#cite_note-49">[45]</a> These early camps of the GULAG system were introduced in order to isolate and eliminate class-alien, socially dangerous, disruptive, suspicious, and other disloyal elements, whose deeds and thoughts were not contributing to the strengthening of the <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">dictatorship of the proletariat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Земсков-47">[43]</a> Forced labor as a "method of reeducation" was applied in the <a href="/wiki/Solovki_prison_camp" title="Solovki prison camp">Solovki prison camp</a> as early as the 1920s,<a href="#cite_note-ApplebaumChapter3-50">[46]</a> based on Trotsky's experiments with forced labor camps for Czech war prisoners from 1918 and his proposals to introduce "compulsory labor service" voiced in <a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_Communism" title="Terrorism and Communism">Terrorism and Communism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ApplebaumChapter3-50">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[47]</a> These concentration camps were not identical to the Stalinist or Hitler camps, but were introduced to isolate war prisoners given the extreme historical situation following <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a> Various categories of prisoners were defined: petty criminals, POWs of the Russian Civil War, officials accused of corruption, sabotage and embezzlement, political enemies, dissidents and other people deemed dangerous for the state. In the first decade of Soviet rule, the judicial and penal systems were neither unified nor coordinated, and there was a distinction between criminal prisoners and political or "special" prisoners. The "traditional" judicial and prison system, which dealt with criminal prisoners, were first overseen by The People's Commissariat of Justice until 1922, after which they were overseen by the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs, also known as the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[49]</a> The Cheka and its successor organizations, the GPU or <a href="/wiki/State_Political_Directorate" title="State Political Directorate">State Political Directorate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/OGPU" class="mw-redirect" title="OGPU">OGPU</a>, oversaw political prisoners and the "special" camps to which they were sent.<a href="#cite_note-54">[50]</a> In April 1929, the judicial distinctions between criminal and political prisoners were eliminated, and control of the entire Soviet penal system turned over to the OGPU.<a href="#cite_note-55">[51]</a> In 1928, there were 30,000 individuals interned; the authorities were opposed to compelled labor. In 1927, the official in charge of prison administration wrote: <blockquote>The exploitation of prison labour, the system of squeezing "golden sweat" from them, the organisation of production in places of confinement, which while profitable from a commercial point of view is fundamentally lacking in corrective significance – these are entirely inadmissible in Soviet places of confinement.<a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a></blockquote> The legal base and the guidance for the creation of the system of "corrective labor camps" (исправи́тельно-трудовые лагеря, Ispravitel'no-trudovye lagerya), the backbone of what is commonly referred to as the "Gulag", was a secret decree from the <a href="/wiki/Sovnarkom" class="mw-redirect" title="Sovnarkom">Sovnarkom</a> of July 11, 1929, about the use of <a href="/wiki/Penal_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal labor">penal labor</a> that duplicated the corresponding appendix to the minutes of the <a href="/wiki/Politburo" title="Politburo">Politburo</a> meeting of June 27, 1929.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-57">[53]</a> One of the Gulag system founders was <a href="/wiki/Naftaly_Frenkel" title="Naftaly Frenkel">Naftaly Frenkel</a>. In 1923, he was arrested for illegally crossing borders and smuggling. He was sentenced to 10 years' hard labor at <a href="/wiki/Solovki_prison_camp" title="Solovki prison camp">Solovki</a>, which later came to be known as the "first camp of the Gulag". While serving his sentence he wrote a letter to the camp administration detailing a number of "productivity improvement" proposals including the infamous system of labor exploitation whereby the inmates' food rations were to be linked to their rate of production, a proposal known as nourishment scale (шкала питания). This notorious you-eat-as-you-work system would often kill weaker prisoners in weeks and caused countless casualties. The letter caught the attention of a number of high communist officials including <a href="/wiki/Genrikh_Yagoda" title="Genrikh Yagoda">Genrikh Yagoda</a> and Frenkel soon went from being an inmate to becoming a camp commander and an important Gulag official. His proposals soon saw widespread adoption in the Gulag system.<a href="#cite_note-58">[54]</a> After having appeared as an instrument and place for isolating counter-revolutionary and criminal elements, the Gulag, because of its principle of "correction by forced labor", quickly became, in fact, an independent branch of the national economy secured on the cheap labor force presented by prisoners. Hence it is followed by one more important reason for the constancy of the repressive policy, namely, the state's interest in unremitting rates of receiving a cheap labor force that was forcibly used, mainly in the extreme conditions of the east and north.<a href="#cite_note-Земсков-47">[43]</a> The Gulag possessed both punitive and economic functions.<a href="#cite_note-Ellman-59">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_and_expansion_during_Stalin's_rule">Formation and expansion during Stalin's rule</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Formation and expansion during Stalin's rule">edit</a>]</div> The Gulag was an administrative body that watched over the camps; eventually, its name would retrospectively be used as a name for these camps. After <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Vladimir_Lenin" title="Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin">Lenin's death in 1924</a>, Stalin was able to take control of the government, and he began to form the gulag system. On June 27, 1929, the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a> created a system of self-supporting camps that would eventually replace the existing prisons around the country.<a href="#cite_note-60">[56]</a> Prisoners who received a prison sentence which exceeded three years were required to remain in these prisons. Prisoners who received a prison sentence which was shorter than three years were required to remain in the prison system that was still under the purview of the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a>. The purpose of these new camps was to colonise the remote and inhospitable environments throughout the Soviet Union. These changes took place around the time when Stalin started to institute <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">collectivization</a> and rapid industrial development. <a href="/wiki/Collectivisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivisation in the Soviet Union">Collectivisation</a> resulted in a large-scale <a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">purge</a> of peasants and so-called <a href="/wiki/Kulaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulaks">Kulaks</a>. In contrast to other Soviet peasants, the Kulaks were supposedly wealthy, and as a result, the state classified them as <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalists</a>, and by extension, it also classified them as <a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people#Soviet_Union" title="Enemy of the people">enemies of socialism</a>. The term would also become associated with anyone who opposed or even seemed disssatisfied with the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Soviet government</a>. By late 1929, Stalin launched a program which was known as <a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">dekulakization</a>. Stalin demanded the complete elimination of the kulak class, resulting in the imprisonment and execution of Soviet peasants. In just four months, 60,000 people were sent to the camps and 154,000 other people were exiled. However, this was only the beginning of the dekulakisation process. In 1931 alone, 1,803,392 people were exiled.<a href="#cite_note-61">[57]</a> Although these massive relocation processes were successful in transferring a large potential free forced labor work force to places where it was needed, that is about all it was successful in doing. All of the "<a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">special settlers</a>", as the Soviet government referred to them, lived on starvation level rations, and as a result, many people starved to death in the camps, and anyone who was healthy enough to escape tried to do just that. This situation forced the government to give rations to a group of people which it was hardly getting any use out of, and as a result, it was just costing the Soviet government money. The <a href="/wiki/Joint_State_Political_Directorate" title="Joint State Political Directorate">Unified State Political Administration</a> (OGPU) quickly discovered the problem, and in response, it began to reform the dekulakisation process.<a href="#cite_note-The_History_of_the_Gulag-62">[58]</a> In an attempt to prevent mass escapes from the colony, the OGPU started to recruit prisoners who lived inside it, and it also set up ambushes around popular escape routes. The OGPU also attempted to raise the living conditions in these camps in order to discourage people from actively trying to escape from them, and Kulaks were told that they would regain their rights in five years. Even these revisions ultimately failed to resolve the problem, and as a result, the dekulakisation process was a failure because it did not lead to the creation of a steady forced labor force for the government. These prisoners were also lucky to be in the gulag in the early 1930s. Prisoners were relatively well off compared to what the prisoners would have to go through in the final years of the gulag.<a href="#cite_note-The_History_of_the_Gulag-62">[58]</a> The Gulag was officially established on April 25, 1930, as the GULAG by the <a href="/wiki/Joint_State_Political_Directorate" title="Joint State Political Directorate">OGPU</a> order 130/63 in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars" title="Council of People's Commissars">Sovnarkom</a> order 22 p. 248 dated April 7, 1930. It was renamed as the GULAG in November of that year.<a href="#cite_note-memo-63">[59]</a> The hypothesis that economic considerations were responsible for mass arrests during the period of Stalinism has been refuted on the grounds of former Soviet archives that have become accessible since the 1990s, although some archival sources also tend to support an economic hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-Jakobson-64">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ivanova-65">[61]</a> In any case, the development of the camp system followed economic lines. The growth of the camp system coincided with the peak of the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a> campaign. Most of the camps established to accommodate the masses of incoming prisoners were assigned distinct economic tasks.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] These included the exploitation of natural resources and the colonization of remote areas, as well as the realisation of enormous infrastructural facilities and industrial construction projects. The plan to achieve these goals with "<a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">special settlements</a>" instead of labor camps was dropped after the revealing of the <a href="/wiki/Nazino_affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazino affair">Nazino affair</a> in 1933. The 1931–32 archives indicate the Gulag had approximately 200,000 prisoners in the camps; while in 1935, approximately 800,000 were in camps and 300,000 in colonies.<a href="#cite_note-Kozlov-66">[62]</a> Gulag population reached a peak value (1.5 million) in 1941, gradually decreased during the war and then started to grow again, achieving a maximum by 1953.<a href="#cite_note-GRZ-5">[4]</a> Besides Gulag camps, a significant amount of prisoners, which confined prisoners serving short sentence terms.<a href="#cite_note-GRZ-5">[4]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USSR_custodial_population_in_1934-53.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/USSR_custodial_population_in_1934-53.png/220px-USSR_custodial_population_in_1934-53.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/USSR_custodial_population_in_1934-53.png/330px-USSR_custodial_population_in_1934-53.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/USSR_custodial_population_in_1934-53.png/440px-USSR_custodial_population_in_1934-53.png 2x" data-file-width="1201" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>The population of Gulag camps (blue) and Gulag colonies (red) in 1934–53.<a href="#cite_note-GRZ-5">[4]</a></figcaption></figure> In the early 1930s, a tightening of the Soviet penal policy caused a significant growth of the prison camp population.<a href="#cite_note-67">[63]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> of 1937–38, mass arrests caused another increase in inmate numbers. Hundreds of thousands of persons were arrested and sentenced to long prison terms on the grounds of one of the multiple passages of the notorious <a href="/wiki/Article_58" class="mw-redirect" title="Article 58">Article 58</a> of the Criminal Codes of the Union republics, which defined punishment for various forms of "counterrevolutionary activities". Under <a href="/wiki/NKVD_Order_No._00447" title="NKVD Order No. 00447">NKVD Order No. 00447</a>, tens of thousands of Gulag inmates were executed in 1937–38 for "continuing counterrevolutionary activities". Between 1934 and 1941, the number of prisoners with higher education increased more than eight times, and the number of prisoners with high education increased five times.<a href="#cite_note-Земсков-47">[43]</a> It resulted in their increased share in the overall composition of the camp prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-Земсков-47">[43]</a> Among the camp prisoners, the number and share of the intelligentsia was growing at the quickest pace.<a href="#cite_note-Земсков-47">[43]</a> Distrust, hostility, and even hatred for the intelligentsia was a common characteristic of the Soviet leaders.<a href="#cite_note-Земсков-47">[43]</a> Information regarding the imprisonment trends and consequences for the intelligentsia derive from the extrapolations of <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Zemskov" title="Viktor Zemskov">Viktor Zemskov</a> from a collection of prison camp population movements data.<a href="#cite_note-Земсков-47">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="During_World_War_II">During World War II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: During World War II">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_role">Political role</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Political role">edit</a>]</div> On the eve of World War II, Soviet archives indicate a combined camp and colony population upwards of 1.6 million in 1939, according to V. P. Kozlov.<a href="#cite_note-Kozlov-66">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">Anne Applebaum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steven_Rosefielde" title="Steven Rosefielde">Steven Rosefielde</a> estimate that 1.2 to 1.5 million people were in Gulag system's prison camps and colonies when the war started.<a href="#cite_note-rosenf-69">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[66]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">German invasion of Poland</a> that marked the start of World War II in Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet Union invaded and annexed eastern parts</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a>. In 1940, the Soviet Union occupied <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a> (now the Republic of Moldova) and <a href="/wiki/Bukovina" title="Bukovina">Bukovina</a>. According to some estimates, hundreds of thousands of Polish citizens<a href="#cite_note-71">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> and inhabitants of the other annexed lands, regardless of their ethnic origin, were arrested and sent to the Gulag camps. However, according to the official data, the total number of sentences for political and anti-state (espionage, terrorism) crimes in the USSR in 1939–41 was 211,106.<a href="#cite_note-organy1-34">[30]</a> Approximately 300,000 <a href="/wiki/Polish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union_(after_1939)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union (after 1939)">Polish prisoners of war</a> were captured by the USSR during and after the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">"Polish Defensive War"</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PWN_KW-73">[69]</a> Almost all of the captured officers and a large number of ordinary soldiers were then murdered (see <a href="/wiki/Katyn_massacre" title="Katyn massacre">Katyn massacre</a>) or sent to Gulag.<a href="#cite_note-Chodakiewicz-74">[70]</a> Of the 10,000–12,000 Poles sent to <a href="/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma">Kolyma</a> in 1940–41, most <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a>, only 583 men survived, released in 1942 to join the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_East" title="Polish Armed Forces in the East">Polish Armed Forces in the East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a> Out of <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Anders" title="Władysław Anders">General Anders</a>' 80,000 evacuees from Soviet Union gathered in Great Britain only 310 volunteered to return to Soviet-controlled Poland in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-76">[72]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Patriotic War">Great Patriotic War</a>, Gulag populations declined sharply due to a steep rise in mortality in 1942–43. In the winter of 1941, a quarter of the Gulag's population died of <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a> 516,841 prisoners died in prison camps in 1941–43,<a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-gulag1-79">[75]</a> from a combination of their harsh working conditions and the famine caused by the German invasion. This period accounts for about half of all gulag deaths, according to Russian statistics. In 1943, the term <a href="/wiki/Katorga" title="Katorga">katorga</a> works (каторжные работы) was reintroduced. They were initially intended for <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">Nazi collaborators</a>, but then other categories of political prisoners (for example, members of <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">deported peoples</a> who fled from exile) were also sentenced to "katorga works". Prisoners sentenced to "katorga works" were sent to Gulag prison camps with the most harsh regime and many of them perished.<a href="#cite_note-gulag1-79">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_role">Economic role</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Economic role">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Central_shop_in_Norilsk_in_1957.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Central_shop_in_Norilsk_in_1957.jpg/220px-Central_shop_in_Norilsk_in_1957.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Central_shop_in_Norilsk_in_1957.jpg/330px-Central_shop_in_Norilsk_in_1957.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Central_shop_in_Norilsk_in_1957.jpg/440px-Central_shop_in_Norilsk_in_1957.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="479" /></a><figcaption>Central shop in <a href="/wiki/Norilsk" title="Norilsk">Norilsk</a> built by prisoners of the <a href="/wiki/Norillag" title="Norillag">Norillag</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Logging_at_Small_Ungut_(no_border).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Logging_at_Small_Ungut_%28no_border%29.jpeg/250px-Logging_at_Small_Ungut_%28no_border%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Logging_at_Small_Ungut_%28no_border%29.jpeg/330px-Logging_at_Small_Ungut_%28no_border%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Logging_at_Small_Ungut_%28no_border%29.jpeg/500px-Logging_at_Small_Ungut_%28no_border%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Lithuanian deportees preparing logs for rafting on the <a href="/wiki/Mana_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Mana River">Mana River</a></figcaption></figure> Up until World War II, the Gulag system expanded dramatically to create a Soviet "camp economy". Right before the war, forced labor provided 46.5% of the nation's <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, 76% of its <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, 40% of its <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, 40.5% of its <a href="/wiki/Chromite" title="Chromite">chrome-iron ore</a>, 60% of its <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, and 25.3% of its <a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">timber</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ivanova:_labor_camps-80">[76]</a> And in preparation for war, the NKVD put up many more factories and built highways and railroads. The Gulag quickly switched to the production of arms and supplies for the army after fighting began. At first, transportation remained a priority. In 1940, the NKVD focused most of its energy on railroad construction.<a href="#cite_note-khlev-81">[77]</a> This would prove extremely important when the German advance into the Soviet Union started in 1941. In addition, factories converted to produce ammunition, uniforms, and other supplies. Moreover, the NKVD gathered skilled workers and specialists from throughout the Gulag into 380 special colonies which produced tanks, aircraft, armaments, and ammunition.<a href="#cite_note-Ivanova:_labor_camps-80">[76]</a> Despite its low capital costs, the camp economy suffered from serious flaws. For one, actual productivity almost never matched estimates: the estimates proved far too optimistic. In addition, scarcity of machinery and tools plagued the camps and the tools that the camps did have quickly broke. The Eastern Siberian Trust of the Chief Administration of Camps for Highway Construction destroyed ninety-four trucks in just three years.<a href="#cite_note-Ivanova:_labor_camps-80">[76]</a> But the greatest problem was simple – forced labor was less efficient than free labor. In fact, prisoners in the Gulag were, on average, half as productive as free laborers in the USSR at the time,<a href="#cite_note-Ivanova:_labor_camps-80">[76]</a> which may be partially explained by malnutrition. To make up for this disparity, the NKVD worked prisoners harder than ever. To meet rising demand, prisoners worked longer and longer hours, and on lower food-rations than ever before. A camp administrator said in a meeting: "There are cases when a prisoner is given only four or five hours out of twenty-four for rest, which significantly lowers his productivity." In the words of a former Gulag prisoner: "By the spring of 1942, the camp ceased to function. It was difficult to find people who were even able to gather firewood or bury the dead."<a href="#cite_note-Ivanova:_labor_camps-80">[76]</a> The scarcity of food stemmed in part from the general strain on the entire Soviet Union, but also the lack of central aid to the Gulag during the war. The central government focused all its attention on the military and left the camps to their own devices. In 1942, the Gulag set up the Supply Administration to find their own food and industrial goods. During this time, not only did food become scarce, but the NKVD limited rations in an attempt to motivate the prisoners to work harder for more food, a policy that lasted until 1948.<a href="#cite_note-ebacon-82">[78]</a> In addition to food shortages, the Gulag suffered from labor scarcity at the beginning of the war. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Terror</a> of 1936–1938 had provided a large supply of free labor, but by the start of World War II the purges had slowed down. In order to complete all of their <a href="/wiki/Project" title="Project">projects</a>, camp administrators moved prisoners from project to project.<a href="#cite_note-khlev-81">[77]</a> To improve the situation, laws were implemented in mid-1940 that allowed giving short camp sentences (4 months or a year) to those convicted of petty theft, hooliganism, or labor-discipline infractions. By January 1941, the Gulag workforce had increased by approximately 300,000 prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-khlev-81">[77]</a> But in 1942, serious food shortages began, and camp populations dropped again. The camps lost still more prisoners to the war effort as the Soviet Union went into a total war footing in June 1941. Many laborers received early releases so that they could be drafted and sent to the front.<a href="#cite_note-ebacon-82">[78]</a> Even as the pool of workers shrank, demand for outputs continued to grow rapidly. As a result, the Soviet government pushed the Gulag to "do more with less". With fewer able-bodied workers and few supplies from outside the camp system, camp administrators had to find a way to maintain production. The solution they found was to push the remaining prisoners still harder. The NKVD employed a system of setting unrealistically high production goals, straining resources in an attempt to encourage higher productivity. As the Axis armies pushed into Soviet territory from June 1941 on, labor resources became further strained, and many of the camps had to evacuate out of Western Russia.<a href="#cite_note-ebacon-82">[78]</a> From the beginning of the war to halfway through 1944, 40 camps were set up, and 69 were disbanded. During evacuations, machinery received priority, leaving prisoners to reach safety on foot. The speed of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>'s advance prevented the evacuation of all prisoners in good time, and the NKVD <a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres" title="NKVD prisoner massacres">massacred many to prevent them from falling into German hands</a>. While this practice denied the Germans a source of free labor, it also further restricted the Gulag's capacity to keep up with the Red Army's demands. When the tide of the war turned, however, and the Soviets started pushing the Axis invaders back, fresh batches of laborers replenished the camps. As the Red Army recaptured territories from the Germans, an influx of Soviet ex-POWs greatly increased the Gulag population.<a href="#cite_note-ebacon-82">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_World_War_II">After World War II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: After World War II">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg/220px-Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg/330px-Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg/440px-Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/Salekhard%E2%80%93Igarka_Railway" title="Salekhard–Igarka Railway">Transpolar Railway</a> was a project of the Gulag system that took place from 1947 to 1953.</figcaption></figure> After World War II, the number of inmates in prison camps and colonies sharply rose again, reaching approximately 2.5 million people by the early 1950s (about 1.7 million of whom were in camps). When the war in Europe ended in May 1945, as many as two million former Russian citizens were <a href="/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">forcefully repatriated into the USSR</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a> On February 11, 1945, at the conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>, the United States and United Kingdom signed a Repatriation Agreement with the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-darkside-84">[80]</a> One interpretation of this agreement resulted in the forcible repatriation of all Soviets. British and United States civilian authorities ordered their military forces in Europe to deport to the Soviet Union up to two million former residents of the Soviet Union, including persons who had left the Russian Empire and established different citizenship years before. The forced repatriation operations took place from 1945 to 1947.<a href="#cite_note-forced-85">[81]</a> Multiple sources state that <a href="/wiki/German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet POWs</a>, on their return to the Soviet Union, were treated as <a href="/wiki/Traitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Traitor">traitors</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Order_No._270" title="Order No. 270">Order No. 270</a>).<a href="#cite_note-warlords-86">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-remembrance-87">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a> According to some sources, over 1.5 million surviving <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> soldiers imprisoned by the Germans were sent to the Gulag.<a href="#cite_note-sort-89">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-brutality-90">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-moreorless-91">[87]</a> However, that is a confusion with two other types of camps. During and after World War II, freed POWs went to special "filtration" camps. Of these, by 1944, more than 90 percent were cleared, and about 8 percent were arrested or condemned to penal battalions. In 1944, they were sent directly to reserve military formations to be cleared by the NKVD. Furthermore, in 1945, about 100 filtration camps were set for repatriated <a href="/wiki/Ostarbeiter" title="Ostarbeiter">Ostarbeiter</a>, POWs, and other displaced persons, which processed more than 4,000,000 people. By 1946, the major part of the population of these camps were cleared by NKVD and either sent home or conscripted (see table for details).<a href="#cite_note-ZemscovRep-92">[88]</a> 226,127 out of 1,539,475 POWs were transferred to the NKVD, i.e. the Gulag.<a href="#cite_note-ZemscovRep-92">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Results of the checks and the filtration of the repatriants (by March 1, 1946)<a href="#cite_note-ZemscovRep-92">[88]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Category</th> <th>Total</th> <th>%</th> <th>Civilian</th> <th>%</th> <th>POWs</th> <th>% </th></tr> <tr> <td>Released and sent home<a href="#cite_note-94">[e]</a></td> <td>2,427,906</td> <td>57.81</td> <td>2,146,126</td> <td>80.68</td> <td>281,780</td> <td>18.31 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Conscripted</td> <td>801,152</td> <td>19.08</td> <td>141,962</td> <td>5.34</td> <td>659,190</td> <td>42.82 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sent to labor battalions of the Ministry of Defence</td> <td>608,095</td> <td>14.48</td> <td>263,647</td> <td>9.91</td> <td>344,448</td> <td>22.37 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sent to NKVD as spetskontingent<a href="#cite_note-95">[f]</a> (i.e. sent to GULAG)</td> <td>272,867</td> <td>6.50</td> <td>46,740</td> <td>1.76</td> <td>226,127</td> <td>14.69 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Were waiting for transportation and worked for Soviet military units abroad</td> <td>89,468</td> <td>2.13</td> <td>61,538</td> <td>2.31</td> <td>27,930</td> <td>1.81 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total</td> <td>4,199,488</td> <td>100</td> <td>2,660,013</td> <td>100</td> <td>1,539,475</td> <td>100 </td></tr></tbody></table> After <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>'s defeat, <a href="/wiki/NKVD_special_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="NKVD special camps">ten NKVD-run "special camps"</a> subordinate to the Gulag were set up in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Occupation_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Occupation Zone">Soviet Occupation Zone</a> of <a href="/wiki/Allied_Occupation_Zones_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied Occupation Zones in Germany">post-war Germany</a>. These "special camps" were former <a href="/wiki/Stalag" title="Stalag">Stalags</a>, prisons, or <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen_concentration_camp" title="Sachsenhausen concentration camp">Sachsenhausen</a> (<a href="/wiki/NKVD_special_camp_Nr._7" title="NKVD special camp Nr. 7">special camp number 7</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Buchenwald" class="mw-redirect" title="Buchenwald">Buchenwald</a> (<a href="/wiki/NKVD_special_camp_Nr._2" title="NKVD special camp Nr. 2">special camp number 2</a>). According to German government estimates "65,000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them."<a href="#cite_note-96">[90]</a> According to German researchers, Sachsenhausen, where 12,500 Soviet era victims have been uncovered, should be seen as an integral part of the Gulag system.<a href="#cite_note-97">[91]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magadan_seen_from_mountain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Magadan_seen_from_mountain.jpg/220px-Magadan_seen_from_mountain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Magadan_seen_from_mountain.jpg/330px-Magadan_seen_from_mountain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Magadan_seen_from_mountain.jpg/440px-Magadan_seen_from_mountain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3392" data-file-height="2510" /></a><figcaption>During the Stalin era, <a href="/wiki/Magadan" title="Magadan">Magadan</a> was a major transit center for prisoners sent to the <a href="/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma">Kolyma</a> camps.</figcaption></figure> Yet the major reason for the post-war increase in the number of prisoners was the tightening of legislation on property offences in summer 1947 (at this time there was a famine in some parts of the Soviet Union, claiming about 1 million lives), which resulted in hundreds of thousands of convictions to lengthy prison terms, sometimes on the basis of cases of petty theft or embezzlement. At the beginning of 1953, the total number of prisoners in prison camps was more than 2.4 million of which more than 465,000 were political prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-gulag1-79">[75]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Political_prisoners_at_Intalag,_USSR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Political_prisoners_at_Intalag%2C_USSR.jpg/250px-Political_prisoners_at_Intalag%2C_USSR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Political_prisoners_at_Intalag%2C_USSR.jpg/330px-Political_prisoners_at_Intalag%2C_USSR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Political_prisoners_at_Intalag%2C_USSR.jpg/500px-Political_prisoners_at_Intalag%2C_USSR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>Political prisoners eating lunch in the <a href="/wiki/Minlag" title="Minlag">Minlag</a> "special camp" coal mine. In "special camps" prisoners had to wear prison garb with personal numbers.</figcaption></figure> In 1948, the <a href="/wiki/MVD_special_camp" title="MVD special camp">system of "special camps"</a> was established exclusively for a "special contingent" of <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a>, convicted according to the more severe sub-articles of <a href="/wiki/Article_58" class="mw-redirect" title="Article 58">Article 58</a> (Enemies of people): treason, espionage, terrorism, etc., for various real political opponents, such as <a href="/wiki/Trotskyites" class="mw-redirect" title="Trotskyites">Trotskyites</a>, "nationalists" (<a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_nationalism" title="Ukrainian nationalism">Ukrainian nationalism</a>), <a href="/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">white émigré</a>, as well as for fabricated ones. The state continued to maintain the extensive camp system for a while after Stalin's death in March 1953, although the period saw the grip of the camp authorities weaken, and a number of conflicts and uprisings occur (see <a href="/wiki/Bitch_Wars" title="Bitch Wars">Bitch Wars</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kengir_uprising" title="Kengir uprising">Kengir uprising</a>; <a href="/wiki/Vorkuta_uprising" title="Vorkuta uprising">Vorkuta uprising</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_of_1953" title="Amnesty of 1953">amnesty of 1953</a> was limited to non-political prisoners and for political prisoners sentenced to not more than 5 years, therefore mostly those convicted for common crimes were then freed. The release of political prisoners started in 1954 and became widespread, and also coupled with mass <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">rehabilitations</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>'s denunciation of <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Secret_Speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret Speech">Secret Speech</a> at the 20th Congress of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">CPSU</a> in February 1956. The Gulag institution was closed by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a> order No 020 of January 25, 1960,<a href="#cite_note-memo-63">[59]</a> but forced labor colonies for political and criminal prisoners continued to exist. Political prisoners continued to be kept in one of the most famous camps <a href="/wiki/Perm-36" title="Perm-36">Perm-36</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[92]</a> until 1987 when it was closed.<a href="#cite_note-99">[93]</a> The Russian penal system, despite reforms and a reduction in prison population, informally or formally continues many practices endemic to the Gulag system, including forced labor, inmates policing inmates, and prisoner intimidation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-19">[15]</a> In the late 2000s, some human rights activists accused authorities of gradual removal of Gulag remembrance from places such as <a href="/wiki/Perm-36" title="Perm-36">Perm-36</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solovki_prison_camp" title="Solovki prison camp">Solovki prison camp</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[94]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">At its height the Gulag consisted of many hundreds of camps, with the average camp holding 2,000–10,000 prisoners. Most of these camps were "corrective labour colonies" in which prisoners felled timber, laboured on general construction projects (such as the building of canals and railroads), or worked in mines. Most prisoners laboured under the threat of starvation or execution if they refused. It is estimated that the combination of very long working hours, harsh climatic and other working conditions, inadequate food, and summary executions killed tens of thousands of prisoners each year. Western scholarly estimates of the total number of deaths in the Gulag in the period from 1918 to 1956 ranged from 1.2 to 1.7 million.<a href="#cite_note-101">[95]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_toll">Death toll</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Death toll">edit</a>]</div> Prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, estimates of Gulag victims ranged from 2.3 to 17.6 million (see <a href="#History_of_Gulag_population_estimates">History of Gulag population estimates</a>). Mortality in Gulag camps in 1934–40 was 4–6 times higher than average in the Soviet Union. Post-1991 research by historians accessing archival materials brought this range down considerably.<a href="#cite_note-102">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[97]</a> In a 1993 study of archival Soviet data, a total of 1,053,829 people died in the Gulag from 1934 to 1953.<a href="#cite_note-GRZ-5">[4]</a>: 1024  It was common practice to release prisoners who were either suffering from incurable diseases or near death,<a href="#cite_note-Ellman_SRS-16">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Applebaum583-17">[13]</a> so a combined statistics on mortality in the camps and mortality caused by the camps was higher. The tentative historical consensus is that, of the 18 million people who passed through the gulag from 1930 to 1953, between 1.6 million<a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft1999-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rosefielde7677-4">[3]</a> and 1.76 million<a href="#cite_note-Vish-104">[98]</a> perished as a result of their detention,<a href="#cite_note-Healey-2">[1]</a> and about half of all deaths occurred between 1941 and 1943 following the German invasion.<a href="#cite_note-Vish-104">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a> writes that "with the exception of the war years, a very large majority of people who entered the Gulag left alive".<a href="#cite_note-106">[100]</a> If prisoner deaths from <a href="/wiki/Corrective_labor_colony#Soviet_Union" title="Corrective labor colony">labor colonies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">special settlements</a> are included, the death toll rises to 2,749,163, according to J. Otto Pohl's incomplete data.<a href="#cite_note-Applebaum583-17">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-pohl-6">[5]</a> In her 2018 study, Golfo Alexopoulos attempted to challenge this consensus figure by encompassing those whose life was shortened due to GULAG conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Healey-2">[1]</a> Alexopoulos concluded from her research that a systematic practice of the Gulag was to release sick prisoners on the verge of death; and that all prisoners who received the health classification "invalid", "light physical labor", "light individualised labor", or "physically defective" that together according to Alexopoulos encompassed at least one third of all inmates who passed through the Gulag died or had their lives shortened due to detention in the Gulag in captivity or shortly after release.<a href="#cite_note-107">[101]</a> The GULAG mortality estimated in this way yields the figure of 6 million deaths.<a href="#cite_note-alexgula-7">[6]</a> Historian Orlando Figes and Russian writer Vadim Erlikman have posited similar estimates.<a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-vadim-9">[8]</a> The estimate of Alexopoulos, however, has obvious methodological difficulties<a href="#cite_note-Healey-2">[1]</a> and is supported by misinterpreted evidence, such as presuming that hundreds of thousands of prisoners "directed to other places of detention" in 1948 was a euphemism for releasing prisoners on the verge of death into labor colonies, when it was really referring to internal transport in the Gulag rather than release.<a href="#cite_note-Hardjal-108">[102]</a> In a University of Oxford doctoral dissertation, in 2020, the problem of medical release ('aktirovka') and of mortality among 'certified invalids' ('aktirovannye') was considered in detail by Mikhail Nakonechnyi. He concluded that the number of terminally ill people discharged early on medical grounds from the Gulag was about 1 million. Mikhail added 800,000–850,000 excess deaths to the death toll directly caused by the results of GULAG incarceration, which brings the death toll to 2.5 million people.<a href="#cite_note-109">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mortality_rate">Mortality rate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mortality rate">edit</a>]</div> In 2009, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Rosefielde" title="Steven Rosefielde">Steven Rosefielde</a> stated more complete archival data increases camp deaths by 19.4 percent to 1,258,537, "the best archivally-based estimate of Gulag excess deaths at present is 1.6 million from 1929 to 1953."<a href="#cite_note-Rosefielde7677-4">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dan_Healey" title="Dan Healey">Dan Healey</a> in 2018 also stated the same thing "New studies using declassified Gulag archives have provisionally established a consensus on mortality and "inhumanity." The tentative consensus says that once secret records of the Gulag administration in Moscow show a lower death toll than expected from memoir sources, generally between 1.5 and 1.7 million (out of 18 million who passed through) for the years from 1930 to 1953."<a href="#cite_note-110">[104]</a> Certificates of death in the Gulag system for the period from 1930 to 1956<a href="#cite_note-mortality-111">[105]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Year </th> <th>Deaths </th> <th>Mortality rate % </th></tr> <tr> <td>1930 </td> <td align="right">7,980 </td> <td align="right">4.20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1931 </td> <td align="right">7,283 </td> <td align="right">2.90 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1932 </td> <td align="right">13,197 </td> <td align="right">4.80 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1933 </td> <td align="right">67,297 </td> <td align="right">15.30 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1934 </td> <td align="right">25,187 </td> <td align="right">4.28 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1935 </td> <td align="right">31,636 </td> <td align="right">2.75 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1936 </td> <td align="right">24,993 </td> <td align="right">2.11 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1937 </td> <td align="right">31,056 </td> <td align="right">2.42 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1938 </td> <td align="right">108,654 </td> <td align="right">5.35 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1939 </td> <td align="right">44,750 </td> <td align="right">3.10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1940 </td> <td align="right">41,275 </td> <td align="right">2.72 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1941 </td> <td align="right">115,484 </td> <td align="right">6.10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1942 </td> <td align="right">352,560 </td> <td align="right">24.90 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1943 </td> <td align="right">267,826 </td> <td align="right">22.40 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1944 </td> <td align="right">114,481 </td> <td align="right">9.20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1945 </td> <td align="right">81,917 </td> <td align="right">5.95 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1946 </td> <td align="right">30,715 </td> <td align="right">2.20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1947 </td> <td align="right">66,830 </td> <td align="right">3.59 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1948 </td> <td align="right">50,659 </td> <td align="right">2.28 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1949 </td> <td align="right">29,350 </td> <td align="right">1.21 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1950 </td> <td align="right">24,511 </td> <td align="right">0.95 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1951 </td> <td align="right">22,466 </td> <td align="right">0.92 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1952 </td> <td align="right">20,643 </td> <td align="right">0.84 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1953 </td> <td align="right">9,628 </td> <td align="right">0.67 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1954 </td> <td align="right">8,358 </td> <td align="right">0.69 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1955 </td> <td align="right">4,842 </td> <td align="right">0.53 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1956 </td> <td align="right">3,164 </td> <td align="right">0.40 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Total </th> <td>1,606,748 </td> <td align="right">8.88 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gulag_administrators">Gulag administrators</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gulag administrators">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name </th> <th>Years<a href="#cite_note-112">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[108]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Teodors_Eihmans" title="Teodors Eihmans">Feodor (Teodors) Ivanovich Eihmans</a> </td> <td>April 25, 1930 – June 16, 1930 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lazar_Kogan" title="Lazar Kogan">Lazar Iosifovich Kogan</a> </td> <td>June 16, 1930 – June 9, 1932 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Matvei_Berman" title="Matvei Berman">Matvei Davidovich Berman</a> </td> <td>June 9, 1932 – August 16, 1937 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Israel_Pliner" title="Israel Pliner">Israel Israelevich Pliner</a> </td> <td>August 16, 1937 – November 16, 1938 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gleb_Filaretov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gleb Filaretov (page does not exist)">Gleb Vasilievich Filaretov</a> </td> <td>November 16, 1938 – February 18, 1939 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasili_Chernyshev&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vasili Chernyshev (page does not exist)">Vasili Vasilievich Chernyshev</a> </td> <td>February 18, 1939 – February 26, 1941 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Victor_Nasedkin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Victor Nasedkin (page does not exist)">Victor Grigorievich Nasedkin</a> </td> <td>February 26, 1941 – September 2, 1947 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgy_Dobrynin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georgy Dobrynin (page does not exist)">Georgy Prokopievich Dobrynin</a> </td> <td>September 2, 1947 – January 31, 1951 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Ilich_Dolgikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan Ilich Dolgikh">Ivan Ilich Dolgikh</a> </td> <td>January 31, 1951 – October 5, 1954 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sergei_Yegorovich_Yegorov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sergei Yegorovich Yegorov (page does not exist)">Sergei Yegorovich Yegorov</a> </td> <td>October 5, 1954 – April 4, 1956 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conditions">Conditions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Conditions">edit</a>]</div> Living and working conditions in the camps varied significantly across time and place, depending, among other things, on the impact of broader events (World War II, countrywide <a href="/wiki/Droughts_and_famines_in_Russia_and_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Droughts and famines in Russia and the USSR">famines</a> and shortages, waves of terror, sudden influx or release of large numbers of prisoners) and the type of crime committed. Instead of being used for economic gain, <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a> were typically given the worst work or were dumped into the less productive parts of the gulag. For example <a href="/wiki/Victor_Herman" title="Victor Herman">Victor Herman</a>, in his memoirs, compares the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Burepolom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burepolom (page does not exist)">Burepolom</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC" class="extiw" title="ru:Буреполом">ru</a>] and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuksha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuksha (page does not exist)">Nuksha</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%88%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Нукша">ru</a>] 2 camps, which were both near <a href="/wiki/Kirov,_Kirov_Oblast" title="Kirov, Kirov Oblast">Vyatka</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thurston-116">[110]</a> In Burepolom there were roughly 3,000 prisoners, all non-political, in the central compound. They could walk around at will, were lightly guarded, had unlocked barracks with mattresses and pillows, and watched western movies[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]. However Nuksha 2, which housed serious criminals and political prisoners, featured guard towers with machine guns and locked barracks.<a href="#cite_note-Thurston-116">[110]</a> In some camps prisoners were only permitted to send one letter a year and were not allowed to have photos of loved ones.<a href="#cite_note-117">[111]</a> Some prisoners were released early if they displayed good performance.<a href="#cite_note-Thurston-116">[110]</a> There were several productive activities for prisoners in the camps. For example, in early 1935, a course in livestock raising was held for prisoners at a <a href="/wiki/Sovkhoz" title="Sovkhoz">state farm</a>; those who took it had their workday reduced to four hours.<a href="#cite_note-Thurston-116">[110]</a> During that year the professional theater group in the camp complex gave 230 performances of plays and concerts to over 115,000 spectators.<a href="#cite_note-Thurston-116">[110]</a> Camp newspapers also existed.<a href="#cite_note-Thurston-116">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Vyshinsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrei Vyshinsky">Andrei Vyshinsky</a>, chief procurator of the Soviet Union, wrote a memorandum to <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> chief <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yezhov" title="Nikolai Yezhov">Nikolai Yezhov</a> in 1938, during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a>, which stated:<a href="#cite_note-118">[112]</a> <blockquote>Among the prisoners there are some so ragged and lice-ridden that they pose a sanitary danger to the rest. These prisoners have deteriorated to the point of losing any resemblance to human beings. Lacking food…they collect orts [refuse] and, according to some prisoners, eat rats and dogs.</blockquote> According to prisoner <a href="/wiki/Yevgenia_Ginzburg" title="Yevgenia Ginzburg">Yevgenia Ginzburg</a>, Gulag inmates could tell when Yezhov was no longer in charge as one day the conditions relaxed. A few days later Beria's name appeared in official prison notices.<a href="#cite_note-119">[113]</a> In general, the central administrative bodies showed a discernible interest in maintaining the labor force of prisoners in a condition allowing the fulfilment of construction and production plans handed down from above. Besides a wide array of punishments for prisoners refusing to work (which, in practice, were sometimes applied to prisoners that were too enfeebled to meet <a href="/wiki/Production_quota" title="Production quota">production quota</a>), they instituted a number of positive incentives intended to boost productivity. These included monetary bonuses (since the early 1930s) and wage payments (from 1950 onward), cuts of individual sentences, general early-release schemes for norm fulfilment and overfulfilment (until 1939, again in selected camps from 1946 onward), preferential treatment, sentence reduction and privileges for the most productive workers (<a href="/wiki/Udarnik" title="Udarnik">shock workers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Stakhanovite_movement" title="Stakhanovite movement">Stakhanovites</a> in Soviet parlance).<a href="#cite_note-borodkin-120">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thurston-116">[110]</a> Inmates were used as camp guards and could purchase camp newspapers as well as <a href="/wiki/Bond_(finance)" title="Bond (finance)">bonds</a>. <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Thurston" title="Robert W. Thurston">Robert W. Thurston</a> writes that this was "at least an indication that they were still regarded as participants in society to some degree."<a href="#cite_note-Thurston-116">[110]</a> Sports team, particularly <a href="/wiki/Soccer" class="mw-redirect" title="Soccer">football</a> teams, were set up by the prison authorities.<a href="#cite_note-121">[115]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shack_from_Gulag_-_Museum_of_the_Occupation_of_Latvia.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Shack_from_Gulag_-_Museum_of_the_Occupation_of_Latvia.JPG/220px-Shack_from_Gulag_-_Museum_of_the_Occupation_of_Latvia.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Shack_from_Gulag_-_Museum_of_the_Occupation_of_Latvia.JPG/330px-Shack_from_Gulag_-_Museum_of_the_Occupation_of_Latvia.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Shack_from_Gulag_-_Museum_of_the_Occupation_of_Latvia.JPG/440px-Shack_from_Gulag_-_Museum_of_the_Occupation_of_Latvia.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A shack in a prison camp – a reconstruction in the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Occupation_of_Latvia" title="Museum of the Occupation of Latvia">Museum of the Occupation of Latvia</a>. The number of prisoners confined to each shack is not stated</figcaption></figure> Boris Sulim, a former prisoner who had worked in the Omsuchkan camp, close to <a href="/wiki/Magadan" title="Magadan">Magadan</a>, when he was a teenager stated:<a href="#cite_note-122">[116]</a> <blockquote>I was 18 years old and Magadan seemed a very romantic place to me. I got 880 rubles a month and a 3000 ruble installation grant, which was a hell of a lot of money for a kid like me. I was able to give my mother some of it. They even gave me membership in the Komsomol. There was a mining and ore-processing plant which sent out parties to dig for tin. I worked at the radio station which kept contact with the parties. [...] If the inmates were good and disciplined they had almost the same rights as the free workers. They were trusted and they even went to the movies. As for the reason they were in the camps, well, I never poked my nose into details. We all thought the people were there because they were guilty.</blockquote> Immediately after the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">German attack on the Soviet Union</a> in June 1941 the conditions in camps worsened drastically: quotas were increased, rations cut, and medical supplies came close to none, all of which led to a sharp increase in mortality. The situation slowly improved in the final period and after the end of the war. Considering the overall conditions and their influence on inmates, it is important to distinguish three major strata of Gulag inmates: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">Kulaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osadnik" title="Osadnik">osadniks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukaznik" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukaznik">ukazniks</a> (people sentenced for violation of various <a href="/wiki/Ukase" title="Ukase">ukases</a>, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Spikelets" title="Law of Spikelets">Law of Spikelets</a>, decree about work discipline, etc.), occasional violators of <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a></li> <li>Dedicated criminals: "<a href="/wiki/Thieves_in_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Thieves in law">thieves in law</a>"</li> <li>People sentenced for various <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political</a> and religious reasons.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gulag_and_famine_(1932–1933)">Gulag and famine (1932–1933)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Gulag and famine (1932–1933)">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%931933" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–1933">Soviet famine of 1932–1933</a> swept across many different regions of the Soviet Union. During this time, it is estimated that around six to seven million people starved to death.<a href="#cite_note-123">[117]</a> On 7 August 1932, a new decree drafted by Stalin (<a href="/wiki/Law_of_Spikelets" title="Law of Spikelets">Law of Spikelets</a>) specified a minimum sentence of ten years or execution for theft from collective farms or of cooperative property. Over the next few months, prosecutions rose fourfold. A large share of cases prosecuted under the law were for the theft of small quantities of grain worth less than fifty rubles. The law was later relaxed on 8 May 1933.<a href="#cite_note-124">[118]</a> Overall, during the first half of 1933, prisons saw more new incoming inmates than the three previous years combined. Prisoners in the camps faced harsh working conditions. One Soviet report stated that, in early 1933, up to 15% of the prison population in <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Uzbekistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Uzbekistan">Soviet Uzbekistan</a> died monthly. During this time, prisoners were getting around 300 calories (1,300 kJ) worth of food a day. Many inmates attempted to flee, causing an upsurge in coercive and violent measures. Camps were directed "not to spare bullets".<a href="#cite_note-125">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_conditions">Social conditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Social conditions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gulag" title="Special:EditPage/Gulag">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2014) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The convicts in such camps were actively involved in all kinds of labor with one of them being <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a>. The working territory of logging presented by itself a square and was surrounded by forest clearing. Thus, all attempts to exit or escape from it were well observed from the four towers set at each of its corners. Locals who captured a <a href="/wiki/Fugitive" title="Fugitive">runaway</a> were given rewards.<a href="#cite_note-126">[120]</a> It is also said that camps in colder areas were less concerned with finding escaped prisoners as they would die anyhow from the severely cold winters. In such cases prisoners who did escape without getting shot were often found dead kilometres away from the camp. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Geography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">List of Gulag camps</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG/250px-Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG/330px-Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG/500px-Talkessel_von_Werchojansk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Siberian <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">taiga</a> in the river valley near <a href="/wiki/Verkhoyansk" title="Verkhoyansk">Verkhoyansk</a>. The lowest temperature recorded there was −68°C (−90°F).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ru200008020027.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Ru200008020027.jpg/170px-Ru200008020027.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Ru200008020027.jpg/255px-Ru200008020027.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Ru200008020027.jpg/340px-Ru200008020027.jpg 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Part of 'Project 503' to build a railroad from <a href="/wiki/Salekhard" title="Salekhard">Salekhard</a> to <a href="/wiki/Igarka" title="Igarka">Igarka</a> near <a href="/wiki/Turukhansk" title="Turukhansk">Turukhansk</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Yenisey" title="Yenisey">Yenisey</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gulag" title="Special:EditPage/Gulag">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2007) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table>In the early days of Gulag, the locations for the camps were chosen primarily for the isolated conditions involved. Remote monasteries in particular were frequently reused as sites for new camps. The site on the <a href="/wiki/Solovetsky_Islands" title="Solovetsky Islands">Solovetsky Islands</a> in the <a href="/wiki/White_Sea" title="White Sea">White Sea</a> is one of the earliest and also most noteworthy, taking root soon after the Revolution in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-Applebaum_2003-20">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Colloquial" class="mw-redirect" title="Colloquial">colloquial</a> name for the islands, "<a href="/wiki/Solovki_prison_camp" title="Solovki prison camp">Solovki</a>", entered the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">synonym</a> for the labor camp in general. It was presented to the world as an example of the new Soviet method for "re-education of <a href="/wiki/Class_enemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Class enemy">class enemies</a>" and reintegrating them through labor into Soviet society. Initially the inmates, largely Russian <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>, enjoyed relative freedom within the natural confinement of the islands.<a href="#cite_note-Yedlin-127">[121]</a> Local newspapers and magazines were published. Even some scientific research was carried out, e.g., a local botanical garden was maintained but unfortunately later lost completely. Eventually, Solovki turned into an ordinary Gulag camp. Some historians maintain that it was a pilot camp of this type. In 1929, <a href="/wiki/Maxim_Gorky" title="Maxim Gorky">Maxim Gorky</a> visited the camp and published an apology for it. The report of Gorky's trip to Solovki was included in the cycle of impressions titled "Po Soiuzu Sovetov", Part V, subtitled "Solovki." In the report, Gorky wrote that "camps such as 'Solovki' were absolutely necessary."<a href="#cite_note-Yedlin-127">[121]</a> With the new emphasis on Gulag as the means of concentrating cheap labor, new camps were then constructed throughout the Soviet sphere of influence, wherever the economic task at hand dictated their existence, or was designed specifically to avail itself of them, such as the <a href="/wiki/White_Sea%E2%80%93Baltic_Canal" title="White Sea–Baltic Canal">White Sea–Baltic Canal</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Baikal%E2%80%93Amur_Mainline" title="Baikal–Amur Mainline">Baikal–Amur Mainline</a>, including facilities in big cities — parts of the famous <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Metro" title="Moscow Metro">Moscow Metro</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_State_University" title="Moscow State University">Moscow State University</a> new campus were built by forced labor. Many more projects during the rapid industrialisation of the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">war-time</a> and post-war periods were fulfilled on the backs of convicts. The activity of Gulag camps spanned a wide cross-section of Soviet industry. Gorky organized in 1933 a trip of 120 writers and artists to the White Sea–Baltic Canal, 36 of them wrote a propaganda book about the construction published in 1934 and destroyed in 1937. The majority of Gulag camps were positioned in extremely remote areas of northeastern Siberia (the best known clusters are <a href="/wiki/Sevvostlag" title="Sevvostlag">Sevvostlag</a> (The North-East Camps) along <a href="/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma">Kolyma</a> river and <a href="/wiki/Norillag" title="Norillag">Norillag</a> near <a href="/wiki/Norilsk" title="Norilsk">Norilsk</a>) and in the southeastern parts of the Soviet Union, mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Luglag&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luglag (page does not exist)">Luglag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steplag" title="Steplag">Steplag</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peschanlag&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peschanlag (page does not exist)">Peschanlag</a>). A detailed map was made by the Memorial Foundation.<a href="#cite_note-128">[122]</a> These were vast and sparsely inhabited regions with no roads or sources of food, but rich in minerals and other natural resources, such as timber. The construction of the roads was assigned to the inmates of specialised railway camps. Camps were generally spread throughout the entire Soviet Union, including the European parts of Russia, <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. There were several camps outside the Soviet Union, in <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, Hungary, Poland, and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, which were under the direct control of the Gulag.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Throughout the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">history of the Soviet Union</a>, there were at least 476 separate camp administrations.<a href="#cite_note-129">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ivanova_2000-130">[124]</a> The Russian researcher Galina Ivanova stated that,<a href="#cite_note-Ivanova_2000-130">[124]</a> <blockquote>to date, Russian historians have discovered and described 476 camps that existed at different times on the territory of the USSR. It is well known that practically every one of them had several branches, many of which were quite large. In addition to the large numbers of camps, there were no less than 2,000 colonies. It would be virtually impossible to reflect the entire mass of Gulag facilities on a map that would also account for the various times of their existence.</blockquote> Since many of these existed only for short periods, the number of camp administrations at any given point was lower. It peaked in the early 1950s when there were more than 100 camp administrations across the Soviet Union. Most camp administrations oversaw several single camp units, some as many as dozens or even hundreds.<a href="#cite_note-Anne_Applebaum_—_Inside_the_Gulag-131">[125]</a> The infamous complexes were those at <a href="/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma">Kolyma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norilsk" title="Norilsk">Norilsk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vorkuta" title="Vorkuta">Vorkuta</a>, all in arctic or subarctic regions. However, prisoner mortality in Norilsk in most periods was actually lower than across the camp system as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-132">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personnel">Personnel</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Personnel">edit</a>]</div> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Higher Operational Personnel </th> <th colspan="3">Senior Operational Personnel </th> <th colspan="3">Middle Operational Personnel </th> <th colspan="2">Junior Operational Personnel </th> <th colspan="1">Enlisted Personnel </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>RANK INSIGNIA 1936-1943 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%B2%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%B2%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%B2%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%B2%D1%812.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%B2%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%B2%D1%811.png/50px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%B2%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%B2%D1%811.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%813.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%812.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%80%D1%811.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%813.png/50px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%813.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%812.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%811.png/50px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D1%81%D1%811.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%813.png/50px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%813.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%812.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%81.png" class="mw-file-description" title="петлица ГУЛАГ"><img alt="петлица ГУЛАГ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%81.png/50px-%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%81.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%931936%D0%BC%D1%81.png 1.5x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="224" /></a> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td>Command category </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>None </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Military_ranks_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1935%E2%80%931940)" title="Military ranks of the Soviet Union (1935–1940)">Rank equivalent</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Komdiv" title="Komdiv">Komdiv</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kombrig" title="Kombrig">Kombrig</a> </td> <td>Colonel </td> <td>Major </td> <td>Captain </td> <td>Senior Lieutenant </td> <td>Lieutenant </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Starshina" title="Starshina">Starshina</a> </td> <td>Junior Platoon Commander </td> <td>Section Commander </td> <td>Red Army Man </td></tr> <tr> <td>Source: <a href="#cite_note-133">[127]</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93_1936-1943.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93_1936-1943.png/220px-%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93_1936-1943.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93_1936-1943.png/330px-%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93_1936-1943.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93_1936-1943.png/440px-%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93_1936-1943.png 2x" data-file-width="1832" data-file-height="1040" /></a><figcaption>Gulag personnel uniforms 1936-1943.</figcaption></figure> Command Category 1 (head of the Gulag) was a Commissar of State Security of the 2nd class; Command Category 2 (deputy head of the Gulag) was a Commissar of State Security of the 3rd class. They wore the uniform and insignia of the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a>. When the GULAG was transferred to the <a href="/wiki/NKGB" class="mw-redirect" title="NKGB">NKGB</a> in 1943, the GULAG personnel began to use NKGB ranks and distinctions. <ul><li>7 - Military personnel of the guard units wore a silver triangle on the collar.</li> <li>9 - Technical-administrative and political personnel of the guard units wore a red triangle on the collar.</li> <li>10 - Technical personnel wore crossed hammers and wrenches on the collar.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Special_institutions">Special institutions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Special institutions">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>There were separate camps or zones within camps for juveniles (малолетки, maloletki), the disabled (in <a href="/wiki/Spassk" title="Spassk">Spassk</a>), and mothers (мамки, mamki) with babies.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traitor_of_Motherland_Family_Member" class="mw-redirect" title="Traitor of Motherland Family Member">Family members of "Traitors of the Motherland"</a> (ЧСИР, член семьи изменника Родины, ChSIR, Chlyen sem'i izmennika Rodini) were placed under a special category of repression.</li> <li>Secret research laboratories known as <a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashka</a> (шарашка) held arrested and convicted scientists, some of them prominent, where they anonymously developed new technologies and also conducted basic research.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_and_functions_of_the_Gulag">Origins and functions of the Gulag</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Origins and functions of the Gulag">edit</a>]</div> According to historian Stephen Barnes, the origins and functions of the Gulag can be looked at in four major ways:<a href="#cite_note-134">[128]</a> <ul><li>The first approach was championed by <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Alexander Solzhenitsyn</a>, and is what Barnes terms the <a href="/wiki/Moral_explanation" title="Moral explanation">moral explanation</a>. According to this view, Soviet ideology eliminated the moral checks on the darker side of human nature – providing convenient justifications for violence and evil-doing on all levels: from political decision-making to personal relations.</li> <li>Another approach is the political explanation, according to which the Gulag (along with executions) was primarily a means for eliminating the regime's perceived political enemies (this understanding is favoured by historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a>, amongst others).</li> <li>The economic explanation, in turn as set out by historian Anne Applebaum, argues that the Soviet regime instrumentalised the Gulag for its economic development projects. Although never economically profitable, it was perceived as such right up to Stalin's death in 1953.</li> <li>Finally, Barnes advances his own, fourth explanation, which situates the Gulag in the context of modern projects of 'cleansing' the social body of hostile elements, through spatial isolation and physical elimination of individuals defined as harmful.</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a> argues that as part of a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a> system of government, the camps of the Gulag system were experiments in "total domination." In her view, the goal of a totalitarian system was not merely to establish limits on liberty, but rather to abolish liberty entirely in service of its ideology. She argues that the Gulag system was not merely political repression because the system survived and grew long after Stalin had wiped out all serious political resistance. Although the various camps were initially filled with criminals and political prisoners, eventually they were filled with prisoners who were arrested irrespective of anything relating to them as individuals, but rather only on the basis of their membership in some ever shifting category of imagined threats to the state.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-135">[129]</a>: 437–59  She also argues that the function of the Gulag system was not truly economic. Although the Soviet government deemed them all "forced labor" camps, this in fact highlighted that the work in the camps was deliberately pointless, since all Russian workers could be subject to forced labor.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-135">[129]</a>: 444–5  The only real economic purpose they typically served was financing the cost of their own supervision. Otherwise the work performed was generally useless, either by design or made that way through extremely poor planning and execution; some workers even preferred more difficult work if it was actually productive. She differentiated between "authentic" forced-labor camps, concentration camps, and "annihilation camps".<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-135">[129]</a>: 444–5  In authentic labor camps, inmates worked in "relative freedom and are sentenced for limited periods." Concentration camps had extremely high mortality rates and but were still "essentially organized for labor purposes." Annihilation camps were those where the inmates were "systematically wiped out through starvation and neglect." She criticizes other commentators' conclusion that the purpose of the camps was a supply of cheap labor. According to her, the Soviets were able to liquidate the camp system without serious economic consequences, showing that the camps were not an important source of labor and were overall economically irrelevant.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-135">[129]</a>: 444–5  Arendt argues that together with the systematized, arbitrary cruelty inside the camps, this served the purpose of total domination by eliminating the idea that the arrestees had any political or legal rights. Morality was destroyed by maximizing cruelty and by organizing the camps internally to make the inmates and guards complicit. The terror resulting from the operation of the Gulag system caused people outside of the camps to cut all ties with anyone who was arrested or purged and to avoid forming ties with others for fear of being associated with anyone who was targeted. As a result, the camps were essential as the nucleus of a system that destroyed individuality and dissolved all social bonds. Thereby, the system attempted to eliminate any capacity for resistance or self-directed action in the greater population.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-135">[129]</a>: 437–59  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archival_documents">Archival documents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Archival documents">edit</a>]</div> Statistical reports made by the <a href="/wiki/OGPU" class="mw-redirect" title="OGPU">OGPU</a>–<a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a>–<a href="/wiki/Ministry_for_State_Security_(USSR)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry for State Security (USSR)">MGB</a>–<a href="/wiki/MVD" class="mw-redirect" title="MVD">MVD</a> between the 1930s and 1950s are kept in the <a href="/wiki/State_Archive_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="State Archive of the Russian Federation">State Archive of the Russian Federation</a> formerly called Central State Archive of the October Revolution (CSAOR). These documents were highly classified and inaccessible. Amid <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a> in the late 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Zemskov" title="Viktor Zemskov">Viktor Zemskov</a> and other Russian researchers managed to gain access to the documents and published the highly classified statistical data collected by the OGPU-NKVD-MGB-MVD and related to the number of the Gulag prisoners, special settlers, etc. In 1995, Zemskov wrote that foreign scientists have begun to be admitted to the restricted-access collection of these documents in the State Archive of the Russian Federation since 1992.<a href="#cite_note-К_вопросу-136">[130]</a> However, only one historian, namely Zemskov, was admitted to these archives, and later the archives were again "closed", according to Leonid Lopatnikov.<a href="#cite_note-Лопатников-137">[131]</a> Pressure from the <a href="/wiki/Putin_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Putin administration">Putin administration</a> has exacerbated the difficulties of Gulag researchers.<a href="#cite_note-138">[132]</a> While considering the issue of reliability of the primary data provided by corrective labor institutions, it is necessary to take into account the following two circumstances. On the one hand, their administration was not interested to understate the number of prisoners in its reports, because it would have automatically led to a decrease in the food supply plan for camps, prisons, and corrective labor colonies. The decrement in food would have been accompanied by an increase in mortality that would have led to wrecking of the vast production program of the Gulag. On the other hand, overstatement of data of the number of prisoners also did not comply with departmental interests, because it was fraught with the same (i.e., impossible) increase in production tasks set by planning bodies. In those days, people were highly responsible for non-fulfilment of plan. It seems that a resultant of these objective departmental interests was a sufficient degree of reliability of the reports.<a href="#cite_note-Репрессии-139">[133]</a> Between 1990 and 1992, the first precise statistical data on the Gulag based on the Gulag archives were published by <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Zemskov" title="Viktor Zemskov">Viktor Zemskov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rousso,_Golsan-140">[134]</a> These had been generally accepted by leading Western scholars,<a href="#cite_note-ConquestGRZ-23">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ellman_SRS-16">[12]</a> despite the fact that a number of inconsistencies were found in this statistics.<a href="#cite_note-Vishnevsky-141">[135]</a> Not all the conclusions drawn by Zemskov based on his data have been generally accepted. Thus, Sergei Maksudov alleged that although literary sources, for example the books of <a href="/wiki/Lev_Razgon" title="Lev Razgon">Lev Razgon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>, did not envisage the total number of the camps very well and markedly exaggerated their size. On the other hand, Viktor Zemskov, who published many documents by the NKVD and <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>, was far from understanding of the Gulag essence and the nature of socio-political processes in the country. He added that without distinguishing the degree of accuracy and reliability of certain figures, without making a critical analysis of sources, without comparing new data with already known information, Zemskov absolutizes the published materials by presenting them as the ultimate truth. As a result, Maksudov charges that Zemskov's attempts to make generalized statements with reference to a particular document, as a rule, do not hold water.<a href="#cite_note-Максудов-142">[136]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frenkel2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Frenkel2.jpg/250px-Frenkel2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Frenkel2.jpg/330px-Frenkel2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Frenkel2.jpg/500px-Frenkel2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="561" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/OGPU" class="mw-redirect" title="OGPU">OGPU</a> chiefs responsible for construction of the <a href="/wiki/White_Sea%E2%80%93Baltic_Canal" title="White Sea–Baltic Canal">White Sea–Baltic Canal</a>, 1932: right: <a href="/wiki/Naftaly_Frenkel" title="Naftaly Frenkel">Frenkel</a>; center: <a href="/wiki/Matvei_Berman" title="Matvei Berman">Berman</a>; left: Afanasyev (Head of the southern part of <a href="/wiki/Belbaltlag" title="Belbaltlag">Belbaltlag</a>)</figcaption></figure> In response, Zemskov wrote that the charge that he allegedly did not compare new data with already known information could not be called fair. In his words, the trouble with most western writers is that they do not benefit from such comparisons. Zemskov added that when he tried not to overuse the juxtaposition of new information with "old" one, it was only because of a sense of delicacy, not to once again psychologically traumatize the researchers whose works used incorrect figures, as it turned out after the publication of the statistics by the OGPU-NKVD-MGB-MVD.<a href="#cite_note-К_вопросу-136">[130]</a> According to French historian <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Werth" title="Nicolas Werth">Nicolas Werth</a>, the mountains of the materials of the Gulag archives, which are stored in funds of the <a href="/wiki/State_Archive_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="State Archive of the Russian Federation">State Archive of the Russian Federation</a> and were being constantly exposed during the last fifteen years, represent only a very small part of bureaucratic prose of immense size left over after the decades of "creativity" by the "dull and reptile" organization managing the Gulag. In many cases, local camp archives, which had been stored in sheds, barracks, or other rapidly disintegrating buildings, simply disappeared in the same way as most of the camp buildings did.<a href="#cite_note-Werth-143">[137]</a> In 2004 and 2005, some archival documents were published in the edition Istoriya Stalinskogo Gulaga. Konets 1920-kh — Pervaya Polovina 1950-kh Godov. Sobranie Dokumentov v 7 Tomakh (The History of Stalin's Gulag. From the Late 1920s to the First Half of the 1950s. Collection of Documents in Seven Volumes), wherein each of its seven volumes covered a particular issue indicated in the title of the volume: <ol><li>Mass Repression in the USSR (Massovye Repressii v SSSR);<a href="#cite_note-144">[138]</a></li> <li>Punitive System. Structure and Cadres (Karatelnaya Sistema. Struktura i Kadry);<a href="#cite_note-145">[139]</a></li> <li>Economy of the Gulag (Ekonomika Gulaga);<a href="#cite_note-146">[140]</a></li> <li>The Population of the Gulag. The Number and Conditions of Confinement (Naselenie Gulaga. Chislennost i Usloviya Soderzhaniya);<a href="#cite_note-147">[141]</a></li> <li>Specsettlers in the USSR (Specpereselentsy v SSSR);<a href="#cite_note-148">[142]</a></li> <li>Uprisings, Riots, and Strikes of Prisoners (Vosstaniya, Bunty i Zabastovki Zaklyuchyonnykh);<a href="#cite_note-149">[143]</a> and</li> <li>Soviet Repressive and Punitive Policy. Annotated Index of Cases of the SA RF (Sovetskaya Pepressivno-karatelnaya Politika i Penitentsiarnaya Sistema. Annotirovanniy Ukazatel Del GA RF).<a href="#cite_note-150">[144]</a></li></ol> The edition contains the brief introductions by the two "patriarchs of the Gulag science", <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>, and 1,431 documents, the overwhelming majority of which were obtained from funds of the State Archive of the Russian Federation.<a href="#cite_note-Полян-151">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_Gulag_population_estimates">History of Gulag population estimates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: History of Gulag population estimates">edit</a>]</div> During the decades before the dissolution of the USSR, the debates about the population size of GULAG failed to arrive at generally accepted figures; wide-ranging estimates have been offered,<a href="#cite_note-Bacon-152">[146]</a> and the bias toward higher or lower side was sometimes ascribed to political views of the particular author.<a href="#cite_note-Bacon-152">[146]</a> Some of those earlier estimates (both high and low) are shown in the table below. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Historical estimates of the GULAG population size (in chronological order) </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>GULAG population</td> <td>Year the estimate was made for</td> <td>Source</td> <td>Methodology </td></tr> <tr> <td>15 million</td> <td>1940–42</td> <td>Mora & Zwiernag (1945)<a href="#cite_note-153">[147]</a></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>2.3 million</td> <td>December 1937</td> <td>Timasheff (1948)<a href="#cite_note-154">[148]</a></td> <td>Calculation of disenfranchised population </td></tr> <tr> <td>Up to 3.5 million</td> <td>1941</td> <td>Jasny (1951)<a href="#cite_note-155">[149]</a></td> <td>Analysis of the output of the Soviet enterprises run by NKVD </td></tr> <tr> <td>50 million</td> <td>total number of persons passed through GULAG</td> <td>Solzhenitsyn (1975)<a href="#cite_note-GARCH-156">[150]</a></td> <td>Analysis of various indirect data, including own experience and testimonies of numerous witnesses </td></tr> <tr> <td>17.6 million</td> <td>1942</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anton_Antonov-Ovseenko" title="Anton Antonov-Ovseenko">Anton Antonov-Ovseenko</a> (1999)<a href="#cite_note-157">[151]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> documents<a href="#cite_note-158">[152]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4–5 million</td> <td>1939</td> <td>Wheatcroft (1981)<a href="#cite_note-159">[153]</a></td> <td>Analysis of demographic data.<a href="#endnote_ros_note">a</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>10.6 million</td> <td>1941</td> <td>Rosefielde (1981)<a href="#cite_note-160">[154]</a></td> <td>Based on data of Mora & Zwiernak and annual mortality.<a href="#endnote_ros_note">a</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>5.5–9.5 million</td> <td>late 1938</td> <td>Conquest (1991)<a href="#cite_note-161">[155]</a></td> <td>1937 Census figures, arrest and deaths estimates, variety of personal and literary sources.<a href="#endnote_ros_note">a</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4–5 million</td> <td>every single year</td> <td>Volkogonov (1990s)<a href="#cite_note-Rappaport-162">[156]</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="6" style="text-align: center;">a.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#ref_ros_note">^</a> Note: Later numbers from Rosefielde, Wheatcroft and Conquest were revised down by the authors themselves.<a href="#cite_note-ConquestGRZ-23">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-rosenf-69">[65]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> The <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> political reforms in the late 1980s and the subsequent dissolution of the USSR, led to the release of a large amount of formerly classified archival documents<a href="#cite_note-163">[157]</a> including new demographic and NKVD data.<a href="#cite_note-Ellman_SRS-16">[12]</a> Analysis of the official GULAG statistics by Western scholars immediately demonstrated that, despite their inconsistency, they do not support previously published higher estimates.<a href="#cite_note-Bacon-152">[146]</a> Importantly, the released documents made possible to clarify terminology used to describe different categories of forced labor population, because the use of the terms "forced labor", "GULAG", "camps" interchangeably by early researchers led to significant confusion and resulted in significant inconsistencies in the earlier estimates.<a href="#cite_note-Bacon-152">[146]</a> Archival studies revealed several components of the NKVD penal system in the Stalinist USSR: prisons, labor camps, labor colonies, as well as various "settlements" (exile) and of non-custodial forced labor.<a href="#cite_note-GRZ-5">[4]</a> Although most of them fit the definition of forced labor, only labor camps, and labor colonies were associated with punitive forced labor in detention.<a href="#cite_note-GRZ-5">[4]</a> Forced labor camps ("GULAG camps") were hard regime camps, whose inmates were serving more than three-year terms. As a rule, they were situated in remote parts of the USSR, and labor conditions were extremely hard there. They formed a core of the GULAG system. The inmates of "corrective labor colonies" served shorter terms; these colonies were located in less remote parts of the USSR, and they were run by local NKVD administration.<a href="#cite_note-GRZ-5">[4]</a> Preliminary analysis of the GULAG camps and colonies statistics (see the chart on the right) demonstrated that the population reached the maximum before the World War II, then dropped sharply, partially due to massive releases, partially due to wartime high mortality, and then was gradually increasing until the end of Stalin era, reaching the global maximum in 1953, when the combined population of GULAG camps and labor colonies amounted to 2,625,000.<a href="#cite_note-Anatoly_Vishnevsky-164">[158]</a> The results of these archival studies convinced many scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a><a href="#cite_note-ConquestGRZ-23">[19]</a> or Stephen Wheatcroft to reconsider their earlier estimates of the size of the GULAG population, although the 'high numbers' of arrested and deaths are not radically different from earlier estimates.<a href="#cite_note-ConquestGRZ-23">[19]</a> Although such scholars as Rosefielde or Vishnevsky point at several inconsistencies in archival data with Rosefielde pointing out the archival figure of 1,196,369 for the population of the Gulag and labor colonies combined on December 31, 1936, is less than half the 2.75 million labor camp population given to the Census Board by the NKVD for the 1937 census,<a href="#cite_note-165">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vishnevsky-141">[135]</a> it is generally believed that these data provide more reliable and detailed information that the indirect data and literary sources available for the scholars during the Cold War era.<a href="#cite_note-Ellman_SRS-16">[12]</a> Although Conquest cited Beria's report to the Politburo of the labor camp numbers at the end of 1938 stating there were almost 7 million prisoners in the labor camps, more than three times the archival figure for 1938 and an official report to Stalin by the Soviet minister of State Security in 1952 stating there were 12 million prisoners in the labor camps.<a href="#cite_note-166">[160]</a> These data allowed scholars to conclude that during the period of 1928–53, about 14 million prisoners passed through the system of GULAG labor camps and 4–5 million passed through the labor colonies.<a href="#cite_note-ConquestGRZ-23">[19]</a> Thus, these figures reflect the number of convicted persons, and do not take into account the fact that a significant part of Gulag inmates had been convicted more than one time, so the actual number of convicted is somewhat overstated by these statistics.<a href="#cite_note-Ellman_SRS-16">[12]</a> From other hand, during some periods of Gulag history the official figures of GULAG population reflected the camps' capacity, not the actual number of inmates, so the actual figures were 15% higher in, e.g. 1946.<a href="#cite_note-ConquestGRZ-23">[19]</a> The USSR implemented a number of labor disciplinary measures, due to the lack of productivity of its labour force in the early 1930s. 1.8 million workers were sentenced to 6 months in forced labor with a quarter of their original pay, 3.3 million faced sanctions, and 60k were imprisoned for absentees in 1940 alone. The conditions of Soviet workers worsened in WW2 as 1.3 million were punished in 1942, and 1 million each were punished in subsequent 1943 and 1944 with the reduction of 25% of food rations. Further more, 460 thousand were imprisoned throughout these years.<a href="#cite_note-167">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Impact">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gulag" title="Special:EditPage/Gulag">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2010) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> The Gulag spanned nearly four decades of Soviet and East European history and affected millions of individuals. Its cultural impact was enormous. The Gulag has become a major influence on contemporary Russian thinking, and an important part of modern <a href="/wiki/Russian_folklore" title="Russian folklore">Russian folklore</a>. Many songs by the authors-performers known as the <a href="/wiki/Bard_(Soviet_Union)" title="Bard (Soviet Union)">bards</a>, most notably <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Vysotsky" title="Vladimir Vysotsky">Vladimir Vysotsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Galich_(writer)" title="Alexander Galich (writer)">Alexander Galich</a>, neither of whom ever served time in the camps, describe life inside the Gulag and glorified the life of "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zek" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:zek">zeks</a>". Words and phrases which originated in the labor camps became part of the Russian/Soviet vernacular in the 1960s and 1970s. The memoirs of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dolgun" title="Alexander Dolgun">Alexander Dolgun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varlam_Shalamov" title="Varlam Shalamov">Varlam Shalamov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yevgenia_Ginzburg" title="Yevgenia Ginzburg">Yevgenia Ginzburg</a>, among others, became a symbol of defiance in Soviet society. These writings harshly chastised the Soviet people for their tolerance and apathy regarding the Gulag, but at the same time provided a testament to the courage and resolve of those who were imprisoned. Another cultural phenomenon in the Soviet Union linked with the Gulag was the forced migration of many artists and other people of culture to Siberia. This resulted in a Renaissance of sorts in places like <a href="/wiki/Magadan" title="Magadan">Magadan</a>, where, for example, the quality of theatre production was comparable to Moscow's and <a href="/wiki/Eddie_Rosner" title="Eddie Rosner">Eddie Rosner</a> played jazz. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literature">Literature</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> Many eyewitness accounts of Gulag prisoners have been published: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varlam_Shalamov" title="Varlam Shalamov">Varlam Shalamov</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Kolyma_Tales" class="mw-redirect" title="The Kolyma Tales">Kolyma Tales</a> is a short-story collection, cited by most major works on the Gulag, and widely considered one of the main Soviet accounts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Kravchenko_(defector)" title="Victor Kravchenko (defector)">Victor Kravchenko</a> wrote <a href="/wiki/I_Chose_Freedom_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="I Chose Freedom (book)">I Chose Freedom</a> after defecting to the United States in 1944. As a leader of industrial plants he had encountered forced labor camps in across the Soviet Union from 1935 to 1941. He describes a visit to one camp at <a href="/wiki/Kemerovo" title="Kemerovo">Kemerovo</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Tom_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tom River">Tom River</a> in Siberia. Factories paid a fixed sum to the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> for every convict they employed.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatoli_Granovsky" title="Anatoli Granovsky">Anatoli Granovsky</a> wrote I Was an NKVD Agent after <a href="/wiki/Defection" title="Defection">defecting</a> to Sweden in 1946 and included his experiences seeing gulag prisoners as a young boy, as well as his experiences as a prisoner himself in 1939. Granovsky's father was sent to the gulag in 1937.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Margolin" title="Julius Margolin">Julius Margolin</a>'s book A Travel to the Land Ze-Ka was finished in 1947, but it was impossible to publish such a book about the Soviet Union at the time, immediately after World War II.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustaw_Herling-Grudzi%C5%84ski" title="Gustaw Herling-Grudziński">Gustaw Herling-Grudziński</a> wrote A World Apart, which was translated into English by Andrzej Ciolkosz and published with an introduction by <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> in 1951. By describing life in the gulag in a harrowing personal account, it provides an in-depth, original analysis of the nature of the Soviet communist system.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Herman" title="Victor Herman">Victor Herman</a>'s book Coming out of the Ice: An Unexpected Life. Herman experienced firsthand many places, prisons, and experiences that Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn was able to reference in only passing or through brief second hand accounts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/The_Gulag_Archipelago" title="The Gulag Archipelago">The Gulag Archipelago</a> was not the first literary work about labor camps. His previous book on the subject, "<a href="/wiki/One_Day_in_the_Life_of_Ivan_Denisovich" title="One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich">One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich</a>", about a typical day in the life of a Gulag inmate, was originally published in the most prestigious Soviet monthly, <a href="/wiki/Novy_Mir" title="Novy Mir">Novy Mir</a> (New World), in November 1962, but was soon banned and withdrawn from all libraries. It was the first work to demonstrate the Gulag as an instrument of governmental repression against its own citizens on a massive scale. <a href="/wiki/The_First_Circle" class="mw-redirect" title="The First Circle">The First Circle</a>, an account of three days in the lives of prisoners in the <a href="/wiki/Marfino" title="Marfino">Marfino</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">sharashka</a> or special prison was submitted for publication to the Soviet authorities shortly after One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich but was rejected and later published abroad in 1968.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavomir_Rawicz" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavomir Rawicz">Slavomir Rawicz</a>'s book "<a href="/wiki/The_Long_Walk:_The_True_Story_of_a_Trek_to_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="The Long Walk: The True Story of a Trek to Freedom">The Long Walk: The True Story of a Trek to Freedom</a>": In 1941, the author and six other fellow prisoners escaped a Soviet labor camp in Yakutsk.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_R%C3%B3zs%C3%A1s" title="János Rózsás">János Rózsás</a>, a Hungarian writer, often referred to as the Hungarian Solzhenitsyn,<a href="#cite_note-168">[162]</a> wrote many books and articles on the issue of the Gulag.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoltan_Szalkai" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoltan Szalkai">Zoltan Szalkai</a>, a Hungarian documentary filmmaker, made several films about gulag camps.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karlo_%C5%A0tajner" title="Karlo Štajner">Karlo Štajner</a>, a Croatian communist who was active in the former <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Kingdom of Yugoslavia</a> and the manager of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Comintern_Publishing_House&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Comintern Publishing House (page does not exist)">Comintern Publishing House</a> in Moscow 1932–39, was arrested one night and taken from his Moscow home after being accused of anti-revolutionary activities. He spent the next 20 years in camps from Solovki to Norilsk. After USSR–<a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavian</a> political normalization he was re-tried and quickly found innocent. He left the Soviet Union with his wife, who had been waiting for him for 20 years, in 1956 and spent the rest of his life in <a href="/wiki/Zagreb" title="Zagreb">Zagreb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>. He wrote an impressive book titled 7000 days in Siberia.</li> <li>Dancing Under the Red Star by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Tobien&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Tobien (page does not exist)">Karl Tobien</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-7078-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-7078-3">1-4000-7078-3</a>) tells the story of Margaret Werner, an athletic girl who moves to Russia right before Stalin came to power. She faces many hardships, as her father is taken away from her and imprisoned. Werner is the only American woman who was held in the Gulag to tell about it.</li> <li>Alexander Dolgun's Story: An American in the Gulag (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-49497-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-49497-0">0-394-49497-0</a>), by a member of the US Embassy, and I Was a Slave in Russia (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8159-5800-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8159-5800-5">0-8159-5800-5</a>), an American factory owner's son, were two more American citizens interned who wrote of their ordeal. They were interned due to their American citizenship for about eight years c. 1946–55.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevgenia_Ginzburg" title="Yevgenia Ginzburg">Yevgenia Ginzburg</a> wrote two famous books about her remembrances, Journey Into the Whirlwind and Within the Whirlwind.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savi%C4%87_Markovi%C4%87_%C5%A0tedimlija" title="Savić Marković Štedimlija">Savić Marković Štedimlija</a>, a pro-<a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatian</a> Montenegrin ideologist. Caught in Austria by the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> in 1945, he was sent to the USSR and spent ten years in the Gulag. After his release, Marković wrote his autobiographical account in two volumes titled Ten years in Gulag (Deset godina u Gulagu, Matica crnogorska, Podgorica, Montenegro 2004).</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ani%C8%9Ba_Nandri%C8%99-Cudla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anița Nandriș-Cudla (page does not exist)">Anița Nandriș-Cudla</a>'s book, 20 Years in Siberia [20 de ani în Siberia] is the own life's account written by a Romanian peasant woman from Bucovina (Mahala village near Cernăuți) who managed to survive the harsh, forced labor system together with her three sons. Together with her husband and her three underage children, she was deported from Mahala village to the Soviet Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, at the Polar Circle, without a trial or even a communicated accusation. The same night of June 12 to 13, 1941, (that is, just before Germany's invasion of the USSR), overall 602 fellow villagers were arrested and deported, without any prior notice. Her mother received the same sentence but was spared from deportation after the fact that she was a paraplegic was acknowledged by the authorities. It was later discovered that the reason for her deportation and forced labor was the fake and nonsensical claim that, allegedly, her husband had been a mayor in the Romanian administration, a politician and a rich peasant, none of the latter of which was true. Separated from her husband, she brought up the three boys, overcame <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scorbutus" class="mw-redirect" title="Scorbutus">scorbutus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a>, extreme cold and harsh toils, to later return to Bucovina after rehabilitation. Her manuscript was written toward the end of her life, in the simple and direct language of a peasant with three years of public school education, and was secretly brought to Romania before the fall of Romanian communism, in 1982. Her manuscript was first published in 1991. Her deportation was shared mainly with Romanians from Bucovina and Basarabia, Finnish and Polish prisoners, as token proof to show that Gulag labor camps had also been used for the shattering/ extermination of the natives in the newly occupied territories of the Soviet Union.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantsishak_Alyakhnovich" title="Frantsishak Alyakhnovich">Frantsishak Alyakhnovich</a> – Solovki prisoner</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blagoy_Popov" title="Blagoy Popov">Blagoy Popov</a>, a Bulgarian communist and a defendant in the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_fire" title="Reichstag fire">Leipzig trial</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Georgi_Dimitrov" title="Georgi Dimitrov">Georgi Dimitrov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasil_Tanev" title="Vasil Tanev">Vasil Tanev</a>, was arrested in 1937 during the <a href="/wiki/Stalinist_purges" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalinist purges">Stalinist purges</a> and spent seventeen years in <a href="/wiki/Norillag" title="Norillag">Norillag</a>. Popov was released in 1954, after the death of Stalin, and returned to <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[163]</a> He wrote his autobiographical account in the book From the Leipzig trial to the Siberia camps (От Лайпцигския процес в Сибирските лагери, Изток-Запад, София, България, 2012 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-619-152-025-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-619-152-025-1">978-619-152-025-1</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mkrtich_Armen" title="Mkrtich Armen">Mkrtich Armen</a>, an Armenian writer who was imprisoned in 1937 and rehabilitated in 1945, published a collection of his memories under the title "They Ordered to Give You" in 1964.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurgen_Mahari" title="Gurgen Mahari">Gurgen Mahari</a>, an Armenian writer and poet, who was arrested in 1936, released in 1947, arrested again in 1948 and sent into Siberian exile as an "unreliable type" until 1954, wrote "Barbed Wires in Blossom", a novella based largely on his personal experiences in a Soviet gulag.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag_Boss:_A_Soviet_Memoir" title="Gulag Boss: A Soviet Memoir">Gulag Boss: A Soviet Memoir</a> is a 2011 memoir by Fyodor Vasilevich Mochulsky (1918–1999), a Soviet Engineer and eventual head of numerous Gulag camps in the northern Russian region of Pechorlag, Pechora, from 1940 to 1946.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonization">Colonization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Colonization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vorkuta_r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vorkuta_r.jpg/250px-Vorkuta_r.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vorkuta_r.jpg/330px-Vorkuta_r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vorkuta_r.jpg/500px-Vorkuta_r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="642" /></a><figcaption>The city of <a href="/wiki/Vorkuta" title="Vorkuta">Vorkuta</a></figcaption></figure> Soviet <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Об использовании труда уголовно-заключенных">state documents</a> show that the goals of the gulag included colonization of sparsely populated remote areas and exploiting its resources using forced labor. In 1929, <a href="/wiki/OGPU" class="mw-redirect" title="OGPU">OGPU</a> was given the task to colonize these areas.<a href="#cite_note-Petrov10-170">[164]</a> To this end, the notion of "<a href="/wiki/Free_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Free settlement">free settlement</a>" was introduced. On 12 April 1930 <a href="/wiki/Genrikh_Yagoda" title="Genrikh Yagoda">Genrikh Yagoda</a> wrote to the OGPU Commission: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">The camps must be transformed into colonizing settlements, without waiting for the end of periods of confinement... Here is my plan: to turn all the prisoners into a settler population until they have served their sentences.<a href="#cite_note-Petrov10-170">[164]</a></blockquote> When well-behaved persons had served the majority of their terms, they could be released for "free settlement" (вольное поселение, volnoye poseleniye) outside the confinement of the camp. They were known as "free settlers" (вольнопоселенцы, volnoposelentsy; not to be confused with the term ссыльнопоселенцы, ssyl'noposelentsy, "<a href="/wiki/Involuntary_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union">exile settlers</a>"). In addition, for persons who served full term, but who were denied the free choice of place of residence, it was recommended to assign them for "free settlement" and give them land in the general vicinity of the place of confinement. The gulag inherited this approach from the <a href="/wiki/Katorga" title="Katorga">katorga</a> system. It is estimated that of the 40,000 people collecting state pensions in <a href="/wiki/Vorkuta_Gulag" class="mw-redirect" title="Vorkuta Gulag">Vorkuta</a>, 32,000 are trapped former gulag inmates, or their descendants.<a href="#cite_note-171">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics">Economics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Economics">edit</a>]</div> According to a 2024 study, areas near gulag camps that held a larger share of educated elites among its prisoner population have subsequently been characterized by greater economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-:2-172">[166]</a> According to the authors, it demonstrates long-run persistence of human capital across generations.<a href="#cite_note-:2-172">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life_after_a_term_was_served">Life after a term was served</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Life after a term was served">edit</a>]</div> Persons who served a term in a camp or prison were restricted from taking a wide range of jobs. Concealment of a previous imprisonment was a triable offence. Persons who served terms as "politicals" were nuisances for "<a href="/wiki/First_Department" title="First Department">First Departments</a>" (Первый Отдел, Pervyj Otdel, outlets of the <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> at all enterprises and institutions), because former "politicals" had to be monitored.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Many people who were released from camps were restricted from <a href="/wiki/101st_kilometre" title="101st kilometre">settling in larger cities</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Memorialization">Memorialization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Memorialization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gulag_ALZHIR_in_Astana,_Kazakhstan,_Monument_to_the_victims_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Gulag_ALZHIR_in_Astana%2C_Kazakhstan%2C_Monument_to_the_victims_03.jpg/220px-Gulag_ALZHIR_in_Astana%2C_Kazakhstan%2C_Monument_to_the_victims_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Gulag_ALZHIR_in_Astana%2C_Kazakhstan%2C_Monument_to_the_victims_03.jpg/330px-Gulag_ALZHIR_in_Astana%2C_Kazakhstan%2C_Monument_to_the_victims_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Gulag_ALZHIR_in_Astana%2C_Kazakhstan%2C_Monument_to_the_victims_03.jpg/440px-Gulag_ALZHIR_in_Astana%2C_Kazakhstan%2C_Monument_to_the_victims_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Memorial in Astana, Kazakhstan, dedicated to the wives of Akmola Labor Camp prisoners.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gulag_memorials">Gulag memorials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Gulag memorials">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_(2017-12-12)_-_59.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg/250px-State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg/330px-State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg/500px-State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>Map of Stalin's Gulag camps in Gulag Museum in Moscow</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GulagMemorial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/GulagMemorial.jpg/250px-GulagMemorial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/GulagMemorial.jpg/330px-GulagMemorial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/GulagMemorial.jpg/500px-GulagMemorial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Memorial in <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg,_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg, Russia">St. Petersburg</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Remembrance_of_the_Victims_of_Political_Repressions" title="Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions">Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions</a></div> Both Moscow and St. Petersburg have memorials to the victims of the Gulag made of boulders from the <a href="/wiki/Solovki_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Solovki camp">Solovki camp</a> — the first prison camp in the Gulag system. Moscow's memorial is on <a href="/wiki/Lubyanka_Square" title="Lubyanka Square">Lubyanka Square</a>, the site of the headquarters of the NKVD. People gather at these memorials every year on the <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Remembrance_of_the_Victims_of_Political_Repressions" title="Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions">Day of Victims of the Repression (October 30)</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gulag_Museum">Gulag Museum</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Gulag Museum">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg/250px-GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg/330px-GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg/500px-GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Gulag Museum in Moscow, founded in 2001 by historian <a href="/wiki/Anton_Antonov-Ovseyenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko">Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko</a></figcaption></figure> Moscow has the State Gulag Museum whose first director was <a href="/wiki/Anton_Antonov-Ovseyenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko">Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Гальперович-173">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-Banerji-174">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-Museum-175">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[170]</a> In 2015, another museum dedicated to the Gulag was opened in Moscow.<a href="#cite_note-177">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_concentration_and_internment_camps#Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of concentration and internment camps">List of concentration and internment camps#Russia and the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">List of Gulag camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality_in_the_Soviet_Union_under_Joseph_Stalin" title="Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin">Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign forced labor in the Soviet Union">Foreign forced labor in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial (society)</a> (a Russian <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> organization)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Based on data from <a href="/wiki/Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_group" title="Human rights group">human-rights group</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Some disputed<a href="#cite_note-Healey-2">[1]</a> estimates range from over 2.7<a href="#cite_note-pohl-6">[5]</a> to 6<a href="#cite_note-alexgula-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-vadim-9">[8]</a> million.<a href="#cite_note-Healey-2">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈɡuːlɑːɡ/</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a> also <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/-læɡ/</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991" />Russian: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[ɡʊˈlak]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a3\/Ru-Gulag.ogg\/Ru-Gulag.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ru-Gulag.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/Ru-Gulag.ogg/Ru-Gulag.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ru-Gulag.ogg" title="File:Ru-Gulag.ogg">ⓘ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Applebaum,_Anne_2003,_pp._50-11">[9]</a> Also spelled GULAG, or GULag. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> ГУЛАГ, ГУЛаг, an <a href="/wiki/Acronym" title="Acronym">acronym</a> for Глaвное управлeние лагерeй, Glavnoye upravleniye lagerey, "chief administration of the camps". The original name given to the system of camps controlled by the <a href="/wiki/State_Political_Directorate" title="State Political Directorate">GPU</a> was the Main Administration of <a href="/wiki/Correctional_labour_camp" title="Correctional labour camp">Correctional Labor Camps</a> (Главное управление исправительно-трудовых лагерей, Glavnoje upravlenije ispraviteljno-trudovyh lagerej). </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Including those who died in custody. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Special contingent. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Healey-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Healey_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healey_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healey_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healey_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healey_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healey_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healey_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healey_2-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healey_2-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Healey_2-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHealey2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dan_Healey" title="Dan Healey">Healey, Dan</a> (June 1, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/ou_press/golfo-alexopoulos-illness-and-inhumanity-in-stalin-s-gulag-i363rKPYOp">"GOLFO ALEXOPOULOS. Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a>. 123 (3): 1049–1051. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2F123.3.1049">10.1093/ahr/123.3.1049</a>. <q>New studies using declassified Gulag archives have provisionally established a consensus on mortality and "inhumanity." The tentative consensus says that once secret records of the Gulag administration in Moscow show a lower death toll than expected from memoir sources, generally between 1.5 and 1.7 million (out of 18 million who passed through) for the years from 1930 to 1953.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=GOLFO+ALEXOPOULOS.+Illness+and+Inhumanity+in+Stalin%27s+Gulag&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1049-%3C%2Fspan%3E1051&rft.date=2018-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fahr%2F123.3.1049&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deepdyve.com%2Flp%2Fou_press%2Fgolfo-alexopoulos-illness-and-inhumanity-in-stalin-s-gulag-i363rKPYOp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheatcroft1999-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wheatcroft1999_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheatcroft1999_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheatcroft1999_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheatcroft1999_3-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft,_Stephen_G.1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Secret_Police.pdf">"Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Europe-Asia_Studies" title="Europe-Asia Studies">Europe-Asia Studies</a>. 51 (2): 320. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139999056">10.1080/09668139999056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Victims+of+Stalinism+and+the+Soviet+Secret+Police%3A+The+Comparability+and+Reliability+of+the+Archival+Data.+Not+the+Last+Word&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=320&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139999056&rft.au=Wheatcroft%2C+Stephen+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-Secret_Police.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rosefielde7677-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rosefielde7677_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosefielde7677_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosefielde7677_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosefielde7677_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosefielde7677_4-4">e</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Rosefielde" title="Steven Rosefielde">Rosefielde, Steven</a>. 2009. <a href="/wiki/Red_Holocaust_(2009_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Holocaust (2009 book)">Red Holocaust</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-77757-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-77757-7">0-415-77757-7</a>. p. 67 "...more complete archival data increases camp deaths by 19.4 percent to 1,258,537"; pg 77: "The best archivally-based estimate of Gulag excess deaths at present is 1.6 million from 1929 to 1953." </li> <li id="cite_note-GRZ-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GRZ_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRZ_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRZ_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRZ_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRZ_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRZ_5-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRZ_5-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRZ_5-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRZ_5-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRZ_5-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGetty,_ArchRittersporn,_GáborZemskov,_Viktor1993" class="citation journal cs1">Getty, Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (October 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/GTY-Penal_System.pdf">"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="American Historical Review">American Historical Review</a>. 98 (4): 1017–1049. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2166597">10.2307/2166597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2166597">2166597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Victims+of+the+Soviet+penal+system+in+the+pre-war+years%3A+a+first+approach+on+the+basis+of+archival+evidence&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1017-%3C%2Fspan%3E1049&rft.date=1993-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2166597&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2166597%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Getty%2C+Arch&rft.au=Rittersporn%2C+G%C3%A1bor&rft.au=Zemskov%2C+Viktor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FGTY-Penal_System.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pohl-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pohl_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pohl_6-1">b</a> Pohl, The Stalinist Penal System, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-alexgula-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-alexgula_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-alexgula_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlexopoulos2017" class="citation book cs1">Alexopoulos, Golfo (2017). Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17941-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17941-5"><bdi>978-0-300-17941-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Illness+and+Inhumanity+in+Stalin%27s+Gulag&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-300-17941-5&rft.aulast=Alexopoulos&rft.aufirst=Golfo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFiges2009" class="citation web cs1">Figes, Orlando (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/russian/international/2009/10/091023_figes_int">"Ученый: при Сталине погибло больше, чем в холокост"</a>. BBC News. <q>Хотя даже по самым консервативным оценкам, от 20 до 25 млн человек стали жертвами репрессий, из которых, возможно, от пяти до шести миллионов погибли в результате пребывания в ГУЛАГе. Translation: 'The most conservative calculations speak of 20–25 million victims of repression, 5 to 6 million of whom died in the Gulag.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%3A+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8+%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE+%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%B5%2C+%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BC+%D0%B2+%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Figes&rft.aufirst=Orlando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Frussian%2Finternational%2F2009%2F10%2F091023_figes_int&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vadim-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vadim_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vadim_9-1">b</a> Erlikman, Vadim (2004). Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke: spravochnik. Moscow 2004: Russkaia panorama. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-93165-107-1" title="Special:BookSources/5-93165-107-1">5-93165-107-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Applebaum,_Anne_2003,_pp._50-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Applebaum,_Anne_2003,_pp._50_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Applebaum,_Anne_2003,_pp._50_11-1">b</a> Applebaum, Anne. Gulag: A History. Doubleday, 2003, pp. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gulaghistory.org/nps/onlineexhibit/stalin/">Introduction: Stalin's Gulag</a>." GULAG: Soviet Labor Camps and the Struggle for Freedom. US: <a href="/wiki/Roy_Rosenzweig_Center_for_History_and_New_Media" title="Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media">Center for History and New Media</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Mason_University" title="George Mason University">George Mason University</a>. Retrieved 23 June 2020. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/russia/gulag">Gulag</a>." <a href="/wiki/History.com" class="mw-redirect" title="History.com">History.com</a>. <a href="/wiki/A%26E_Networks" class="mw-redirect" title="A&E Networks">A&E Networks</a>. 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2020. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellman_SRS-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellman_SRS_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellman_SRS_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellman_SRS_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellman_SRS_16-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellman_SRS_16-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellman_SRS_16-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellman_SRS_16-6">g</a> Michael Ellman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM-Repression_Statistics.pdf">Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments.</a> Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 54, No. 7 (Nov. 2002), pp. 1151–1172 </li> <li id="cite_note-Applebaum583-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Applebaum583_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Applebaum583_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Applebaum583_17-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">Applebaum, Anne</a> (2003) <a href="/wiki/Gulag:_A_History" title="Gulag: A History">Gulag: A History</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7679-0056-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7679-0056-1">0-7679-0056-1</a> pg 583: "both archives and memoirs indicate that it was a common practice in many camps to release prisoners who were on the point of dying, thereby lowering camp death statistics." </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFСмирнов1998" class="citation book cs1">Смирнов, М.Б. (1998). Система Исправительно-трудовьх лагерей в СССР. Moscow: Звенья. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-7870-0022-6" title="Special:BookSources/5-7870-0022-6"><bdi>5-7870-0022-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0+%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%85+%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9+%D0%B2+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=%D0%97%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%8F&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=5-7870-0022-6&rft.aulast=%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.aufirst=%D0%9C.%D0%91.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21588130-russias-prison-colonies-resemble-old-soviet-camps-slave-labour-and-criminal-cultures">"Slave labour and criminal cultures"</a>. The Economist. October 19, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Slave+labour+and+criminal+cultures&rft.date=2013-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Feurope%2F21588130-russias-prison-colonies-resemble-old-soviet-camps-slave-labour-and-criminal-cultures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Applebaum_2003-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Applebaum_2003_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Applebaum_2003_20-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">Applebaum, Anne</a> (2003) <a href="/wiki/Gulag:_A_History" title="Gulag: A History">Gulag: A History</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7679-0056-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7679-0056-1">0-7679-0056-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arlindo-correia.org/041003.html">"Gulag: a History of the Soviet Camps"</a>. Arlindo-correia.org. Retrieved January 6, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gulag%3A+a+History+of+the+Soviet+Camps&rft.pub=Arlindo-correia.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arlindo-correia.org%2F041003.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.memo.ru/history/nkvd/gulag/r1/r1-4.htm">ГЛАВНОЕ УПРАВЛЕНИЕ ЛАГЕРЕЙ ОГПУ–НКВД–МВД</a>, a section from "Система исправительно-трудовых лагерей в СССР", Moscow, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-7870-0022-6" title="Special:BookSources/5-7870-0022-6">5-7870-0022-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ConquestGRZ-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ConquestGRZ_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConquestGRZ_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConquestGRZ_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConquestGRZ_23-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConquestGRZ_23-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConquestGRZ_23-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConquestGRZ_23-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConquestGRZ_23-7">h</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Conquest, Robert</a>. 1997. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/CNQ-Victims_Stalinism.pdf">Victims of Stalinism: A Comment</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927152248/http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/CNQ-Victims_Stalinism.pdf">Archived</a> September 27, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <a href="/wiki/Europe-Asia_Studies" title="Europe-Asia Studies">Europe-Asia Studies</a> 49(7):1317–19, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/154087">154087</a>. <dl><dd>Quote: "We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone, to which must be added 4–5 million going to Gulag 'colonies', to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labor settlements'. However taken, these are surely 'high' figures." There are reservations to be made. For example, we now learn that the Gulag reported totals were of capacity rather than actual counts, leading to an underestimate in 1946 of around 15%. Then as to the numbers 'freed': there is no reason to accept the category simply because the MVD so listed them, and, in fact, we are told of 1947 (when the anecdotal evidence is of almost no one released) that this category concealed deaths: 100000 in the first quarter of the year'"</dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJ._Gheith,_K._Jolluck2011" class="citation book cs1">J. Gheith, K. Jolluck (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gulagvoicesoralh00ghei_465">Gulag Voices: Oral Histories of Soviet Incarceration and Exile</a>. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gulagvoicesoralh00ghei_465/page/n23">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61062-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61062-0"><bdi>978-0-230-61062-0</bdi></a>. <q>Orlando Figes Estimates that 25 million people circulated through the Gulag system between 1928 and 1953</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gulag+Voices%3A+Oral+Histories+of+Soviet+Incarceration+and+Exile&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+US&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-230-61062-0&rft.au=J.+Gheith%2C+K.+Jolluck&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgulagvoicesoralh00ghei_465&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gulag2-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gulag2_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gulag2_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080327005552/http://publicist.n1.by/articles/repressions/repressions_gulag2.html">"Repressions"</a>. 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Retrieved January 6, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Repressions&rft.pub=Publicist.n1.by&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublicist.n1.by%2Farticles%2Frepressions%2Frepressions_gulag2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFЗемсков1991" class="citation cs2">Земсков, Виктор (1991), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scepsis.net/library/id_937.html">"ГУЛАГ (историко-социологический аспект)"</a>, Социологические исследования, vol. 6, no. 7, retrieved June 22, 2024</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.atitle=%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93+%28%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%29&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=7&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.aufirst=%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscepsis.net%2Flibrary%2Fid_937.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2011" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, Steven A. 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Retrieved December 21, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Guardian+Unlimited&rft.atitle=Revealed%3A+the+gas+chamber+horror+of+North+Korea%27s+gulag&rft.date=2004-02-01&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Antony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fkorea%2Farticle%2F0%2C2763%2C1136483%2C00.html%23article_continue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Applebaum, Anne. Gulag: A History. Anchor, 2004, pp. xxxi </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Jakobson, Michael. Origins of the Gulag. E-book, The University Press of Kentucky, 2015, pp. 11 </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Applebaum, Anne. Gulag: A History. Anchor, 2004, pp. xxix–xxx </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Applebaum, Anne. Gulag: A History. Anchor, 2004, pp. xxxiii </li> <li id="cite_note-Земсков-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Земсков_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Земсков_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Земсков_47-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Земсков_47-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Земсков_47-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Земсков_47-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Земсков_47-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Земсков_47-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFЗемсков1991" class="citation journal cs1">Земсков, Виктор (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scepsis.ru/library/id_937.html">"ГУЛАГ (историко-социологический аспект)"</a>. Социологические исследования (6–7). Retrieved August 14, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.atitle=%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93+%28%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%29&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.aufirst=%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscepsis.ru%2Flibrary%2Fid_937.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Applebaum, Anne. "Gulag: A History." Anchor, 2003, pp. 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Applebaum, Anne. "Gulag: A History." Anchor, 2003, pp. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-ApplebaumChapter3-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ApplebaumChapter3_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ApplebaumChapter3_50-1">b</a> Applebaum, "Gulag: A History", Chapter 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> "The only way to attract the labor power necessary for our economic problems is to introduce compulsory labor service", in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTrotsky" class="citation web cs1">Trotsky, Leon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1920/terrcomm/ch08.htm">"Leon Trotsky: Terrorism and Communism (Chapter 8)"</a>. www.marxists.org. Retrieved August 6, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=Leon+Trotsky%3A+Terrorism+and+Communism+%28Chapter+8%29&rft.aulast=Trotsky&rft.aufirst=Leon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Ftrotsky%2F1920%2Fterrcomm%2Fch08.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKrausz2015" class="citation book cs1">Krausz, Tamás (February 27, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z23IBgAAQBAJ&dq=lenin+concentration+camps+stalinist+obviously&pg=PA512">Reconstructing Lenin: An Intellectual Biography</a>. NYU Press. p. 512. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58367-449-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58367-449-9"><bdi>978-1-58367-449-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructing+Lenin%3A+An+Intellectual+Biography&rft.pages=512&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2015-02-27&rft.isbn=978-1-58367-449-9&rft.aulast=Krausz&rft.aufirst=Tam%C3%A1s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz23IBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dlenin%2Bconcentration%2Bcamps%2Bstalinist%2Bobviously%26pg%3DPA512&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Jakobson, Michael. Origins of the Gulag. E-book, The University Press of Kentucky, pp. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Applebaum, Anne. Gulag: A History. Anchor, 2004, pp. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Applebaum, Anne. Gulag: A History. Anchor, 2003, pp. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Dallin" title="David Dallin">David Dallin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boris_Nicolaevsky" title="Boris Nicolaevsky">Boris Nicolaevsky</a>, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1947, p. 153. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">Transcripts from the Soviet Archives Volume III. Erdogan A (published February 9, 2021). 2021. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-329-63144-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-329-63144-1"><bdi>978-1-329-63144-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transcripts+from+the+Soviet+Archives+Volume+III&rft.pub=Erdogan+A&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-329-63144-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Applebaum, Anne (2004). Gulag: a History of the Soviet Camps. London: Penguin Books., p. 52-53 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellman-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Ellman_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEllman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ellman, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM-Repression_Statistics.pdf">"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"</a> (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 54 (2): 1151–1172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0966813022000017177">10.1080/0966813022000017177</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43510161">43510161</a>. Retrieved August 14, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Soviet+Repression+Statistics%3A+Some+Comments&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1151-%3C%2Fspan%3E1172&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0966813022000017177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43510161%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ellman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FELM-Repression_Statistics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKhlevniuk2004" class="citation book cs1">Khlevniuk, Oleg (2004). The History of the Gulag. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Gulag&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Khlevniuk&rft.aufirst=Oleg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFkhlevniuk2004" class="citation book cs1">khlevniuk, Oleg (2004). The History of the Gulag. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Gulag&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=khlevniuk&rft.aufirst=Oleg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_History_of_the_Gulag-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_History_of_the_Gulag_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_History_of_the_Gulag_62-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKhlevniuk2004" class="citation book cs1">Khlevniuk, Oleg (2004). The History of the Gulag. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Gulag&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Khlevniuk&rft.aufirst=Oleg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-memo-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-memo_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-memo_63-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.memo.ru/history/NKVD/GULAG/r1/r1-4.htm">http://www.memo.ru/history/NKVD/GULAG/r1/r1-4.htm</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jakobson-64"><a href="#cite_ref-Jakobson_64-0">^</a> See, e.g. Jakobson, Michael. 1993. Origins of the GULag: The Soviet Prison Camp System 1917–34. Lexington, Kentucky: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kentucky" title="University Press of Kentucky">University Press of Kentucky</a>. p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ivanova-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Ivanova_65-0">^</a> See, e.g. Ivanova, Galina M. 2000. Labor Camp Socialism: The Gulag in the Totalitarian System. Armonk, New York: <a href="/wiki/M._E._Sharpe" title="M. E. Sharpe">M. E. Sharpe</a>. ch. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kozlov-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kozlov_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kozlov_66-1">b</a> See, for example, Gulaga, Naselenie. 2004. " sobranie dokumentov v 7 tomakh." Istorija stalinskogo Gulaga: konec 1920-kh – pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov, vol. 4, edited by V. P. Kozlov et al. Moskva: <a href="/wiki/ROSSPEN" title="ROSSPEN">ROSSPEN</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFApplebaum2012" class="citation book cs1">Applebaum, Anne (August 2, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HYSGZs6mW5wC">"The Camps Expand"</a>. Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps. Penguin Books Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-197526-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-197526-9"><bdi>978-0-14-197526-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Camps+Expand&rft.btitle=Gulag%3A+A+History+of+the+Soviet+Camps&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=2012-08-02&rft.isbn=978-0-14-197526-9&rft.aulast=Applebaum&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHYSGZs6mW5wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scepsis.net/library/misc/id-937_table3.html">"Таблица 3. Движение лагерного населения ГУЛАГа"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0+3.+%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93%D0%B0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscepsis.net%2Flibrary%2Fmisc%2Fid-937_table3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rosenf-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rosenf_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rosenf_69-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRosefielde2007" class="citation book cs1">Rosefielde, Steven (February 12, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L4s1H9v2yOwC&pg=PA95">The Russian economy: from Lenin to Putin</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1337-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1337-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-1337-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+economy%3A+from+Lenin+to+Putin&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2007-02-12&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-1337-3&rft.aulast=Rosefielde&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL4s1H9v2yOwC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFApplebaum2003" class="citation book cs1">Applebaum, Anne (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8fIfmxAs_T0C&pg=PA446">Gulag: a history</a>. Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7679-0056-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7679-0056-0"><bdi>978-0-7679-0056-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gulag%3A+a+history&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7679-0056-0&rft.aulast=Applebaum&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8fIfmxAs_T0C%26pg%3DPA446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Franciszek Proch, Poland's Way of the Cross, New York 1987 P.146 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.projectinposterum.org/docs/poland_WWII_casualties.htm">"Project In Posterum"</a>. Project In Posterum. 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Retrieved August 31, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A1%D1%8E%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B+%D0%BE+%22%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8-36%22+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%9D%D0%A2%D0%92+%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BB%D0%B8+%22%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BC+%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%22&rft.date=2015-02-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F59.ru%2Ftext%2Fnewsline%2F892938.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gulag">"Gulag | Definition, History, & Facts"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 18, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Gulag+%7C+Definition%2C+History%2C+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FGulag&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGetty,_J._A.Rittersporn,_G._T.Zemskov,_V._N.1993" class="citation journal cs1">Getty, J. A.; Rittersporn, G. T.; Zemskov, V. N. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080611064213/http://www.etext.org/Politics/Staljin/Staljin/articles/AHR/AHR.html">"Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years"</a>. American Historical Review. 98 (4): 1017–1049. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2166597">10.2307/2166597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2166597">2166597</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etext.org/Politics/Staljin/Staljin/articles/AHR/AHR.html">the original</a> on June 11, 2008. <q>The long-awaited archival evidence on repression in the period of the Great Purges shows that levels of arrests, political prisoners, executions, and general camp populations tend to confirm the orders of magnitude indicated by those labeled as "revisionists" and mocked by those proposing high estimates.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Victims+of+the+Soviet+Penal+System+in+the+Pre-war+Years&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1017-%3C%2Fspan%3E1049&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2166597&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2166597%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Getty%2C+J.+A.&rft.au=Rittersporn%2C+G.+T.&rft.au=Zemskov%2C+V.+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etext.org%2FPolitics%2FStaljin%2FStaljin%2Farticles%2FAHR%2FAHR.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft,_Stephen_G.1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Secret_Police.pdf">"Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Europe-Asia_Studies" title="Europe-Asia Studies">Europe-Asia Studies</a>. 51 (2): 340–342. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139999056">10.1080/09668139999056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Victims+of+Stalinism+and+the+Soviet+Secret+Police%3A+The+Comparability+and+Reliability+of+the+Archival+Data.+Not+the+Last+Word&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E340-%3C%2Fspan%3E342&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139999056&rft.au=Wheatcroft%2C+Stephen+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-Secret_Police.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd>Quote: "For decades, many historians counted Stalin' s victims in 'tens of millions', which was a figure supported by Solzhenitsyn. Since the collapse of the USSR, the lower estimates of the scale of the camps have been vindicated. The arguments about excess mortality are far more complex than normally believed. R. Conquest, The Great Terror: A Re-assessment (London, 1992) does not really get to grips with the new data and continues to present an exaggerated picture of the repression. The view of the 'revisionists' has been largely substantiated (J. Arch Getty & R. T. Manning (eds), Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993)). The popular press, even TLS and The Independent, have contained erroneous journalistic articles that should not be cited in respectable academic articles."</dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vish-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vish_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vish_104-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2007/0313/tema06.php">"Demographic Losses Due to Repressions"</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Vishnevsky" title="Anatoly Vishnevsky">Anatoly Vishnevsky</a>, Director of the Centre for Human Demography and Ecology, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Russian Academy of Sciences</a>, (in Russian) </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300092844">"The History of the GULAG"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100622052449/http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300092844">Archived</a> June 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Oleg_V._Khlevniuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Oleg V. Khlevniuk">Oleg V. Khlevniuk</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2011" class="citation news cs1">Snyder, Timothy (January 27, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nybooks.com/online/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/#:~:text=Mass%20murder%20in%20the%20Soviet,disconcertingly%20close%20to%20Nazi%20motivations.&text=It%20turns%20out%20that%2C%20with,entered%20the%20Gulag%20left%20alive.">"Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Review_of_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Review of Books">New York Review of Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=Hitler+vs.+Stalin%3A+Who+Was+Worse%3F&rft.date=2011-01-27&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nybooks.com%2Fonline%2F2011%2F01%2F27%2Fhitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DMass%2520murder%2520in%2520the%2520Soviet%2Cdisconcertingly%2520close%2520to%2520Nazi%2520motivations.%26text%3DIt%2520turns%2520out%2520that%252C%2520with%2Centered%2520the%2520Gulag%2520left%2520alive.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGolfo_Alexopoulos2019" class="citation web cs1">Golfo Alexopoulos (April 12, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TwUgqHthjTs?t=50m25s">"Medicine and Mortality in the Gulag"</a>. NYUJordanCenter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Medicine+and+Mortality+in+the+Gulag&rft.pub=NYUJordanCenter&rft.date=2019-04-12&rft.au=Golfo+Alexopoulos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DTwUgqHthjTs%3Ft%3D50m25s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hardjal-108"><a href="#cite_ref-Hardjal_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHardy2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hardy, Jeffery (April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190429033750/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/illness-and-inhumanity-in-stalins-gulag-by-golfo-alexopoulos-new-haven-yale-university-press-2007-xi-308-pp-notes-index-maps-6500-hard-bound/130C12D73C6AE10333805FF0AD847790/core-reader">"Slavic Review, Volume 77, Issue 1 Spring 2018 pp.269–270"</a>. Slavic Review. 77 (1). © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies 2018: 269–270. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fslr.2018.57">10.1017/slr.2018.57</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/illness-and-inhumanity-in-stalins-gulag-by-golfo-alexopoulos-new-haven-yale-university-press-2007-xi-308-pp-notes-index-maps-6500-hard-bound/130C12D73C6AE10333805FF0AD847790/core-reader">the original</a> on April 29, 2019. Retrieved July 29, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=Slavic+Review%2C+Volume+77%2C+Issue+1+Spring+2018+pp.269%E2%80%93270&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E269-%3C%2Fspan%3E270&rft.date=2018-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fslr.2018.57&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Jeffery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fslavic-review%2Farticle%2Fillness-and-inhumanity-in-stalins-gulag-by-golfo-alexopoulos-new-haven-yale-university-press-2007-xi-308-pp-notes-index-maps-6500-hard-bound%2F130C12D73C6AE10333805FF0AD847790%2Fcore-reader&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNakonechnyi2020" class="citation thesis cs1">Nakonechnyi, Mikhail (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:f81e082c-a3b1-46a8-993c-4a134c199d89">'Factory of invalids': Mortality, disability and early release on medical grounds in GULAG, 1930–1955</a> (Thesis). University of Oxford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%27Factory+of+invalids%27%3A+Mortality%2C+disability+and+early+release+on+medical+grounds+in+GULAG%2C+1930%E2%80%931955&rft.inst=University+of+Oxford&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Nakonechnyi&rft.aufirst=Mikhail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fora.ox.ac.uk%2Fobjects%2Fuuid%3Af81e082c-a3b1-46a8-993c-4a134c199d89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHealey2018" class="citation journal cs1">Healey, Dan (June 1, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/123/3/1049/5025385">"Golfo Alexopoulos. Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag"</a>. The American Historical Review. 123 (3): 1049–1051. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2F123.3.1049">10.1093/ahr/123.3.1049</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8762">0002-8762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Golfo+Alexopoulos.+Illness+and+Inhumanity+in+Stalin%27s+Gulag.&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1049-%3C%2Fspan%3E1051&rft.date=2018-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fahr%2F123.3.1049&rft.issn=0002-8762&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fahr%2Farticle%2F123%2F3%2F1049%2F5025385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mortality-111"><a href="#cite_ref-mortality_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alexanderyakovlev.org/fond/issues-doc/1009320">Документ № 103. Справка о смертности заключённых в системе ГУЛага за период 1930—1956 гг</a>. Mezhdunarodnyi Fond "Demokratiia". 2000. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-85646-046-4" title="Special:BookSources/5-85646-046-4"><bdi>5-85646-046-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82+%E2%84%96+103.+%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D0%BE+%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%87%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%B2+%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5+%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0+%D0%B7%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4+1930%E2%80%941956+%D0%B3%D0%B3.&rft.pub=Mezhdunarodnyi+Fond+%22Demokratiia%22&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=5-85646-046-4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alexanderyakovlev.org%2Ffond%2Fissues-doc%2F1009320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statearchive.ru/470">History of Gulag in 7 Volumes. Volume 2: Structure and Personnel</a> documents, ed. <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Petrov" title="Nikita Petrov">Petrov N. V.</a> <a href="/wiki/State_Archive_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="State Archive of the Russian Federation">State Archive of the Russian Federation</a>, 2004 (in Russian) </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.memo.ru/history/nkvd/kto/centr.htm">The Heads of the Central Committee of NKVD</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111021040407/http://www.memo.ru/history/NKVD/kto/centr.htm">Archived</a> October 21, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Petrov" title="Nikita Petrov">Petrov N. V.</a>, Sorokyn K. V. Who Headed NKVD 1934—1941 Moscow: <a href="/wiki/Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial</a>, 1999, 504 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-7870-0032-3" title="Special:BookSources/5-7870-0032-3">5-7870-0032-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://istmat.info/node/38978">Lubyanka. VCheka — KGB. Documents 1917–1960</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201213222752/http://istmat.info/node/38978">Archived</a> December 13, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Moscow: International Democracy Fund, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-89511-004-5" title="Special:BookSources/5-89511-004-5">5-89511-004-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jamestown.org/getman_paintings.php?painting_id=29">The Gulag Collection: Paintings of Nikolai Getman</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071127121250/http://www.jamestown.org/getman_paintings.php?painting_id=29">Archived</a> November 27, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thurston-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thurston_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thurston_116-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thurston_116-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thurston_116-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thurston_116-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thurston_116-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thurston_116-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thurston_116-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThurston" class="citation book cs1">Thurston, Robert W. Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941. Yale University Press. pp. 102–104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+Terror+in+Stalin%27s+Russia%2C+1934%E2%80%931941&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E102-%3C%2Fspan%3E104&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.aulast=Thurston&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/29/stalin-russia-soviet-union-gulag-norilsk">"Stalin's legacy lives on in city that slaves built – archive, 1994"</a>. the Guardian. December 29, 2017. Retrieved April 12, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=Stalin%27s+legacy+lives+on+in+city+that+slaves+built+%E2%80%93+archive%2C+1994&rft.date=2017-12-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2017%2Fdec%2F29%2Fstalin-russia-soviet-union-gulag-norilsk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Brent" title="Jonathan Brent">Brent, Jonathan</a>. 2008. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090224230330/http://atlasandco.com/images/uploads/samples/pdf/InsideStalinArchives-web.pdf">Introduction</a>." Pp. 1–18 in Inside the Stalin Archives: Discovering the New Russia. Atlas & Co. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9777433-3-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-9777433-3-0">0-9777433-3-0</a>. Archived from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atlasandco.com/images/uploads/samples/pdf/InsideStalinArchives-web.pdf">original</a> on February 24, 2009. p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGetty1985" class="citation book cs1">Getty, J. Arch (1985). Origins of the Great Purges. Cambridge University Press. p. 189.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+Great+Purges&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Getty&rft.aufirst=J.+Arch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-borodkin-120"><a href="#cite_ref-borodkin_120-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Borodin" title="Leonid Borodin">Borodkin, Leonid</a>, and Simon Ertz. 2005. "Forced Labor and the Need for Motivation: Wages and Bonuses in the Stalinist Camp System." Comparative Economic Studies 47(2):418–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Maddox, S. (2018). Gulag Football: Competitive and Recreational Sport in Stalin's System of Forced Labor. Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, 19(3), 509–536. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRemnick2014" class="citation book cs1">Remnick, David (April 2, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dEvoAgAAQBAJ">Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 425. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8041-7358-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8041-7358-2"><bdi>978-0-8041-7358-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%27s+Tomb%3A+The+Last+Days+of+the+Soviet+Empire&rft.pages=425&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2014-04-02&rft.isbn=978-0-8041-7358-2&rft.aulast=Remnick&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdEvoAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKhlevniuk2004" class="citation book cs1">Khlevniuk, Oleg (2004). The History of the Gulag. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Gulag&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Khlevniuk&rft.aufirst=Oleg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGorlizki2001" class="citation web cs1">Gorlizki, Yoram (June 28, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/archive/persa/010fulltext.pdf">"Theft Under Stalin: A Property Rights Analysis"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170307204130/https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/archive/persa/010fulltext.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on March 7, 2017. Retrieved March 7, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Theft+Under+Stalin%3A+A+Property+Rights+Analysis&rft.date=2001-06-28&rft.aulast=Gorlizki&rft.aufirst=Yoram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.warwick.ac.uk%2Ffac%2Fsoc%2Feconomics%2Fstaff%2Fmharrison%2Farchive%2Fpersa%2F010fulltext.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKhlevniuk2004" class="citation book cs1">Khlevniuk, Oleg (2004). The History of the Gulag. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Gulag&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Khlevniuk&rft.aufirst=Oleg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jamestown.org/aboutus/getmanpaintings/getmancatalog/">Nikolai Getman: The Gulag Collection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120513172402/http://www.jamestown.org/aboutus/getmanpaintings/getmancatalog/">Archived</a> May 13, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" </li> <li id="cite_note-Yedlin-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yedlin_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yedlin_127-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYedlin1999" class="citation book cs1">Yedlin, Tova (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zxt5_vI_ozcC&pg=PA188">Maxim Gorky: A Political Biography</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-96605-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-96605-8"><bdi>978-0-275-96605-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maxim+Gorky%3A+A+Political+Biography&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-275-96605-8&rft.aulast=Yedlin&rft.aufirst=Tova&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZxt5_vI_ozcC%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Map of Gulag, made by the Memorial Foundation on: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.g-to-g.com/picts/user/repressed/mapgulag_1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.g-to-g.com/showpict.php%3Fpict%3D/repressed/mapgulag_1.jpg%26at%3DCorrective%2520Labor%2520Camps%2520%28GULAG%29%2520map%2520%281:%252025%2520000%2520000%29%2520-%2520by%2520Magazine%2520Map%2520and%2520Ryazan%2520Memorial%2520Society%26caption%3DCorrective%2520Labor%2520Camps%2520%28GULAG%29%2520map%2520%281:%252025%2520000%2520000%29%253CBR%253Eby%2520Magazine%2520Map%2520and%2520Ryazan%2520Memorial%2520Society&usg=__HktMeLxUyIicCykfQtiNhzBMdvI=&h=1020&w=1516&sz=150&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=22GAI-e-k3ouhM:&tbnh=147&tbnw=227&ei=M0XqTa3EFISV8QPN7-WPAQ&prev=/search%3Fq%3DGulag%2Bmap%26hl%3Dfr%26safe%3Doff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:fr:official%26biw%3D1108%26bih%3D615%26gbv%3D2%26tbm%3Disch&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=795&vpy=97&dur=4204&hovh=184&hovw=274&tx=153&ty=97&page=1&ndsp=13&ved=1t:429,r:3,s:0&biw=1108&bih=615">[1]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.memo.ru/history/nkvd/gulag/gulag3.htm">"Система исправительно-трудовых лагерей в СССР"</a>. Memo.ru. Retrieved January 6, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0+%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9+%D0%B2+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft.pub=Memo.ru&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.memo.ru%2Fhistory%2Fnkvd%2Fgulag%2Fgulag3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ivanova_2000-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ivanova_2000_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ivanova_2000_130-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIvanovaFlathRaleigh2000" class="citation book cs1">Ivanova, Galina; Flath, Carol; Raleigh, Donald (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q3y8D69IyG4C&pg=PA188">Labor Camp Socialism: The Gulag in the Soviet Totalitarian System</a>. London: M.E. Sharpe. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0426-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0426-2"><bdi>978-0-7656-0426-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Labor+Camp+Socialism%3A+The+Gulag+in+the+Soviet+Totalitarian+System&rft.place=London&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-0426-2&rft.aulast=Ivanova&rft.aufirst=Galina&rft.au=Flath%2C+Carol&rft.au=Raleigh%2C+Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq3y8D69IyG4C%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anne_Applebaum_—_Inside_the_Gulag-131"><a href="#cite_ref-Anne_Applebaum_—_Inside_the_Gulag_131-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anneapplebaum.com/communism/2000/06_15_nyrb_gulag.html">Anne Applebaum — Inside the Gulag</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081015012139/http://www.anneapplebaum.com/communism/2000/06_15_nyrb_gulag.html">Archived</a> October 15, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081203230839/http://media.hoover.org/documents/0817939423_75.pdf">"Coercion versus Motivation: Forced Labor in Norilsk"</a> (PDF). 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Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0606-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0606-4"><bdi>978-5-8243-0606-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0.+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86+1920%E2%80%93%D1%85+%E2%80%94+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+1950%E2%80%93%D1%85+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%B2+7+%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85.+%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC+2.+%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0.+%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%B8+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B&rft.place=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.pub=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-5-8243-0606-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 3. Экономика Гулага. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0607-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0607-1"><bdi>978-5-8243-0607-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0.+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86+1920%E2%80%93%D1%85+%E2%80%94+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+1950%E2%80%93%D1%85+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%B2+7+%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85.+%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC+3.+%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0&rft.place=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.pub=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-5-8243-0607-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 4. Население Гулага. Численность и условия содержания. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0608-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0608-8"><bdi>978-5-8243-0608-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0.+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86+1920%E2%80%93%D1%85+%E2%80%94+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+1950%E2%80%93%D1%85+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%B2+7+%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85.+%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC+4.+%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0.+%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%B8+%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.place=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.pub=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-5-8243-0608-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 5. Спецпереселенцы в СССР. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0608-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0608-8"><bdi>978-5-8243-0608-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0.+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86+1920%E2%80%93%D1%85+%E2%80%94+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+1950%E2%80%93%D1%85+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%B2+7+%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85.+%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC+5.+%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B+%D0%B2+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft.place=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.pub=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-5-8243-0608-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 6. Восстания, бунты и забастовки заключенных. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0610-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0610-1"><bdi>978-5-8243-0610-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0.+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86+1920%E2%80%93%D1%85+%E2%80%94+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+1950%E2%80%93%D1%85+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%B2+7+%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85.+%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC+6.+%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%2C+%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B+%D0%B8+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85&rft.place=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.pub=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-5-8243-0610-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 7. Советская репрессивно-карательная политика и пенитенциарная система. Аннотированный указатель дел ГА РФ. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0611-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-8243-0611-8"><bdi>978-5-8243-0611-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0.+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86+1920%E2%80%93%D1%85+%E2%80%94+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+1950%E2%80%93%D1%85+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%B2+7+%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85.+%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC+7.+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D0%B8+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0.+%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C+%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB+%D0%93%D0%90+%D0%A0%D0%A4&rft.place=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.pub=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-5-8243-0611-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Полян-151"><a href="#cite_ref-Полян_151-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFПолян2006" class="citation journal cs1">Полян, Павел (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://magazines.russ.ru/nz/2006/2/po32.html">"Новые карты архипелага ГУЛАГ"</a>. Неприкосновенный запас. 2 (46): 277–286. Retrieved August 20, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81&rft.atitle=%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8B+%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0+%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=46&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E277-%3C%2Fspan%3E286&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BD&rft.aufirst=%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmagazines.russ.ru%2Fnz%2F2006%2F2%2Fpo32.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bacon-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bacon_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bacon_152-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bacon_152-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bacon_152-3">d</a> Edwin Bacon. Glasnost' and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labor around World War II. Soviet Studies, Vol. 44, No. 6 (1992), pp. 1069–1086 </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Cited in <a href="/wiki/David_Dallin" title="David Dallin">David Dallin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boris_Nicolaevsky" title="Boris Nicolaevsky">Boris Nicolaevsky</a>, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1947, p. 59-62. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> N. S. Timasheff. The Postwar Population of the Soviet Union. <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sociology" title="American Journal of Sociology">American Journal of Sociology</a>, Vol. 54, No. 2 (Sep. 1948), pp. 148–155 </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Naum Jasny. Labor and Output in Soviet Concentration Camps. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 59, No. 5 (Oct. 1951), pp. 405–419 </li> <li id="cite_note-GARCH-156"><a href="#cite_ref-GARCH_156-0">^</a> Solzhenitsyn, A. The Gulag Archipelago Two, Harper and Row, 1975. Estimate was through 1953. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> (in Russian) Beria Moscow, ACT, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-237-03178-1" title="Special:BookSources/5-237-03178-1">5-237-03178-1</a>, page 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Anton_Antonov-Ovseenko" title="Anton Antonov-Ovseenko">Anton Antonov-Ovseenko</a>, "average number of prisoners [in Gulag] was 17.6 million in 1942, which many times exceeds the "declassified" official (forged) data frequently published in press"; the number was taken from an NKVD document dated January 18, 1945. The number of prisoners in 1943 was estimated as 13 million. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> S. G. Wheatcroft. On Assessing the Size of Forced Concentration Camp Labour in the Soviet Union, 1929–56. Soviet Studies, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Apr. 1981), pp. 265–295 </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Steven Rosefielde. An Assessment of the Sources and Uses of Gulag Forced Labour 1929–56. Soviet Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Jan. 1981), pp. 51–87 </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Robert Conquest. Excess Deaths and Camp Numbers: Some Comments. Soviet Studies, Vol. 43, No. 5 (1991), pp. 949–952 </li> <li id="cite_note-Rappaport-162"><a href="#cite_ref-Rappaport_162-0">^</a> Rappaport, H. Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO Greenwood. 1999. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Andrea Graziosi. The New Soviet Archival Sources. Hypotheses for a Critical Assessment. Cahiers du Monde russe, Vol. 40, No. 1/2, Archives et nouvelles sources de l'histoiresoviétique, une réévaluation / Assessing the New Soviet Archival Sources (Jan. – Jun. 1999), pp. 13–63 </li> <li id="cite_note-Anatoly_Vishnevsky-164"><a href="#cite_ref-Anatoly_Vishnevsky_164-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2007/0313/tema05.php">"The Total Number of Repressed"</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Vishnevsky" title="Anatoly Vishnevsky">Anatoly Vishnevsky</a>, Director of the Center for Human Demography and Ecology, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Russian Academy of Sciences</a>, (in Russian) </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSteven_Rosefielde1997" class="citation journal cs1">Steven Rosefielde (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111113035745/http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/rosefielde.pdf">"Documented Homicides and Excess Deaths: New Insights into the Scale of Killing in the USSR During the 1930s"</a> (PDF). Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 30 (3): l-33. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/rosefielde.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on November 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communist+and+Post-Communist+Studies&rft.atitle=Documented+Homicides+and+Excess+Deaths%3A+New+Insights+into+the+Scale+of+Killing+in+the+USSR+During+the+1930s&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=l-33&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Steven+Rosefielde&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paulbogdanor.com%2Fleft%2Fsoviet%2Frosefielde.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Conquest" class="citation web cs1">Robert Conquest. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121018091358/http://www.bu.edu/iscip/pubseries/PubSeries1conquest.pdf">"Knowing the Soviet Union: The Historical Dimension"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bu.edu/iscip/pubseries/PubSeries1conquest.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on October 18, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Knowing+the+Soviet+Union%3A+The+Historical+Dimension&rft.au=Robert+Conquest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bu.edu%2Fiscip%2Fpubseries%2FPubSeries1conquest.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndrei_Sokolov2003" class="citation web cs1">Andrei Sokolov (January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/0817939423_23.pdf">"Forced Labor in Soviet Industry: The End of the 1930s to the Mid-1950s An Overview"</a> (PDF). Hoover Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forced+Labor+in+Soviet+Industry%3A+The+End+of+the+1930s+to+the+Mid-1950s+An+Overview&rft.pub=Hoover+Press&rft.date=2003-01&rft.au=Andrei+Sokolov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hoover.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fuploads%2Fdocuments%2F0817939423_23.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.raptisrarebooks.com/product/one-day-in-the-life-of-ivan-denisovich-inscribed-first-edition-alexander-solzhenitsyn-signed/">One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Day+in+the+Life+of+Ivan+Denisovich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.raptisrarebooks.com%2Fproduct%2Fone-day-in-the-life-of-ivan-denisovich-inscribed-first-edition-alexander-solzhenitsyn-signed%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFПопов2012" class="citation book cs1">Попов, Благой (2012). От Лайпцигския процес в Сибирските лагери. София: Издателство "Изток-Запад". pp. 37, 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-619-152-025-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-619-152-025-1"><bdi>978-619-152-025-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9E%D1%82+%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BF%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81+%D0%B2+%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5+%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8&rft.place=%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.pages=37%2C+57&rft.pub=%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE+%22%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA-%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%22&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-619-152-025-1&rft.aulast=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.aufirst=%D0%91%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Petrov10-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Petrov10_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Petrov10_170-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPetrov2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Petrov" title="Nikita Petrov">Petrov, Nikita</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X2FGqiDKFysC&pg=PA10">"The GULag as Instrument of the USSR's Punitive System 1917–39"</a>. In Dundovich, Elena; Gori, Francesca; Guercetti, Emanuela (eds.). Reflections on the Gulag: With a Documentary Index on the Italian Victims of Repression in the USSR. Feltrinelli Editore. pp. 8–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-07-99058-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-07-99058-8"><bdi>978-88-07-99058-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/803610496">803610496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+GULag+as+Instrument+of+the+USSR%27s+Punitive+System+1917%E2%80%9339&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+the+Gulag%3A+With+a+Documentary+Index+on+the+Italian+Victims+of+Repression+in+the+USSR&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.pub=Feltrinelli+Editore&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F803610496&rft.isbn=978-88-07-99058-8&rft.aulast=Petrov&rft.aufirst=Nikita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX2FGqiDKFysC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Robert Conquest, Paul Hollander: Political violence: belief, behavior, and legitimation p.55, Palgrave Macmillan;(2008) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60646-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60646-3">978-0-230-60646-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-172">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_172-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_172-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFToewsVézina2025" class="citation journal cs1">Toews, Gerhard; Vézina, Pierre-Louis (2025). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/mac.20220231">"Enemies of the People"</a>. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics. 17 (1): 310–342. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fmac.20220231">10.1257/mac.20220231</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1945-7707">1945-7707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Journal%3A+Macroeconomics&rft.atitle=Enemies+of+the+People&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E310-%3C%2Fspan%3E342&rft.date=2025&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fmac.20220231&rft.issn=1945-7707&rft.aulast=Toews&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft.au=V%C3%A9zina%2C+Pierre-Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aeaweb.org%2Farticles%3Fid%3D10.1257%2Fmac.20220231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Гальперович-173"><a href="#cite_ref-Гальперович_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFГальперович2010" class="citation web cs1">Гальперович, Данила (June 27, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123080758/http://www.svobodanews.ru/content/transcript/2085640.html">"Директор Государственного музея ГУЛАГа Антон Владимирович Антонов-Овсеенко"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Radio_Liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Liberty">Radio Liberty</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.svobodanews.ru/content/transcript/2085640.html">the original</a> on November 23, 2011. Retrieved August 19, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80+%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%8F+%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93%D0%B0+%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD+%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87+%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2-%D0%9E%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE&rft.pub=Radio+Liberty&rft.date=2010-06-27&rft.aulast=%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87&rft.aufirst=%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.svobodanews.ru%2Fcontent%2Ftranscript%2F2085640.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Banerji-174"><a href="#cite_ref-Banerji_174-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBanerji2008" class="citation book cs1">Banerji, Arup (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NqJS-H-odnYC&pg=PA271">Writing history in the Soviet Union: making the past work</a>. <a href="/wiki/Berghahn_Books" title="Berghahn Books">Berghahn Books</a>. p. 271. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-87358-37-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-87358-37-4"><bdi>978-81-87358-37-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+history+in+the+Soviet+Union%3A+making+the+past+work&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-87358-37-4&rft.aulast=Banerji&rft.aufirst=Arup&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNqJS-H-odnYC%26pg%3DPA271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Museum-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Museum_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180625124244/http://www.gmig.ru/o-muzee">"About State Gulag Museum"</a>. The State Gulag Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gmig.ru/o-muzee">the original</a> on June 25, 2018. Retrieved August 19, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+State+Gulag+Museum&rft.pub=The+State+Gulag+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmig.ru%2Fo-muzee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220921212148/http://www.thegulag.org/">"Gulag – Museum on Communism"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thegulag.org/">the original</a> on September 21, 2022. Retrieved December 5, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gulag+%E2%80%93+Museum+on+Communism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthegulag.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34675413">"New Russian Gulag museum recreates Soviet terror"</a>. BBC. October 30, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=New+Russian+Gulag+museum+recreates+Soviet+terror&rft.date=2015-10-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-34675413&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Stalinism_and_the_Soviet_Union#Terror,_famine_and_the_Gulag" title="Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union">Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union § Terror, famine and the Gulag</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">Applebaum, Anne</a>. 2003. <a href="/wiki/Gulag:_A_History" title="Gulag: A History">Gulag: A History</a>. Broadway Books. hardcover, 720 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7679-0056-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7679-0056-1">0-7679-0056-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Ciszek" title="Walter Ciszek">Ciszek, Walter</a>. 1997. <a href="/wiki/With_God_in_Russia" title="With God in Russia">With God in Russia</a>. Ignatius Press. 433 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89870-574-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-89870-574-6">0-89870-574-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavid-Fox2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_David-Fox" title="Michael David-Fox">David-Fox, Michael</a>, ed. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mj3BjwEACAAJ">The Soviet Gulag: Evidence, Interpretation, and Comparison</a> (illustrated hardcover ed.). Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-4464-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-4464-5"><bdi>978-0-8229-4464-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved December 2, 2021 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Gulag%3A+Evidence%2C+Interpretation%2C+and+Comparison&rft.place=Pittsburgh%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.edition=illustrated+hardcover&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-4464-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmj3BjwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ertz, Simon. 2006. Zwangsarbeit im stalinistischen Lagersystem: Eine Untersuchung der Methoden, Strategien und Ziele ihrer Ausnutzung am Beispiel Norilsk, 1935–1953. Duncker & Humblot. 273 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-428-11863-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-428-11863-2">978-3-428-11863-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlando_Figes" title="Orlando Figes">Figes, Orlando</a>. 2007. The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia. Allen Lane. hardcover, 740 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-101351-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-101351-6">0-14-101351-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Arch_Getty" title="J. Arch Getty">Getty, J. Arch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Naumov" title="Oleg Naumov">Oleg V. Naumov</a>. 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wZ-v1Gj7UhIC">The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939</a>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 635 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07772-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07772-6">0-300-07772-6</a>.</li> <li>Gheith, Jehanne M., and Katherine R. Jolluck. 2010. Gulag Voices: Oral Histories of Soviet Detention and Exile, (Palgrave Studies in Oral History). Palgrave Macmillan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-230-61063-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-230-61063-3">0-230-61063-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slawomir_Rawicz" class="mw-redirect" title="Slawomir Rawicz">Rawicz, Slawomir</a>. 1995. The Long Walk. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55821-684-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-55821-684-7">1-55821-684-7</a></li> <li>Gregory, Paul R., and Valery Lazarev, eds. 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050306042638/http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/publications/books/gulag.html">The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag</a>. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8179-3942-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8179-3942-3">0-8179-3942-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustaw_Herling-Grudzi%C5%84ski" title="Gustaw Herling-Grudziński">Herling-Grudzinski, Gustaw</a>. 1996. A World Apart: Imprisonment in a Soviet Labor Camp During World War II. Penguin. 284 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-025184-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-025184-7">0-14-025184-7</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Hochschild" title="Adam Hochschild">Hochschild, Adam</a>. 2003. The Unquiet Ghost: Russians Remember Stalin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 304 pp., paperback: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-25747-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-25747-0">0-618-25747-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_Khlevniuk" title="Oleg Khlevniuk">Khlevniuk, Oleg V.</a> 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nCSUFttQVH0C&q=The+History+of+the+Gulag%3A+From+Collectivization+to+the+Great+Terror">The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror</a>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. hardcover, 464 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09284-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09284-9">0-300-09284-9</a>.</li> <li>Kizny, Tomasz. 2004. Gulag: Life and Death Inside the Soviet Concentration Camps 1917–1990. Firefly Books Ltd. 496 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55297-964-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-55297-964-4">1-55297-964-4</a>.</li> <li>Kozlov, V. P., et al., eds. 2004–5. Istorija stalinskogo Gulaga: konec 1920-kh – pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov; sobranie dokumentov v 7 tomach, 7 vols.. Moskva: <a href="/wiki/ROSSPEN" title="ROSSPEN">ROSSPEN</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-8243-0604-4" title="Special:BookSources/5-8243-0604-4">5-8243-0604-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMielke2017" class="citation book cs1">Mielke, Tomas M. (2017). The Russian Homosexual Lexicon: Consensual and Prison Camp Sexuality Among Men. CreateSpace. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5446-5849-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5446-5849-0"><bdi>978-1-5446-5849-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Homosexual+Lexicon%3A+Consensual+and+Prison+Camp+Sexuality+Among+Men&rft.pub=CreateSpace&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-5446-5849-0&rft.aulast=Mielke&rft.aufirst=Tomas+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Rossi" title="Jacques Rossi">Rossi, Jacques</a>. 1989. The Gulag Handbook: An Encyclopedia Dictionary of Soviet Penitentiary Institutions and Terms Related to the Forced Labor Camps. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55778-024-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-55778-024-2">1-55778-024-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr</a>. 1973. <a href="/wiki/The_Gulag_Archipelago" title="The Gulag Archipelago">The Gulag Archipelago</a>. Harper & Row. 660 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-080332-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-080332-0">0-06-080332-0</a>.</li> <li>—— The Gulag Archipelago: Two. Harper & Row. 712 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-080345-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-080345-2">0-06-080345-2</a>.</li> <li>Tobien, Karl. 2006. Dancing Under the Red Star: The Extraordinary Story of Margaret Werner, the Only American Woman to Survive Stalin's Gulag. WaterBrook Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-7078-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-7078-3">1-4000-7078-3</a>.</li> <li>Werth, Nicolas. 1999. "A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union." Pp. 33–260 in <a href="/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism" title="The Black Book of Communism">The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression</a>, edited by <a href="/wiki/Stephane_Courtois" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephane Courtois">S. Courtois</a> et al. Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-07608-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-07608-7">0-674-07608-7</a>.</li> <li>—— 2007. Cannibal Island: Death in a Siberian Gulag (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity) with an introduction by <a href="/wiki/Jan_T._Gross" title="Jan T. Gross">J. T. Gross</a>. Princeton University Press. 248 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-13083-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-13083-3">0-691-13083-3</a>.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai134_folder/134_articles/134_index.html">Remembering Stalin</a>." <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_International" title="Azerbaijan International">Azerbaijan International</a> 13(4). 2005.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai141_folder/141_articles/141_index.html">The Literature of Stalin's Repressions</a>." Azerbaijan International 14(1). 2006.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFПетров_Н._В.Кокурин_А._И.2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Петров Н. В.; Кокурин А. И. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elib.npu.edu.ua/bscatalog/download/EigokdMFesAu"><bdi lang="ru">ГУЛАГ: Главное управление лагерей. 1918–1960</bdi></a> [Gulag. Main camp administration. 1918–1960] (PDF, immediate download) (in Russian). Moscow: Международный Фонд "Демократия". <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-85646-046-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-85646-046-8"><bdi>978-5-85646-046-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151113180343/http://elib.npu.edu.ua/bscatalog/download/EigokdMFesAu">Archived</a> from the original on November 13, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%93%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%93%3A+%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9.+1918%E2%80%931960&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4+%22%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%22&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-5-85646-046-8&rft.au=%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%9D.+%D0%92.&rft.au=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD+%D0%90.+%D0%98.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felib.npu.edu.ua%2Fbscatalog%2Fdownload%2FEigokdMFesAu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGulag" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Barenberg, Alan. 2015. "The Gulag in Vorkuta: Beyond Space and Time." Laboratorium: Russian Review of Social Research 7(1)</li> <li>Barenberg, Alan, Wilson T. Bell, Sean Kinnear, Steven Maddox, and <a href="/wiki/Lynne_Viola" title="Lynne Viola">Lynne Viola</a>. 2017. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00085006.2017.1384665?src=recsys&journalCode=rcsp20">New directions in Gulag studies: a roundtable discussion</a>." <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Slavonic_Papers" title="Canadian Slavonic Papers">Canadian Slavonic Papers</a> 59(3/4):376–95. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00085006.2017.1384665">10.1080/00085006.2017.1384665</a></li> <li>Bell, Wilson T. 2013. "Was the Gulag an Archipelago? De‐Convoyed Prisoners and Porous Borders in the Camps of Western Siberia." <a href="/wiki/The_Russian_Review" title="The Russian Review">The Russian Review</a> 72(1).</li> <li>Kravchuk, Pavel. 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150227201132/http://pda.novayagazeta.ru/letters/181.html">Gulag far and near. The story of the penitentiary system</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Viola" title="Lynne Viola">Viola, Lynne</a>. 2018. "New sources on Soviet perpetrators of mass repression: a research note." Canadian Slavonic Papers 60(3/4):592–604. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00085006.2018.1497393">10.1080/00085006.2018.1497393</a>.</li> <li>Hardy, Jeffrey S. 2017. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00085006.2017.1396837">Of pelicans and prisoners: avian–human interactions in the Soviet Gulag</a>." Canadian Slavonic Papers 60(3/4):375–406. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00085006.2017.1396837">10.1080/00085006.2017.1396837</a>.</li> <li>Healey, Dan. 2015. "Lives in the Balance: Weak and Disabled Prisoners and the Biopolitics of the Gulag." <a href="/wiki/Kritika_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kritika (journal)">Kritika</a> 16(3)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memoirs">Memoirs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Memoirs">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai141%20folder/141%20articles/141%20kolyma.html">Baghirov, Ayyub. 1999. Bitter Days in Kolyma (Russian).</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] Off to the Unknown: Stalin's Notorious Prison Camps in Siberia (excerpt in English), AZER.com at <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_International" title="Azerbaijan International">Azerbaijan International</a>, Vol. 14:1 (Spring 2006), pp. 58–71.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janusz_Bardach" title="Janusz Bardach">Bardach, Janusz</a>. 1999. <a href="/wiki/Man_Is_Wolf_to_Man" title="Man Is Wolf to Man">Man Is Wolf to Man: Surviving the Gulag</a>. University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22152-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-22152-4">0-520-22152-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Ciszek" title="Walter Ciszek">Ciszek, Walter</a>. 1997. He Leadeth Me: An Extraordinary Testament of Faith. Doubleday. 216 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-04051-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-04051-8">978-0-385-04051-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dolgun" title="Alexander Dolgun">Dolgun, Alexander</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Watson_(producer)" title="Patrick Watson (producer)">Patrick Watson</a>. 1975. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dolgun%27s_Story:_An_American_in_the_Gulag" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Dolgun's Story: An American in the Gulag">Alexander Dolgun's Story: An American in the Gulag</a>." New York: Knopf. 370 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-49497-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-49497-5">978-0-394-49497-5</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevgenia_Ginzburg" title="Yevgenia Ginzburg">Ginzburg, Eugenia</a>. [1967] 2002. <a href="/wiki/Journey_into_the_Whirlwind" title="Journey into the Whirlwind">Journey into the Whirlwind</a>, Harvest/HBJ Book. 432 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-602751-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-602751-8">0-15-602751-8</a>.</li> <li>—— 1982. Within the Whirlwind, Harvest/HBJ Book, 448 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-697649-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-697649-8">0-15-697649-8</a>.</li> <li>Gliksman, Jerzy. 1948. Tell the West: An account of his experiences as a slave laborer in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Gresham Press. 358pp. <ul><li>Abridged edition: New York: <a href="/wiki/National_Committee_for_a_Free_Europe" title="National Committee for a Free Europe">National Committee for a Free Europe</a>, 95pp. c. 1948.</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai141_folder/141_articles/141_dissolution_family.html">Hasanov, Anvar (Interview with his daughter Naila Hasanova</a> about her father who fought in WWII, was captured by Germans, but was sent to the GULAG when he returned home to the Soviet Union.) Stalin's Legacy: Dissolution of the Family. Don't Wait for Me. AZER.com at Azerbaijan International, Vol. 14:1 (Spring 2006), pp. 90-94.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hollander" title="Paul Hollander">Hollander, Paul</a>, ed. 2006. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060527190257/http://www.isi.org/books/content/384intro.pdf">Editor's Introduction: The Distinctive Features of Repression in Communist States</a>." Pp. xv–lxxviii in From the Gulag to the Killing Fields: Personal Accounts of Political Violence and Repression in Communist States, with a foreword by <a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">A. Applebaum</a>. <a href="/wiki/Intercollegiate_Studies_Institute" title="Intercollegiate Studies Institute">Intercollegiate Studies Institute</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-932236-78-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-932236-78-3">1-932236-78-3</a>. (From the annotation: "more than forty dramatic personal memoirs of Communist violence and repression from political prisoners across the globe.")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Margolin" title="Julius Margolin">Margolin, Julius</a>. 1952. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.ru/MEMUARY/MARGOLIN/Puteshestvie_v_stranu_ze-ka.txt">ПУТЕШЕСТВИЕ В СТРАНУ ЗЭ-КА A Travel to the Land Ze-Ka, full text, according to the original manuscript</a> (written in 1947) (in Russian)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Margolin" title="Julius Margolin">Margolin, Julius</a>. 2020 (1952). Journey into the Land of the Zeks and Back: A Memoir of the Gulag (S. Hoffman, trans.). New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-750214-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-750214-3">978-0-19-750214-3</a></li> <li>Mochulsky, Fyodor V. Gulag Boss: A Soviet Memoir. Oxford University Press. 272 pp., the first memoir from an NKVD employee translated into English</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Noble" title="John H. Noble">Noble, John H.</a> 1961. I Was a Slave in Russia, Broadview, Illinois: Cicero Bible Press.</li> <li>Petkevich, Tamara. 2010. Memoir of a Gulag Actress. Northern Illinois University.</li> <li>Rossi, Jacques. 2018. Fragments of Lives: Chronicles of the Gulag (Antonelli-Street trans.). Prague: Karolinum. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-246-3700-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-80-246-3700-6">978-80-246-3700-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cmm%C3%BCg%C3%BCls%C3%BCm" title="Ümmügülsüm">Sadigzade, Ummugulsum</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai141_folder/141_articles/141_prison_diary_ummugul.html">Prison Diary: Tears Are My Only Companions</a>", AZER.com at Azerbaijan International, Vol. 14:1 (Spring 2006), pp. 40–45.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cmm%C3%BCg%C3%BCls%C3%BCm" title="Ümmügülsüm">Sadigzade, Ummugulsum</a>, and her children. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai141_folder/141_articles/141_prison_letters.html">Letters from Prison</a>." AZER.com at Azerbaijan International, Vol. 14:1 (Spring 2006), pp. 48–53. (Correspondence between an imprisoned mother and her children: Ummugulsum with her family: Sayyara Sadigzade, Ogtay Sadigzade, Jighatay Sadigzade, Toghrul Sadigzade and Gumral Sadigzade.)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai141_folder/141_articles/141_sadikhli_siberia.html">Sadikhli, Murtuz, "Mass Deportation to Siberia: No More Tears Left to Cry" (English)</a> from Memory of Blood, (Azeri) 1991. AZER.com at Azerbaijan International, Vol. 14:1 (Spring 2006), pp. 72-79.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varlam_Shalamov" title="Varlam Shalamov">Shalamov, Varlam</a>. 1995. <a href="/wiki/The_Kolyma_Tales" class="mw-redirect" title="The Kolyma Tales">Kolyma Tales</a>. Penguin Books. 528 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-018695-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-018695-6">0-14-018695-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danylo_Shumuk" title="Danylo Shumuk">Shumuk, Danylo</a>. 1974. Za Chidnim Obriyam [Beyond the Eastern Horizon]. Paris: Smoloskyp. 447 pp.</li> <li>—— 1984. Life sentence: Memoirs of a Ukrainian political prisoner. <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Institute_of_Ukrainian_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies">Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Study</a>. 401 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-920862-17-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-920862-17-9">978-0-920862-17-9</a>.</li> <li>Solomon, Michel. 1971. Magadan. New York: Auerbach. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87769-085-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87769-085-5">0-87769-085-5</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hava_Volovich" title="Hava Volovich">Volovich, Hava</a>. 1999. Till My Tale is Told: Women's Memoirs of Gulag, ed. Simeon Vilensky. Indiana University Press.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.ru/PROZA/SOLZHENICYN/">Solzhenitsyn's</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.ru/PROZA/SHALAMOW/">Shalamov's</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.ru/PROZA/GINZBURG_E/">Ginzburg's</a> works at Lib.ru (in original Russian)</li> <li>Вернон Кресс (alias of Петр Зигмундович Демант) "Зекамерон XX века", autobiographical novel (in Russian)</li> <li>Бирюков А.М. Колымские истории: очерки. Новосибирск, 2004</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiction">Fiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Fiction">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chabua_Amirejibi" title="Chabua Amirejibi">Amirejibi, Chabua</a>. 2001. Gora Mborgali. Tbilisi, Georgia: Chabua. 650 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/99940-734-1-9" title="Special:BookSources/99940-734-1-9">99940-734-1-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Amis" title="Martin Amis">Amis, Martin</a>. 2006. <a href="/wiki/House_of_Meetings" title="House of Meetings">House of Meetings</a>. New York: Vintage Books. 242 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-9601-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-9601-5">978-1-4000-9601-5</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Booth" title="Martin Booth">Booth, Martin</a>. 1998. The Industry Of Souls. United Kingdom: Dewi Lewis Publishing. 250 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-26753-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-26753-3">0-312-26753-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehdi_Huseyn" title="Mehdi Huseyn">Huseyn, Mehdi</a>. 1964. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai141_folder/141_articles/141_mehdi_husein_rivers.html">Underground Rivers Flow Into the Sea (Azeri)</a>." AZER.com at <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_International" title="Azerbaijan International">Azerbaijan International</a>, Vol. 14:1 (Spring 2006), pp. 96–99 (excerpt in English). First novel about exile to the GULAG by an Azerbaijani Writer.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herta_M%C3%BCller" title="Herta Müller">Müller, Herta</a>. 2009. <a href="/wiki/Everything_I_Possess_I_Carry_With_Me" class="mw-redirect" title="Everything I Possess I Carry With Me">Everything I Possess I Carry With Me</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr</a>. 1962. <a href="/wiki/One_Day_in_the_Life_of_Ivan_Denisovich" title="One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich">One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich</a>. Signet Classic. 158 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-451-52310-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-451-52310-5">0-451-52310-5</a>.</li> <li>—— 1968. <a href="/wiki/The_First_Circle" class="mw-redirect" title="The First Circle">In the First Circle</a>. Northwestern University Press. 580 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8101-1590-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8101-1590-3">978-0-8101-1590-3</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gulag&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Gulag" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Gulag">Gulag</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/gulag" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/gulag">gulag</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180430155402/http://gulaghistory.org/">GULAG: Many Days, Many Lives, Online Exhibit, Center for History and New Media, George Mason University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://w3.osaarchivum.org/gulag/">Gulag: Forced Labor Camps, Online Exhibition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blinken_Open_Society_Archives" title="Blinken Open Society Archives">Blinken Open Society Archives</a></li> <li>The website of the Virtual Gulag Museum is no longer accessible (January 2025). See, instead, the Map of Memory produced by the same organisation.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.mapofmemory.org/">Map of Memory: Russia's Necropolis of Terror and the Gulag (2016)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.mapofmemory.org/gulag-northwest-russia-1931-1960">"The Gulag in Northwest Russia, 1931-1960", Map of Memory (2016)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gmig.ru/en/">GULAG History Museum</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191119163440/https://gmig.ru/en/">Archived</a> November 19, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in Moscow</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111202070620/http://museum.gulagmemories.eu/en">Sound Archives. European Memories of the Gulag</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111008071148/http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgkeysearchresult.cfm?parent_id=288285&word=">Gulag prisoners at work, 1936–1937</a> Photo album at NYPL Digital Gallery</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/gula.html">The GULAG</a>, Revelations from the Russian Archives at <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3gtIYa5ao2o">Brutal! Drawings from the Gulag by Danzig Baldaev, a retired Soviet prison guard</a> (YT)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Sergei_Kruglov_(politician)" title="Sergei Kruglov (politician)">Sergei Kruglov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">NKVD Collegium</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yezhov" title="Nikolai Yezhov">Nikolai Yezhov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Frinovsky" title="Mikhail Frinovsky">Mikhail Frinovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lev_Belsky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lev Belsky (page does not exist)">Lev Belsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Zakovsky" title="Leonid Zakovsky">Leonid Zakovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semyon_Zhukovsky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Semyon Zhukovsky (page does not exist)">Semyon Zhukovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasiliy_Chernyshov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vasiliy Chernyshov (page does not exist)">Vasiliy Chernyshov</a></li> <li>Aleksandr Kovalyov</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasiliy_Karutsky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vasiliy Karutsky (page does not exist)">Vasiliy Karutsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">NKVD Secretaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Bulanov" title="Pavel Bulanov">Pavel Bulanov</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yakov_Deich&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yakov Deich (page does not exist)">Yakov Deich</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isaak_Shapiro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isaak Shapiro (page does not exist)">Isaak Shapiro</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Petrov_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mikhail Petrov (politician) (page does not exist)">Mikhail Petrov</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pyotr_Sharia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pyotr Sharia (page does not exist)">Pyotr Sharia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stepan_Mamulov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stepan Mamulov (page does not exist)">Stepan Mamulov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main Directorates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Camps and Places of Imprisonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militsiya" title="Militsiya">Workers' and Peasants' Militia</a></li> <li>Border and Internal Security</li> <li>Fire Security</li> <li>State Filming and Cartography</li> <li>Highways</li> <li>Measurements and Weights</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalstroy" title="Dalstroy">Construction at the Far North</a></li> <li>Archives</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_Directorate_of_State_Security" title="Main Directorate of State Security">State Security</a></li> <li>Economy</li> <li>Transportation</li> <li>Jail</li> <li>Border Troops</li> <li>Troops in Security of Railway Infrastructure</li> <li>Troops in Security of Industrial Infrastructure of Specially Importance</li> <li>Escort Troops</li> <li>Military Logistics</li> <li>Military Construction</li> <li>Railway Construction Camps</li> <li>Political Propaganda of Troops</li> <li>Camps of Hydrotechnical Construction</li> <li>Local Anti-Air Defense</li> <li>Railway Construction Camps</li> <li>Railway Construction Camps</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Territorial agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russia</li> <li>Belorussia</li> <li>Ukraine</li> <li>Georgia</li> <li>Armenia</li> <li>Azerbaijan</li> <li>Estonia</li> <li>Latvia</li> <li>Lithuania</li> <li>Moldavia</li> <li>Kazakhstan</li> <li>Kyrgyzstan</li> <li>Turkmenistan</li> <li>Uzbekistan</li> <li>Tajikistan</li> <li>Karelia-Finland</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Incarceration440" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Incarceration" title="Template:Incarceration"><abbr title="View this 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healthcare in Australia">Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford prison experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convict" title="Convict">Convict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Criminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detention_(imprisonment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Detention (imprisonment)">Detainee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">Hostage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">Political prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_conscience" title="Prisoner of conscience">Prisoner of conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">Prisoner of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prisons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_site" title="Black site">Black site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_labor_colony" title="Corrective labor colony">Corrective labor colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debtors%27_prison" title="Debtors' prison">Debtors'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_farm" title="Prison farm">Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_island" title="Prison island">Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">Labor camp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labour_battalion" title="Labour battalion">Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_gang" title="Chain gang">Chain gang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_prison" title="Military prison">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_colony" title="Penal colony">Penal colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner-of-war_camp" title="Prisoner-of-war camp">Prisoner-of-war camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_prison" title="Private prison">Private</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_ship" title="Prison ship">Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_detention_center" title="Youth detention center">Youth detention center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Security levels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_arrest" title="House arrest">House arrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_detention" title="Administrative detention">Administrative detention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_prison" title="Open prison">Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison#Security_levels" title="Prison">Maximum security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supermax_prison" title="Supermax prison">Supermax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_row" title="Death row">Death row</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_cell" title="Prison cell">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_cemetery" title="Prison cemetery">Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_commissary" title="Prison commissary">Commissary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_food" title="Prison food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_library" title="Prison library">Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_nursery" title="Prison nursery">Nursery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_officer" title="Prison officer">Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_port" title="Sally port">Sally port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trusty_system_(prison)" title="Trusty system (prison)">Trusty system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_warden" title="Prison warden">Warden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prison_escape" title="Prison escape">Escape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prison_escapes" title="List of prison escapes">Prison escapes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_helicopter_prison_escapes" title="List of helicopter prison escapes">Helicopter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prisoner-of-war_escapes" title="List of prisoner-of-war escapes">Prisoner-of-war escapes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_art" title="Prison art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_film" title="Prison film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_gang" title="Prison gang">Gang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_gangs_in_the_United_States" title="Prison gangs in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_literature" title="Prison literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_prison_literature" title="American prison literature">American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_ring" title="Prison ring">Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_slang" title="Prison slang">Slang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_tattooing" title="Prison tattooing">Tattooing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Abuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoner abuse in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_contemplative_programs" title="Prison contemplative programs">Contemplative programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_education" title="Prison education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jailhouse_informants" class="mw-redirect" title="Jailhouse informants">Informants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_prison" title="LGBTQ people in prison">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mentally_ill_people_in_United_States_jails_and_prisons" title="Mentally ill people in United States jails and prisons">Mentally ill people in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_in_prison" title="Mobile phones in prison">Mobile phones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pay-to-stay_(imprisonment)" title="Pay-to-stay (imprisonment)">Pay-to-stay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_overcrowding" title="Prison overcrowding">Prison overcrowding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_overcrowding_in_the_United_States" title="Prison overcrowding in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_prison" title="Private prison">Private prisons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States#Privatization" title="Incarceration in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_custody" title="Protective custody">Protective custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_rape" title="Prison rape">Rape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_rape_in_the_United_States" title="Prison rape in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_religion" title="Prison religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_United_States_prisons" title="Religion in United States prisons">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_riot" title="Prison riot">Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_sexuality" title="Prison sexuality">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">Solitary confinement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_strike" title="Prison strike">Strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_suicide" title="Prisoner suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_violence" title="Prison violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_of_women" title="Incarceration of women">Women in prison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration of women in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Protection_and_Assistance_of_the_Convicted" title="Association for the Protection and Assistance of the Convicted">Association for the Protection and Assistance of the Convicted</a> (Brazil)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_and_Pink" title="Black and Pink">Black and Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Justice_Institute" title="Florida Justice Institute">Florida Justice Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Network_of_Prison_Ministries" title="International Network of Prison Ministries">International Network of Prison Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_Action" title="Justice Action">Justice Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_Defenders" title="Justice Defenders">Justice Defenders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Tamalpais_College" title="Mount Tamalpais College">Mount Tamalpais College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/POA_(trade_union)" title="POA (trade union)">POA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison abolition movement">Prison abolition movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Advice_and_Care_Trust" title="Prison Advice and Care Trust">Prison Advice and Care Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison-Ashram_Project" title="Prison-Ashram Project">Prison-Ashram Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Fellowship" title="Prison Fellowship">Prison Fellowship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Fellowship_International" title="Prison Fellowship International">Prison Fellowship International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Legal_News" title="Prison Legal News">Prison Legal News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Officers%27_Association_(Ireland)" title="Prison Officers' Association (Ireland)">Prison Officers' Association (Ireland)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prison_Phoenix_Trust" title="The Prison Phoenix Trust">The Prison Phoenix Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Radio" title="Prison Radio">Prison Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Reform_Trust" title="Prison Reform Trust">Prison Reform Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WriteAPrisoner.com" title="WriteAPrisoner.com">WriteAPrisoner.com</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaving prison</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_release" title="Work release">Work release</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_incarceration_rate" title="List of countries by incarceration rate">Countries by incarceration rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prisons" title="List of prisons">Prisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prison_films" title="List of prison films">Films featuring prisons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Penal_systems_by_country" title="Category:Penal systems by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punishment_in_Australia" title="Punishment in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_Chile" title="Prisons in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_Estonia" title="Prisons in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_Germany" title="Prisons in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prisons_in_Iceland" title="List of prisons in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_India" title="Prisons in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Prisons in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland, Republic of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prisons_in_Jamaica" title="List of prisons in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_of_Japan" title="Penal system of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prisons_in_New_Zealand" title="List of prisons in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_North_Korea" title="Prisons in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_Norway" title="Incarceration in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Penitentiary_Institute_(Peru)" title="National Penitentiary Institute (Peru)">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_Russia" title="Prisons in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Prisons_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Prisons in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gulag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_Turkey" title="Prisons in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_Ukraine" title="Prisons in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li>United Kingdom and British overseas territories <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Department_of_Corrections" title="Bermuda Department of Corrections">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Prison_Service" title="His Majesty's Prison Service">England and Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Prison_Service" title="Northern Ireland Prison Service">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Prison_Service" title="Scottish Prison Service">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Imprisonment_and_detention" title="Category:Imprisonment and detention">Imprisonment and detention</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Imprisonment_and_detention" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Imprisonment and detention">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_Union_topics570" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template talk:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet_Union_topics570" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Soviet Union–related articles">Index of Soviet Union–related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Outline of the Soviet Union">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Creation treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Great Patriotic War</a> (World War II) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Evacuation in the Soviet Union">Evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">The Holocaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Caribbean Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965 economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_period_and_cessation_of_the_existence_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transition period and cessation of the existence of the Soviet Union">Transition period and cessation of the existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession,_continuity_and_legacy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Succession, continuity and legacy of the Soviet Union">Succession, continuity and legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union" title="Nostalgia for the Soviet Union">Nostalgia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Subdivisions of the Soviet Union">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krais_of_Russia" title="Krais of Russia">Krais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Oblasts of the Soviet Union">Oblasts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_city" title="Closed city">Closed city</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1977</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Elections in the Soviet Union">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Gun control in the Soviet Union">Gun control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_post-Soviet_states" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the post-Soviet states">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Capital punishment in the Soviet Union">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passport_system_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Passport system in the Soviet Union">Passport system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propiska_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propiska in the Soviet Union">Propiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of political parties in the Soviet Union">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">State ideology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-Zionism" title="Soviet anti-Zionism">Soviet anti-Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Presidium/Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a> (1922–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (1938–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> (1989–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Heads of state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">Security services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Political_Directorate" title="State Political Directorate">GPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction battalions">Destruction battalions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Militsiya" title="Militsiya">Militsiya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Security_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of State Security (Soviet Union)">MGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_KGB" title="List of chairmen of the KGB">Chairmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Border_Troops" title="Soviet Border Troops">Soviet Border Troops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spetsnaz_GRU" title="Spetsnaz GRU">Spetsnaz GRU</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a>/<a href="/wiki/Soviet_Airborne_Forces" title="Soviet Airborne Forces">Soviet Airborne Forces</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">Forced labor</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gulag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Anti-abuse struggle</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Repression of science in the Soviet Union">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gosbank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gosbank">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Energy policy of the Soviet Union">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprises_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Enterprises in the Soviet Union">Enterprises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/.su" title=".su">Internet domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation#Soviet_Union" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_material_product" title="Net material product">Net material product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">Rouble (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Railway_system_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway system of the Soviet Union">Railway system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Rail transport in the Soviet Union">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metro_systems_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of metro systems in the Soviet Union">List of metro systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Vehicle registration plates of the Soviet Union">Vehicle registration plates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_construction_in_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing construction in the USSR">Construction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Academy" title="Communist Academy">Communist Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#In_the_Soviet_Union" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" title="USSR Academy of Medical Sciences">Academy of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashkas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naukograd" title="Naukograd">Naukograds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naukograds" title="Category:Naukograds">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Society of the Soviet Union">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Crime in the Soviet Union">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Working class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_census" title="1989 Soviet census">1989 census</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Drug policy of the Soviet Union">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflicts_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ethnic conflicts in the Soviet Union">Ethnic conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistics of the Soviet Union">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cyrillisation in the Soviet Union">Cyrillisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_Russian_Empire_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Prohibition in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Racism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cinema of the Soviet Union">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in the Soviet Union">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature#20th_century" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Music of the Soviet Union">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opera#20th_century" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_phraseology" title="Soviet phraseology">Phraseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_media_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Printed media in the Soviet Union">Printed media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Radio in the Soviet Union">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Television in the Soviet Union">Television</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet_agitation" title="Anti-Soviet agitation">Anti-Soviet agitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a> and their groups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet_opposition_groups" title="Category:Soviet opposition groups">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Anthem of the Soviet Union">Anthem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Anthems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union">Emblem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emblems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Emblems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Flag of the Soviet Union">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Flags of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer_and_sickle" title="Hammer and sickle">Hammer and sickle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet_Union" title="Category:Soviet Union">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Joseph_Stalin557" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Joseph_Stalin" title="Template:Joseph Stalin"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Joseph_Stalin" title="Template talk:Joseph Stalin"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Joseph_Stalin" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Joseph Stalin"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Joseph_Stalin557" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (1922–1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union">Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union</a> (1946–1953)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Early life of Joseph Stalin">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_during_the_Russian_Revolution,_Civil_War,_and_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Stalin during the Russian Revolution, Civil War, and the Polish–Soviet War">Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Joseph Stalin">Rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">Rule as Soviet leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Political views of Joseph Stalin">Political views</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Joseph Stalin's cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">Death and state funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality_in_the_Soviet_Union_under_Joseph_Stalin" title="Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin">Death toll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/August_Uprising" title="August Uprising">August Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">Anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)</a>/<a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">(1928–1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolkhoz" title="Kolkhoz">Kolkhoz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovkhoz" title="Sovkhoz">Sovkhoz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="First five-year plan (Soviet Union)">First five-year plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">16th</a> / <a href="/wiki/17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">17th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1931_Menshevik_Trial" title="1931 Menshevik Trial">1931 Menshevik Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_rebellion_in_Xinjiang_(1937)" title="Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)">1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1937_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1937 Soviet Union legislative election">1937 legislative election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">18th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Peace_Treaty" title="Moscow Peace Treaty">Moscow Peace Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Axis_talks" title="German–Soviet Axis talks">German–Soviet Axis talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project" title="Soviet atomic bomb project">Soviet atomic bomb project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Rebellion" title="Ili Rebellion">Ili Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1946 Soviet Union legislative election">1946 legislative election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">1946 Iran crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship,_Alliance_and_Mutual_Assistance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance">Sino-Soviet Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1950 Soviet Union legislative election">1950 legislative election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenizatsiya">Korenizatsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_One_Country" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialism in One Country">Socialism in One Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Break_(USSR)" title="Great Break (USSR)">Great Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">Socialist realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggravation_of_class_struggle_under_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Aggravation of class struggle under socialism">Aggravation of class struggle under socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Construction_Projects_of_Communism" title="Great Construction Projects of Communism">Great Construction Projects of Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineers_of_the_human_soul" title="Engineers of the human soul">Engineers of the human soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936 Soviet Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Soviet_man" title="New Soviet man">New Soviet man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stakhanovite" class="mw-redirect" title="Stakhanovite">Stakhanovite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_plan_for_the_transformation_of_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's plan for the transformation of nature">Transformation of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backwardness_brings_on_beatings_by_others" title="Backwardness brings on beatings by others">Backwardness brings on beatings by others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crimes, repressions, and controversies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1906_Bolshevik_raid_on_the_Tsarevich_Giorgi" title="1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi">1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1907_Tiflis_bank_robbery" title="1907 Tiflis bank robbery">1907 Tiflis bank robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian Affair">Georgian Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decossackization" class="mw-redirect" title="Decossackization">Decossackization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">Dekulakization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wittorf_affair" title="Wittorf affair">Wittorf affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Break_(USSR)" title="Great Break (USSR)">Great Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Christ_the_Saviour" title="Cathedral of Christ the Saviour">Demolition of Cathedral of Christ the Saviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–33">Soviet famine of 1932–33</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gulag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Kirov" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Kirov">Murder of Sergey Kirov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_of_Trotskyist_Anti-Soviet_Military_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization">Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres" title="NKVD prisoner massacres">NKVD prisoner massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Berezhany" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Berezhany">Berezhany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berezwecz-Taklinovo_Death_Road" title="Berezwecz-Taklinovo Death Road">Berezwecz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Dubno" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Dubno">Dubno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_of_Chortkiv_Prison" title="Evacuation of Chortkiv Prison">Chortkiv </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurapaty" title="Kurapaty">Kurapaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy%C5%84_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyń massacre">Katyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Lutsk" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Lutsk">Lutsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres_in_Lviv" title="NKVD prisoner massacres in Lviv">Lviv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medvedev_Forest_massacre" title="Medvedev Forest massacre">Medvedev Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Sambir" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Sambir">Sambir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valozhyn-Tarasovo_Death_Road" title="Valozhyn-Tarasovo Death Road">Valozhyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vileyka-Barysaw_Death_Road" title="Vileyka-Barysaw Death Road">Vileyka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinnytsia_massacre" title="Vinnytsia massacre">Vinnytsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacre_in_Zolochiv" title="NKVD prisoner massacre in Zolochiv">Zolochiv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Trials">Moscow Trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotel_Lux" title="Hotel Lux">Hotel Lux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_repressions_in_Azerbaijan" title="Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan">Repressions in Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ideological repression in science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavists_case" title="Slavists case">Slavists case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Census_(1937)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Census (1937)">1937 Soviet Census</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge_of_the_Red_Army_in_1941" class="mw-redirect" title="Purge of the Red Army in 1941">1941 Red Army purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler_Youth_Conspiracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler Youth Conspiracy">Hitler Youth Conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_and_antisemitism" title="Joseph Stalin and antisemitism">Allegations of antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a> (<a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_population_transfers" title="German–Soviet population transfers">German–Soviet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet deportations">Deportations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Chechens_and_Ingush" class="mw-redirect" title="Deportation of Chechens and Ingush">Operation "Lentil"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations_from_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet deportations from Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Koreans_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union">Koreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_North" title="Operation North">Operation "North"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation "Priboi"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazino_affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazino affair">Nazino affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">Forced settlement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_on_trees" title="Tax on trees">Tax on trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946%E2%80%9347" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1946–47">1946–1947 Soviet famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leningrad_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad Affair">Leningrad Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Mingrelian Affair">Mingrelian Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cosmopolitan" title="Rootless cosmopolitan">Rootless cosmopolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Murdered_Poets" title="Night of the Murdered Poets">Night of the Murdered Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_plot" title="Doctors' plot">Doctors' plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Anarchism_or_Socialism%3F" title="Anarchism or Socialism?">Anarchism or Socialism?</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_the_National_Question" title="Marxism and the National Question">Marxism and the National Question</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Leninism" title="Foundations of Leninism">Foundations of Leninism</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Dizzy_with_Success" title="Dizzy with Success">Dizzy with Success</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_the_Peoples_of_Russia" title="Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia">Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_ten_blows" title="Stalin's ten blows">"Ten Blows" speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_alleged_speech_of_19_August_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's alleged speech of 19 August 1939">Alleged 19 August 1939 speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiers_of_History" title="Falsifiers of History">Falsifiers of History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Note" title="Stalin Note">Stalin Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_(Bolsheviks)" class="mw-redirect" title="The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)">The History of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936 Soviet Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's poetry">Stalin's poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_and_Historical_Materialism" title="Dialectical and Historical Materialism">Dialectical and Historical Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_No._227" title="Order No. 227">Order No. 227</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_No._270" title="Order No. 270">Order No. 270</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_Problems_of_Linguistics" title="Marxism and Problems of Linguistics">Marxism and Problems of Linguistics</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Problems_of_Socialism_in_the_USSR" title="Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR">Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">20th Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pospelov_Commission" title="Pospelov Commission">Pospelov Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Gomulka thaw (Polish October)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Nonconformist_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Nonconformist Art">Soviet Nonconformist Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvernik_Commission" title="Shvernik Commission">Shvernik Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd Congress of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Criticism and opposition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Epigram" title="Stalin Epigram">Stalin Epigram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenin%27s_Testament" title="Lenin's Testament">Lenin's Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryutin_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryutin Affair">Ryutin Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_left" title="Anti-Stalinist left">Anti-Stalinist left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kremlin_Plot" title="Kremlin Plot">Kremlin Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True_Communists" title="True Communists">True Communists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkness_at_Noon" title="Darkness at Noon">Darkness at Noon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Farm" title="Animal Farm">Animal Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Nazism_and_Stalinism" title="Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism">Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Soviet_Story" title="The Soviet Story">The Soviet Story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_and_antisemitism" title="Joseph Stalin and antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Remembrance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IS_tank_family" title="IS tank family">Iosif Stalin tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_locomotive_class_IS" title="Soviet locomotive class IS">Iosif Stalin locomotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalissimo_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Generalissimo of the Soviet Union">Generalissimo of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statues_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="List of statues of Joseph Stalin">Stalin statues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Moscow" title="Pantheon, Moscow">Pantheon, Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1956 Georgian demonstrations">1956 Georgian demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honours_bestowed_upon_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin">List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Joseph_Stalin,_Berlin" title="Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin">Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Monument_(Budapest)" title="Stalin Monument (Budapest)">Stalin Monument in Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Monument_(Prague)" title="Stalin Monument (Prague)">Stalin Monument in Prague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_Museum,_Gori" title="Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori">Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batumi_Stalin_Museum" title="Batumi Stalin Museum">Batumi Stalin Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_after_Joseph_Stalin" title="List of places named after Joseph Stalin">Places named after Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Stalin_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="State Stalin Prize">State Stalin Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin Peace Prize">Stalin Peace Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Society" title="Stalin Society">Stalin Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin_Bloc_%E2%80%93_For_the_USSR" title="Stalin Bloc – For the USSR">Stalin Bloc – For the USSR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural depictions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse:_Stalin" title="Apocalypse: Stalin">Apocalypse: Stalin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Besarion_Jughashvili" title="Besarion Jughashvili">Besarion Jughashvili</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keke_Geladze" title="Keke Geladze">Keke Geladze</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kato_Svanidze" title="Kato Svanidze">Kato Svanidze</a> (first wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Dzhugashvili" title="Yakov Dzhugashvili">Yakov Dzhugashvili</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Kuzakov" title="Konstantin Kuzakov">Konstantin Kuzakov</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artyom_Sergeyev" title="Artyom Sergeyev">Artyom Sergeyev</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadezhda_Alliluyeva" title="Nadezhda Alliluyeva">Nadezhda Alliluyeva</a> (second wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Stalin" title="Vasily Stalin">Vasily Stalin</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Alliluyeva" title="Svetlana Alliluyeva">Svetlana Alliluyeva</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Dzhugashvili" title="Yevgeny Dzhugashvili">Yevgeny Dzhugashvili</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galina_Dzhugashvili" title="Galina Dzhugashvili">Galina Dzhugashvili</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Alliluyev" title="Joseph Alliluyev">Joseph Alliluyev</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Alliluyev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei Alliluyev">Sergei Alliluyev</a> (second father-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Svanidze" title="Alexander Svanidze">Alexander Svanidze</a> (brother-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Zhdanov" title="Yuri Zhdanov">Yuri Zhdanov</a> (son-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wesley_Peters" title="William Wesley Peters">William Wesley Peters</a> (son-in-law)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_residences" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's residences">Stalin's residences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_house,_Gori" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's house, Gori">Stalin's house, Gori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tbilisi_Theological_Seminary" title="Tbilisi Theological Seminary">Tiflis Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kureika_(village)" title="Kureika (village)">Kureika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Kremlin">Room at Kremlin</a></li> <li>Dachas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuntsevo_Dacha" title="Kuntsevo Dacha">Kuntsevo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sochi_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sochi Dacha (page does not exist)">Sochi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uspenskoye_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uspenskoye Dacha (page does not exist)">Uspenskoye</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semyonovskoye_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Semyonovskoye Dacha (page does not exist)">Semyonovskoye</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Athos_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Athos Dacha (page does not exist)">New Athos</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kholodnaya_Rechka_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kholodnaya Rechka Dacha (page does not exist)">Kholodnaya Rechka</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_Ritsa_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lake Ritsa Dacha (page does not exist)">Lake Ritsa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sukhumi_Dacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sukhumi Dacha (page does not exist)">Sukhumi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_bunker,_Samara" title="Stalin's bunker, Samara">Stalin's bunker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Joseph_Stalin" title="Category:Joseph Stalin">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Segregation_in_countries_by_type_(in_some_countries,_categories_overlap)584" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Segregation_by_type" title="Template:Segregation by type"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Segregation_by_type" title="Template talk:Segregation by type"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Segregation_by_type" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Segregation by type"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Segregation_in_countries_by_type_(in_some_countries,_categories_overlap)584" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Segregation in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tal_Committee" title="Tal Committee">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Muslims_from_Serbia_(1862)" title="Exodus of Muslims from Serbia (1862)">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Greece_and_Turkey" title="Population exchange between Greece and Turkey">Greece and Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1947)" title="Partition of Bengal (1947)">Partition of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Saudi_Arabia" title="Religious segregation">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Bahrain" title="Religious segregation">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Myanmar" title="Religious segregation">Myanmar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Ethnic and racial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pass_system_(Canadian_history)" title="Pass system (Canadian history)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Bahrain" title="Racial segregation">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_apartheid_in_Brazil" title="Social apartheid in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Bulgaria_and_Romania" title="Population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania">Bulgaria and Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Turks_from_Bulgaria_(1950-1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak%E2%80%93Hungarian_population_exchange" title="Czechoslovak–Hungarian population exchange">Czechoslovakia and Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Fiji" title="Racial segregation">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_situation_in_the_French_suburbs" title="Social situation in the French suburbs">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nur_f%C3%BCr_Deutsche" title="Nur für Deutsche">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_and_apartheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel and apartheid">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumiputera_(Malaysia)" title="Bumiputera (Malaysia)">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Rhodesia" title="Racial segregation">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racial segregation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">Massive resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">Gender</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Afghanistan" title="Sex segregation in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Iran" title="Sex segregation in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Sex segregation in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_separation_in_Judaism" title="Gender separation in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_public_restrooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex segregation in public restrooms">Sex segregation in public restrooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist feminism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auto-segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Auto-segregation">Auto-segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkanization" title="Balkanization">Balkanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_federalism" title="Ethnic federalism">Ethnic federalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnopluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">Ethnocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_zoning" title="Exclusionary zoning">Exclusionary zoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labor camps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">Residential segregation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy (United States)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid_legislation" title="Apartheid legislation">laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporative_federalism" title="Corporative federalism">Corporative federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafrada" title="Hafrada">Hafrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_minority" title="Majority minority">Majority minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rankism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservation in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">Second-class citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_school" title="Separate school">Separate school</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">Shunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_apartheid" title="Social apartheid">Social apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>See also: <a href="/wiki/Pillarisation" title="Pillarisation">Pillarisation</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Segregation" title="Category:Segregation">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caste" title="Category:Caste">caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sex_segregation" title="Category:Sex segregation">gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Racial_segregation" title="Category:Racial segregation">racial</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Segregation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Segregation">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output 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