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<span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jesus,_King_of_Martyrs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jesus,_King_of_Martyrs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Jesus, King of Martyrs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jesus,_King_of_Martyrs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Early_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Early_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The Early Church</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Early_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>The Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degrees_of_martyrdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degrees_of_martyrdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Degrees of martyrdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degrees_of_martyrdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_martyrs_today" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_martyrs_today"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Christian martyrs today</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_martyrs_today-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet 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Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0rtir_cristi%C3%A0" title="Màrtir cristià – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Màrtir cristià" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1rtir_cristiano" title="Mártir cristiano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mártir cristiano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martiri%C4%9Do_kristana" title="Martiriĝo kristana – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Martiriĝo kristana" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="شهادت در مسیحیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شهادت در مسیحیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90_%EC%88%9C%EA%B5%90%EC%9E%90" title="기독교 순교자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기독교 순교자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C5%A1%C4%87anski_mu%C4%8Denici" title="Kršćanski mučenici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kršćanski mučenici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martir_Kristen" title="Martir Kristen – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Martir Kristen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martirio_(cristianesimo)" title="Martirio (cristianesimo) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Martirio (cristianesimo)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martelaar_(christendom)" title="Martelaar (christendom) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Martelaar (christendom)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%99czennik_chrze%C5%9Bcija%C5%84ski" title="Męczennik chrześcijański – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Męczennik chrześcijański" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testemunho_crist%C3%A3o" title="Testemunho cristão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Testemunho cristão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Христианский мученик – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Христианский мученик" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C5%A1%C4%87anski_mu%C4%8Denici" title="Kršćanski mučenici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kršćanski mučenici" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="மறைசாட்சி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மறைசாட்சி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="มรณสักขีในศาสนาคริสต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มรณสักขีในศาสนาคริสต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eehit_(Hristiyanl%C4%B1k)" title="Şehit (Hristiyanlık) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Şehit (Hristiyanlık)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0rtiri_Cristiani" title="Màrtiri Cristiani – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Màrtiri Cristiani" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q107013#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Christian_martyr" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Person killed for their testimony of Jesus</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martirio_de_San_Esteban_(Correa_de_Vivar).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Martirio_de_San_Esteban_%28Correa_de_Vivar%29.jpg/220px-Martirio_de_San_Esteban_%28Correa_de_Vivar%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Martirio_de_San_Esteban_%28Correa_de_Vivar%29.jpg/330px-Martirio_de_San_Esteban_%28Correa_de_Vivar%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Martirio_de_San_Esteban_%28Correa_de_Vivar%29.jpg/440px-Martirio_de_San_Esteban_%28Correa_de_Vivar%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2111" data-file-height="2965" /></a><figcaption>The stoning to death of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a>, the first Christian martyr, in a painting by the 16th-century Spanish artist <a href="/wiki/Juan_Correa_de_Vivar" title="Juan Correa de Vivar">Juan Correa de Vivar</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, a <b>martyr</b> is a person who was killed for their testimony for <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Christianity" title="Faith in Christianity">faith</a> in Jesus.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the years of the <a href="/wiki/Early_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early church">early church</a>, stories depict this often occurring through <a href="/wiki/Death_by_sawing" title="Death by sawing">death by sawing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stoning" title="Stoning">stoning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">crucifixion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Execution_by_burning" class="mw-redirect" title="Execution by burning">burning at the stake</a>, or other forms of <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a>. The word <i><a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyr</a></i> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Koine" class="mw-redirect" title="Koine">Koine</a> word μάρτυς, <i>mártys</i>, which means "witness" or "testimony". </p><p>At first, the term applied to the <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a>. Once Christians started to undergo <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">persecution</a>, the term came to be applied to those who suffered hardships for their faith. Finally, it was restricted to those who had been killed for their faith. The <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian">early Christian</a> period before <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> was the "Age of Martyrs".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Early Christians venerated martyrs as powerful <a href="/wiki/Intercession" title="Intercession">intercessors</a>, and their utterances were treasured as inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC_M_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC_M-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In western <a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian art</a>, martyrs are often shown holding a <a href="/wiki/Martyr%27s_palm" class="mw-redirect" title="Martyr's palm">palm frond</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Saint_symbolism" title="Saint symbolism">attribute</a>, representing the victory of spirit over flesh, and it was widely believed that a picture of a palm on a tomb meant that a martyr was buried there.<sup id="cite_ref-martyr_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martyr-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of the word <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">μάρτυς</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">mártys</i></span>) in non-biblical Greek was primarily in a legal context. It was used for a person who speaks from personal observation. The <i>martyr</i>, when used in a non-legal context, may also signify a proclamation that the speaker believes to be truthful. The term was used by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> for observations, but also for ethical judgments and expressions of moral conviction that can not be empirically observed. There are several examples where <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> uses the term to signify "witness to truth", including in <a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cranach_Massacre_of_the_Innocents_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Cranach_Massacre_of_the_Innocents_%28detail%29.jpg/220px-Cranach_Massacre_of_the_Innocents_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Cranach_Massacre_of_the_Innocents_%28detail%29.jpg/330px-Cranach_Massacre_of_the_Innocents_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Cranach_Massacre_of_the_Innocents_%28detail%29.jpg/440px-Cranach_Massacre_of_the_Innocents_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1161" data-file-height="924" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Massacre_of_the_Innocents" class="mw-redirect" title="The Massacre of the Innocents">The Massacre of the Innocents</a> (detail)</i> by <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder" title="Lucas Cranach the Elder">Lucas Cranach the Elder</a> (c. 1515), <a href="/wiki/National_Museum,_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum, Warsaw">National Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Greek word <i><a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyr</a></i> signifies a "<a href="/wiki/Witness" title="Witness">witness</a>" who testifies to a fact he has knowledge about from personal observation. It is in this sense that the term first appears in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Acts">Book of Acts</a>, in reference to the Apostles as "witnesses" of all that they had observed in the public life of <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a>. In <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esv.org/Acts+1:22">Acts 1:22</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a>, in his address to the Apostles and disciples regarding the election of a successor to <a href="/wiki/Judas" class="mw-redirect" title="Judas">Judas</a>, employs the term with this meaning: "Wherefore, of these men who have accompanied with us all the time that the Lord Jesus came in and went out among us, beginning from the <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a> of <a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John</a> until the day he was taken up from us, one of these must be made a witness with us of his resurrection".<sup id="cite_ref-Hassett_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassett-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic age">Apostles</a>, according to tradition, faced grave dangers until eventually almost all suffered death for their convictions. The Bible reports the martyrdom of two of the apostles. Thus, within the lifetime of the Apostles, the term <i>martyrs</i> came to be used in the sense of a witness who at any time might be called upon to deny what he testified to, under penalty of death. From this stage the transition was easy to the ordinary meaning of the term, as used ever since in <a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Christian literature</a>: a martyr, or witness of Christ, is a person who suffers death rather than deny his <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_of_Patmos" title="John of Patmos">Saint John</a>, at the end of the first century, employs the word with this meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassett_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassett-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A distinction between martyrs and confessors is traceable to the latter part of the second century: those only were martyrs who had suffered the extreme penalty, whereas the title of confessor was given to Christians who had shown their willingness to die for their belief, by bravely enduring imprisonment or torture, but were not put to death. Yet the term martyr was still sometimes applied during the third century to persons still living, as, for instance, by <a href="/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Cyprian</a> who gave the title of martyrs to a number of bishops, priests, and laymen condemned to penal servitude in the mines.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassett_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassett-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agathius-Acacius-Acacio-martyrdom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Agathius-Acacius-Acacio-martyrdom.jpg/170px-Agathius-Acacius-Acacio-martyrdom.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Agathius-Acacius-Acacio-martyrdom.jpg/255px-Agathius-Acacius-Acacio-martyrdom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Agathius-Acacius-Acacio-martyrdom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><i>The Martyrdom of <a href="/wiki/Agathius" title="Agathius">San Acacio</a></i> (Acacius, Agathus, Agathius). From Triptych. <a href="/wiki/Museo_del_Prado" title="Museo del Prado">Museo del Prado</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Religious martyrdom is considered one of the more significant contributions of <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> to western civilization. It is believed that the concept of voluntary death for God developed out of the conflict between King <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus Epiphanes IV</a> and the Jewish people. <a href="/wiki/1_Maccabees" title="1 Maccabees">1 Maccabees</a> and <a href="/wiki/2_Maccabees" title="2 Maccabees">2 Maccabees</a> recount numerous <a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyrdoms</a> suffered by <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> resisting the <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenizing</a> of their <a href="/wiki/Seleucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid">Seleucid</a> overlords, being executed for such crimes as observing the Sabbath, circumcising their children, or refusing to eat pork or meat sacrificed to foreign gods. With few exceptions, this assumption has lasted from the early Christian period to this day, accepted both by Jews and Christians. </p><p>According to Daniel Boyarin, there are "two major theses with regard to the origins of Christian martyrology, which [can be referred to] as the Frend thesis and the Bowersock thesis". Boyarin characterizes W. H. C. Frend's view of martyrdom as having originated in Judaism and Christian martyrdom as a continuation of that practice. Frend argues that the Christian concept of martyrdom can only be understood as springing from Jewish roots. Frend characterizes Judaism as "a religion of martyrdom" and that it was this "Jewish psychology of martyrdom" that inspired Christian martyrdom. Frend writes, "In the first two centuries AD. there was a living pagan tradition of self-sacrifice for a cause, a preparedness if necessary to defy an unjust ruler, that existed alongside the developing Christian concept of martyrdom inherited from Judaism."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to Frend's hypothesis, Boyarin describes G. W. Bowersock's view of Christian martyrology as being completely unrelated to the Jewish practice, being instead "a practice that grew up in an entirely Roman cultural environment and then was borrowed by Jews". Bowersock argues that the Christian tradition of martyrdom came from the urban culture of the Roman Empire, especially in Asia Minor: </p> <blockquote> <p>Martyrdom was ... solidly anchored in the civic life of the Graeco-Roman world of the Roman empire. It ran its course in the great urban spaces of the agora and the amphitheater, the principal settings for public discourse and for public spectacle. It depended upon the urban rituals of the imperial cult and the interrogation protocols of local and provincial magistrates. The prisons and brothels of the cities gave further opportunities for the display of the martyr's faith.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>Boyarin points out that, despite their apparent opposition to each other, both of these arguments are based on the assumption that Judaism and Christianity were already two separate and distinct religions. He challenges that assumption and argues that "making of martyrdom was at least in part, part and parcel of the process of the making of Judaism and Christianity as distinct entities".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jesus,_King_of_Martyrs"><span id="Jesus.2C_King_of_Martyrs"></span>Jesus, King of Martyrs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Jesus, King of Martyrs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Apostle_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostle Paul">Apostle Paul</a> taught that Jesus was "obedient unto death," a 1st century Jewish phrasing for <a href="/wiki/Self-sacrifice_in_Jewish_law" title="Self-sacrifice in Jewish law">self-sacrifice in Jewish law</a>. Because of this, some scholars believe Jesus' death was Jewish martyrdom.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jesus himself said he had come to fulfill the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> calls Jesus the "King of Martyrs" because, as a man, he refused to commit sin unto the point of shedding blood.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theology">Theology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_187.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_187.png/220px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_187.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_187.png/330px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_187.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_187.png/440px-Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_187.png 2x" data-file-width="1130" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Beheading_of_John_the_Baptist" title="Beheading of John the Baptist">Beheading of John the Baptist</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Schnorr_von_Karolsfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld">Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld</a>, 1860</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, one of the 2nd-century ecclesiastical writers wrote that "the blood of martyrs is the seed of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Church</a>", implying that a martyr's willing sacrifice of their lives leads to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">conversion of others</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Age of Martyrs also forced the church to confront <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theological</a> issues such as the proper response to those <a href="/wiki/Lapsi_(Christianity)" title="Lapsi (Christianity)">Christians who "lapsed"</a> and renounced the Christian faith to save their lives: were they to be allowed back into the Church? Some felt they should not, while others said they could. In the end, it was agreed to allow them in after a period of <a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">penance</a>. The re-admittance of the "lapsed" became a defining moment in the Church because it allowed the <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacrament</a> of <a href="/wiki/Repentance" title="Repentance">repentance</a> and readmission to the Church despite issues of <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>. This issue caused the <a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Novatianism" title="Novatianism">Novatianist</a> <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Martyrdom for the <a href="/wiki/Pistis" title="Pistis">faith</a> ... became a central feature in the Christian experience."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Notions of persecution by the 'world', ... run deep in the Christian tradition. For evangelicals who read the New Testament as an inerrant history of the primitive church, the understanding that to be a Christian is to be persecuted is obvious, if not inescapable."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "eschatological ideology"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> of martyrdom was based on an irony found in the <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a>: "to live outside of Christ is to die, and to die in Christ is to live."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haffernan_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haffernan-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Ad Martyras</i>, Tertullian writes that some Christians "eagerly desired it" (<i>et ultro appetita</i>) [i.e. martyrdom].<sup id="cite_ref-haffernan_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haffernan-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The martyr <a href="/wiki/Homilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Homilies">homilies</a> were written in ancient Greek by authors such as <a href="/wiki/Basil_of_Caesarea" title="Basil of Caesarea">Basil of Caesarea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa" title="Gregory of Nyssa">Gregory of Nyssa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asterius_of_Amasea" title="Asterius of Amasea">Asterius of Amasea</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hesychius_of_Jerusalem" title="Hesychius of Jerusalem">Hesychius of Jerusalem</a>. These homilies were part of the <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiographical</a> tradition of <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a> and martyrs.<sup id="cite_ref-leemans_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leemans-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This experience, and the associated <a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyrs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">apologists</a>, would have significant historical and <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">theological</a> consequences for the developing faith.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among other things, persecution sparked the devotion of the <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a>, facilitated the rapid growth and spread of Christianity, prompted defenses and explanations of Christianity (the <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">"apologies"</a>) and, in its aftermath, raised fundamental questions about the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Church</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Early_Church">The Early Church</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The Early Church"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_New_Testament" title="Persecution of Christians in the New Testament">Persecution of Christians in the New Testament</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a> is the first martyr reported in the New Testament, accused of blasphemy and stoned by the <a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Levitical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Levitical law">Levitical law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bdag_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bdag-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toward the end of the 1st century, the martyrdom of both <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a> is reported by <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a> in <a href="/wiki/1_Clement" class="mw-redirect" title="1 Clement">1 Clement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The martyrdom of Peter is also alluded to in various writings written between 70 and 130 AD, including in John 21:19; 1 Peter 5:1; and 2 Peter 1:12–15.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The martyrdom of Paul is also alluded to in 2 Timothy 4:6–7.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While not specifying his Christianity as involved in the cause of death, the Jewish historian <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> reports that James, whom he referred to as a brother of Jesus, was stoned by Jewish authorities under the charge of law breaking, which is similar to the Christian perception of Stephen's martyrdom as being a result of stoning for the penalty of law breaking.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, there is a report regarding the martyrdom of James son of Zebedee in Acts 12:1–2, and knowledge that both John and James, son of Zebedee, ended up martyred, appears to be reflected in Mark 10:39.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Judith_Perkins" title="Judith Perkins">Judith Perkins</a> has written that many ancient Christians believed that "to be a Christian was to suffer,"<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> partly inspired by the example of Jesus. The lives of the martyrs became a source of inspiration for some Christians, and their <a href="/wiki/Relics" class="mw-redirect" title="Relics">relics</a> were honored. Numerous crypts and chapels in the Roman catacombs bear witness to the early veneration for those champions of freedom of conscience. Special commemoration services, at which the holy Sacrifice were offered over their tombs gave rise to the time honoured custom of consecrating altars by enclosing in them the relics of martyrs.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassett_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassett-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Roman_Empire">The Roman Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martyrs_Martyrs_Maximus_and_Theodotus_of_Adrianopolis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Martyrs_Martyrs_Maximus_and_Theodotus_of_Adrianopolis.jpg/220px-Martyrs_Martyrs_Maximus_and_Theodotus_of_Adrianopolis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Martyrs_Martyrs_Maximus_and_Theodotus_of_Adrianopolis.jpg/330px-Martyrs_Martyrs_Maximus_and_Theodotus_of_Adrianopolis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Martyrs_Martyrs_Maximus_and_Theodotus_of_Adrianopolis.jpg/440px-Martyrs_Martyrs_Maximus_and_Theodotus_of_Adrianopolis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1133" /></a><figcaption>The martyrs Maximus and Theodotus of <a href="/wiki/Adrianopolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrianopolis">Adrianopolis</a>, c. 985</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_painting_of_martyred_saints,_Ananias,_Azarias,_and_Misael_from_the_town_of_Samalut_with_Saints_Damian_and_Cosmas._Stucco._6th_century_CE._From_Wadi_Sarga,_Egypt._British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Wall_painting_of_martyred_saints%2C_Ananias%2C_Azarias%2C_and_Misael_from_the_town_of_Samalut_with_Saints_Damian_and_Cosmas._Stucco._6th_century_CE._From_Wadi_Sarga%2C_Egypt._British_Museum.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Wall_painting_of_martyred_saints%2C_Ananias%2C_Azarias%2C_and_Misael_from_the_town_of_Samalut_with_Saints_Damian_and_Cosmas._Stucco._6th_century_CE._From_Wadi_Sarga%2C_Egypt._British_Museum.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Wall_painting_of_martyred_saints%2C_Ananias%2C_Azarias%2C_and_Misael_from_the_town_of_Samalut_with_Saints_Damian_and_Cosmas._Stucco._6th_century_CE._From_Wadi_Sarga%2C_Egypt._British_Museum.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4920" data-file-height="2785" /></a><figcaption>Wall painting of the martyred saints <a href="/wiki/Hananiah,_Azariah,_and_Mishael" class="mw-redirect" title="Hananiah, Azariah, and Mishael">Ananias, Azarias, and Misael</a> from the town of Samalut with Saints <a href="/wiki/Damian_and_Cosmas" class="mw-redirect" title="Damian and Cosmas">Damian and Cosmas</a>, martyred during the <a href="/wiki/Persecutions_of_Diocletian" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecutions of Diocletian">persecutions of Diocletian</a> in the late 3rd century AD. Stucco. 6th century AD. From Wadi Sarga, Egypt. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">In its first three centuries</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian church</a> endured periods of persecution at the hands of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> authorities. Christians were persecuted by local authorities on an intermittent and ad hoc basis. In addition, there were several periods of empire-wide persecution which were directed from the seat of government in Rome. </p><p>Christians were the targets of persecution because they refused to worship the <a href="/wiki/Roman_gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman gods">Roman gods</a> or to pay homage to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">emperor as divine</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, refusing to <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">sacrifice to the Emperor</a> or <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">the empire's gods</a> was tantamount to refusing to swear an <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_allegiance" title="Oath of allegiance">oath of allegiance</a> to one's country. However, some scholars, such as Morton Smith, point out that other sects, such as the Jews and Samaritans, also refused to worship other gods, but were not generally persecuted. Smith points out that the early Christians (in the 100's to the 200's) were accused of practicing magic and other crimes associated with magic, and that magic has been commonly neglected in discussions of the persecutions.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jacob Burkhardt writes that the reason for the persecution of Christians under Diocletian around 300 may have been that after a period of growth and expansion Christians sought to gain control of the imperial office.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cult of the saints was significant to the process of <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a>, but during the first centuries of the Church the celebrations venerating the saints took place in hiding.<sup id="cite_ref-leemans_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leemans-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> Michael Gaddis writes that "[t]he Christian experience of violence during the pagan persecutions shaped the ideologies and practices that drove further religious conflicts over the course of the fourth and fifth centuries".<sup id="cite_ref-gaddis_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gaddis-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Martyrdom was a formative experience and influenced how Christians justified or condemned the use of violence in later generations.<sup id="cite_ref-gaddis_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gaddis-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the collective memory of religious suffering found in early Christian works on the historical experience of persecution, religious suffering and martyrdom shaped Christian culture and identity.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Middle_Ages">The Middle Ages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_persecution_of_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim persecution of Christians">Muslim persecution of Christians</a></div> <p>Historians recognize that during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, the Christian populations living in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies</a> between the 7th and 10th centuries AD suffered <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">religious discrimination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">religious violence</a>, and martyrdom multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahner_2020_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahner_2020-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Runciman_1987_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1987-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/People_of_the_Book" title="People of the Book">People of the Book</a>, Christians under Muslim rule were subjected to <i><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a></i> status (along with <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnostics" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnostics">Gnostics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandeans">Mandeans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrians">Zoroastrians</a>), which was inferior to the status of Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-Runciman_1987_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1987-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stillman_1998_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christians and other religious minorities thus faced <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">religious discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a>, in that they were banned from <a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">proselytising</a> (for Christians, it was forbidden to <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">evangelize or spread Christianity</a>) in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death; they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs.<sup id="cite_ref-Stillman_1998_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under <i><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a></i>, non-Muslims were obligated to pay <i><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Kharaj" title="Kharaj">kharaj</a></i> taxes,<sup id="cite_ref-Runciman_1987_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1987-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stillman_1998_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yeor_2002_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yeor_2002-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> together with periodic heavy <a href="/wiki/Ransom" title="Ransom">ransom</a> levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed a significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships forced many Christians to convert to Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-Stillman_1998_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">sell them as slaves</a> to Muslim households where they <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion#Islam" title="Forced conversion">were forced to convert to Islam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stillman_1998_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Christian martyrs <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">were executed under the Islamic death penalty</a> for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">repudiation of the Islamic religion</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Christianity" title="Conversion to Christianity">reconversion to Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">blasphemy toward Muslim beliefs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahner_2020_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahner_2020-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Dives_and_Pauper" title="Dives and Pauper">Dives and Pauper</a></i>, a 15th-century Middle English moral treatise on the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a>, the figure Dives poses this question about the <a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_have_no_other_gods_before_me" title="Thou shalt have no other gods before me">First Commandment</a>: "Why are there no martyrs these days, as there used to be?" Pauper responds that the English were creating many new martyrs sparing "neither their own king nor their own bishops, no dignity, no rank, no status, no degree". Pauper's statement is based on historical events, including the murder of King <a href="/wiki/Richard_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard II">Richard II</a> and the executions of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Scrope_(bishop)" title="Richard Scrope (bishop)">Richard Scrope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_York" title="Archbishop of York">Archbishop of York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Piroyansky_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piroyansky-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dana Piroyansky uses the term "political martyrs" for men of "high estate", including kings and bishops, who were killed during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> during the course of the rebellions, civil wars, regime changes, and other political upheavals of the 14th and 15th centuries. Piroyansky notes that although these men were never formally <a href="/wiki/Canonized" class="mw-redirect" title="Canonized">canonized</a> as <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a>, they were venerated as miracle-working martyrs and their tombs were turned into shrines following their violent and untimely deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-Piroyansky_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piroyansky-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> J. C. Russell has written that the "cults of political saints" may have been a way of "showing resistance to the king" that would have been difficult to control or punish.<sup id="cite_ref-Piroyansky_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piroyansky-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Degrees_of_martyrdom">Degrees of martyrdom</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Degrees of martyrdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a> writers (such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cahill" title="Thomas Cahill">Thomas Cahill</a>) continue to use a system of degrees of martyrdom that was developed in early Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these degrees bestow the title of martyr on those who sacrifice large elements of their lives alongside those who sacrifice life itself. These degrees were mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a> in <i>Homilia in Evangelia</i>; in it he wrote of "three modes of martyrdom, designated by the colors, red, blue (or green), and white".<sup id="cite_ref-Driscoll_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Driscoll-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A believer was bestowed the title of red martyr due to either torture or violent death by religious persecution. The term "white martyrdom" was used by the Church Father <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>, "for those such as desert hermits who aspired to the condition of martyrdom through strict asceticism".<sup id="cite_ref-Driscoll_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Driscoll-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blue (or green) martyrdom "involves the denial of desires, as through fasting and penitent labors without necessarily implying a journey or complete withdrawal from life".<sup id="cite_ref-Driscoll_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Driscoll-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also along these lines are the terms "wet martyr" (a person who has shed blood or been executed for the faith) and "dry martyr" (a person who "had suffered every indignity and cruelty" but not shed blood, nor suffered execution).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christian_martyrs_today">Christian martyrs today</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Christian martyrs today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martyrerp_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Martyrerp_2.jpg/220px-Martyrerp_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Martyrerp_2.jpg/330px-Martyrerp_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Martyrerp_2.jpg/440px-Martyrerp_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1417" data-file-height="978" /></a><figcaption>An 1858 illustration from the French newspaper, <i>Le Monde Illustré</i>, of the torture and execution of a French missionary in China by <a href="/wiki/Slow_slicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Slow slicing">slow slicing</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Center for the Study of Global Christianity of Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary, an evangelical seminary based in Hamilton, Massachusetts, previously estimated that 100,000 Christians die annually for their faith, although the CSGC has now disavowed this estimate. Archbishop Silvano Maria Tomasi, permanent observer of the Holy See to the United Nations, later referred to this number in a radio address to the 23rd session of the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Rights Council">Human Rights Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The methodology used in arriving at the estimate of 100,000 has been widely criticized. The majority of the one million people the Center counted as Christians who died as martyrs between 2000 and 2010 died during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Civil War</a> in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the report did not take into consideration the political or ethnic differences which are accepted as the primary motive behind these killings. Todd Johnson, director of the CSGC, says his centre has abandoned this statistic. The Vatican reporter and author of <i>The Global War on Christians</i> <a href="/wiki/John_L._Allen_Jr." title="John L. Allen Jr.">John L. Allen Jr.</a> said: "I think it would be good to have reliable figures on this issue, but I don't think it ultimately matters in terms of the point of my book, which is to break through the narrative that tends to dominate discussion in the West – that Christians can't be persecuted because they belong to the world's most powerful church. The truth is two-thirds of the 2.3 billion Christians in the world today live... in dangerous neighbourhoods. They are often poor. They often belong to ethnic, linguistic, and cultural minorities. And they are often at risk."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_blood" title="Baptism of blood">Baptism of blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome" title="Catacombs of Rome">Catacombs of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_martyr" title="Great martyr">Great martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">List of Christian martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protomartyrs" title="List of protomartyrs">List of protomartyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Martyr" title="New Martyr">New Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_(title)#Virgin_martyrs" title="Virgin (title)">Virgin martyrs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMyers2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Myers, Edward P. (2019). "Martyr". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C.; Beck, Astrid B. (eds.). <i>Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible</i>. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 861. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4674-6047-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4674-6047-7"><bdi>978-1-4674-6047-7</bdi></a>. <q>The word originally referred to one who was a legal witness, but came to refer to one whose testimony for Jesus ends in death (i.e., martyrdom) ... Later use of the word implies only dying for one's faith in Christ.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Martyr&rft.btitle=Eerdmans+Dictionary+of+the+Bible&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pages=861&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-4674-6047-7&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Edward+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFink2015" class="citation magazine cs1">Fink, John F. (5 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archindy.org/criterion/local/2015/06-05/fink.html">"Early Church: The classic age of martyrs"</a>. <i>The Criterion</i>. Indianapolis: Archdiocese of Indianapolis. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0574-4350">0574-4350</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9174801">9174801</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Criterion&rft.atitle=Early+Church%3A+The+classic+age+of+martyrs&rft.date=2015-06-05&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9174801&rft.issn=0574-4350&rft.aulast=Fink&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archindy.org%2Fcriterion%2Flocal%2F2015%2F06-05%2Ffink.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODCC_M-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ODCC_M_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cross, F. L., ed. (2005). "Martyr". <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Martyr&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-martyr-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-martyr_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHassett1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hassett, Maurice M. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Palm in Christian Symbolism"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Palm_in_Christian_Symbolism">"Palm in Christian Symbolism" </a></span>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palm+in+Christian+Symbolism&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Hassett&rft.aufirst=Maurice+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKittelFriedrich2006" class="citation book cs1">Kittel, Gerhard; Friedrich, Gerhard (2006). Bromiley, Geoffrey William (ed.). <i>Theological Dictionary of the New Testament</i>. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2243-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2243-7"><bdi>978-0-8028-2243-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theological+Dictionary+of+the+New+Testament&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2243-7&rft.aulast=Kittel&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft.au=Friedrich%2C+Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hassett-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hassett_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hassett_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hassett_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hassett_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHassett,_Maurice2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hassett, Maurice (12 December 2014) [1910-10-01]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09736b.htm">"Martyr"</a>. <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 9. New York, NY: Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2017</span> – via Newadvent.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Martyr&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=2014-12-12&rft.au=Hassett%2C+Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F09736b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrend2000" class="citation book cs1">Frend, W. H. C. (2000). "Martyrdom and political oppression". In Esler, Philip (ed.). <i>The Early Christian World</i>. Vol. 2. p. 818.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Martyrdom+and+political+oppression&rft.btitle=The+Early+Christian+World&rft.pages=818&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Frend&rft.aufirst=W.+H.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowersock1995" class="citation book cs1">Bowersock, G. W. (1995). <i>Martyrdom and Rome</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Martyrdom+and+Rome&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Bowersock&rft.aufirst=G.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyarin1999" class="citation book cs1">Boyarin, Daniel (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JD_ep2riNtgC"><i>Dying for God</i></a>. Stanford University Press. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3704-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3704-3"><bdi>978-0-8047-3704-3</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dying+for+God&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-3704-3&rft.aulast=Boyarin&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJD_ep2riNtgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. W. van Henten, "Jewish Martyrdom and Jesus' Death" in Jörg Frey & Jens Schröter (eds.), <i>Deutungen des Todes Jesu im Neuen Testament</i> (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005) pp. 157–168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald W. Riddle, "The Martyr Motif in the Gospel According to Mark." The Journal of Religion, IV.4 (1924), pp. 397–410.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. E. Vines, M. E. Vines, "The 'Trial Scene' Chronotype in Mark and the Jewish Novel", in G. van Oyen and T. Shepherd (eds.), <i>The Trial and Death of Jesus: Essays on the Passion Narrative in Mark</i> (Leuven: Peeters, 2006), pp. 189–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.usccb.org/bible/matthew/5?17">USCCB Bible Matthew 5:17</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccdds/documents/rc_con_ccdds_doc_20020513_vers-direttorio_en.html">Directory on Popular Piety and the Liturgy, 237</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalisbury2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joyce_E._Salisbury" title="Joyce E. Salisbury">Salisbury, J. E.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kQZa9BeNWFYC&pg=PA1"><i>The Blood of Martyrs: Unintended consequences of ancient violence</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-94129-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-94129-6"><bdi>0-415-94129-6</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blood+of+Martyrs%3A+Unintended+consequences+of+ancient+violence&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-415-94129-6&rft.aulast=Salisbury&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkQZa9BeNWFYC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cross, F. L., ed. (2005). "Donatism". <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. New York City: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Donatism&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cross, F. L., ed. (2005). "Novatianism". <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. New York City: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Novatianism&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryant1993" class="citation journal cs1">Bryant, Joseph M. (June 1993). "The sect-church dynamic and Christian expansion in the Roman empire: Persecution, penitential discipline, and schism in sociological perspective". <i>The British Journal of Sociology</i>. <b>44</b> (2). Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The London School of Economics and Political Science: 303–339. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F591221">10.2307/591221</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/591221">591221</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=The+sect-church+dynamic+and+Christian+expansion+in+the+Roman+empire%3A+Persecution%2C+penitential+discipline%2C+and+schism+in+sociological+perspective&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=303-339&rft.date=1993-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F591221&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F591221%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bryant&rft.aufirst=Joseph+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1999" class="citation book cs1">Watson, Justin (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BhPAWSDLoNEC&pg=PP11"><i>The Christian Coalition: Dreams of restoration, demands for recognition</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312217822" title="Special:BookSources/9780312217822"><bdi>9780312217822</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christian+Coalition%3A+Dreams+of+restoration%2C+demands+for+recognition&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780312217822&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBhPAWSDLoNEC%26pg%3DPP11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esv.org/Philemon+1:21">Philemon 1:21–23</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esv.org/1+Corinthians+9:15">1 Corinthians 9:15</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Corinthians%206:9&version=nrsv">2 Corinthians 6:9</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esv.org/Colossians+2:20">Colossians 2:20</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-haffernan-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-haffernan_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-haffernan_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeffernanShelton2006" class="citation journal cs1">Heffernan, Thomas J.; Shelton, James E. (2006). "<i>Paradisus in carcere</i>: The vocabulary of imprisonment and the theology of martyrdom in the <i>Passio Sanctarum Perpetuae et Felicitas</i>". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Early_Christian_Studies" title="Journal of Early Christian Studies">Journal of Early Christian Studies</a></i>. <b>14</b> (2): 217–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fearl.2006.0035">10.1353/earl.2006.0035</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170412076">170412076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Early+Christian+Studies&rft.atitle=Paradisus+in+carcere%3A+The+vocabulary+of+imprisonment+and+the+theology+of+martyrdom+in+the+Passio+Sanctarum+Perpetuae+et+Felicitas&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=217-223&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fearl.2006.0035&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170412076%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Heffernan&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft.au=Shelton%2C+James+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-leemans-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-leemans_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-leemans_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeemans2003" class="citation book cs1">Leemans, Johan (2003). <i><span></span>'Let us die that we may live': Greek homilies on Christian martyrs from Asia Minor, Palestine and Syria, c. AD 350–c. 450 AD</i>. London, UK: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24042-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24042-0"><bdi>978-0-415-24042-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Let+us+die+that+we+may+live%27%3A+Greek+homilies+on+Christian+martyrs+from+Asia+Minor%2C+Palestine+and+Syria%2C+c.+AD+350%E2%80%93c.+450+AD&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-24042-0&rft.aulast=Leemans&rft.aufirst=Johan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatourette2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Latourette, Kenneth Scott (2000). "The tradition of martyrdom has entered deep into the Christian consciousness". <i>A History of Christianity</i>. Vol. I: Beginnings to 1500. Prince Press. p. 81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+tradition+of+martyrdom+has+entered+deep+into+the+Christian+consciousness&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Prince+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Latourette&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBobichon" class="citation report cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bobichon, Philippe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7280302">La plus ancienne littérature martyriale</a> [The Very Ancient Martyr Writing] (Report) (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=La+plus+ancienne+litt%C3%A9rature+martyriale&rft.aulast=Bobichon&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7280302&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bdag-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bdag_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDankerArndtBauer2000" class="citation book cs1">Danker, Frederick W.; Arndt, William; Bauer, Walter (2000). <i>A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature</i>. 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Oxford. p. 173.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peter%2C+Paul%2C+and+Mary+Magdalene%3A+The+followers+of+Jesus+in+history+and+legend&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauckham1992" class="citation book cs1">Bauckham, Richard (1992). <i>The Martyrdom of Peter in Early Christian Literature</i>. De Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Martyrdom+of+Peter+in+Early+Christian+Literature&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Bauckham&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTowner2006" class="citation book cs1">Towner, Phillip (2006). <i>The Letters to Timothy and Titus</i>. Eerdmans. p. 611.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Letters+to+Timothy+and+Titus&rft.pages=611&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Towner&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPainter2014" class="citation book cs1">Painter, John (2014). <i>Just James: The brother of Jesus in history and tradition</i>. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 128–130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Just+James%3A+The+brother+of+Jesus+in+history+and+tradition&rft.pages=128-130&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Painter&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwick1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Chadwick, Henry (20 July 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-John-the-Apostle">"St. John the apostle"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> (online ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=St.+John+the+apostle&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=online&rft.date=1998-07-20&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FSaint-John-the-Apostle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelley2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kelley, Nicole (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100105042104/https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/23493464/Philosophy-as-Training-for-Death-Reading-the-Ancient-Christian-Martyr-Acts-as-Spiritual-Exercises">"Philosophy as training for death: Reading the ancient Christian martyr acts as spiritual exercises"</a>. <i>Church History</i>. <b>75</b> (4): 723–747. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009640700111813">10.1017/S0009640700111813</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-6407">0009-6407</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/23493464/Philosophy-as-Training-for-Death-Reading-the-Ancient-Christian-Martyr-Acts-as-Spiritual-Exercises">the original</a> on 5 January 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Church+History&rft.atitle=Philosophy+as+training+for+death%3A+Reading+the+ancient+Christian+martyr+acts+as+spiritual+exercises&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=723-747&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0009640700111813&rft.issn=0009-6407&rft.aulast=Kelley&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbps%2Fadditionalcontent%2F18%2F23493464%2FPhilosophy-as-Training-for-Death-Reading-the-Ancient-Christian-Martyr-Acts-as-Spiritual-Exercises&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morton Smith, Clement of Alexandria and a Secret Gospel of Mark, Harvard University Press 1973, p. 234 </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burckhardt, The Age of Constantine the Great, the University of California Press, 1983 translated by Moses Hadas, p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gaddis-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gaddis_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gaddis_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaddis2005" class="citation book cs1">Gaddis, Michael (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JGEibDA8el4C"><i>There is no crime for those who have Christ: Religious violence in the Christian Roman empire</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520930902" title="Special:BookSources/9780520930902"><bdi>9780520930902</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=There+is+no+crime+for+those+who+have+Christ%3A+Religious+violence+in+the+Christian+Roman+empire&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780520930902&rft.aulast=Gaddis&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJGEibDA8el4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastelli,_Elizabeth_Anne2004" class="citation book cs1">Castelli, Elizabeth Anne (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SYD4I-_f-uQC&pg=PR9"><i>Martyrdom and Memory: Early Christian culture making</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12986-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12986-2"><bdi>978-0-231-12986-2</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Martyrdom+and+Memory%3A+Early+Christian+culture+making&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-231-12986-2&rft.au=Castelli%2C+Elizabeth+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSYD4I-_f-uQC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sahner_2020-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sahner_2020_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sahner_2020_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahner2020" class="citation book cs1">Sahner, Christian C. (2020) [2018]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TZqzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">"Introduction: Christian martyrs under Islam"</a>. <i>Christian Martyrs under Islam: Religious violence and the making of the Muslim world</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woodstock,_Oxfordshire" title="Woodstock, Oxfordshire">Woodstock, Oxfordshire</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. pp. 1–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17910-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17910-0"><bdi>978-0-691-17910-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2017956010">2017956010</a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Christian+martyrs+under+Islam&rft.btitle=Christian+Martyrs+under+Islam%3A+Religious+violence+and+the+making+of+the+Muslim+world&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey+and+Woodstock%2C+Oxfordshire&rft.pages=1-28&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2017956010&rft.isbn=978-0-691-17910-0&rft.aulast=Sahner&rft.aufirst=Christian+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTZqzDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Runciman_1987-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1987_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1987_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1987_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRunciman1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Runciman" title="Steven Runciman">Runciman, Steven</a> (1987) [1951]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uDj9sNezWzEC&pg=PA20">"The reign of antichrist"</a>. <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_the_Crusades" title="A History of the Crusades"><i>A History of the Crusades</i></a>. 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYe'or2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bat_Ye%27or" title="Bat Ye'or">Ye'or, Bat</a> (2002) [2001]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n4kTdYgwQPkC&pg=PA33">"The orient on the eve of Islam: Political and economic aspects of Dhimmitude"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Dhimmitude:_Where_Civilizations_Collide" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide">Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Madison,_New_Jersey" title="Madison, New Jersey">Madison, New Jersey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vancouver,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Vancouver, British Columbia">Vancouver, British Columbia</a>: <a href="/wiki/Fairleigh_Dickinson_University_Press" title="Fairleigh Dickinson University Press">Fairleigh Dickinson University Press</a>. pp. 33–80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61147-235-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61147-235-6"><bdi>978-1-61147-235-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001040101">2001040101</a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+orient+on+the+eve+of+Islam%3A+Political+and+economic+aspects+of+Dhimmitude&rft.btitle=Islam+and+Dhimmitude%3A+Where+Civilizations+Collide&rft.place=Madison%2C+New+Jersey+and+Vancouver%2C+British+Columbia&rft.pages=33-80&rft.pub=Fairleigh+Dickinson+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001040101&rft.isbn=978-1-61147-235-6&rft.aulast=Ye%27or&rft.aufirst=Bat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn4kTdYgwQPkC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Piroyansky-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Piroyansky_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Piroyansky_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Piroyansky_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiroyansky2008" class="citation book cs1">Piroyansky, Danna (2008). <i>Martyrs in the Making: Political martyrdom in late medieval England</i>. 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Cincinnati: Franciscan Media.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Red%2C+White%2C+and+Green+Martyrs%3F&rft.place=Cincinnati&rft.pub=Franciscan+Media&rft.date=2020-05-23&rft.aulast=McCloskey&rft.aufirst=Pat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.franciscanmedia.org%2Fask-a-franciscan%2Fred-white-and-green-martyrs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Driscoll-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Driscoll_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Driscoll_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Driscoll_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDriscoll,_MichaelJoncas,_J._Michael2011" class="citation book cs1">Driscoll, Michael; Joncas, J. 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Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Paul+II%27s+Book+of+Saints&rft.place=Huntington%2C+IN&rft.pub=Our+Sunday+Visitor+Publishing+Division&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Bunson%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Bunson%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Bunson%2C+Stephen&rft.au=John+Paul+II%2C+Pope&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2013" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Todd M. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Vatican+to+UN%3A+100+thousand+Christians+killed+for+the+faith+each+year&rft.date=2013-05-28&rft.aulast=Tomasi&rft.aufirst=Silvano+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archivioradiovaticana.va%2Fstorico%2F2013%2F05%2F28%2Fvatican_to_un_100_thousand_christians_killed_for_the_faith_each_year%2Fen1-696232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24864587">"Are there really 100,000 new Christian martyrs every year?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i>. 12 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Are+there+really+100%2C000+new+Christian+martyrs+every+year%3F&rft.date=2013-11-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-24864587&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYork2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tripp_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripp York">York, Tripp</a> (2007). <i>The Purple Crown: The politics of martyrdom</i>. Herald Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8361-9393-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8361-9393-0"><bdi>978-0-8361-9393-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Purple+Crown%3A+The+politics+of+martyrdom&rft.pub=Herald+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8361-9393-0&rft.aulast=York&rft.aufirst=Tripp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitfield2009" class="citation book cs1">Whitfield, Joshua J. (2009). <i>Pilgrim Holiness: Martyrdom as descriptive witness</i>. Cascade. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60608-175-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60608-175-4"><bdi>978-1-60608-175-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pilgrim+Holiness%3A+Martyrdom+as+descriptive+witness&rft.pub=Cascade&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-60608-175-4&rft.aulast=Whitfield&rft.aufirst=Joshua+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade,_Rick1999" class="citation web cs1">Wade, Rick (27 May 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://probe.org/persecution-in-the-early-church/">"Persecution in the early church"</a>. <i>Probe.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041009201949/http://www.probe.org/docs/persecution.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2004</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Probe.org&rft.atitle=Persecution+in+the+early+church&rft.date=1999-05-27&rft.au=Wade%2C+Rick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprobe.org%2Fpersecution-in-the-early-church%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoxe1563" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Foxe" title="John Foxe">Foxe, John</a> (1563). Forbush, William Byron (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs" title="Foxe's Book of Martyrs"><i>Foxe's Book of Martyrs</i></a>. London, UK: <a href="/wiki/John_Day_(printer)" title="John Day (printer)">John Day</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751705715">751705715</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foxe%27s+Book+of+Martyrs&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=John+Day&rft.date=1563&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751705715&rft.aulast=Foxe&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeane2009" class="citation book cs1">Keane, Paul (2009). <i>The Martyr's Crown</i>. Family Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1907380006" title="Special:BookSources/978-1907380006"><bdi>978-1907380006</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Martyr%27s+Crown&rft.pub=Family+Publications&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1907380006&rft.aulast=Keane&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Jesus Freaks: D.C. Talk and the voice of the martyrs — stories of those who stood for Jesus</i>. D.C. Talk (organization). Bethany House Publishers. 2014. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0764212024" title="Special:BookSources/978-0764212024"><bdi>978-0764212024</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jesus+Freaks%3A+D.C.+Talk+and+the+voice+of+the+martyrs+%E2%80%94+stories+of+those+who+stood+for+Jesus&rft.pub=Bethany+House+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0764212024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_martyr&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/maryr" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:maryr">maryr</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Christian_martyrs" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Christian martyrs">Christian martyrs</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VwvByTL55jIC"><i>Holy Women of the Syrian Orient</i></a>. Transformation of the Classical Heritage. Vol. 13. Translated by Brock, Sebastian P.; Harvey, Susan Ashbrook (updated ed.). University of California Press. 25 June 1987. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520920958" title="Special:BookSources/9780520920958"><bdi>9780520920958</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holy+Women+of+the+Syrian+Orient&rft.series=Transformation+of+the+Classical+Heritage&rft.edition=updated&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1987-06-25&rft.isbn=9780520920958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVwvByTL55jIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler1984" class="citation book cs1">Butler, Alban (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sacred-texts.com/chr/lots/"><i>Lives of the Saints</i></a> – via sacred-texts.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Saints&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Alban&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsacred-texts.com%2Fchr%2Flots%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p15324coll10/id/1245"><i>Saints and Their Legends: A selection of saints from Michael the Archangel to the fifteenth century</i></a>. Dept. of Medieval Art and the Cloisters. MMA Exhibitions / Medieval Tapestry Hall. Gómez-Moreno, Carmen (introduction). New York, NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art. March 1974. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/893697509">893697509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saints+and+Their+Legends%3A+A+selection+of+saints+from+Michael+the+Archangel+to+the+fifteenth+century&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.series=MMA+Exhibitions+%2F+Medieval+Tapestry+Hall&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1974-03&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F893697509&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibmma.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fdigital%2Fcollection%2Fp15324coll10%2Fid%2F1245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHassett1910" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hassett, Maurice M. (1910). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Martyr"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Martyr">"Martyr" </a></span>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Martyr&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Hassett&rft.aufirst=Maurice+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+martyr" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Catholic_saints" title="Template:Catholic saints"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Catholic_saints" title="Template talk:Catholic saints"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic_saints" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic saints"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Saints_of_the_Catholic_Church" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_saints" title="List of Catholic saints">Saints of the Catholic Church</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><div><a href="/wiki/Dicastery_for_the_Causes_of_Saints" title="Dicastery for the Causes of Saints">Dicastery for the Causes of Saints</a><br />Stages of <a href="/wiki/Canonization" title="Canonization">canonization</a>: <a href="/wiki/Servant_of_God#Catholic_Church" title="Servant of God">Servant of God</a>   →   <a href="/wiki/The_Venerable#Christianity" title="The Venerable">Venerable</a>   →   <a href="/wiki/Beatification" title="Beatification">Blessed</a>   →   <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saint</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_Mary_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church">Virgin Mary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Mother of God (Theotokos)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Immaculate Conception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_virginity_of_Mary" title="Perpetual virginity of Mary">Perpetual virginity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Assumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_apparition" title="Marian apparition">Marian apparition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Titles of Mary">Titles of Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Joseph" title="Saint Joseph">Joseph (husband)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_the_Apostle" title="Andrew the Apostle">Andrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barnabas" title="Barnabas">Barnabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_the_Apostle" title="Bartholomew the Apostle">Bartholomew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James,_son_of_Alphaeus" title="James, son of Alphaeus">James of Alphaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_the_Great" title="James the Great">James the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jude_the_Apostle" title="Jude the Apostle">Jude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_the_Apostle" title="Matthew the Apostle">Matthew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_the_Apostle" title="Matthias the Apostle">Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Apostle" title="Philip the Apostle">Philip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_the_Zealot" title="Simon the Zealot">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_the_Apostle" title="Thomas the Apostle">Thomas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archangel" title="Archangel">Archangels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_(archangel)" title="Michael (archangel)">Michael</a>  <a href="/wiki/Saint_Michael_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Saint Michael in the Catholic Church">in the Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_(archangel)" title="Raphael (archangel)">Raphael</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Confessor_of_the_Faith" title="Confessor of the Faith">Confessors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolius_of_Laodicea" title="Anatolius of Laodicea">Anatolius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_of_Kiev" title="Anthony of Kiev">Anthony of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius the Confessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chariton_the_Confessor" title="Chariton the Confessor">Chariton the Confessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Borgia" title="Francis Borgia">Francis Borgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Homobonus" title="Saint Homobonus">Homobonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazarus_Zographos" title="Lazarus Zographos">Lazarus Zographos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Bertrand_(saint)" title="Louis Bertrand (saint)">Louis Bertrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_the_Confessor" title="Maximus the Confessor">Maximus the Confessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_of_Synnada" title="Michael of Synnada">Michael of Synnada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paphnutius_of_Thebes" title="Paphnutius of Thebes">Paphnutius the Confessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Constantinople" title="Paul I of Constantinople">Paul I of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Claver" title="Peter Claver">Peter Claver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salonius" title="Salonius">Salonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergius_of_Radonezh" title="Sergius of Radonezh">Sergius of Radonezh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes the Confessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padre_Pio" title="Padre Pio">Pio of Pietrelcina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Disciple_(Christianity)" title="Disciple (Christianity)">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollos" title="Apollos">Apollos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Bethany" title="Mary of Bethany">Mary of Bethany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Magdalene" title="Mary Magdalene">Mary Magdalene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_and_Aquila" title="Priscilla and Aquila">Priscilla and Aquila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silas" title="Silas">Silvanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Timothy" title="Saint Timothy">Timothy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Titus" title="Saint Titus">Titus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventy_disciples" title="Seventy disciples">Seventy disciples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church" title="Doctor of the Church">Doctors of the Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_of_Caesarea" title="Basil of Caesarea">Basil of Caesarea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nazianzus" title="Gregory of Nazianzus">Gregory of Nazianzus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Jerusalem" title="Cyril of Jerusalem">Cyril of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede the Venerable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephrem_the_Syrian" title="Ephrem the Syrian">Ephrem the Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Chrysologus" title="Peter Chrysologus">Peter Chrysologus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_I" title="Pope Leo I">Leo the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Damian" title="Peter Damian">Peter Damian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers" title="Hilary of Poitiers">Hilary of Poitiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonsus_Liguori" title="Alphonsus Liguori">Alphonsus Liguori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_de_Sales" title="Francis de Sales">Francis de Sales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Canisius" title="Peter Canisius">Peter Canisius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_the_Cross" title="John of the Cross">John of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Robert Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_of_Padua" title="Anthony of Padua">Anthony of Padua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_of_Brindisi" title="Lawrence of Brindisi">Lawrence of Brindisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_of_Lisieux" title="Thérèse of Lisieux">Thérèse of Lisieux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_%C3%81vila" title="John of Ávila">John of Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard of Bingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Narek" title="Gregory of Narek">Gregory of Narek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Four_Evangelists" title="Four Evangelists">Evangelists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_the_Apostle" title="Matthew the Apostle">Matthew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_the_Evangelist" title="Mark the Evangelist">Mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke_the_Evangelist" title="Luke the Evangelist">Luke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Evangelist" title="John the Evangelist">John</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church<br />Fathers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_I_of_Alexandria" title="Pope Alexander I of Alexandria">Alexander of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Jerusalem" title="Alexander of Jerusalem">Alexander of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose of Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolius_of_Laodicea" title="Anatolius of Laodicea">Anatolius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarius_of_Arles" title="Caesarius of Arles">Caesarius of Arles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caius_(presbyter)" title="Caius (presbyter)">Caius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Fathers" title="Cappadocian Fathers">Cappadocian Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Cyprian of Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Jerusalem" title="Cyril of Jerusalem">Cyril of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Damasus_I" title="Pope Damasus I">Damasus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_Fathers" title="Desert Fathers">Desert Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_Mothers" title="Desert Mothers">Desert Mothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Dionysius_of_Alexandria" title="Pope Dionysius of Alexandria">Dionysius of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Corinth" title="Dionysius of Corinth">Dionysius of Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Dionysius" title="Pope Dionysius">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephrem_the_Syrian" title="Ephrem the Syrian">Ephrem the Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphanius_of_Salamis" title="Epiphanius of Salamis">Epiphanius of Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulgentius_of_Ruspe" title="Fulgentius of Ruspe">Fulgentius of Ruspe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nazianzus" title="Gregory of Nazianzus">Gregory of Nazianzus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa" title="Gregory of Nyssa">Gregory of Nyssa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers" title="Hilary of Poitiers">Hilary of Poitiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome" title="Hippolytus of Rome">Hippolytus of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus of Lyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome of Stridonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_the_Confessor" title="Maximus the Confessor">Maximus the Confessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melito_of_Sardis" title="Melito of Sardis">Melito of Sardis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadratus_of_Athens" title="Quadratus of Athens">Quadratus of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papias_of_Hierapolis" title="Papias of Hierapolis">Papias of Hierapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Chrysologus" title="Peter Chrysologus">Peter Chrysologus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch" title="Theophilus of Antioch">Theophilus of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorinus_of_Pettau" title="Victorinus of Pettau">Victorinus of Pettau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_of_L%C3%A9rins" title="Vincent of Lérins">Vincent of Lérins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Zephyrinus" title="Pope Zephyrinus">Zephyrinus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Martyrs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abda_and_Abdisho" title="Abda and Abdisho">Abda and Abdisho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_and_Gleb" title="Boris and Gleb">Boris and Gleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Foucauld" title="Charles de Foucauld">Charles de Foucauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Martyrs" title="Canadian Martyrs">Canadian Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthusian_Martyrs" title="Carthusian Martyrs">Carthusian Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Martyrs_of_Tlaxcala" title="Child Martyrs of Tlaxcala">Child Martyrs of Tlaxcala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christina_of_Persia" title="Christina of Persia">Christina of Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devasahayam_Pillai" title="Devasahayam Pillai">Devasahayam Pillai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penitent_thief" title="Penitent thief">Dismas the Good Thief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_Martyrs_of_England_and_Wales" title="Forty Martyrs of England and Wales">Forty Martyrs of England and Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Crowned_Martyrs" title="Four Crowned Martyrs">Four Crowned Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Csan%C3%A1d" title="Gerard of Csanád">Gerard of Csanád</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_martyr" title="Great martyr">Great Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Innocents" title="Massacre of the Innocents">The Holy Innocents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Catholic_Martyrs" title="Irish Catholic Martyrs">Irish Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Fisher" title="John Fisher">John Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Martyrs" title="Korean Martyrs">Korean Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Ruiz" title="Lorenzo Ruiz">Lorenzo Ruiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck_martyrs" title="Lübeck martyrs">Martyrs of Lübeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Versiglia" title="Luigi Versiglia">Luigi Versiglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrology" title="Martyrology">Martyrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Albania" title="Martyrs of Albania">Martyrs of Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19_martyrs_of_Algeria" title="19 martyrs of Algeria">Martyrs of Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Cajonos" title="Martyrs of Cajonos">Martyrs of Cajonos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blessed_Martyrs_of_Drina" title="Blessed Martyrs of Drina">Martyrs of Drina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyr_Saints_of_China" title="Martyr Saints of China">Martyrs of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Gorkum" title="Martyrs of Gorkum">Martyrs of Gorkum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Japan" title="Martyrs of Japan">Martyrs of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_kidnapping_and_beheading_of_Copts_in_Libya" title="2015 kidnapping and beheading of Copts in Libya">21 Martyrs of Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_La_Rioja" title="Martyrs of La Rioja">Martyrs of La Rioja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Damascus" title="Martyrs of Damascus">Martyrs of Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Laos" title="Martyrs of Laos">Martyrs of Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Natal" title="Martyrs of Natal">Martyrs of Natal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Otranto" title="Martyrs of Otranto">Martyrs of Otranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Prague" title="Martyrs of Prague">Martyrs of Prague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadok_and_48_Dominican_martyrs_from_Sandomierz" title="Sadok and 48 Dominican martyrs from Sandomierz">Martyrs of Sandomierz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War">Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Zenta" title="Martyrs of Zenta">Martyrs of Zenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Kolbe" title="Maximilian Kolbe">Maximilian Kolbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93scar_Romero" title="Óscar Romero">Óscar Romero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Calungsod" title="Pedro Calungsod">Pedro Calungsod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetua_and_Felicity" title="Perpetua and Felicity">Perpetua and Felicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Chanel" title="Peter Chanel">Peter Chanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Parenzo" title="Pietro Parenzo">Pietro Parenzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philomena" title="Philomena">Philomena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saints_of_the_Cristero_War" title="Saints of the Cristero War">Saints of the Cristero War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Teresa Benedicta of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Brandsma" title="Titus Brandsma">Titus Brandsma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomasian_Martyrs" title="Thomasian Martyrs">17 Thomasian Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Becket" title="Thomas Becket">Thomas Becket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Martyrs_of_Chimbote" title="Three Martyrs of Chimbote">Three Martyrs of Chimbote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulma_family" title="Ulma family">Ulma Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda_Martyrs" title="Uganda Martyrs">Uganda Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Martyrs" title="Vietnamese Martyrs">Vietnamese Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Valentine" title="Saint Valentine">Valentine of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_and_Corona" title="Victor and Corona">Victor and Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanitas_and_Lazarus_of_Persia" title="Zanitas and Lazarus of Persia">Zanitas and Lazarus of Persia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_missions" title="Catholic missions">Missionaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury" title="Augustine of Canterbury">Augustine of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Boniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Damien" title="Father Damien">Damien of Molokai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evermode_of_Ratzeburg" title="Evermode of Ratzeburg">Evermode of Ratzeburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Laval" title="François de Laval">François de Laval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Illuminator" title="Gregory the Illuminator">Gregory the Illuminator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun%C3%ADpero_Serra" title="Junípero Serra">Junípero Serra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Nino" title="Saint Nino">Nino of Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">Patrick of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Remigius" title="Saint Remigius">Remigius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">Patriarchs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cain_and_Abel" title="Cain and Abel">Abel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_(Genesis)" title="Joseph (Genesis)">Joseph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Joseph" title="Saint Joseph">Joseph (father of Jesus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Matriarchs_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matriarchs (Bible)">Matriarchs</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Popes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Adeodatus_I" title="Pope Adeodatus I">Adeodatus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Adeodatus_II" title="Pope Adeodatus II">Adeodatus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Adrian_III" title="Pope Adrian III">Adrian III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Agapetus_I" title="Pope Agapetus I">Agapetus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Agatho" title="Pope Agatho">Agatho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_I" title="Pope Alexander I">Alexander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Anacletus" title="Pope Anacletus">Anacletus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Anastasius_I" title="Pope Anastasius I">Anastasius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Anicetus" title="Pope Anicetus">Anicetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Anterus" title="Pope Anterus">Anterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_II" title="Pope Benedict II">Benedict II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_I" title="Pope Boniface I">Boniface I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_IV" title="Pope Boniface IV">Boniface IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Caius" title="Pope Caius">Caius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Callixtus_I" title="Pope Callixtus I">Callixtus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Celestine_I" title="Pope Celestine I">Celestine I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Celestine_V" title="Pope Celestine V">Celestine V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Cornelius" title="Pope Cornelius">Cornelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Damasus_I" title="Pope Damasus I">Damasus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Dionysius" title="Pope Dionysius">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Eleutherius" title="Pope Eleutherius">Eleuterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Eugene_I" title="Pope Eugene I">Eugene I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Eusebius" title="Pope Eusebius">Eusebius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Eutychian" title="Pope Eutychian">Eutychian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Evaristus" title="Pope Evaristus">Evaristus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Fabian" title="Pope Fabian">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Felix_I" title="Pope Felix I">Felix I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Felix_III" title="Pope Felix III">Felix III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Felix_IV" title="Pope Felix IV">Felix IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_II" title="Pope Gregory II">Gregory II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_III" title="Pope Gregory III">Gregory III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Gregory VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Hilarius" title="Pope Hilarius">Hilarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Hormisdas" title="Pope Hormisdas">Hormisdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Hyginus" title="Pope Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_I" title="Pope Innocent I">Innocent I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_I" title="Pope John I">John I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">John XXIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Julius_I" title="Pope Julius I">Julius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_I" title="Pope Leo I">Leo I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_II" title="Pope Leo II">Leo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Leo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_IV" title="Pope Leo IV">Leo IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_IX" title="Pope Leo IX">Leo IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Linus" title="Pope Linus">Linus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Lucius_I" title="Pope Lucius I">Lucius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Marcellinus" title="Pope Marcellinus">Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Marcellus_I" title="Pope Marcellus I">Marcellus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Mark" title="Pope Mark">Mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Martin_I" title="Pope Martin I">Martin I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Miltiades" title="Pope Miltiades">Miltiades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_I" title="Pope Nicholas I">Nicholas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Paschal_I" title="Pope Paschal I">Paschal I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_I" title="Pope Paul I">Paul I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI" title="Pope Paul VI">Paul VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_I" title="Pope Pius I">Pius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_V" title="Pope Pius V">Pius V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pius X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pontian" title="Pope Pontian">Pontian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sergius_I" title="Pope Sergius I">Sergius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Silverius" title="Pope Silverius">Silverius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Simplicius" title="Pope Simplicius">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Siricius" title="Pope Siricius">Siricius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_I" title="Pope Sixtus I">Sixtus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_II" title="Pope Sixtus II">Sixtus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_III" title="Pope Sixtus III">Sixtus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Soter" title="Pope Soter">Soter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Stephen_I" title="Pope Stephen I">Stephen I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Stephen_IV" title="Pope Stephen IV">Stephen IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_I" title="Pope Sylvester I">Sylvester I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Symmachus" title="Pope Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Telesphorus" title="Pope Telesphorus">Telesphorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_I" title="Pope Urban I">Urban I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Victor_I" title="Pope Victor I">Victor I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Vitalian" title="Pope Vitalian">Vitalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Zachary" title="Pope Zachary">Zachary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Zephyrinus" title="Pope Zephyrinus">Zephyrinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Zosimus" title="Pope Zosimus">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agabus" title="Agabus">Agabus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_(prophet)" title="Amos (prophet)">Amos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_the_Prophetess" title="Anna the Prophetess">Anna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_ben_Neriah" title="Baruch ben Neriah">Baruch ben Neriah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah" title="Elijah">Elijah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezekiel" title="Ezekiel">Ezekiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habakkuk" title="Habakkuk">Habakkuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haggai" title="Haggai">Haggai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea" title="Hosea">Hosea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah" title="Isaiah">Isaiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah" title="Jeremiah">Jeremiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_(biblical_figure)" title="Job (biblical figure)">Job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_(prophet)" title="Joel (prophet)">Joel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonah" title="Jonah">Jonah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judas_Barsabbas" title="Judas Barsabbas">Judas Barsabbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malachi" title="Malachi">Malachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melchizedek" title="Melchizedek">Melchizedek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micah_(prophet)" title="Micah (prophet)">Micah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahum" title="Nahum">Nahum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obadiah" title="Obadiah">Obadiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel" title="Samuel">Samuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman_with_seven_sons" title="Woman with seven sons">Seven Maccabees and their mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simeon_(Gospel_of_Luke)" title="Simeon (Gospel of Luke)">Simeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zechariah_(Hebrew_prophet)" title="Zechariah (Hebrew prophet)">Zechariah (prophet)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zechariah_(New_Testament_figure)" title="Zechariah (New Testament figure)">Zechariah (NT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zephaniah" title="Zephaniah">Zephaniah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Virgin_(title)" title="Virgin (title)">Virgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agatha_of_Sicily" title="Agatha of Sicily">Agatha of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_of_Rome" title="Agnes of Rome">Agnes of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_of_the_Cross" title="Angela of the Cross">Angela of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelthryth" title="Æthelthryth">Æthelthryth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernadette_Soubirous" title="Bernadette Soubirous">Bernadette Soubirous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Bologna" title="Catherine of Bologna">Catherine of Bologna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigid_of_Kildare" title="Brigid of Kildare">Brigid of Kildare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Labour%C3%A9" title="Catherine Labouré">Catherine Labouré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Cecilia" title="Saint Cecilia">Cecilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_of_Assisi" title="Clare of Assisi">Clare of Assisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulalia_of_M%C3%A9rida" title="Eulalia of Mérida">Eulalia of Mérida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemia" title="Euphemia">Euphemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faustina_Kowalska" title="Faustina Kowalska">Faustina Kowalska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faustina_and_Liberata_of_Como" title="Faustina and Liberata of Como">Faustina and Liberata of Como</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genevieve" title="Genevieve">Genevieve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiltrude_of_Liessies" title="Hiltrude of Liessies">Hiltrude of Liessies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kateri_Tekakwitha" title="Kateri Tekakwitha">Kateri Tekakwitha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucy" title="Saint Lucy">Lucy of Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goretti" title="Maria Goretti">Maria Goretti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_de_las_Maravillas_de_Jes%C3%BAs" title="María de las Maravillas de Jesús">María de las Maravillas de Jesús</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcisa_de_Jes%C3%BAs" title="Narcisa de Jesús">Narcisa de Jesús</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_of_Naples" title="Patricia of Naples">Patricia of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Rosalia" title="Saint Rosalia">Rosalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_of_Lima" title="Rose of Lima">Rose of Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_the_Andes" title="Teresa of the Andes">Teresa of the Andes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Teresa of Calcutta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trasilla_and_Emiliana" title="Trasilla and Emiliana">Trasilla and Emiliana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaldesca_Taccini" title="Ubaldesca Taccini">Ubaldesca Taccini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Bakhita" title="Josephine Bakhita">Josephine Bakhita</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_saints" title="Calendar of saints">Calendar of saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Marshals" title="Four Holy Marshals">Four Holy Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Holy_Helpers" title="Fourteen Holy Helpers">Fourteen Holy Helpers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyr_of_charity" title="Martyr of charity">Martyr of charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_saint" title="Military saint">Military saints</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athleta_Christi" title="Athleta Christi">Athleta Christi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miles_Christianus" title="Miles Christianus">Miles Christianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Churches_Militant,_Penitent,_and_Triumphant" title="Churches Militant, Penitent, and Triumphant">Church Militant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Champions_of_Christendom" title="Seven Champions of Christendom">Seven Champions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtuous_pagan" title="Virtuous pagan">Virtuous pagan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" 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