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class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sound_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Sound changes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proto-Central-Semitic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Central-Semitic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1.1 Proto-Central-Semitic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Central-Semitic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_Canaanite_shift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_Canaanite_shift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1.2 Potential Canaanite shift </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_Canaanite_shift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proto-Hebrew" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Hebrew"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1.3 Proto-Hebrew </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_final_unstressed_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_final_unstressed_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1.4 Loss of final unstressed vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_final_unstressed_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Short_vowel_lengthening_(esp._pretonic),_lowering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Short_vowel_lengthening_(esp._pretonic),_lowering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1.5 Short vowel lengthening (esp. pretonic), lowering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Short_vowel_lengthening_(esp._pretonic),_lowering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduction_of_short_open_stressed_syllables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduction_of_short_open_stressed_syllables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1.6 Reduction of short open stressed syllables </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduction_of_short_open_stressed_syllables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-stress_reduction_of_short_vowel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-stress_reduction_of_short_vowel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1.7 Pre-stress reduction of short vowel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-stress_reduction_of_short_vowel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1.8 Later developments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Stress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns_and_adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns_and_adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Nouns and adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns_and_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Word order </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tense_and_aspect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tense_and_aspect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Tense and aspect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tense_and_aspect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sample text </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Biblical Hebrew</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" > 40 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="عبرية توراتية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عبرية توراتية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreu_biblico" title="Hebreu biblico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Hebreu biblico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="توراتی عیبری دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="توراتی عیبری دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8ng-keng_Hi-pek-l%C3%A2i-g%C3%AD" title="Sèng-keng Hi-pek-lâi-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sèng-keng Hi-pek-lâi-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%9E%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Старажытнаяўрэйская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытнаяўрэйская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%9E%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Старажытнажыдоўская мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Старажытнажыдоўская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Древноеврейски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древноеврейски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasick%C3%A1_hebrej%C5%A1tina" title="Klasická hebrejština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Klasická hebrejština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisk_hebraisk" title="Klassisk hebraisk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Klassisk hebraisk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibelhebr%C3%A4isch" title="Bibelhebräisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bibelhebräisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreo_b%C3%ADblico" title="Hebreo bíblico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hebreo bíblico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblia_hebrea" title="Biblia hebrea – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Biblia hebrea" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliako_hebreera" title="Bibliako hebreera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bibliako hebreera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="عبری توراتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عبری توراتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9breu_biblique" title="Hébreu biblique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hébreu biblique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreo_b%C3%ADblico" title="Hebreo bíblico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Hebreo bíblico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1%EC%84%9C_%ED%9E%88%EB%B8%8C%EB%A6%AC%EC%96%B4" title="성서 히브리어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성서 히브리어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Ibrani_Alkitab" title="Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA" title="עברית מקראית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עברית מקראית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB_%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96_%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%81%D1%82%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%96" title="Еврей тіл білімі дәстүрі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Еврей тіл білімі дәстүрі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senebreju_valoda" title="Senebreju valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senebreju valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Библиски хебрејски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Библиски хебрејски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_hebreon%27_ny_Baiboly" title="Fiteny hebreon' ny Baiboly – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny hebreon' ny Baiboly" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%87" title="العبريه التراثيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="العبريه التراثيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Ibrani_Alkitabiah" title="Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%96%E6%9B%B8%E3%83%98%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E8%AA%9E" title="聖書ヘブライ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="聖書ヘブライ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="توراتي عبراني – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="توراتي عبراني" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebraico_b%C3%ADblico" title="Hebraico bíblico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hebraico bíblico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebraica_biblic%C4%83_arhaic%C4%83" title="Ebraica biblică arhaică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ebraica biblică arhaică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Древнееврейский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древнееврейский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebraishtja_biblike" title="Hebraishtja biblike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hebraishtja biblike" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Archaic form of the Hebrew language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Biblical Hebrew</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Classical Hebrew</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style>שְֹפַת כְּנַעַן‎, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">יְהוּדִית‎, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">(לָשׁוֹן) עִבְרִית‎, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">לְשׁוֹן הַקֹּדֶשׁ‎</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Shiloach.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Shiloach.jpg/200px-Shiloach.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Shiloach.jpg/300px-Shiloach.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Shiloach.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="194" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Siloam_Inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Siloam Inscription">Siloam Inscription</a> at <a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Archaeological_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Istanbul Archaeological Museum">Istanbul Archaeological Museum</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></li><li>Israelite Diaspora (as a <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> for Judaism and Samaritanism)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">attested from the 10th century BCE; developed into <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> in the first century CE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages#South_Canaan" title="Canaanite languages">South</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Biblical Hebrew</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Standard forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval Hebrew</a> (Became <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Sinaitic">Proto-Canaanite / Proto-Sinaitic Abjad</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew Abjad</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Jewish Abjad</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan alphabet">Samaritan Abjad</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Either: <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hbo" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hbo">hbo</a></code> – Ancient Jewish Hebrew (Southern dialect) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/smp" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:smp">smp</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan Hebrew</a> (Northern dialect)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/hbo">hbo</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"> </th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/smp">smp</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/anci1244">anci1244</a></code>  Ancient Hebrew <code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sama1313">sama1313</a></code>  Samaritan</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/Shalom" title="Shalom"><img alt="שָׁלוֹם" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/40px-Shalom2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/60px-Shalom2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/80px-Shalom2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="400" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew text</a>. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Hebrew" title="Help:Hebrew">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of Hebrew letters.</div></div> </div> Biblical Hebrew (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">עִבְרִית מִקְרָאִית‎, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: ʿiḇrîṯ miqrāʾîṯ <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d0\/Ivritmiqrait.ogg\/Ivritmiqrait.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"(Ivrit Miqra'it<\/i>)"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ivritmiqrait.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/Ivritmiqrait.ogg/Ivritmiqrait.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">(Ivrit Miqra'it)</a><a href="/wiki/File:Ivritmiqrait.ogg" title="File:Ivritmiqrait.ogg">ⓘ</a> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">לְשׁוֹן הַמִּקְרָא‎, ləšôn ham-miqrāʾ <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/7c\/Leshonhamiqra.ogg\/Leshonhamiqra.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"(Leshon ha-Miqra<\/i>)"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Leshonhamiqra.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7c/Leshonhamiqra.ogg/Leshonhamiqra.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">(Leshon ha-Miqra)</a><a href="/wiki/File:Leshonhamiqra.ogg" title="File:Leshonhamiqra.ogg">ⓘ</a>), also called Classical Hebrew, is an <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/archaic" class="extiw" title="wikt:archaic">archaic</a> form of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a>, a language in the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanitic</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> in the area known as the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a>, roughly west of the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a> and east of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. The term ʿiḇrîṯ "Hebrew" was not used for the language in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, which was referred to as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">שְֹפַת כְּנַעַן‎ śəp̄aṯ kənaʿan "language of Canaan" or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">יְהוּדִית‎ Yəhûḏîṯ, "<a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judean</a>", but it was used in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a> texts.<a href="#cite_note-Barton-1">[1]</a> The Hebrew language is attested in inscriptions from about the 10th century BCE,<a href="#cite_note-eurekalert.org-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-bar-3">[3]</a> when it was almost identical to <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> and other Canaanite languages, and spoken Hebrew persisted through and beyond the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a>, which ended in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)</a>. It eventually developed into Mishnaic Hebrew, which was spoken until the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth century">fifth century</a>. The language of the Hebrew Bible reflects various stages of the Hebrew language in its <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">consonantal skeleton</a>, as well as a <a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">vocalization system</a> which was added in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Masoretes" title="Masoretes">Masoretes</a>. There is also some evidence of regional <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialectal</a> variation, including differences between Biblical Hebrew as spoken in the northern <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a> and in the southern <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a>. The consonantal text called the <a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Masoretic Text (𝕸)</a> was transmitted in manuscript form and underwent redaction in the Second Temple period, but its earliest portions (parts of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Amos" title="Book of Amos">Amos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Isaiah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Hosea" title="Book of Hosea">Hosea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Micah" title="Book of Micah">Micah</a>) <a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">can be dated</a> to the late 8th to early 7th centuries BCE. Biblical Hebrew has several different <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a>. From around the 12th century BCE until the 6th century BCE, writers employed the <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a>. This was retained by the <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>, who use the descendent <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan script</a> to this day. However, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Aramaic alphabet">Imperial Aramaic alphabet</a> gradually displaced the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet after the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a>, and it became the source for the current <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>. These scripts lack letters to represent all of the sounds of Biblical Hebrew, although these sounds are reflected in Greek and Latin transcriptions/translations of the time. They initially indicated only consonants, but certain letters, known by the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> term <a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">matres lectionis</a>, became increasingly used to mark <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>. In the Middle Ages, various systems of <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a> were developed to mark the vowels in Hebrew manuscripts; of these, only the Tiberian vocalization is still widely used. Biblical Hebrew possessed a series of <a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic consonants</a> whose precise <a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">articulation</a> is disputed, likely <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejective</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealized</a>. Earlier Biblical Hebrew possessed three consonants not distinguished in writing and later merged with other consonants. The <a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">stop consonants</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a> <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, and these sounds eventually became marginally <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">pharyngeal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">glottal consonants</a> underwent weakening in some regional dialects, as reflected in the modern <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan Hebrew</a> reading tradition. The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew changed over time and is reflected differently in the ancient Greek and Latin transcriptions, medieval vocalization systems, and modern reading traditions. Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic morphology with <a href="/wiki/Nonconcatenative_morphology" title="Nonconcatenative morphology">nonconcatenative morphology</a>, arranging <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic roots</a> into patterns to form words. Biblical Hebrew distinguished two <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">genders</a> (masculine, feminine), three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">numbers</a> (singular, plural, and uncommonly, dual). Verbs were marked for <a href="/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" title="Voice (grammar)">voice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>, and had two <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugations</a> which may have indicated <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> (a matter of debate). The tense or aspect of verbs was also influenced by the conjunction ו, in the so-called <a href="/wiki/Vav-consecutive" title="Vav-consecutive">waw-consecutive</a> construction. Unlike modern Hebrew, the default word order for biblical Hebrew was <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">verb–subject–object</a>, and verbs were inflected for the number, gender, and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a> of their subject. Pronominal suffixes could be appended to verbs (to indicate <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a>) or nouns (to indicate <a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">possession</a>), and nouns had special <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct states</a> for use in possessive constructions. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nomenclature">edit</a>]</div> The earliest written sources refer to Biblical Hebrew as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">שפת כנען‎ "the language of Canaan".<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-s1-5">[5]</a> The Hebrew Bible also calls the language <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">יהודית‎ "Judaean, Judahite"<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-s1-5">[5]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, Greek writings use the names Hebraios, Hebraïsti<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and in Mishnaic Hebrew we find <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">עברית‎ 'Hebrew' and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">לשון עברית‎ "Hebrew language".<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-s1-5">[5]</a> The origin of this term is obscure; suggested origins include the biblical <a href="/wiki/Eber" title="Eber">Eber</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">ethnonyms</a> <a href="/wiki/%CA%BFApiru" title="ʿApiru">ʿApiru</a>, Ḫabiru, and Ḫapiru found in sources from Egypt and the Near East, and a derivation from the root <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">עבר‎ "to pass", alluding to crossing over the Jordan River.<a href="#cite_note-s1-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERainey2008-9">[9]</a> Jews also began referring to Hebrew as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">לשון הקדש‎ "the Holy Tongue" in Mishnaic Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-s1-5">[5]</a> The term Classical Hebrew may include all pre-medieval dialects of Hebrew, including Mishnaic Hebrew, or it may be limited to Hebrew contemporaneous with the Hebrew Bible. The term Biblical Hebrew refers to pre-Mishnaic dialects (sometimes excluding Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew). The term Biblical Hebrew may or may not include extra-biblical texts, such as inscriptions (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Siloam_inscription" title="Siloam inscription">Siloam inscription</a>), and generally also includes later vocalization traditions for the Hebrew Bible's consonantal text, most commonly the early medieval Tiberian vocalization.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hebrew_writings" title="Ancient Hebrew writings">Ancient Hebrew writings</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bar-Kokhba revolt coin using Paleo-Hebrew script, showing on one side a facade of the Temple, the Ark of the Covenant within, star above; and on the other a lulav with etrog." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg/200px-Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg/300px-Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg/400px-Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Coin issued during the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a>. The Paleo-Hebrew text reads <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">שמעון‎ "<a href="/wiki/Simeon" title="Simeon">Simeon</a>" on the front and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">לחרות ירושלם‎ "for the freedom of Jerusalem" on the back.</figcaption></figure> The archeological record for the prehistory of Biblical Hebrew is far more complete than the record of Biblical Hebrew itself.<a href="#cite_note-enws-10">[10]</a> Early <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic (ENWS)</a> materials are attested from 2350 BCE to 1200 BCE, the end of the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-enws-10">[10]</a> The Northwest Semitic languages, including Hebrew, differentiated noticeably during the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> (1200–540 BCE), although in its earliest stages Biblical Hebrew was not highly differentiated from <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a> and the Canaanite of the <a href="/wiki/Amarna_letters" title="Amarna letters">Amarna letters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wo8-9-11">[11]</a> Hebrew developed during the latter half of the <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd millennium BCE">second millennium BCE</a> between the Jordan and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, an area known as <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-s1-5">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Deuteronomic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomic history">Deuteronomic history</a> says the Israelites established a <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">unified kingdom in Canaan</a> at the beginning of the first millennium BCE, which later split into the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">kingdom of Israel</a> in the north and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">kingdom of Judah</a> in the south after a disputed succession.<a href="#cite_note-sthist-12">[12]</a> In 722 BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity">Neo-Assyrian Empire destroyed Israel</a><a href="#cite_note-sthist-12">[12]</a> and some members of the upper class escaped to Judah. In 586 BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Neo-Babylonian Empire destroyed Judah</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Am_ha%27aretz#Tanakh" title="Am ha'aretz">Judahite upper classes</a> were exiled and <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">Solomon's Temple</a> was destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-sthist-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-s112-13">[13]</a> Later, the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> made Judah a province, <a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a>, and permitted the Judahite exiles to return and rebuild the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sthist-12">[12]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a>, Hebrew of this period was similar to <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a>;<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hanina_bar_Hama" title="Hanina bar Hama">Hanina bar Hama</a> said that God sent the exiled Jews to Babylon because "[the Babylonian] language is akin to the <a href="/wiki/Leshon_Hakodesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Leshon Hakodesh">Leshon Hakodesh</a>" in the Talmud (<a href="/wiki/Pesachim_(Talmud)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesachim (Talmud)">Pesahim 87b</a>). Aramaic became the common language in the north, in <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-s112-13">[13]</a> Hebrew remained in use in Judah, but the returning exiles brought back Aramaic influence, and Aramaic was used for communicating with other ethnic groups during the Persian period.<a href="#cite_note-s112-13">[13]</a> Alexander the Great <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">conquered the province</a> in 332 BCE, beginning the period of Hellenistic (Greek) domination.<a href="#cite_note-s112-13">[13]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, Judea became independent under the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a>. Later, the Romans ended their independence, making <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a> their governor.<a href="#cite_note-sthist-12">[12]</a> A revolt against the Romans led to the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">destruction of the Second Temple</a> in 70 CE, and the second <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> in 132–135 led to a purge and expulsion of the Jewish population of Judea,<a href="#cite_note-sthist-12">[12]</a> the establishment of a new province of <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a>, and the rebuilding of Jerusalem as the roman <a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">colonia</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aelia_Capitolina" title="Aelia Capitolina">Aelia Capitolina</a>. Hebrew after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a> evolved into Mishnaic Hebrew, which ceased being spoken and developed into a literary language around 200 CE.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Hebrew continued to be used as a literary and liturgical language in the form of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval Hebrew</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">revival of the Hebrew language</a> as a vernacular began in the 19th century, culminating in <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> becoming the official language of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. Currently, Classical Hebrew is generally taught in public schools in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and Biblical Hebrew forms are sometimes used in Modern Hebrew literature, much as archaic and biblical constructions are used in Modern English literature. Since Modern Hebrew contains many biblical elements, Biblical Hebrew is fairly intelligible to Modern Hebrew speakers.<a href="#cite_note-blau11-17">[17]</a> The primary source of Biblical Hebrew material is the Hebrew Bible.<a href="#cite_note-wo8-9-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-b10-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Epigraphic</a> materials from the area of Israelite territory are written in a form of Hebrew called Inscriptional Hebrew, although this is meagerly attested.<a href="#cite_note-b10-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-wo8a-19">[19]</a> According to Waltke & O'Connor, Inscriptional Hebrew "is not strikingly different from the Hebrew preserved in the Masoretic text."<a href="#cite_note-wo8a-19">[19]</a> The damp climate of Israel caused the rapid deterioration of papyrus and parchment documents, in contrast to the dry environment of Egypt, and the survival of the Hebrew Bible may be attributed to scribal determination in preserving the text through copying.<a href="#cite_note-wo16-20">[20]</a> No manuscript of the Hebrew Bible dates to before 400 BCE, although two silver rolls (the <a href="/wiki/Ketef_Hinnom_scrolls" title="Ketef Hinnom scrolls">Ketef Hinnom scrolls</a>) from the seventh or sixth century BCE show a version of the <a href="/wiki/Priestly_Blessing" title="Priestly Blessing">Priestly Blessing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wo16-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-yheb-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Vowel and <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">cantillation</a> marks were added to the older consonantal layer of the Bible between 600 CE and the beginning of the 10th century.<a href="#cite_note-b7-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[nb 1]</a> The scholars who preserved the pronunciation of the Bibles were known as the <a href="/wiki/Masoretes" title="Masoretes">Masoretes</a>. The most well-preserved system that was developed, and the only one still in religious use, is the Tiberian vocalization, but both Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations are also attested.<a href="#cite_note-b7-23">[23]</a> The Palestinian system was preserved mainly in <a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">piyyutim</a>, which contain biblical quotations.<a href="#cite_note-b7-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic languages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite languages</a></div> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Development of the various fricatives in Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic<a href="#cite_note-bmerge-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-kogan54-27">[26]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Proto-Semitic </th> <th rowspan="2">Hebrew </th> <th rowspan="2">Aramaic </th> <th rowspan="2">Arabic </th> <th colspan="4">Examples </th></tr> <tr> <th>Hebrew </th> <th>Aramaic </th> <th>Arabic </th> <th>meaning </th></tr> <tr> <th>*/ð/ <a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">*ḏ</a> </th> <td rowspan="2">*/z/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ז‎ </td> <td>*/d/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ד‎ </td> <td>*/ð/ <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style>ذ‎ </td> <td>זָהָב זָכָר </td> <td>דְּהָב דְּכָר </td> <td>ذَهَب ذَكَر </td> <td>'gold' 'male' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/z/1 <a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">*z</a> </th> <td>*/z/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ז‎ </td> <td>*/z/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ز‎ </td> <td>מֹאזְנָיִם זְמָן </td> <td>מֹאזְנָיִן זְמָן </td> <td>مَوَازَيْن زَمَن </td> <td>'scale' 'time' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/s/ <a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">*s</a> </th> <td colspan="2">*/s/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ס‎ </td> <td>*/s/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">س‎ */ʃ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ش‎ </td> <td colspan="2">סַכִּין סַהַר </td> <td>سِكِّين شَهْر </td> <td>'knife' 'moon/month' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ɬ/ <a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*ś</a> </th> <td colspan="2">*/s/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">שׂ‎ </td> <td>*/ʃ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ش‎ </td> <td colspan="2">עָשָׂר </td> <td>عَشْر </td> <td>'ten' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ʃ/ <a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*š</a> </th> <td rowspan="2">*/ʃ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">שׁ‎ </td> <td>*/ʃ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">שׁ‎ </td> <td>*/s/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">س‎ </td> <td>שָׁנָה שָׁלוֹם </td> <td>שָׁנָה שְׁלָם </td> <td>سَنة سَلام </td> <td>'year' 'peace' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/θ/ <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">*ṯ</a> </th> <td>*/t/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ת‎ </td> <td>*/θ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ث‎ </td> <td>שָׁלוֹשׁ שְׁתָּיִם </td> <td>תְּלָת תְּרֵין </td> <td>ثَلاث اِثْنان </td> <td>'three' 'two' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/θʼ/1 <a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">*ṱ</a> </th> <td rowspan="3">*/sˤ/1 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">צ‎ </td> <td>*/tˤ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ט‎ </td> <td>*/ðˤ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ظ‎ </td> <td>צֵל צָהֳרָיִם </td> <td>טְלָה טֹהֶר </td> <td>ظِلّ ظُهْر </td> <td>'shadow' 'noon' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ɬʼ/1 <a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">*ṣ́</a> </th> <td>*/ʕ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ע‎ </td> <td>*/dˤ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ض‎ </td> <td>אֶרֶץ צָחַק </td> <td>אֶרַע עֲחַק </td> <td>أَرْض ضَحِكَ </td> <td>'land' 'laughed' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/sʼ/1 <a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">*ṣ</a> </th> <td>*/sˤ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">צ‎ </td> <td>*/sˤ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ص‎ </td> <td>צָרַח צַבָּר </td> <td>צְרַח צַבָּר </td> <td>صَرَخَ صَبْر </td> <td>'shout' 'watermelon-like plant' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/χ/ <a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">*ḫ</a> </th> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2">*/ħ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ח‎ </td> <td>*/x~χ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">خ‎ </td> <td>חֲמִשָּׁה צָרַח </td> <td>חַמְשָׁה צְרַח </td> <td>خَمْسة صَرَخَ </td> <td>'five' 'shout' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ħ/ <a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">*ḥ</a> </th> <td>*/ħ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ح‎ </td> <td>מֶלַח חָלוֹם </td> <td>מֶלַח חֲלָם </td> <td>مِلْح حُلْم </td> <td>'salt' 'dream' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ʁ/ <a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">*ġ</a> </th> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2">*/ʕ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ע‎ </td> <td>*/ɣ~ʁ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">غ‎ </td> <td>עוֹרֵב מַעֲרָב </td> <td>עוֹרָב מַעֲרָב </td> <td>غُرَاب غَرْب </td> <td>'raven' 'west' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ʕ/ <a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">*ʻ</a> </th> <td>*/ʕ/ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ع‎ </td> <td colspan="2">עֶבֶד שֶׁבַע </td> <td>عَبْد سَبْع </td> <td>'slave' 'seven' </td></tr></tbody></table> Biblical Hebrew is a <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic language</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite subgroup</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESáenz-Badillos199329-29">[28]</a> As Biblical Hebrew evolved from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language" title="Proto-Semitic language">Proto-Semitic language</a> it underwent a number of consonantal mergers parallel with those in other Canaanite languages.<a href="#cite_note-bmerge-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[nb 2]</a> There is no evidence that these mergers occurred after the adaptation of the Hebrew alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[nb 3]</a> As a Northwest Semitic language, Hebrew shows the shift of initial */w/ to /j/, a similar independent pronoun system to the other Northwest Semitic languages (with third person pronouns never containing /ʃ/), some archaic forms, such as /naħnu/ 'we', first person singular pronominal suffix -i or -ya, and /n/ commonly preceding pronominal suffixes.<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a> Case endings are found in Northwest Semitic languages in the second millennium BCE, but disappear almost totally afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mimation" title="Mimation">Mimation</a> is absent in singular nouns, but is often retained in the plural, as in Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a> The Northwest Semitic languages formed a dialect continuum in the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> (1200–540 BCE), with <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> and Aramaic on each extreme.<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-scon-35">[32]</a> Hebrew is classed with Phoenician in the Canaanite subgroup, which also includes <a href="/wiki/Ammonite_language" title="Ammonite language">Ammonite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moab#Language" title="Moab">Moabite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a> Moabite might be considered a Hebrew dialect, though it possessed distinctive Aramaic features.<a href="#cite_note-scon-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-bmoab-36">[33]</a> Although Ugaritic shows a large degree of affinity to Hebrew in poetic structure, vocabulary, and some grammar, it lacks some Canaanite features (like the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shift" title="Canaanite shift">Canaanite shift</a> and the shift */ð/ > /z/), and its similarities are more likely a result of either contact or preserved archaism.<a href="#cite_note-b21-37">[34]</a> Hebrew underwent the Canaanite shift, where Proto-Semitic /aː/ tended to shift to /oː/, perhaps when stressed.<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Blau_2010_136-137-38">[35]</a> Hebrew also shares with the Canaanite languages the shifts */ð/ > /z/, */θʼ/ and */ɬʼ/ > /sʼ/, widespread reduction of diphthongs, and full assimilation of non-final /n/ to the following consonant if word final, i.e. בת /bat/ from *bant.<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a> There is also evidence of a rule of assimilation of /j/ to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position, shared by Hebrew, Phoenician and Aramaic.<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> Typical Canaanite words in Hebrew include: גג "roof" שלחן "table" חלון "window" ישן "old (thing)" זקן "old (person)" and גרש "expel".<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a> Morphological Canaanite features in Hebrew include the masculine plural marker -ם, first person singular pronoun אנכי, interrogative pronoun מי, definite article ה- (appearing in the first millennium BCE), and third person plural feminine verbal marker -ת.<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eras">Eras</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Eras">edit</a>]</div> Biblical Hebrew as preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> is composed of multiple linguistic layers. The consonantal skeleton of the text is the most ancient, while the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">cantillation</a> and modern vocalization are later additions reflecting a later stage of the language.<a href="#cite_note-b10-18">[18]</a> These additions were added after 600 CE; Hebrew had already ceased being used as a spoken language around 200 CE.<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> Biblical Hebrew as reflected in the consonantal text of the Bible and in extra-biblical inscriptions may be subdivided by era. The oldest form of Biblical Hebrew, Archaic Hebrew, is found in poetic sections of the Bible and inscriptions dating to around 1000 BCE, the early <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Monarchic Period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sb52-41">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-r66-42">[39]</a> This stage is also known as Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew, and is the oldest stratum of Biblical Hebrew. The oldest known artifacts of Archaic Biblical Hebrew are various sections of the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Song_of_Moses" title="Song of Moses">Song of Moses</a> (<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Exodus</a> 15) and the <a href="/wiki/Song_of_Deborah" class="mw-redirect" title="Song of Deborah">Song of Deborah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Judges" title="Book of Judges">Judges</a> 5).<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> Biblical poetry uses a number of distinct lexical items, for example חזה for prose ראה 'see', כביר for גדול 'great'.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> Some have cognates in other Northwest Semitic languages, for example פעל 'do' and חָרוּץ 'gold' which are common in Canaanite and Ugaritic.<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> Grammatical differences include the use of זה, זוֹ, and זוּ as relative particles, negative בל, and various differences in verbal and pronominal morphology and syntax.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> Later pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew (such as is found in prose sections of the Pentateuch, <a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a>) is known as 'Biblical Hebrew proper' or 'Standard Biblical Hebrew'.<a href="#cite_note-sb52-41">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-r66-42">[39]</a> This is dated to the period from the 8th to the 6th century BCE. In contrast to Archaic Hebrew, Standard Biblical Hebrew is more consistent in using the definite article ה-, the accusative marker את, distinguishing between simple and <a href="/wiki/Waw-consecutive" class="mw-redirect" title="Waw-consecutive">waw-consecutive</a> verb forms, and in using particles like אשר and כי rather than <a href="/wiki/Asyndeton" title="Asyndeton">asyndeton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> Biblical Hebrew from after the Babylonian exile in 587 BCE is known as 'Late Biblical Hebrew'.<a href="#cite_note-sb52-41">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-r66-42">[39]</a> Late Biblical Hebrew shows Aramaic influence in phonology, morphology, and lexicon, and this trend is also evident in the later-developed Tiberian vocalization system.<a href="#cite_note-sb55-48">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[nb 4]</a> Qumran Hebrew, attested in the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a> from ca. 200 BCE to 70 CE, is a continuation of Late Biblical Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-r66-42">[39]</a> Qumran Hebrew may be considered an intermediate stage between Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew, though Qumran Hebrew shows its own idiosyncratic dialectal features.<a href="#cite_note-50">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dialects">edit</a>]</div> Dialect variation in Biblical Hebrew is attested to by the well-known <a href="/wiki/Shibboleth" title="Shibboleth">shibboleth</a> incident of Judges 12:6, where <a href="/wiki/Jephthah" title="Jephthah">Jephthah</a>'s forces from <a href="/wiki/Gilead" title="Gilead">Gilead</a> caught <a href="/wiki/Ephraimites" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephraimites">Ephraimites</a> trying to cross the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a> by making them say שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת šibboleṯ ('ear of corn')<a href="#cite_note-bshib-51">[47]</a> The Ephraimites' identity was given away by their pronunciation: סִבֹּ֤לֶת sibboleṯ.<a href="#cite_note-bshib-51">[47]</a> The apparent conclusion is that the Ephraimite dialect had /s/ for standard /ʃ/.<a href="#cite_note-bshib-51">[47]</a> As an alternative explanation, it has been suggested that the proto-Semitic phoneme */θ/, which shifted to /ʃ/ in most dialects of Hebrew, may have been retained in the Hebrew of the <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_in_the_Bible" title="Transjordan in the Bible">Transjordan</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[nb 5]</a> (however, there is evidence that שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת's Proto-Semitic ancestor had initial consonant š (whence Hebrew /ʃ/), contradicting this theory;<a href="#cite_note-bshib-51">[47]</a> for example, שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת's proto-Semitic ancestor has been reconstructed as *šu(n)bul-at-.<a href="#cite_note-54">[49]</a>); or that the Proto-Semitic sibilant *s1, transcribed with <a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">šin</a> and traditionally reconstructed as */ʃ/, had been originally */s/ while another sibilant *s3, transcribed with <a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">sameḵ</a> and traditionally reconstructed as /s/, had been initially /ts/;<a href="#cite_note-55">[50]</a> later on, a push-type <a href="/wiki/Chain_shift" title="Chain shift">chain shift</a> changed *s3 /ts/ to /s/ and pushed s1 /s/ to /ʃ/ in many dialects (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Gilead" title="Gilead">Gileadite</a>) but not others (e.g. Ephraimite), where *s1 and *s3 merged into /s/. Hebrew, as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel, known as <a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">Israelian Hebrew</a>, shows phonological, lexical, and grammatical differences from southern dialects.<a href="#cite_note-56">[51]</a> The northern dialect spoken around Samaria shows a more frequent simplification of /aj/ into /eː/ as attested by the Samaria ostraca (8th century BCE), e.g. ין (= /jeːn/ < */jajn/ 'wine'), while the southern or Judean dialect instead adds in an <a href="/wiki/Epenthetic_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Epenthetic vowel">epenthetic vowel</a> /i/, added halfway through the first millennium BCE (יין = /ˈjajin/).<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[nb 6]</a><a href="#cite_note-bdip-58">[52]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Paranomasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paranomasia">word play</a> in <a href="/wiki/Amos_8" title="Amos 8">Amos 8</a>:1–2 כְּלוּב קַ֫יִץ... בָּא הַקֵּץ may reflect this: given that Amos was addressing the population of the Northern Kingdom, the vocalization *קֵיץ would be more forceful.<a href="#cite_note-bdip-58">[52]</a> Other possible Northern features include use of שֶ- 'who, that', forms like דֵעָה 'to know' rather than דַעַת and infinitives of certain verbs of the form עֲשוֹ 'to do' rather than עֲשוֹת.<a href="#cite_note-b8-59">[53]</a> The Samaria ostraca also show שת for standard שנה 'year', as in Aramaic.<a href="#cite_note-b8-59">[53]</a> The guttural phonemes /ħ ʕ h ʔ/ merged over time in some dialects.<a href="#cite_note-sgut-60">[54]</a> This was found in Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew, but <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> (d. 420) attested to the existence of contemporaneous Hebrew speakers who still distinguished pharyngeals.<a href="#cite_note-sgut-60">[54]</a> Samaritan Hebrew also shows a general attrition of these phonemes, though /ʕ ħ/ are occasionally preserved as [ʕ].<a href="#cite_note-samgut-61">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Orthography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew_orthography" title="Biblical Hebrew orthography">Biblical Hebrew orthography</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 20px; text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Block</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Hebrew alphabet">Samaritan</a> </th> <th>Phonetic value (Pre-Exilic)<a href="#cite_note-62">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[57]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA</a>) </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">Aleph</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Alef.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aleph"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Alef.svg/45px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Alef.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Alef.svg/68px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Alef.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Alef.svg/91px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Alef.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="89" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">א </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r866777279">.mw-parser-output .script-samaritan{font-family:"Noto Sans Samaritan","Hebrew Samaritan","Everson Mono",EversonMono,Unifont,Quivira,sans-serif;direction:rtl;unicode-bidi:bidi-override}</style>ࠀ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)" title="Bet (letter)">Beth</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Bet.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Beth"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Bet.svg/35px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Bet.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Bet.svg/53px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Bet.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Bet.svg/70px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Bet.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="62" data-file-height="102" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ב </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠁ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Gimel" title="Gimel">Gimel</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Gimel.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gimel"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Gimel.svg/35px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Gimel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Gimel.svg/52px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Gimel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Gimel.svg/69px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Gimel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="62" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ג </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠂ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Daleth" class="mw-redirect" title="Daleth">Daleth</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Dalet.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Daleth"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Dalet.svg/40px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Dalet.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="54" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Dalet.svg/60px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Dalet.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Dalet.svg/80px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Dalet.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="74" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ד </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠃ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">He</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_He.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Heh"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_He.svg/30px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_He.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_He.svg/45px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_He.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_He.svg/60px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_He.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="55" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ה </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠄ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)" title="Waw (letter)">Waw</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Vav.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Waw"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Vav.svg/25px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Vav.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Vav.svg/37px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Vav.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Vav.svg/50px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Vav.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="124" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ו </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠅ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>]/wᶹ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">Zayin</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Moabite_zayin.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zayin"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Moabite_zayin.svg/45px-Moabite_zayin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Moabite_zayin.svg/68px-Moabite_zayin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Moabite_zayin.svg/90px-Moabite_zayin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="106" data-file-height="106" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ז </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠆ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Pitch-accent_language" title="Pitch-accent language">z̄</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">Heth</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Het.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Heth"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Het.svg/35px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Het.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Het.svg/52px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Het.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Het.svg/69px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Het.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="68" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ח </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠇ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>] or [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Teth" title="Teth">Teth</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Tet.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Teth"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Tet.svg/35px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Tet.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Tet.svg/52px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Tet.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Tet.svg/69px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Tet.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="77" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ט </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠈ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">tˤ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">Yodh</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Yod-Signos.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Yodh"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Yod-Signos.PNG/45px-Yod-Signos.PNG" decoding="async" width="45" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Yod-Signos.PNG/68px-Yod-Signos.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Yod-Signos.PNG 2x" data-file-width="78" data-file-height="67" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">י </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠉ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Kaph" title="Kaph">Kaph</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Kaf.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kaph"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Kaf.svg/35px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Kaf.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Kaf.svg/52px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Kaf.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Kaf.svg/69px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Kaf.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="58" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">כ, ך </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠊ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lamedh" title="Lamedh">Lamedh</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Lamed.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lamedh"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Lamed.svg/40px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Lamed.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Lamed.svg/60px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Lamed.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Lamed.svg/80px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Lamed.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="77" data-file-height="127" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ל </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠋ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mem_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mem (letter)">Mem</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Mem.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mem"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Mem.svg/35px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Mem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Mem.svg/52px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Mem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Mem.svg/69px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Mem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">מ, ם </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠌ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)" title="Nun (letter)">Nun</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Nun.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nun"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Nun.svg/34px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Nun.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Nun.svg/52px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Nun.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Nun.svg/69px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Nun.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="56" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">נ, ן </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠍ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">Samekh</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Samek-Signos.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Samekh"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Samek-Signos.PNG/50px-Samek-Signos.PNG" decoding="async" width="50" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Samek-Signos.PNG/75px-Samek-Signos.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Samek-Signos.PNG 2x" data-file-width="79" data-file-height="81" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ס </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠎ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">Ayin</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Ayin.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ayin"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Ayin.svg/35px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Ayin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Ayin.svg/52px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Ayin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Ayin.svg/69px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Ayin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="61" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ע </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠏ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>] or [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a>]<a href="#cite_note-b69-64">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-r-65">[59]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">Pe</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Pe.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pe"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Pe.svg/35px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Pe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Pe.svg/52px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Pe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Pe.svg/69px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Pe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">פ, ף </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠐ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">ɸ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">Tsade</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:PhoenicianTsade-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/PhoenicianTsade-01.svg/45px-PhoenicianTsade-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/PhoenicianTsade-01.svg/68px-PhoenicianTsade-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/PhoenicianTsade-01.svg/90px-PhoenicianTsade-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">צ, ץ </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠑ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">sˤ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">Qoph</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_quf.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Qoph"><img alt="Qoph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Early_Aramaic_character_-_quf.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="42" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="55" data-file-height="42" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ק </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠒ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">qˁ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Resh" title="Resh">Resh</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Resh.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Resh"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Resh.svg/35px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Resh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Resh.svg/52px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Resh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Resh.svg/69px-Paleo_Hebrew_Letter_Resh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="58" data-file-height="100" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ר </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠓ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">Shin</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_shin.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Shin"><img alt="Shin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Early_Aramaic_character_-_shin.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="42" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="55" data-file-height="42" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ש </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠔ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>] or [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_lateral_fricatives" title="Voiceless dental and alveolar lateral fricatives">ɬ͡s</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Taw" title="Taw">Taw</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_tof.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Taw"><img alt="Taw" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Early_Aramaic_character_-_tof.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="42" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="55" data-file-height="42" /></a> </td> <td style="font-size:200%">ת </td> <td style="font-size:200%"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r866777279">ࠕ‎ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>] </td></tr></tbody></table> The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, found at <a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Qeiyafa" title="Khirbet Qeiyafa">Khirbet Qeiyafa</a>, dates to the 10th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-eurekalert.org-2">[2]</a> The 15 cm x 16.5 cm (5.9 in x 6.5 in) trapezoid pottery <a href="/wiki/Sherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherd">sherd</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostracon</a>) has five lines of text written in ink in the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Canaanite_alphabet" title="Proto-Canaanite alphabet">Proto-Canaanite alphabet</a> (the old form which predates both the Paleo-Hebrew and Phoenician alphabets).<a href="#cite_note-eurekalert.org-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-bar-3">[3]</a> The tablet is written from left to right, suggesting that Hebrew writing was still in the formative stage.<a href="#cite_note-bar-3">[3]</a> The Israelite tribes who settled in the land of Israel used a late form of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic Alphabet</a> (known as <a href="/wiki/Proto-Canaanite_alphabet" title="Proto-Canaanite alphabet">Proto-Canaanite</a> when found in Israel) around the 12th century BCE, which developed into Early Phoenician and Early Paleo-Hebrew as found in the <a href="/wiki/Gezer_calendar" title="Gezer calendar">Gezer calendar</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 10th century BCE).<a href="#cite_note-66">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[61]</a> This script developed into the Paleo-Hebrew script in the 10th or 9th centuries BCE.<a href="#cite_note-y-68">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-tscript-69">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-s17-70">[64]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleo-Hebrew">Paleo-Hebrew</a> alphabet's main differences from the Phoenician script were "a curving to the left of the downstrokes in the "long-legged" letter-signs... the consistent use of a Waw with a concave top, [and an] x-shaped Taw."<a href="#cite_note-y-68">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[nb 7]</a> The oldest inscriptions in Paleo-Hebrew script are dated to around the middle of the 9th century BCE, the most famous being the <a href="/wiki/Mesha_Stele" title="Mesha Stele">Mesha Stele</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite language</a> (which might be considered a dialect of Hebrew).<a href="#cite_note-yheb-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-bmoab-36">[33]</a> The ancient Hebrew script was in continuous use until the early 6th century BCE, the end of the First Temple period.<a href="#cite_note-72">[65]</a> In the Second Temple Period the Paleo-Hebrew script gradually fell into disuse, and was completely abandoned among the Jews after the failed <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kochba_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar Kochba revolt">Bar Kochba revolt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tscript-69">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-yb-73">[66]</a> The Samaritans retained the ancient Hebrew alphabet, which evolved into the modern <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan alphabet">Samaritan alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tscript-69">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-yb-73">[66]</a> By the end of the First Temple period the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic script</a>, a separate descendant of the Phoenician script, became widespread throughout the region, gradually displacing Paleo-Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-yb-73">[66]</a> The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus, Samuel, and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls, dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE.<a href="#cite_note-ysq-74">[67]</a> It seems that the earlier biblical books were originally written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script.<a href="#cite_note-tscript-69">[63]</a> Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the <a href="/wiki/Tetragrammaton" title="Tetragrammaton">tetragrammaton</a> and some other divine names in Paleo-Hebrew, and this practice is also found in several Jewish-Greek biblical translations.<a href="#cite_note-tscript-69">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[nb 8]</a> While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a>, A number of regional "book-hand" styles were put into use for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works, distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes.<a href="#cite_note-ybook-76">[68]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi">Ashkenazi</a> book-hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press.<a href="#cite_note-ybook-76">[68]</a> The modern <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>, also known as the Assyrian or Square script, appears a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-yb-73">[66]</a> The Phoenician script had dropped five characters by the 12th century BCE, reflecting the language's twenty-two consonantal phonemes.<a href="#cite_note-s17-70">[64]</a> The 22 letters of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet numbered less than the consonant phonemes of ancient Biblical Hebrew; in particular, the letters ⟨ח, ע, ש⟩ could each mark two different phonemes.<a href="#cite_note-77">[69]</a> After a sound shift the letters ח, ע could only mark one phoneme, but (except in Samaritan Hebrew) ש still marked two. The old Babylonian vocalization system wrote a superscript ס above the ש to indicate it took the value /s/, while the Masoretes added the <a href="/wiki/Shin_dot" class="mw-redirect" title="Shin dot">shin dot</a> to distinguish between the two varieties of the letter.<a href="#cite_note-78">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-b77-79">[71]</a> The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of <a href="/wiki/Consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonants">consonants</a>, but the letters א, ה, ו, י, also were used to indicate vowels, known as matres lectionis when used in this function.<a href="#cite_note-s17-70">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-to1-80">[72]</a> It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development: for instance, *bayt ('house') shifted to בֵּית in <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct state</a> but retained its spelling.<a href="#cite_note-b6-81">[73]</a> While no examples of early Hebrew orthography have been found, older <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a> texts show how First Temple period Hebrew would have been written.<a href="#cite_note-to1-80">[72]</a> Phoenician inscriptions from the 10th century BCE do not indicate matres lectiones in the middle or the end of a word, for example לפנ and ז for later לפני and זה, similarly to the Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Gezer_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gezer Calendar">Gezer Calendar</a>, which has for instance שערמ for שעורים and possibly ירח for ירחו.<a href="#cite_note-to1-80">[72]</a> Matres lectionis were later added word-finally, for instance the <a href="/wiki/Mesha_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesha inscription">Mesha inscription</a> has בללה, בנתי for later בלילה, בניתי; however at this stage they were not yet used word-medially, compare <a href="/wiki/Siloam_inscription" title="Siloam inscription">Siloam inscription</a> זדה versus אש (for later איש).<a href="#cite_note-to1-80">[72]</a> The relative terms defective and full/plene are used to refer to alternative spellings of a word with less or more matres lectionis, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-to1-80">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[nb 9]</a> The Hebrew Bible was presumably originally written in a more defective orthography than found in any of the texts known today.<a href="#cite_note-to1-80">[72]</a> Of the extant textual witnesses of the Hebrew Bible, the Masoretic text is generally the most conservative in its use of matres lectionis, with the <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Pentateuch" title="Samaritan Pentateuch">Samaritan Pentateuch</a> and its forebearers being more full and the Qumran tradition showing the most liberal use of vowel letters.<a href="#cite_note-83">[74]</a> The Masoretic text mostly uses vowel letters for long vowels, showing the tendency to mark all long vowels except for word-internal /aː/.<a href="#cite_note-b6-81">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[nb 10]</a> In the Qumran tradition, <a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back vowels</a> are usually represented by ⟨ו⟩ whether short or long.<a href="#cite_note-tq1-85">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-sq-86">[76]</a> ⟨י⟩ is generally used for both long [iː] and [eː] (אבילים, מית), and final [iː] is often written as ־יא in analogy to words like היא, הביא, e.g. כיא, sometimes מיא.<a href="#cite_note-tq1-85">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-sq-86">[76]</a> ⟨ה⟩ is found finally in forms like חוטה (Tiberian חוטא), קורה (Tiberian קורא) while ⟨א⟩ may be used for an a-quality vowel in final position (e.g. עליהא) and in medial position (e.g. יאתום).<a href="#cite_note-tq1-85">[75]</a> Pre-Samaritan and Samaritan texts show full spellings in many categories (e.g. כוחי vs. Masoretic כחי in Genesis 49:3) but only rarely show full spelling of the Qumran type.<a href="#cite_note-87">[77]</a> Presumably, the vowels of Biblical Hebrew were not indicated in the original text, but various sources attest to them at various stages of development. Greek and Latin transcriptions of words from the biblical text provide early evidence of the nature of Biblical Hebrew vowels. In particular, there is evidence from the rendering of proper nouns in the <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> (3rd–2nd centuries BCE<a href="#cite_note-Jobes_and_Silva-88">[78]</a>) and the Greek alphabet <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">transcription</a> of the Hebrew biblical text contained in the <a href="/wiki/Secunda_(Hexapla)" title="Secunda (Hexapla)">Secunda</a> (3rd century CE, likely a copy of a preexisting text from before 100 BCE<a href="#cite_note-89">[nb 11]</a>). In the 7th and 8th centuries CE various systems of vocalic notation were developed to indicate vowels in the biblical text.<a href="#cite_note-90">[79]</a> The most prominent, best preserved, and the only system still in use, is the <a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian vocalization</a> system, created by scholars known as Masoretes around 850 CE.<a href="#cite_note-b7-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-rvoc-91">[80]</a> There are also various extant manuscripts making use of less common vocalization systems (<a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a>), known as superlinear vocalizations because their vocalization marks are placed above the letters.<a href="#cite_note-b7-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-rvoc-91">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[nb 12]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[nb 13]</a> In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a> reading tradition is independent of these systems and was occasionally notated with a separate vocalization system.<a href="#cite_note-rvoc-91">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[nb 14]</a> These systems often record vowels at different stages of historical development; for example, the name of the Judge <a href="/wiki/Samson" title="Samson">Samson</a> is recorded in Greek as Σαμψών Sampsōn with the first vowel as /a/, while Tiberian שִמְשוֹן /ʃimʃon/ with /i/ shows the effect of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_attenuation" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of attenuation">law of attenuation</a> whereby /a/ in closed unstressed syllables became /i/.<a href="#cite_note-96">[82]</a> All of these systems together are used to reconstruct the original vocalization of Biblical Hebrew. At an early stage, in documents written in the paleo-Hebrew script, words were divided by short vertical lines and later by dots, as reflected by the Mesha Stone, the Siloam inscription, the Ophel inscription, and paleo-Hebrew script documents from Qumran.<a href="#cite_note-tsp-97">[83]</a> Word division was not used in Phoenician inscriptions; however, there is no direct evidence for biblical texts being written without word division, as suggested by <a href="/wiki/Nahmanides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahmanides">Nahmanides</a> in his introduction to the Torah.<a href="#cite_note-tsp-97">[83]</a> Word division using spaces was commonly used from the beginning of the 7th century BCE for documents in the Aramaic script.<a href="#cite_note-tsp-97">[83]</a> In addition to marking vowels, the Tiberian system also uses <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">cantillation</a> marks, which serve to mark word stress, semantic structure, and the musical motifs used in formal recitation of the text.<a href="#cite_note-98">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[85]</a> While the Babylonian and Palestinian reading traditions are extinct, various other systems of pronunciation have evolved over time, notably the <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yemenite Hebrew language">Yemenite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Hebrew language">Sephardi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Hebrew language">Samaritan</a> traditions. <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> pronunciation is also used by some to read biblical texts. The modern reading traditions do not stem solely from the Tiberian system; for instance, the Sephardic tradition's distinction between qamatz gadol and qatan is likely pre-Tiberian.<a href="#cite_note-length-100">[86]</a> However, the only orthographic system used to mark vowels is the Tiberian vocalization. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> The phonology as reconstructed for Biblical Hebrew is as follows: <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Biblical Hebrew consonants<a href="#cite_note-b69-64">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-r-65">[59]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post- alveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasals</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stops</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">tˤ</a><a href="#cite_note-b69-64">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-r-65">[59]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricatives</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> </th> <td style=";"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">ɸ</a>2 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>2 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a>1 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>2 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a>1 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>2 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>2 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>2<a href="#cite_note-b69-64">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-r-65">[59]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a>1<a href="#cite_note-b69-64">[58]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">sˤ</a><a href="#cite_note-b69-64">[58]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximants</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_approximant" title="Voiced labiodental approximant">ʋ</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>Consonants lost during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew.</li> <li>Consonants gained during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew</li></ol> The phonetic nature of some Biblical Hebrew consonants is disputed. The so-called "emphatics" were likely <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealized" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharyngealized">pharyngealized</a>, but possibly velarized.<a href="#cite_note-b68-101">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-r73-102">[88]</a> The pharyngealization of emphatic consonants is viewed as a <a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a> innovation.<a href="#cite_note-103">[89]</a> Some argue that /s, z, sˤ/ were affricated (/ts, dz, tsˤ/),<a href="#cite_note-b68-101">[87]</a> but Egyptian starts using s in place of earlier ṯ to represent Canaanite s around 1000 BC. It is likely that Canaanite was already dialectally split by that time, and the northern Early Phoenician dialect that the Greeks were in contact with could have preserved the affricate pronunciation until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800 BC at least, unlike the more southern Canaanite dialects (like Hebrew) that the Egyptians were in contact with, so that there is no contradiction within this argument. Originally, the Hebrew letters ⟨<a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">ח</a>⟩ and ⟨<a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">ע</a>⟩ each represented two possible phonemes, uvular and pharyngeal, with the distinction unmarked in Hebrew orthography. However the uvular phonemes /χ/ ח and /ʁ/ ע merged with their pharyngeal counterparts /ħ/ ח and /ʕ/ ע respectively c. 200 BCE. <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div>This is observed by noting the preservation of the double phonemes of each letter in one Sephardic reading tradition, and by noting that these phonemes are distinguished consistently in the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> of the Pentateuch (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a> יצחק Yīṣḥāq = Ἰσαάκ versus <a href="/wiki/Rachel" title="Rachel">Rachel</a> רחל Rāḫēl = Ῥαχήλ), but this becomes more sporadic in later books and is generally absent in translations of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezra" title="Book of Ezra">Ezra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Nehemiah" title="Book of Nehemiah">Nehemiah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[91]</a> The phoneme /ɬ/, is also not directly indicated by Hebrew orthography but is clearly attested by later developments: It is written with ⟨ש⟩ (also used for /ʃ/) but later merged with /s/ (normally indicated with ⟨ס⟩). As a result, three etymologically distinct phonemes can be distinguished through a combination of spelling and pronunciation: /s/ written ⟨ס⟩, /ʃ/ written ⟨ש⟩, and /ś/ (pronounced /ɬ/ but written ⟨ש⟩). The specific pronunciation of /ś/ as [ɬ] is based on comparative evidence (/ɬ/ is the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Semitic">Proto-Semitic</a> phoneme and still attested in <a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern South Arabian">Modern South Arabian</a> languages<a href="#cite_note-b77-79">[71]</a> as well as early borrowings (e.g. balsam < Greek balsamon < Hebrew baśam). /ɬ/ began merging with /s/ in Late Biblical Hebrew, as indicated by interchange of orthographic ⟨ש⟩ and ⟨ס⟩, possibly under the influence of Aramaic, and this became the rule in Mishnaic Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-b69-64">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-r73-102">[88]</a> In all Jewish reading traditions /ɬ/ and /s/ have merged completely; however in Samaritan Hebrew /ɬ/ has instead merged with /ʃ/.<a href="#cite_note-b69-64">[58]</a> Allophonic <a href="/wiki/Spirantization" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirantization">spirantization</a> of /b ɡ d k p t/ to [v ɣ ð x f θ] (known as <a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">begadkefat</a> spirantization) developed sometime during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Aramaic.<a href="#cite_note-106">[nb 15]</a> This probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes /θ, ð/ disappeared in the 7th century BCE,<a href="#cite_note-107">[92]</a> and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew /χ, ʁ/ c. 200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-108">[nb 16]</a> It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-109">[93]</a> After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low <a href="/wiki/Functional_load" title="Functional load">functional load</a>), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.<a href="#cite_note-bbgd-110">[94]</a> This is evidenced both by the Tiberian vocalization's consistent use of word-initial spirants after a vowel in sandhi, as well as Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a>'s attestation to the use of this alternation in Tiberian Aramaic at the beginning of the 10th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-bbgd-110">[94]</a> The Dead Sea scrolls show evidence of confusion of the phonemes /ħ ʕ h ʔ/, e.g. חמר ħmr for Masoretic אָמַר /ʔɔˈmar/ 'he said'.<a href="#cite_note-111">[95]</a> However the testimony of Jerome indicates that this was a regionalism and not universal.<a href="#cite_note-sgut-60">[54]</a> Confusion of gutturals was also attested in later Mishnaic Hebrew and Aramaic (see Eruvin 53b). In Samaritan Hebrew, /ʔ ħ h ʕ/ have generally all merged, either into /ʔ/, a glide /w/ or /j/, or by vanishing completely (often creating a long vowel), except that original /ʕ ħ/ sometimes have reflex /ʕ/ before /a ɒ/.<a href="#cite_note-samgut-61">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Geminate" class="mw-redirect" title="Geminate">Geminate</a> consonants are phonemically contrastive in Biblical Hebrew. In the Secunda /w j z/ are never geminate.<a href="#cite_note-112">[96]</a> In the Tiberian tradition /ħ ʕ h ʔ r/ cannot be geminate; historically first /r ʔ/ degeminated, followed by /ʕ/, /h/, and finally /ħ/, as evidenced by changes in the quality of the preceding vowel.<a href="#cite_note-113">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[nb 17]</a> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible"> <caption>Hebrew consonant correspondences </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Semitic">Proto-Semitic</a> </th> <th colspan="4">Language </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Arabic</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Jewish </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritanּ</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>*/p/ </th> <td>*/ɸ/ (normally) פף */p/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) פּ </td> <td>*/f/ ࠐ </td> <td>*/ɸ/ (normally) פף */p/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) פּ </td> <td>*/f/ ف </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/b/ </th> <td>*/β/ (normally) ב */b/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) בּ </td> <td>*/b/ ࠁ </td> <td>*/β/ (normally) ב */b/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) בּ </td> <td>*/b/ ب </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/t/ </th> <td>*/θ/ (normally) ת */t/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) תּ </td> <td>*/t/ ࠕ </td> <td>*/θ/ (normally) ת */t/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) תּ </td> <td>*/t/ ت </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/θ/ ṯ </th> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">*/ʃ/ שׁ , ࠔ </td> <td>*/θ/ שׁ </td> <td>*/θ/ ث </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ʃ/ š </th> <td>*/ʃ/ שׁ </td> <td>*/s/ س </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ɬ/ ś </th> <td>*/s/ שׂ </td> <td>*/ʃ/ ࠔ </td> <td>*/s/ שׂ </td> <td>*/ʃ/ ش </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/θʼ/ ṯ̣ </th> <td colspan="2" rowspan="3">*/sˤ/ צץ, ࠑ </td> <td>*/tˤ/ ט </td> <td>*/ðˤ/ ظ </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/sʼ/, */t͡sʼ/ ṣ </th> <td>*/sˤ/ צץ </td> <td>*/sˤ/ ص </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ɬʼ/ ṣ́ </th> <td>*/ʕ/ ע </td> <td>*/dˤ/ ض </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/d/ </th> <td>*/ð/ (normally) ד */d/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) דּ </td> <td>*/d/ ࠃ </td> <td>*/ð/ (normally) ד */d/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) דּ </td> <td>*/d/ د </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ð/ ḏ </th> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2">*/z/ ז </td> <td>*/ð/ (normally) ד </td> <td>*/ð/ ذ </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/z/, */d͡z/ z </th> <td>*/z/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) ז </td> <td>*/z/ ز </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/k/ </th> <td>*/x/ (normally) כך */k/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) כּ </td> <td>*/k/ ࠊ </td> <td>*/x/ (normally) כך */k/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) כּ </td> <td>*/k/ ك </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/χ/ ḫ </th> <td rowspan="2">*/ħ/ ח </td> <td rowspan="2">silent (normally) ࠇ */ʔ~ʕ/ (syllable-initially) ࠇ </td> <td rowspan="2">*/ħ/ ח </td> <td>*/χ/ خ </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ħ/ ḥ </th> <td>*/ħ/ ح </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/g/ </th> <td>*/ɣ/ (normally) ג */g/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) גּ </td> <td>*/g/ ࠂ </td> <td>*/ɣ/ (normally) ג */g/ (syllable-initially, after closed syllables, <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) גּ </td> <td>*/d͡ʒ/ ج </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ʁ/ ġ </th> <td rowspan="2">*/ʕ/ ע </td> <td rowspan="2">silent (normally) ࠏ */ʔ~ʕ/ (syllable-initially) ࠏ </td> <td rowspan="2">*/ʕ/ ע </td> <td>*/ʁ/ غ </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ʕ/ ʻ </th> <td>*/ʕ/ ع </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/w/ </th> <td>*/w ~ ʋ/ (normally) ו */j/ (word-initially, except in ו- "and") י </td> <td>*/b/ (normally) ࠅ */j/ <(word-initially, except in ࠅ- "and") ࠉ </td> <td>*/w/ ו </td> <td>*/w/ و </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> The vowel system of Hebrew has changed considerably over time. The following vowels are those reconstructed for the earliest stage of Hebrew, those attested by the Secunda, those of the various vocalization traditions (<a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian</a> and varieties of <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a>), and those of the Samaritan tradition, with vowels absent in some traditions color-coded. <table> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:25%">Proto-Hebrew<a href="#cite_note-david-115">[98]</a> </th> <th style="width:10%">Biblical Hebrew<a href="#cite_note-david-115">[98]</a> </th> <th style="width:25%">Secunda Hebrew<a href="#cite_note-j54-116">[99]</a> </th> <th style="width:25%">Tiberian, Babylonian, and Palestinian Hebrew<a href="#cite_note-117">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[102]</a> </th> <th style="width:25%">Samaritan Hebrew<a href="#cite_note-120">[103]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center"> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> <a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> <a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center">(<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>) </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> <a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>1 <a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>2 <a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>3 </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>4 <a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a>5 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td align="center"> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a> <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a> <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>1 <a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Reduced </th> <td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td align="center"> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td align="center" style="background:#BBDDEE"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>1 </td> <td align="center" style="background:#BBDDEE"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>2 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Reduced </th> <td align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#BBDDEE">ă3 <a href="/wiki/Extra-shortness" title="Extra-shortness">ɔ̆</a>3 (<a href="/wiki/Extra-shortness" title="Extra-shortness">ɛ̆</a>)3 <a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>3 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td align="center"> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> <a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> <a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a> <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a> </td> <td align="center">(<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>)1 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> <a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a> <a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Reduced </th> <td colspan="2" align="center">(<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>)2 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td> </td> <td>possible allophones <ol><li>/i/ – [i] [ɪ] [ẹ/ɛ]</li> <li>/u/ – [o̞] [o] [ʊ] [u]</li> <li>/eː/ – [ẹː] [ɛː]</li> <li>/a/ – [ɛ] [a] [ɐ]</li> <li>/aː/ – [aː] [ɐː]</li></ol> </td> <td> <ol><li>possibly pronounced [æ], as the orthography alternates ⟨α⟩ and ⟨ε⟩<a href="#cite_note-j173-121">[104]</a></li></ol> </td> <td> <ol><li>merges with /e/ in the Palestinian tradition and with /a/ in the Babylonian tradition<a href="#cite_note-122">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-b118-119-123">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-seph-124">[nb 18]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[nb 19]</a></li> <li>merges with /a/ or /o/ in the Palestinian tradition<a href="#cite_note-b118-119-123">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-seph-124">[nb 18]</a><a href="#cite_note-y16-126">[107]</a></li> <li>The Tiberian tradition has the reduced vowel phonemes /ă ɔ̆/ and marginal /ɛ̆/, while Palestinian and Babylonian have one, /ə/ (pronounced as [ɛ] in later Palestinian Hebrew)</li></ol> </td> <td> <ol><li>/u/ and /o/ only contrast in open post-tonic syllables, e.g. ידו /jedu/ ('his hand') ידיו /jedo/ ('his hands'), where /o/ stems from a contracted diphthong.<a href="#cite_note-bhou-127">[108]</a> In other environments, /o/ appears in closed syllables and /u/ in open syllables, e.g. דור /dor/ דורות /durot/.<a href="#cite_note-bhou-127">[108]</a></li> <li>results from both /i/ and /e/ in closed post-tonic syllables<a href="#cite_note-bh49-128">[109]</a></li></ol> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sound_changes">Sound changes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sound changes">edit</a>]</div> The following sections present the vowel changes that Biblical Hebrew underwent, in approximate chronological order. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Proto-Central-Semitic">Proto-Central-Semitic</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Proto-Central-Semitic">edit</a>]</div> Proto-Semitic is the ancestral language of all the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>, and in traditional reconstructions possessed 29 consonants; 6 monophthong vowels, consisting of three qualities and two lengths, */a aː i iː u uː/, in which the long vowels occurred only in open syllables; and two diphthongs */aj aw/.<a href="#cite_note-b111-129">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[111]</a> The stress system of Proto-Semitic is unknown but it is commonly described as being much like the system of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> or the modern pronunciation of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a>: If the penultimate (second last) syllable is light (has a short vowel followed by a single consonant), stress goes on the antepenult (third to last); otherwise, it goes on the penult. Various changes, mostly in morphology, took place between <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Semitic">Proto-Semitic</a> and Proto-Central-Semitic, the language at the root of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic languages</a>. The phonemic system was inherited essentially unchanged, but the <a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic consonants</a> may have changed their realization in Central Semitic from <a href="/wiki/Ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejective">ejectives</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealized consonants</a>. The morphology of Proto-Central-Semitic shows significant changes compared with Proto-Semitic, especially in its verbs, and is much like in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a>. Nouns in the singular were usually declined in three cases: /-u/ (nominative), /-a/ (accusative) or /-i/ (genitive). In some circumstances (but never in the <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct state</a>), nouns also took a final nasal after the case ending: nunation (final /-n/) occurred in some languages, mimation (final /-m/) in others. The original meaning of this marker is uncertain. In Classical Arabic, final /-n/ on nouns indicates indefiniteness and disappears when the noun is preceded by a <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a> or otherwise becomes definite in meaning. In other languages, final /-n/ may be present whenever a noun is not in the <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct state</a>. <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Old Canaanite</a> had mimation, of uncertain meaning, in an occurrence of the word urušalemim (<a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>) as given in an Egyptian transcription.<a href="#cite_note-131">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Broken_plural" title="Broken plural">Broken plural</a> forms in Arabic are declined like singulars, and often take singular agreement as well. Dual and "strong plural" forms use endings with a long vowel or diphthong, declined in only two cases: nominative and objective (combination accusative/genitive), with the objective form often becoming the default one after the loss of case endings. Both Hebrew and Arabic had a special form of nunation/mimation that co-occurred with the dual and masculine sound plural endings whenever the noun was not in the construct state. The endings were evidently felt as an inherent part of the ending and, as a result, are still used. Examples are Arabic strong masculine plural -ūna (nominative), -īna (objective), and dual endings -āni (nominative), -ayni (objective); corresponding construct-state endings are -ū, -ī (strong masculine plural), -ā, -ay (dual). (The strong feminine endings in Classical Arabic are -ātu nominative, -āti objective, marked with a singular-style -n nunation in the indefinite state only.) If Hebrew had at some point had the <a href="/wiki/Broken_plural" title="Broken plural">broken plural</a>, any vestigial forms that may remain have been extended with the strong plural endings. The dual and strong plural endings were likely much like the Arabic forms given above at one point, with only the objective-case forms ultimately surviving. For example, dual -ayim is probably from *-aymi with an extended mimation ending (cf. Arabic -ayni above), while dual construct -ē is from *-ay without mimation. Similarly, -īm < *-īma, -ōt < *-āti. (Expected plural construct state *-ī was replaced by dual -ē.) Feminine nouns at this point ended in a suffix /-at-/ or /-t-/ in case endings. When the ending was final because of loss or non-presence of the case ending, it is replaced with /-ah/ and then /-aː/ in both Hebrew and Arabic. The final /t/ consonant therefore is silent in the absolute state, but becomes /t/ again in the construct state and when these words take suffixes, e.g. תֹורָה /toːraː/ "law" becomes תֹורַת /toːrat/ "law of", and תֹורָתְךָ /toːraːtəxaː/ "your law", etc. (This is equivalent to the Arabic letter Tāʼ Marbūṭah ة, a modified final form of the letter He ه which indicates this same phoneme shifting, and only its pronunciation varies between construct and absolute state.) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Potential_Canaanite_shift">Potential Canaanite shift</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Potential Canaanite shift">edit</a>]</div> Hebrew shows certain aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shift" title="Canaanite shift">Canaanite shift</a> whereby */aː/ often shifted to /oː/; the conditions of this shift are disputed.<a href="#cite_note-Blau_2010_136-137-38">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[nb 20]</a> This shift had occurred by the 14th century BCE, as demonstrated by its presence in the <a href="/wiki/Amarna_letters" title="Amarna letters">Amarna letters</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1365 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-133">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Proto-Hebrew">Proto-Hebrew</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Proto-Hebrew">edit</a>]</div> As a result of the Canaanite shift, the Proto-Hebrew vowel system is reconstructed as */a aː oː i iː u uː/ (and possibly rare */eː/).<a href="#cite_note-david-115">[98]</a> Furthermore, stress at this point appears to have shifted so that it was consistently on the penultimate (next to last) syllable, and was still non-phonemic. The predominant final stress of Biblical Hebrew was a result of loss of final unstressed vowels and a shift away from remaining open syllables (see below). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Loss_of_final_unstressed_vowels">Loss of final unstressed vowels</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Loss of final unstressed vowels">edit</a>]</div> Final unstressed short vowels dropped out in most words, making it possible for long vowels to occur in closed syllables. This appears to have proceeded in two steps: <ol><li>Final short mood, etc. markers dropped in verbal forms.</li> <li>Final short case markers dropped in nominal forms.</li></ol> Vowel lengthening in stressed, open syllables occurred between the two steps, with the result that short vowels at the beginning of a -VCV ending lengthened in nouns but not verbs. This is most noticeable with short /a/: e.g. *kataba ('he wrote') > /kɔˈθav/ but *dabara ('word' acc.') > /dɔˈvɔr/. The dropping of final short vowels in verb forms tended to erase mood distinctions, but also some gender distinctions; however, unexpected vowel lengthening occurred in many situations to preserve the distinctions. For example, in the suffix conjugation, first-singular *-tu appears to have been remade into *-tī already by Proto-Hebrew on the basis of possessive -ī (likewise first singular personal pronoun *ʔana became *ʔanī).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Similarly, in the second-singular, inherited *-ta -ti competed with lengthened *-tā -tī for masculine and feminine forms. The expected result would be -t or -tā for masculine, -t or -tī for feminine, and in fact both variants of both forms are found in the Bible (with -h marking the long -ā and -y marking the long -ī). The situation appears to have been quite fluid for several centuries, with -t and -tā/tī forms found in competition both in writing and in speech (cf. the <a href="/wiki/Secunda_(Hexapla)" title="Secunda (Hexapla)">Secunda (Hexapla)</a> of <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a>, which records both pronunciations, although quite often in disagreement with the written form as passed down to us). Ultimately, writing stabilized on the shorter -t for both genders, while speech chose feminine -t but masculine -tā. This is the reason for the unexpected <a href="/wiki/Qamatz" class="mw-redirect" title="Qamatz">qamatz</a> vowel written under the final letter of such words. The exact same process affected possessive *-ka ('your' masc. sing.) and *-ki ('your' fem. sing.), and personal pronouns *ʔanta, *ʔanti, with the same split into shorter and longer forms and the same ultimate resolution. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Short_vowel_lengthening_(esp._pretonic),_lowering">Short vowel lengthening (esp. pretonic), lowering</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Short vowel lengthening (esp. pretonic), lowering">edit</a>]</div> The short vowels */a i u/ tended to lengthen in various positions. <ul><li>First, short vowels lengthened in an open syllable in pretonic position (i.e. directly before the stressed syllable).</li> <li>Later, short vowels lengthened in stressed open syllables.<a href="#cite_note-Janssens_1982_56-57-135">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[nb 21]</a></li></ul> In the process of lengthening, the high vowels were lowered. In the Secunda, the lengthened reflexes of /a i u/ are /aː eː oː/; when kept short they generally have reflexes /a e o/.<a href="#cite_note-137">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[nb 22]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[nb 23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Reduction_of_short_open_stressed_syllables">Reduction of short open stressed syllables</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Reduction of short open stressed syllables">edit</a>]</div> Stressed <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Open syllable">open syllables</a> with a short vowel (i.e. syllables consisting of a short vowel followed by a consonant and another vowel) had the vowel reduced to /ə/ and the stressed moved one syllable later in the word (usually to the last syllable of the word).<a href="#cite_note-140">[117]</a> Presumably, stress was originally penultimate and loss of final short vowels made many words have final stress. However, in this case, words whose final syllable had a long vowel or ended with a consonant were unaffected and still had penultimate stress at this point except in <a href="/wiki/Pausa" title="Pausa">pausal</a> position, where the penultimate stress is preserved, and vowel lengthening rather than reduction occurs. The previous three changes occurred in a complex, interlocking fashion: <ol><li>Shift of stress to be universally penultimate.</li> <li>Loss of final short vowels in verbs, pre-stress lengthening in open syllables. Pre-stress lengthening/lowering becomes a <a href="/wiki/Surface_filter" title="Surface filter">surface filter</a> that remains as a rule in the language, automatically affected any new short vowels in open syllables as they appear (but ultra-short vowels are unaffected).</li> <li>Stress movement from light syllable to following heavy syllable when not in <a href="/wiki/Pausa" title="Pausa">pausa</a>, with newly unstressed light syllable reducing the schwa.</li> <li>Tonic lengthening/lowering in open syllables.</li> <li>Loss of final short vowels in nouns.</li></ol> Examples: <table class="wikitable nowrap"> <caption>Possible derivation of some nominal/verbal forms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>'killing/killer (masc. sg.)' </th> <th>'he killed' </th> <th>'she killed' </th> <th>'they killed' </th> <th>'they killed' (<a href="/wiki/Pausa" title="Pausa">pausa</a>) </th> <th>'you (masc. sg.) kill' </th> <th>'you (fem. sg.) kill' </th></tr> <tr> <th>Proto-Central-Semitic </th> <td>*ˈqaːṭilu </td> <td>*ˈqaṭala </td> <td>*ˈqaṭalat </td> <td>*ˈqaṭaluː </td> <td>*ˈqaṭaluː </td> <td>*ˈtaqṭulu </td> <td>*taqṭuˈliː(na) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Pre-Hebrew </th> <td>*ˈqaːṭilu </td> <td>*ˈqaṭala </td> <td>*ˈqaṭalat </td> <td>*ˈqaṭaluː </td> <td>*ˈqaṭaluː </td> <td>*ˈtaqṭulu </td> <td>*ˈtaqṭuliː </td></tr> <tr> <th>Canaanite shift </th> <td>*ˈqoːṭilu </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Penultimate stress </th> <td>*qoːˈṭilu </td> <td>*qaˈṭala </td> <td>*qaˈṭalat </td> <td>*qaˈṭaluː </td> <td>*qaˈṭaluː </td> <td>*taqˈṭulu </td> <td>*taqˈṭuliː </td></tr> <tr> <th>Final short vowel loss (verb) </th> <td>— </td> <td>*qaˈṭal </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>*taqˈṭul </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Pre-tonic lengthening </th> <td>— </td> <td>*qaːˈṭal </td> <td>*qaːˈṭalat </td> <td>*qaːˈṭaluː </td> <td>*qaːˈṭaluː </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Stress shift / de-stressed reduction </th> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>*qaːṭəˈlat </td> <td>*qaːṭəˈluː </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>*taqṭəˈliː </td></tr> <tr> <th>Tonic lengthening/lowering </th> <td>*qoːˈṭeːlu </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>*qaːˈṭaːluː </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Final short vowel loss (noun) </th> <td>*qoːˈṭeːl </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Feminine /-at/ > /aː/ </th> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>*qaːṭəˈlaː </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Short vowel lowering </th> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>*taqˈṭol </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Law of attenuation </th> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>*tiqˈṭol </td> <td>*tiqṭəˈliː </td></tr> <tr> <th>Tiberian /aː/ > /ɔː/ </th> <td>*qoːˈṭeːl </td> <td>*qɔːˈṭal </td> <td>*qɔːṭəˈlɔː </td> <td>*qɔːṭəˈluː </td> <td>*qɔːˈṭɔːluː </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th>Loss of phonemic vowel length; attested Tiberian form </th> <td>qoˈṭel </td> <td>qɔˈṭal </td> <td>qɔṭəˈlɔ </td> <td>qɔṭəˈlu </td> <td>qɔˈṭɔlu </td> <td>tiqˈṭol </td> <td>tiqṭəˈli </td></tr></tbody></table> Many, perhaps most, Hebrew words with a schwa directly before a final stress are due to this stress shift. This sound change shifted many more originally penultimate-stressed words to have final stress. The above changes can be seen to divide words into a number of main classes based on stress and syllable properties: <ol><li>Proto-Hebrew words with an open penult and short-vowel ending: Become final-stressed (e.g. /qɔˈṭal/ ('he killed') < PHeb. /qaˈṭala/).</li> <li>Proto-Hebrew words with a closed penult and short-vowel ending: Become penultimate due to segholate rule (e.g. /ˈmɛlɛx/ ('king') < */malku/).</li> <li>Proto-Hebrew words with an open short penult and longer ending: Become final-stressed due to stress shift (e.g. /qɔṭəˈlu/ ('they killed') < PHeb. /qaˈṭaluː/).</li> <li>Proto-Hebrew words with a closed penult and longer ending: Remain penultimate (e.g. /qɔˈṭalti/ ('I killed') < PHeb. /qaˈṭaltiː/).</li> <li>Proto-Hebrew words with an open long penult and longer ending: ???</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pre-stress_reduction_of_short_vowel">Pre-stress reduction of short vowel</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pre-stress reduction of short vowel">edit</a>]</div> */a i u/ were reduced to /ə/ in the second syllable before the stress,<a href="#cite_note-j54-116">[99]</a> and occasionally reduced rather than lengthened in pretonic position, especially when initial (e.g. σεμω = שמו /ʃəˈmo/ 'his name').<a href="#cite_note-j120-141">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[nb 24]</a> Thus the vowel system of the Secunda was /a e eː iː o oː uː ə/.<a href="#cite_note-j54-116">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Later_developments">Later developments</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Later developments">edit</a>]</div> The later Jewish traditions (Tiberian, Babylonian, Palestinian) show similar vowel developments. By the Tiberian time, all short vowels in stressed syllables and open pretonic lengthened, making vowel length allophonic.<a href="#cite_note-143">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[nb 25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Blau_2010_82,_110-145">[120]</a> Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length (e.g. /a/ in יְרַחֵם /jəraˈħem/ [jəraːˈħeːm] ('he will have mercy') < previously short [jəraˈħeːm] < [jəraħˈħeːm] by Tiberian degemination of /ħ/ < PSem */juraħˈħimu/).<a href="#cite_note-Blau_2010_82,_110-145">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[nb 26]</a> The Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations systems also do not mark vowel length.<a href="#cite_note-length-100">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-b118-119-123">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-jqimhi-147">[121]</a> In the Tiberian and Babylonian systems, */aː/ and lengthened */a/ become the back vowel /ɔ/.<a href="#cite_note-b118-119-123">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-r77-148">[122]</a> In unaccented closed syllables, */i u/ become /ɛ⁓i ɔ⁓u/ (Tiberian), /a⁓i u/ (Babylonian), or /e⁓i o⁓u/ (Palestinian) – generally becoming the second vowel before geminates (e.g. לִבִּי) and the first otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-b118-119-123">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-y16-126">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-r77-148">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[nb 27]</a> In the Tiberian tradition pretonic vowels are reduced more commonly than in the Secunda. It does not occur for /*a/, but is occasional for /*i/ (e.g. מסמְרים /masməˈrim/ 'nails' < */masmiriːm/), and is common for /*u/ (e.g. רְחוֹב /rəˈħoβ 'open place' < */ruħaːb/).<a href="#cite_note-j120-141">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-breduc-151">[124]</a> In Tiberian Hebrew pretonic /*u/ is most commonly preserved by geminating the following consonant, e.g. אדֻמּים /ăðumˈmim/ ('red' pl.) (cf. /ăˈðom/ 'red' sg.); this pretonic gemination is also found in some forms with other vowels like אַסִּיר⁓אָסִיר /ɔˈsir/⁓/asˈsir/ ('prisoner').<a href="#cite_note-152">[125]</a> The Babylonian and Palestinian systems have only one reduced vowel phoneme /ə/ like the Secunda, though in Palestinian Hebrew it developed the pronunciation [ɛ].<a href="#cite_note-j54-116">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-b118-119-123">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[126]</a> However the Tiberian tradition possesses three reduced vowels /ă ɔ̆ ɛ̆/ of which /ɛ̆/ has questionable phonemicity.<a href="#cite_note-b117-118-154">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[nb 28]</a> /ă/ under a non-guttural letter was pronounced as an ultrashort copy of the following vowel before a guttural, e.g. וּבָקְעָה [uvɔqɔ̆ˈʕɔ], and as [ĭ] preceding /j/, e.g. תְדֵמְּיוּ֫נִי [θăðamːĭˈjuni], but was always pronounced as [ă] under gutturals, e.g. שָחֲחו, חֲיִי.<a href="#cite_note-y281-282-157">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-b105-106-158">[130]</a> When reduced, etymological */a i u/ become /ă ɛ̆⁓ă ɔ̆/ under gutturals (e.g. אֲמרתם 'you [mp.] said' cf. אָמר 'he said'), and generally /ă/ under non-gutturals, but */u/ > /ɔ̆/ (and rarely */i/ > /ɛ̆/) may still occur, especially after stops (or their spirantized counterparts) and /sʼ ʃ/ (e.g. דֳּמִי /dɔ̆ˈmi/).<a href="#cite_note-b84-85-159">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-y282-283-160">[132]</a> Samaritan and Qumran Hebrew have full vowels in place of the reduced vowels of Tiberian Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-s160-161">[133]</a> Samaritan Hebrew also does not reflect etymological vowel length; however the elision of guttural consonants has created new phonemic vowel length, e.g. /rɒb/ רב ('great') vs. /rɒːb/ רחב ('wide').<a href="#cite_note-bhlen-162">[134]</a> Samaritan Hebrew vowels are allophonically lengthened (to a lesser degree) in open syllables, e.g. המצרי [ammisˤriˑ], היא [iˑ], though this is less strong in post-tonic vowels.<a href="#cite_note-bhlen-162">[134]</a> Pretonic gemination is also found in Samaritan Hebrew, but not always in the same locations as in Tiberian Hebrew, e.g. גמלים TH /ɡămalːim/ SH /ɡɒmɒləm/; שלמים TH /ʃălɔmim/ SH /ʃelamːəm/.<a href="#cite_note-bh62-163">[135]</a> While Proto-Hebrew long vowels usually retain their vowel quality in the later traditions of Hebrew,<a href="#cite_note-r77-148">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-jlong-164">[136]</a> in Samaritan Hebrew */iː/ may have reflex /e/ in closed stressed syllables, e.g. דין /den/, */aː/ may become either /a/ or /ɒ/,<a href="#cite_note-bhlong-165">[137]</a> and */oː/ > /u/.<a href="#cite_note-bhlong-165">[137]</a> The reduced vowels of the other traditions appear as full vowels, though there may be evidence that Samaritan Hebrew once had similar vowel reduction. Samaritan /ə/ results from the neutralization of the distinction between /i/ and /e/ in closed post-tonic syllables, e.g. /bit/ בית ('house') /abbət/ הבית ('the house') /ɡer/ גר /aɡɡər/ הגר.<a href="#cite_note-bh49-128">[109]</a> Various more specific conditioned shifts of vowel quality have also occurred. Diphthongs were frequently monophthongized, but the scope and results of this shift varied among dialects. In particular, the Samaria ostraca show /jeːn/ < */jajn/ < */wajn/<a href="#cite_note-166">[nb 29]</a> for Southern /jajin/ ('wine'), and Samaritan Hebrew shows instead the shift */aj/ > /iː/.<a href="#cite_note-sclas-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-ssam-167">[138]</a> Original */u/ tended to shift to /i/ (e.g. אֹמֶר and אִמְרָה 'word'; חוץ 'outside' and חיצון 'outer') beginning in the second half of the second millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-sdis-168">[139]</a> This was carried through completely in Samaritan Hebrew but met more resistance in other traditions such as the Babylonian and Qumran traditions.<a href="#cite_note-sdis-168">[139]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philippi%27s_law" title="Philippi's law">Philippi's law</a> is the process by which original */i/ in closed stressed syllables shifts to /a/ (e.g. /*bint/ > בַּת /bat/ 'daughter'), or sometimes in the Tiberian tradition /ɛ/ (e.g. /*ʔamint/ > אֱמֶת /ɛ̆mɛt/ 'truth').<a href="#cite_note-bphil-169">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[nb 30]</a> This is absent in the transcriptions of the Secunda,<a href="#cite_note-171">[141]</a> but there is evidence that the law's onset predates the Secunda. In the Samaritan tradition Philippi's law is applied consistently, e.g. */libː-u/ > /lab/ ('heart').<a href="#cite_note-bhp-172">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[nb 31]</a> In some traditions the short vowel /*a/ tended to shift to /i/ in unstressed closed syllables: this is known as the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_attenuation" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of attenuation">law of attenuation</a>. It is common in the Tiberian tradition, e.g. */ʃabʕat/ > Tiberian שִבְעָה /ʃivˈʕɔ/ ('seven'), but exceptions are frequent.<a href="#cite_note-b132-174">[143]</a> It is less common in the Babylonian vocalization, e.g. /ʃabʕɔ/ ('seven'), and differences in Greek and Latin transcriptions demonstrate that it began quite late.<a href="#cite_note-b132-174">[143]</a> Attenuation generally did not occur before /i⁓e/, e.g. Tiberian מַפְתֵּחַ /mafˈteħ/ ('key') versus מִפְתַּח /mifˈtaħ/ ('opening [construct]'), and often was blocked before a geminate, e.g. מתנה ('gift').<a href="#cite_note-b132-174">[143]</a> Attenuation is rarely present in Samaritan Hebrew, e.g. מקדש /maqdaʃ/.<a href="#cite_note-175">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[nb 32]</a> In the Tiberian tradition /e i o u/ take offglide /a/ before /h ħ ʕ/.<a href="#cite_note-b83-177">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[nb 33]</a> This is absent in the Secunda and in Samaritan Hebrew but present in the transcriptions of Jerome.<a href="#cite_note-ssam-167">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[146]</a> In the Tiberian tradition an ultrashort <a href="/wiki/Echo_vowel" title="Echo vowel">echo vowel</a> is sometimes added to clusters where the first element is a guttural, e.g. יַאֲזִין /jaʔăzin/ ('he will listen') פָּעֳלוֹ /pɔʕɔ̆lo/ ('his work') but יַאְדִּיר /jaʔdir/ ('he will make glorious') רָחְבּוֹ /ʀɔħbo/ 'its breadth'.<a href="#cite_note-b84-85-159">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[nb 34]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[nb 35]</a> The following chart summarizes the most regular reflexes of the Proto-Semitic vowels in the various stages of Hebrew: <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible"> <caption>Hebrew vowel reflexes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" rowspan="3">Hebrew vowel reflexes </th> <th colspan="5">Hebrew language stage </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Secunda_(Hexapla)" title="Secunda (Hexapla)">Secunda</a> </th> <th colspan="3">Jewish </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_vocalization" title="Samaritan vocalization">Samaritan1</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="14">Proto-Hebrew vowel </th> <th rowspan="3">*a </th> <th>usual7 </th> <td>a </td> <td colspan="3">a, i2 </td> <td rowspan="3">a, ɒ </td></tr> <tr> <th>lengthened5 </th> <td>aː </td> <td>a </td> <td colspan="2">ɔ </td></tr> <tr> <th>reduced6 </th> <td>ə </td> <td colspan="2">ə </td> <td>ă </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">*i </th> <th>usual7 </th> <td>e </td> <td colspan="2">e, i8, a3 </td> <td>ɛ, i8, a3 </td> <td>e, i, a3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>lengthened5 </th> <td>eː </td> <td colspan="3">e </td> <td>e </td></tr> <tr> <th>reduced6 </th> <td>ə </td> <td colspan="2">ə </td> <td>ă, ɛ̆ </td> <td>e, i, a3 </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">*u </th> <th>usual7 </th> <td>o </td> <td>o, u8 </td> <td colspan="2">ɔ, u8 </td> <td rowspan="3">a, ɒ, i </td></tr> <tr> <th>lengthened5 </th> <td>oː </td> <td colspan="3">o </td></tr> <tr> <th>reduced6 </th> <td>ə </td> <td colspan="2">ə </td> <td>ă, ɔ̆ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">*aː→*oː </th> <td>oː </td> <td colspan="3">o </td> <td>u </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">*iː </th> <td>iː </td> <td colspan="3">i </td> <td>e, i </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">*uː </th> <td>uː </td> <td colspan="3">u </td> <td>o, u4 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">*aj→*ej </th> <td>eː </td> <td colspan="3">e </td> <td>iː, i </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">*aw→*ow </th> <td>oː </td> <td colspan="3">o </td> <td>uː, o </td></tr></tbody></table> All Proto-Hebrew short vowels were deleted word-finally. Notes:<div style="font-size:88%"> <ol><li><big><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan Hebrew</a> vowels may be lengthened in the presence of etymological guttural consonants. /ə/ results from both /i/ and /e/ in closed post-tonic syllables.</big></li> <li><big>with the <a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">law of attenuation</a>.</big></li> <li><big>with <a href="/wiki/Philippi%27s_law" title="Philippi's law">Philippi's law</a>.</big></li> <li><big>Samaritan /o u/ are nearly in complementary distribution (/o/ in open syllables, /u/ in closed syllables). /o/ contrasts only stressed final syllables.</big></li> <li><big>lengthening occurs in some open one syllable away from the stress and some stressed syllables; exact conditions depend on the vowel and reading tradition</big></li> <li><big>reduction occurs in the open syllables two syllables away from the stress and sometimes also in pretonic and stressed open syllables; exact conditions depend on the vowel and reading tradition.</big></li> <li><big>mainly in most closed syllables.</big></li> <li><big>more common before long consonants.</big></li></ol> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stress">Stress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Stress">edit</a>]</div> Proto-Hebrew generally had penultimate stress.<a href="#cite_note-j52-182">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[nb 36]</a> The ultimate stress of later traditions of Hebrew usually resulted from the loss of final vowels in many words, preserving the location of proto-Semitic stress.<a href="#cite_note-184">[nb 37]</a> Tiberian Hebrew has phonemic stress, e.g. בָּנוּ֫ /bɔˈnu/ ('they built') vs. בָּ֫נוּ /ˈbɔnu/ ('in us'); stress is most commonly ultimate, less commonly penultimate, and antipenultimate stress exists marginally, e.g. הָאֹ֫הֱלָה /hɔˈʔohɛ̆lɔ/ ('into the tent').<a href="#cite_note-b143-144-185">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[nb 38]</a> There does not seem to be evidence for stress in the Secunda varying from that of the Tiberian tradition.<a href="#cite_note-187">[149]</a> Despite sharing the loss of final vowels with Tiberian Hebrew, Samaritan Hebrew has generally not preserved Proto-Semitic stress, and has predominantly penultimate stress, with occasional ultimate stress.<a href="#cite_note-188">[150]</a> There is evidence that Qumran Hebrew had a similar stress pattern to Samaritan Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-s160-161">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> Medieval grammarians of Arabic and Hebrew classified words as belonging to three <a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">parts of speech</a>: Arabic ism ('noun'), fiʻl ('verb'), and ḥarf ('particle'); other grammarians have included more categories.<a href="#cite_note-pos-189">[151]</a> In particular, adjectives and nouns show more affinity to each other than in most European languages.<a href="#cite_note-pos-189">[151]</a> Biblical Hebrew has a typical <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> morphology, characterized by the use of roots. Most words in Biblical Hebrew are formed from a root, a sequence of consonants with a general associated meaning.<a href="#cite_note-sroot-190">[152]</a> Roots are usually triconsonantal, with biconsonantal roots less common (depending on how some words are analyzed) and rare cases of quadri- and quinquiconsonantal roots.<a href="#cite_note-sroot-190">[152]</a> Roots are modified by <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixation</a> to form words.<a href="#cite_note-sroot-190">[152]</a> Verbal patterns are more productive and consistent, while noun patterns are less predictable.<a href="#cite_note-sroot2-191">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns_and_adjectives">Nouns and adjectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Nouns and adjectives">edit</a>]</div> The most common nominal prefix used is /m/, used for substantives of location (מוֹשָׁב 'assembly'), instruments (מַפְתֵּֽחַ 'key'), and abstractions (מִשְׁפָּט 'judgement').<a href="#cite_note-prefs-192">[154]</a> The vowel after /m/ is normally /a/, but appears sometimes as /i/, or in the case of מוֹשָׁב as /o/ (contracted from */aw/).<a href="#cite_note-prefs-192">[154]</a> The prefix /t/ is used to denote the action of the verb; it is derived from more common for initial-/w/ verbs, e.g. תּוֹדָה ('thanksgiving'; < ydy).<a href="#cite_note-prefs-192">[154]</a> Prefixed /ʔ/ is used in adjectives, e.g. אַכְזָב ('deceptive'), and also occurs in nouns with initial sibilants, e.g. אֶצְבַּע ('finger').<a href="#cite_note-prefs-192">[154]</a> In the latter case this prefix was added for phonetic reasons, and the א prefix is called either "prothetic" or "prosthetic".<a href="#cite_note-prefs-192">[154]</a> Prefixed ע often occurs in quadriliteral animal names, perhaps as a prefix, e.g. עֲטַלֵּף ('bat'), עַכְבָּר ('mouse'), עַקְרָב ('scorpion').<a href="#cite_note-prefs-192">[154]</a> In proto-Semitic nouns were marked for case: in the singular the markers were */-u/ in the <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, */-a/ in the <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a> (used also for adverbials), and */-i/ in the <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>, as evidenced in Akkadian, Ugaritic, and Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-193">[155]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Amarna_letters" title="Amarna letters">Amarna letters</a> show that this was probably still present in Hebrew <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1350 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-scase-194">[156]</a> In the development of Hebrew, final */-u, -i/ were dropped first, and later */-a/ was elided as well.<a href="#cite_note-b267-8-195">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mimation" title="Mimation">Mimation</a>, a nominal suffix */-m/ of unclear meaning, was found in early Canaanite, as shown by early Egyptian transcriptions (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1800 BCE) of Jerusalem as Urušalimim, but there is no indication of its presence after 1800 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-b267-8-195">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[nb 39]</a> Final */-a/ is preserved in לַ֫יְלָה /ˈlajlɔ/, originally meaning 'at night' but in prose replacing לַ֫יִל /ˈlajil/ ('night'), and in the "connective vowels" of some prepositions (originally adverbials), e.g. עִמָּ֫נוּ ('with us'); nouns preserve */-i/ in forms like יָדֵ֫נוּ.<a href="#cite_note-197">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[nb 40]</a> Construct state nouns lost case vowels at an early period (similar to Akkadian), as shown by the reflexes of */ɬadaju/ (שָֹדֶה in absolute but שְׂדֵה in construct) and the reflexes of */jadu/ (יָד and יַד)<a href="#cite_note-199">[159]</a> However forms like יָדֵ֫נוּ show that this was not yet a feature of Proto-Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-200">[160]</a> Biblical Hebrew has two genders, masculine and feminine, which are reflected in nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs.<a href="#cite_note-201">[161]</a> Hebrew distinguishes between singular and plural numbers, and plural forms may also be used for collectives and honorifics.<a href="#cite_note-202">[162]</a> Hebrew has a morphological dual form for nouns that naturally occur in pairs and for units of measurement and time which contrasts with the plural (יוֹם 'day' יוֹמַיִם 'two days' יָמִים 'days').<a href="#cite_note-wdual-203">[163]</a> A widespread misconception is that the Hebrew plural denotes three or more objects. In truth, it denotes two or more objects.<a href="#cite_note-204">[164]</a> However adjectives, pronouns, and verbs do not have dual forms, and most nominal dual forms can function as plurals (שֵׁשׁ כְּנָפַיִם 'six wings' from Isaiah 6:2).<a href="#cite_note-wdual-203">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[165]</a> Finite verbs are marked for subject person, number, and gender.<a href="#cite_note-206">[166]</a> Nouns also have a <a href="/wiki/Status_constructus" class="mw-redirect" title="Status constructus">construct</a> form which is used in genitive constructions.<a href="#cite_note-207">[167]</a> Nouns are marked as <a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definite</a> with the prefix /ha-/ followed by gemination of the initial consonant of the noun.<a href="#cite_note-def-208">[168]</a> In Tiberian Hebrew the vowel of the article may become /ɛ/ or /ɔ/ in certain phonetic environments, for example הֶחָכָם /hɛħɔˈxɔm/ ('the wise man'), הָאִישׁ /hɔˈʔiʃ/ ('the man').<a href="#cite_note-def2-209">[169]</a> The traditions differ on the form of <a href="/wiki/Segolate" title="Segolate">segolate</a> nouns, nouns stemming from roots with two final consonants. The anaptyctic /ɛ/ of the Tiberian tradition in segolates appears in the Septuagint (3rd century BCE) but not the Hexapla (2nd century CE), e.g. גֶּתֶר /ˈɡɛθɛr/ = Γαθερ versus כֵּסֶל /ˈkesɛl/ = Χεσλ (Psalms 49:14).<a href="#cite_note-bseg-210">[170]</a> This may reflect dialectal variation or phonetic versus phonemic transcriptions.<a href="#cite_note-bseg-210">[170]</a> Both the Palestinian and Babylonian traditions have an anaptyctic vowel in segolates, /e/ in the Palestinian tradition (e.g. /ʔeresʼ/ 'land' = Tiberian אֶרֶץ Deuteronomy 26:15) and /a/ in Babylonian (e.g. /ħepasʼ/ 'item' = Tiberian חֵפֶץ Jeremiah 22:28).<a href="#cite_note-211">[171]</a> The Qumran tradition sometimes shows some type of back epenthetic vowel when the first vowel is back, e.g. ⟨אוהול⟩ for Tiberian ⟨אֹהֶל⟩ /ˈʔohɛl/ ('tent'). Biblical Hebrew has two sets of personal pronouns: the free-standing independent pronouns have a nominative function, while the pronominal suffixes are genitive or accusative.<a href="#cite_note-wp-212">[172]</a> Only the first person suffix has different possessive and objective forms (-י and -ני).<a href="#cite_note-sb-213">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Verbs">edit</a>]</div> Verbal consonantal roots are placed into <a href="/wiki/Derived_stem" title="Derived stem">derived verbal stems</a>, known as בִּנְיָנִים binyanim in Hebrew; the binyanim mainly serve to indicate <a href="/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" title="Voice (grammar)">grammatical voice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sb-213">[173]</a> This includes various distinctions of reflexivity, passivity, and causativity.<a href="#cite_note-sb-213">[173]</a> Verbs of all binyanim have three non-finite forms (one <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participle</a>, two <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitives</a>), three modal forms (<a href="/wiki/Cohortative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cohortative mood">cohortative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jussive_mood" title="Jussive mood">jussive</a>), and two major conjugations (prefixing, suffixing).<a href="#cite_note-sconj-214">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[nb 41]</a> The meaning of the prefixing and suffixing conjugations are also affected by the conjugation ו, and their meaning with respect to <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> is a matter of debate.<a href="#cite_note-sconj-214">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_order">Word order</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Word order">edit</a>]</div> The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is commonly thought to be <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">VSO</a>,<a href="#cite_note-216">[175]</a> though one scholar has argued that this is due to the prevalence of clauses with a <a href="/wiki/Waw-consecutive" class="mw-redirect" title="Waw-consecutive">wayyiqtol verb form</a> compared to other less <a href="/wiki/Markedness" title="Markedness">marked</a> forms that use SVO either more often or at least to a comparable degree.<a href="#cite_note-217">[176]</a> <a href="/wiki/Attributive_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Attributive adjective">Attributive adjectives</a> normally follow the noun they modify.<a href="#cite_note-218">[177]</a> In Biblical Hebrew, possession is normally expressed with <a href="/wiki/Status_constructus" class="mw-redirect" title="Status constructus">status constructus</a>, a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced, "construct" form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal, "absolute" form.<a href="#cite_note-219">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[179]</a> Pronominal direct objects are either suffixed to the verb or alternatively expressed on the object-marking pronoun את.<a href="#cite_note-glinert-221">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tense_and_aspect">Tense and aspect</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Tense and aspect">edit</a>]</div> Biblical Hebrew has two main conjugation types, the suffix conjugation, also called the Perfect, and the prefix conjugation, also called Imperfect. The Perfect verb form expressed the idea of the verb as a completed action, viewing it from start to finish as a whole, and not focusing on the process by which the verb came to be completed, stating it as a simple fact. This is often used in the past tense; however, there are some contexts in which a Perfect verb translates into the present and future tenses.<a href="#cite_note-222">[181]</a> The Imperfect portrays the verb as an incomplete action along with the process by which it came about, either as an event that has not begun, an event that has begun but is still in the process, or a habitual or cyclic action that is on an ongoing repetition. The Imperfect can also express modal or conditional verbs, as well as commands in the Jussive and Cohortative moods. It is conjectured that the imperfect can express modal quality through the <a href="/wiki/Paragogic_nun" title="Paragogic nun">paragogic nun</a> added to certain imperfect forms.<a href="#cite_note-223">[182]</a> While often future tense, it also has uses in the past and present under certain contexts. Biblical Hebrew tense is not necessarily reflected in the verb forms per se, but rather is determined primarily by context. The Participles also reflect ongoing or continuous actions, but are also subject to the context determining their tense. The verbal forms can be Past Tense in these circumstances:<a href="#cite_note-:0-224">[183]</a> <ul><li>Perfect, Simple Past: in narrative, reflects a simple completed action, perception, emotion or mental process, and can also be past tense from the perspective of a prior verb which is used in future tense</li> <li>Imperfect, Waw Consecutive Preterite: simple past tense which takes the וַ prefix as a conjunction, appears at the beginning of a clause when it is connected in a narrative sequence with previous clauses, where the conjunction can be translated as 'and then', 'then', 'but', 'however', sometimes is not translated at all, and can even have a parenthetical function as if suggesting the clause is like a side note to the main focus of the narrative</li> <li>Imperfect, Past: reflecting not just a past action but also suggesting the process with which it was being done, e.g.: "I brought the horse to a halt", "I began to hear"</li> <li>Imperfect, Cyclic Past: reflecting a habitual or cyclic action over time, e.g. "this is what Job would always do"</li> <li>Participle in Past Tense: an active or passive Participle being used in its imperfect verbal sense in the past, e.g. "and the Spirit of God was hovering"</li></ul> The verbal forms can be Present Tense in these circumstances:<a href="#cite_note-:0-224">[183]</a> <ul><li>Perfect, Proverbial/General Present: a general truth in the present tense which is not referring to a specific event, e.g. "the sun sets in the west"</li> <li>Perfect, Stative Present: present tense with verbs that depict a state of being rather than an action, including verbs of perception, emotion or mental process, e.g. "I love", "I hate", "I understand", "I know"</li> <li>Perfect, Present Perfect: a Present Perfect verb, e.g. "I have walked"</li> <li>Imperfect, Present Condition: an Imperfect verb in the present, one which implies that an action has been going on for some time and is still ongoing in the present, especially used of questions in the present, e.g. "what are you seeking?"</li> <li>Imperfect, Cyclic Present: an Imperfect verb in the present, reflecting a cyclic action in the present, e.g. "it is being said in the city", "a son makes his father glad"</li> <li>Participle in Present Tense: an active or passive Participle being used in its imperfect verbal sense in the present, e.g. "I am going"</li></ul> The verbal forms can be Future Tense in these circumstances:<a href="#cite_note-:0-224">[183]</a> <ul><li>Perfect, Waw Consecutive Future: by analogy to the Preterite, a simple future tense verb which takes the וְ prefix as a conjunction, appears at the beginning of a clause when it is connected in a narrative sequence with previous clauses, where the conjunction can be translated as 'and then', 'then', 'but', 'however', sometimes is not translated at all, and can even have a parenthetical function as if suggesting the clause is like a side note to the main focus of the narrative</li> <li>Perfect, Waw Consecutive Subjunctive: takes the וְ prefix as a conjunction to continue the Subjunctive Mood in a narrative sequence</li> <li>Perfect, Waw Consecutive Jussive/Cohortative: takes the וְ prefix as a conjunction to continue the Jussive and Cohortative Moods in a narrative sequence</li> <li>Perfect, Promise Future: the completeness of the verb form here expresses an imminent action in the context of promises, threats and the language of contracts and covenants in general, e.g. "I will give you this land", "will I have this pleasure?"</li> <li>Perfect, Prophetic Future: the completeness of the verb form here expresses an imminent action in the context of prophecy, e.g. "you will go into exile"</li> <li>Imperfect, Future: reflects a future event which has not yet come into completion, or one that has not yet begun, or future tense from the perspective of a prior verb which is used in past tense</li> <li>Imperfect, Subjunctive: reflects a potential, theoretical or modal verb, such as in conditional clauses, e.g. "If you go...", "she should stay"</li> <li>Imperfect, Jussive/Cohortative: reflects a non-immediate command, invitation, permission or wishful request, e.g. "let there be light", "you may eat from the tree", "let's go", "O that someone would get me a drink"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_text">Sample text</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sample text">edit</a>]</div> The following is a sample from <a href="/wiki/Psalm_18" title="Psalm 18">Psalm 18</a> as appears in the Masoretic text with medieval Tiberian niqqud and cantillation and the Greek transcription of the Secunda of the <a href="/wiki/Hexapla" title="Hexapla">Hexapla</a> along with its reconstructed pronunciation. <table border="0" width="100%" style="table-layout: fixed"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding-right:10px"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Tiberian Hebrew</div> <div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">28 כִּֽי־אַ֭תָּה תָּאִ֣יר נֵרִ֑י יְהוָ֥ה אֱ֝לֹהַ֗י יַגִּ֥יהַּ חָשְׁכִּֽי׃</div> <div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">29 כִּֽי־בְ֭ךָ אָרֻ֣ץ גְּד֑וּד וּ֝בֵֽאלֹהַ֗י אֲדַלֶּג־שֽׁוּר׃</div> <div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">30 הָאֵל֮ תָּמִ֪ים דַּ֫רְכּ֥וֹ אִמְרַֽת־יְהוָ֥ה צְרוּפָ֑ה מָגֵ֥ן ה֝֗וּא לְכֹ֤ל ׀ הַחֹסִ֬ים בּֽוֹ׃</div> <div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">31 כִּ֤י מִ֣י אֱ֭לוֹהַּ מִבַּלְעֲדֵ֣י יְהוָ֑ה וּמִ֥י צ֝֗וּר זוּלָתִ֥י אֱלֹהֵֽינוּ׃</div> </td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Pronunciation (Tiberian Hebrew)<a href="#cite_note-225">[184]</a> (<a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>)</div> 28. [kiː ʔatːɔ tɔʔiːr neriː <a href="/wiki/Tetragrammaton" title="Tetragrammaton">****</a> ʔɛ̆lohaj jaɡːiːah ħɔʃkiː] 29. [kiː văxɔ ʔɔrusˤ ɡăðuːð uːveʔlohaj ʔăðalːɛɣ ʃuːr] 30. [hɔʔel tɔmiːm darko ʔimraθ <a href="/wiki/Tetragrammaton" title="Tetragrammaton">****</a> sˤŭruːfɔ mɔɣen huːʔ lăxol haħosiːm bo] 31. [kiː miː ʔɛ̆loah mibːalʕăðej <a href="/wiki/Tetragrammaton" title="Tetragrammaton">****</a> uːmiː sˤuːr zuːlɔθiː ʔɛ̆lohenuː] </td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Secunda<a href="#cite_note-j173-121">[104]</a></div> 29. χι αθθα θαειρ νηρι YHWH ελωαι αγι οσχι 30. χι βαχ αρους γεδουδ ουβελωαι εδαλλεγ σουρ 31. αηλ θαμμιν (*-μ) δερχω εμαραθ YHWH σερουφα μαγεν ου λαχολ αωσιμ βω 32. χι μι ελω μεββελαδη YHWH ουμι σουρ ζουλαθι ελωννου (*-ηνου) </td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Pronunciation (Secunda)<a href="#cite_note-j173-121">[104]</a> (<a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>)</div> 29. [kiː ʔatːaː taːʔiːr neːriː <a href="/wiki/Tetragrammaton" title="Tetragrammaton">****</a> ʔaloːhaj aɡiːh ħoʃkiː] 30. [kiː baːk ʔaːruːsˤ ɡəduːd ubeloːhaj ʔədalːeɡ ʃuːr] 31. [haːʔeːl tamːiːm derkoː ʔemərat <a href="/wiki/Tetragrammaton" title="Tetragrammaton">****</a> sˤəruːfaː maːɡen huː ləkol haħoːsiːm boː] 32. [kiː miː ʔeloːh mebːelʕadeː <a href="/wiki/Tetragrammaton" title="Tetragrammaton">****</a> umiː sˤuːr zuːlaːtiː ʔeloːheːnuː] </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> This is known because the final redaction of the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>, which does not mention these additions, was <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600 CE, while dated manuscripts with vocalization are found in the beginning of the tenth century. See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:7) </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> However it is noteworthy that Akkadian shares many of these sound shifts but is less closely related to Hebrew than Aramaic. See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:19) </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> However, for example, when Old Aramaic borrowed the Canaanite alphabet it still had interdentals, but marked them with what they merged with in Canaanite. For instance 'ox' was written שר but pronounced with an initial /θ/. The same phenomenon also occurred when the Arabs adopted the Nabatean alphabet. See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:74–75). </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Recent archaeological research suggests that Aramaic may have started to incluence Biblical Hebrew already during the pre-exilic era. See <a href="#CITEREFBloch2017">Bloch (2017</a>:105) </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> As a consequence this would leave open the possibility that other proto-Semitic phonemes (such as */ð/) may have been preserved regionally at one point. See <a href="#CITEREFRendsburg1997">Rendsburg (1997</a>:72) </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Such contraction is also found in Ugaritic, the El-Amarna letters, and in Phoenician, while the anaptyctic vowel is found in Old Aramaic and Deir Alla. <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:44) </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> At times the Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, and Philistines would also use the Paleo-Hebrew script. See <a href="#CITEREFYardeni1997">Yardeni (1997</a>:25) </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Though some of these translations wrote the tetragrammaton in the square script See <a href="#CITEREFTov1992">Tov (1992</a>:220) </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ktiv_male" class="mw-redirect" title="Ktiv male">Ktiv male</a>, the Hebrew term for full spelling, has become de rigueur in Modern Hebrew. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> There are rare-cases of ⟨א⟩ being used medially as a true vowel letter, e.g. דָּאג for the usual דָּג 'fish'. Most cases, however, of ⟨א⟩ being used as a vowel letter are theorized to stem from conservative spelling of words which contained /ʔ/, e.g. רֹאשׁ ('head') from original */raʔʃ/. See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:86). There are also a number of exceptions to the rule of marking other long vowels, e.g. when the following syllable contains a vowel letters (like in קֹלֹוֹת 'voices' rather than קוֹלוֹת) or when a vowel letter already marks a consonant (so גּוֹיִם 'nations' rather than *גּוֹיִים). See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:6) </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Secunda_(Hexapla)" title="Secunda (Hexapla)">Secunda</a> is a transliteration of the Hebrew biblical text contained in the <a href="/wiki/Hexapla" title="Hexapla">Hexapla</a>, a recension of the Old Testament compiled by <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> in the 3rd century CE. There is evidence that the text of the Secunda was written before 100 BCE, despite the later date of the Hexapla. For example, by the time of Origen ⟨η, αι⟩ were pronounced [iː, ɛː], a merger which had already begun around 100 BCE, while in the Secunda they are used to represent Hebrew /eː aj/. See <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:14) </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> The Palestinian system has two main subtypes and shows great variation. <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:7) The Babylonian vocalization occurred in two main types (simple / einfach and complex / kompliziert), with various subgroups differing as to their affinity with the Tiberian tradition. <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:97–99) </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> In the Babylonian and Palestinian systems only the most important vowels were written. See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:118) </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Almost all vocalized manuscripts use the <a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Masoretic Text</a>. However, there are some vocalized Samaritan manuscripts from the Middle Ages. See <a href="#CITEREFTov1992">Tov (1992</a>:40) </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Or perhaps <a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a>, but this is unlikely See <a href="#CITEREFDolgopolsky1999">Dolgopolsky (1999</a>:72–3). </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of /χ, ʁ/ and /ħ, ʕ/, or else [x, χ] and [ɣ, ʁ] would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However Blau argues that it is possible that lenited /k/ and /χ/ could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac). See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:56). </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> The vowel before originally geminate /r ʔ/ usually shows compensatory lengthening, e.g. הָאָב /hɔˈʔɔv/ 'the father' < /*haʔːab/; with /ʕ/ preceding /*i/ tends to remain short; with /h/ original /*a/ also remains short, and /ħ/ generally does not cause compensatory lengthening, e.g. יְרַחֵם ('he will have compassion'). See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:81–83) </li> <li id="cite_note-seph-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-seph_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-seph_124-1">b</a> In this respect the Palestinian tradition corresponds to the modern <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi pronunciation</a>, and the Babylonian tradition to the modern <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite pronunciation</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> While the vowels /a e i ɔ o u/ certainly have phonemic status in the Tiberian tradition, /ɛ/ has phonemic value in final stressed position but in other positions it may reflect loss of the opposition /a ː i/. See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:111–112) </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> In fact, its scope of application is different in Samaritan and Tiberian Hebrew (e.g. פה 'here' Tiberian /po/ vs. Samaritan /fa/), see <a href="#CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000">Ben-Ḥayyim (2000</a>:83–86). Even in Tiberian Hebrew doublets are found, e.g. /kʼanːo(ʔ?)/ = /kʼanːɔ(ʔ?)/ ('zealous'). See <a href="#CITEREFSteiner1997">Steiner (1997</a>:147) </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Parallels to Aramaic syllable structure suggest pretonic lengthening may have occurred in the Second Temple period. See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:128–129) </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Long /aː eː oː/ were written as ⟨α η ω⟩, while short /a e o/ were written ⟨α/ε ε ο⟩. This length distinction is also found in the LXX. See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:110–111), <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:54), and <a href="#CITEREFDolgopolsky1999">Dolgopolsky (1999</a>:14) </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> In the Secunda /*a *i *u/ are preserved as short in syllables closed by two consonants and in the third syllable before the stress. See <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:54, 58–59) </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> The Secunda also has a few cases of pretonic gemination. See <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:119). </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> In fact, first all stressed vowels were lengthened in pause, see <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:58–59). This can be seen by forms like Tiberian כַּף /kaf/ < */kaf/, pausal כָּף /kɔf/ < */kɔːf/ < */kaːf/ < */kaf/. The shift in Tiberian Hebrew of */aː/ > */ɔː/ occurred after this lengthening, but before the loss of phonemicity of length (since words like ירחם with allophonically long [aː] do not show this shift). </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> This is attested to by the testimony of Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Qim%E1%B8%A5i" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Qimḥi">Joseph Qimḥi</a> (12th century) and by medieval Arabic transcriptions, see <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:54–56). There is also possible evidence from the cantillation marks' behavior and Babylonian pataḥ, see <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:82). </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> The Palestinian reflexes of Tiberian /ɔ/ (/a/ and /o/) thus reflect the qamatz gadol-qamatz qatan distinction. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> See אֳנִי /ɔ̆ˈni/ ('ships') אֲנִי /ăˈni/ ('I'), חֳלִי /ħɔ̆ˈli/ ('sickness') חֲלִי /ħăˈli/ ('ornament'), עֲלִי /ʕăˈli/ ('ascend!') (Num 21:17) and בַּעֱלִי /baʕɛ̆ˈli/ ('[with the] pestle'; Prov 27:22). <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:117–118) /ɛ̆/ alternates with /ă/ frequently and rarely contrasts with it, e.g. אֱדוֹם /ʔɛ̆ˈðom/ ('<a href="/wiki/Edom" title="Edom">Edom</a>') versus אֲדֹמִי /ʔăðoˈmi/ ('Edomite'). <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:117–118) /ɔ̆/ is clearly phonemic but bears minimal <a href="/wiki/Functional_load" title="Functional load">functional load</a>. <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:110) /ă/ is written both with mobile šwa ⟨‌ְ ⟩ and hataf patah ⟨‌ֲ ⟩. <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:117) </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> For /w-/ > /j-/, see above. The Semitic form */wajn-/ was borrowed into <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> as */wojn-om/, eventually yielding Latin vīnum and English wine. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> This /a/ does not become /ɔ/ in pause, thus בת has a patah vowel in pause as well as in context. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">Eblaitica: essays on the Ebla archives and Eblaite language, Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. 1987. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-34-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-34-8"><bdi>978-0-931464-34-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eblaitica%3A+essays+on+the+Ebla+archives+and+Eblaite+language%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-34-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> The only known case where Philippi's Law does not apply is in the word קן /qen/ < */qinn-u/ ('nest'). The shift */i/ > /a/ has been extended by analogy to similar forms, e.g. */ʃim-u/ > /ʃam/ ('name'; but */ʃim-u/ > /ʃem/ 'reputation'!). <a href="#CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000">Ben-Ḥayyim (2000</a>:76, 79) </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Verbal forms such as יפקד = Samaritan /jifqɒd/ < */jafqud/ may be examples of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Barth%27s_law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barth's law (page does not exist)">Barth's law</a> rather than attenuation. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> This is known as pataḥ furtivum, literally 'stolen pataḥ' and perhaps a mistranslation of Hebrew פתח גנובה ('pataḥ of the stolen [letter]'), as if אֵ were being inserted. See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:83) </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> It is evident that this epenthesis must have been a late phenomenon, since a short vowel preceding a guttural is preserved even though it becomes in an open syllable, see <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:85). </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> This is less common when the consonant following the guttural is a <a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">begadkefat</a> letter, e.g. תֵּחְבֹּל /taħbol/ ('you take in pledge'). This suggests that begadkefat spirantization was no longer automatic by the time that this epenthesis occurred, see <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:79) </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> For the purposes of vowel quality shifts, words in the <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct state</a> are treated as if the stress fell immediately on the first syllable following the word. See <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:52) </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Additionally, short stressed vowels in open syllables were reduced and lost stress, leading to ultimate stress in forms like קטלו < */qaˈtʼaluː/. In Tiberian Hebrew some words have penultimate stress in pause (before a break in reading), but ultimate stress in context, such as שָמָ֫רָה and שָמְרָה ('she watched'), because the penultimate vowel in the original form */ʃaˈmaru/ lengthened in pause, while in context it was not lengthened, and then lost the stress and was reduced due to this sound shift. See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:146–148, 154) </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> It is not clear that a reduced vowel should be considered as comprising a whole syllable. Note for example that the rule whereby a word's stress shifts to a preceding open syllable to avoid being adjacent to another stressed syllable skips over ultrashort vowels, e.g. עִם־יוֹ֫רְדֵי בוֹר /ʕim-ˈjorăde vor/ ('with those who go down into the pit') מְטֹ֫עֲנֵי חָ֫רֶב /măˈtʼoʕăne ˈħɔrɛv/ ('pierced with a sword'). See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:143–144) </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> It has been suggested that the construct forms אבי, אחי have long /iː/ lacking in the absolute אב אח because the later stem from forms like */ʔabuːm/ > */ʔabum/ (because Proto-Semitic did not allow long vowels in closed syllables) > */ʔab/ (loss of mimation and final short vowel), see <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:267) </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> The unstressed suffix -ה in words like ארצה ('to the earth'), occurring also in exclamations like חללה and used ornamentally in poetry, e.g. יְשׁוּעָתָהּ, may have originally terminated in consonantal */-h/ which was later elided, following the suffix */-a/. This is evidenced by Ugaritic orthography, almost purely consonantal, where ארצה appears with /h/, see <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:91–92, 268) </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> The modal forms may be taken to form a single volitional class, as cohortative is used in first person, imperative (or prefixing) in second person positive, jussive (or prefixing) in second person negative, and jussive in third person. They also overlap semantically, for example a jussive form like 'May my soul ...' is semantically equivalent to a cohortative like 'May I ...'. However, the three moods stem from different classes in proto-West-Semitic. As preserved in Classical Arabic, there were originally three prefix tenses, indicative yaqtulu, jussive yaqtul, and subjunctive yaqtula, which existed for every person. In Biblical Hebrew, yaqtulu developed into the prefixing class, while yaqtul remained the jussive and yaqtula the cohortative. For most roots in Biblical Hebrew, the jussive form is identical to the indicative form. (Differentiation is typical of forms with "long" and "short" forms, e.g. indicative יכרִית, jussive יכרֵת; indicative יראה, jussive יֵרֶא) See <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:564–565, 566) and <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:206). </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Barton-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Barton_1-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton2004" class="citation book cs1">Barton, John, ed. (2004) [2002]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LtD4Xomh4XgC&pg=PA7">The Biblical World</a>. Vol. 2. Taylor & Francis. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35091-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35091-4"><bdi>978-0-415-35091-4</bdi></a>. <q>Interestingly, the term 'Hebrew' (ibrit) is not used of the language in the biblical text</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biblical+World&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35091-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLtD4Xomh4XgC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eurekalert.org-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eurekalert.org_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eurekalert.org_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eurekalert.org_2-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFeldman2010">Feldman (2010)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-bar-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bar_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bar_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bar_3-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFShanks2010">Shanks (2010)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1019.htm#18">Isaiah 19:18</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-s1-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-s1_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-s1_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-s1_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-s1_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-s1_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-s1_5-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:1–2) </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt09b18.htm#26">2 Kings 18:26–28</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Josephus, Antiquities I, 1:2, etc. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Nashim" title="Nashim">Mishnah Gittin</a> 9:8, etc. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERainey2008-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERainey2008_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRainey2008">Rainey 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-enws-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-enws_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-enws_10-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:6–7) </li> <li id="cite_note-wo8-9-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wo8-9_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wo8-9_11-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:8–9) </li> <li id="cite_note-sthist-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_12-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_12-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_12-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteiner1997">Steiner (1997</a>:145) </li> <li id="cite_note-s112-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-s112_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-s112_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-s112_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-s112_13-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:112–113) </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolder1986" class="citation book cs1">Holder, Meir (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t2bJ1UqfNXAC">History of the Jewish People: From Yavneh to Pumbedisa</a>. Mesorah Publications. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89906-499-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89906-499-4"><bdi>978-0-89906-499-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Jewish+People%3A+From+Yavneh+to+Pumbedisa&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Mesorah+Publications&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-89906-499-4&rft.aulast=Holder&rft.aufirst=Meir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt2bJ1UqfNXAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRozovsky" class="citation web cs1">Rozovsky, Lorne. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1051040/jewish/Aramaic-the-Yiddish-of-the-Middle-East.htm">"Aramaic: the Yiddish of the Middle East"</a>. chabad.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=chabad.org&rft.atitle=Aramaic%3A+the+Yiddish+of+the+Middle+East&rft.aulast=Rozovsky&rft.aufirst=Lorne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chabad.org%2Flibrary%2Farticle_cdo%2Faid%2F1051040%2Fjewish%2FAramaic-the-Yiddish-of-the-Middle-East.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:166, 171) </li> <li id="cite_note-blau11-17"><a href="#cite_ref-blau11_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:11–12) </li> <li id="cite_note-b10-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b10_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b10_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b10_18-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:10) </li> <li id="cite_note-wo8a-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wo8a_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wo8a_19-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:8): "The extrabiblical linguistic material from the Iron Age is primarily epigraphic, that is, texts written on hard materials (pottery, stones, walls, etc.). The epigraphic texts from Israelite territory are written in Hebrew in a form of the language which may be called Inscriptional Hebrew; this "dialect" is not strikingly different from the Hebrew preserved in the Masoretic text. Unfortunately, it is meagerly attested." </li> <li id="cite_note-wo16-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wo16_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wo16_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:16) </li> <li id="cite_note-yheb-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yheb_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yheb_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYardeni1997">Yardeni (1997</a>:17–25) </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTov1992">Tov (1992</a>:118) </li> <li id="cite_note-b7-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b7_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b7_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b7_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b7_23-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b7_23-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:7) </li> <li id="cite_note-bmerge-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bmerge_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bmerge_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:25–40) </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrank2003">Frank (2003</a>:12) </li> <li id="cite_note-kogan54-27"><a href="#cite_ref-kogan54_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKogan2011">Kogan (2011</a>:54–150) </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRendsburg1997">Rendsburg (1997</a>:65) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESáenz-Badillos199329-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESáenz-Badillos199329_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos 1993</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-sclas-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sclas_30-11">l</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:36–38, 43–44, 47–50) </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDolgopolsky1999">Dolgopolsky (1999</a>:57–59) </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:76) </li> <li id="cite_note-scon-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scon_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scon_35-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:8) </li> <li id="cite_note-bmoab-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bmoab_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bmoab_36-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:18) </li> <li id="cite_note-b21-37"><a href="#cite_ref-b21_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:21) </li> <li id="cite_note-Blau_2010_136-137-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blau_2010_136-137_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blau_2010_136-137_38-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:136–137) </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGarnierJacques2012">Garnier & Jacques (2012)</a> </li> <li 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href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:57–60) </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:71) </li> <li id="cite_note-sb55-48"><a href="#cite_ref-sb55_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:55) </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:132) </li> <li id="cite_note-bshib-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bshib_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bshib_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bshib_51-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bshib_51-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:8, 40–41) </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRendsburg1997">Rendsburg (1997</a>:70) </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sed-online.ru/reconstructions/398">"*šu(n)bul-at- – ear of corn"</a> in Semitic Etymological 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href="#cite_ref-b118-119_123-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b118-119_123-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b118-119_123-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b118-119_123-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:118–119) </li> <li id="cite_note-y16-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-y16_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-y16_126-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYahalom1997">Yahalom (1997</a>:16) </li> <li id="cite_note-bhou-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bhou_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bhou_127-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000">Ben-Ḥayyim (2000</a>:44, 48–49) </li> <li id="cite_note-bh49-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bh49_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bh49_128-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000">Ben-Ḥayyim (2000</a>:49) </li> <li id="cite_note-b111-129"><a href="#cite_ref-b111_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:111) </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:151) </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a 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id="cite_note-Blau_2010_82,_110-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blau_2010_82,_110_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blau_2010_82,_110_145-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:82, 110) </li> <li id="cite_note-jqimhi-147"><a href="#cite_ref-jqimhi_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:54–56) </li> <li id="cite_note-r77-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-r77_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-r77_148-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-r77_148-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRendsburg1997">Rendsburg (1997</a>:77) </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBergstrasserDaniels1995">Bergstrasser & Daniels (1995</a>:53) </li> <li id="cite_note-breduc-151"><a href="#cite_ref-breduc_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:129, 136) </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:124, 136) </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:97) </li> <li id="cite_note-b117-118-154"><a href="#cite_ref-b117-118_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:117–118) </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:110) </li> <li id="cite_note-y281-282-157"><a href="#cite_ref-y281-282_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYeivin1980">Yeivin (1980</a>:281–282) </li> <li id="cite_note-b105-106-158"><a href="#cite_ref-b105-106_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:105–106) </li> <li id="cite_note-b84-85-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b84-85_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b84-85_159-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:84–85) </li> <li id="cite_note-y282-283-160"><a href="#cite_ref-y282-283_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYeivin1980">Yeivin (1980</a>:282–283) </li> <li id="cite_note-s160-161">^ <a href="#cite_ref-s160_161-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-s160_161-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:160) </li> <li id="cite_note-bhlen-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bhlen_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bhlen_162-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000">Ben-Ḥayyim (2000</a>:45, 47–48) (while Ben-Hayyim notates four degrees of vowel length, he concedes that only his "fourth degree" has phonemic value) </li> <li id="cite_note-bh62-163"><a href="#cite_ref-bh62_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000">Ben-Ḥayyim (2000</a>:62) </li> <li id="cite_note-jlong-164"><a href="#cite_ref-jlong_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:54, 123–127) </li> <li id="cite_note-bhlong-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bhlong_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bhlong_165-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000">Ben-Ḥayyim (2000</a>:83) </li> <li id="cite_note-ssam-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ssam_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ssam_167-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:156) </li> <li id="cite_note-sdis-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sdis_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sdis_168-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:138–139) </li> <li id="cite_note-bphil-169"><a href="#cite_ref-bphil_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:133–136) </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:66) </li> <li id="cite_note-bhp-172"><a href="#cite_ref-bhp_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000">Ben-Ḥayyim (2000</a>:79) </li> <li id="cite_note-b132-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b132_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b132_174-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b132_174-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:132) </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000">Ben-Ḥayyim (2000</a>:81) </li> <li id="cite_note-b83-177"><a href="#cite_ref-b83_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:83) </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:43, 133) </li> <li id="cite_note-j52-182"><a href="#cite_ref-j52_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:52) </li> <li id="cite_note-b143-144-185"><a href="#cite_ref-b143-144_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:143–144) </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanssens1982">Janssens (1982</a>:53) </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000">Ben-Ḥayyim (2000</a>:68) </li> <li id="cite_note-pos-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pos_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pos_189-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:66–67) </li> <li id="cite_note-sroot-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sroot_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sroot_190-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sroot_190-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:83) </li> <li id="cite_note-sroot2-191"><a href="#cite_ref-sroot2_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:84) </li> <li id="cite_note-prefs-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-prefs_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prefs_192-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prefs_192-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prefs_192-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prefs_192-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prefs_192-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:90–92) </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:266) </li> <li id="cite_note-scase-194"><a href="#cite_ref-scase_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:17) </li> <li id="cite_note-b267-8-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b267-8_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b267-8_195-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:267–268) </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:122, 268–269) </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:119–120, 268) </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:268) </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:95) </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:118) </li> <li id="cite_note-wdual-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wdual_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wdual_203-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:117–118) </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy1856" class="citation book cs1">Roy, William L. (1856). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tdtQFlERil0C&q=%22hebrew+grammar%22+plural+dual+%22two+or+more%22&pg=PA14">A new catechetical Hebrew and English grammar: containing all the rules essential to a correct and critical knowledge of the language in a simple and comprehensive form. Also, the first twenty-four psalms, literally translated, the Ten Commandments, etc. etc</a> (Google eBook) (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: Thos. N. Stanford. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11717769">11717769</a>. Retrieved 11 June 2013. <q>The singular means but one thing, the plural two or more things, the dual things which are two by nature or art, as eyes, ears, hands, feet, &c. &c.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+new+catechetical+Hebrew+and+English+grammar%3A+containing+all+the+rules+essential+to+a+correct+and+critical+knowledge+of+the+language+in+a+simple+and+comprehensive+form.+Also%2C+the+first+twenty-four+psalms%2C+literally+translated%2C+the+Ten+Commandments%2C+etc.+etc.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=14&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Thos.+N.+Stanford&rft.date=1856&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11717769&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtdtQFlERil0C%26q%3D%2522hebrew%2Bgrammar%2522%2Bplural%2Bdual%2B%2522two%2Bor%2Bmore%2522%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:164) </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:346) </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:138) </li> <li id="cite_note-def-208"><a href="#cite_ref-def_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:237) </li> <li id="cite_note-def2-209"><a href="#cite_ref-def2_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:238) </li> <li id="cite_note-bseg-210">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bseg_210-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bseg_210-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:274–275) </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSperber1966">Sperber (1966</a>:445) </li> <li id="cite_note-wp-212"><a href="#cite_ref-wp_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:291) </li> <li id="cite_note-sb-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sb_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sb_213-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sb_213-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:302) </li> <li id="cite_note-sconj-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sconj_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sconj_214-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:455–456) </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDoron2005">Doron (2005</a>:3) </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Robert Holmstedt. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancienthebrewgrammar.wordpress.com/2011/05/16/basic-word-order-in-biblical-hebrew-3/">Basic Word Order in the Biblical Hebrew Verbal Clause, Part 3</a>. 2011-05-16. Accessed 2012-06-16. </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:258) </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZuckermann2006">Zuckermann (2006</a>:74) </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosén1969">Rosén (1969)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-glinert-221"><a href="#cite_ref-glinert_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlinert2004">Glinert (2004</a>:52) </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blueletterbible.com">"Bible Search and Study Tools – Blue Letter Bible"</a>. blueletterbible.com. Retrieved 17 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=blueletterbible.com&rft.atitle=Bible+Search+and+Study+Tools+%E2%80%93+Blue+Letter+Bible&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blueletterbible.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Randall_Carr2006" class="citation book cs1">W. Randall Carr (2006). Steven Ellis Fassberg, Avi Hurvitz (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qyF0fHr2_3cC&q=paragogic+nun&pg=PA65">The Paragogic nun in Rhetorical Perspective, in Biblical Hebrew in Its Northwest Semitic Setting: Typological and Historical Perspectives</a>. Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-116-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-116-0"><bdi>978-1-57506-116-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Paragogic+nun+in+Rhetorical+Perspective%2C+in+Biblical+Hebrew+in+Its+Northwest+Semitic+Setting%3A+Typological+and+Historical+Perspectives&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-116-0&rft.au=W.+Randall+Carr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqyF0fHr2_3cC%26q%3Dparagogic%2Bnun%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-224">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_224-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_224-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_224-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnoldChoi2003" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Bill T.; Choi, John H. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam041/2002041025.html">A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax by Bill T. Arnold</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511610899">10.1017/cbo9780511610899</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-61089-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-61089-9"><bdi>978-0-511-61089-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:169824867">169824867</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Biblical+Hebrew+Syntax+by+Bill+T.+Arnold&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A169824867%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511610899&rft.isbn=978-0-511-61089-9&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Bill+T.&rft.au=Choi%2C+John+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fcatdir%2Fsamples%2Fcam041%2F2002041025.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010)</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Ḥayyim2000" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Ḥayyim, Ze'ev (2000). A Grammar of Samaritan Hebrew. Jerusalem: The Hebrew University Magnes Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-047-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-047-7"><bdi>978-1-57506-047-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Samaritan+Hebrew&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pub=The+Hebrew+University+Magnes+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-047-7&rft.aulast=Ben-%E1%B8%A4ayyim&rft.aufirst=Ze%27ev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergstrasserDaniels1995" class="citation book cs1">Bergstrasser, Gotthelf; Daniels, Peter T. (1995). Introduction to the Semitic Languages: Text Specimens and Grammatical Sketches. München: Max Hueber Verlag München. pp. 50–75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-10-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-10-2"><bdi>978-0-931464-10-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Semitic+Languages%3A+Text+Specimens+and+Grammatical+Sketches&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.pages=50-75&rft.pub=Max+Hueber+Verlag+M%C3%BCnchen&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-10-2&rft.aulast=Bergstrasser&rft.aufirst=Gotthelf&rft.au=Daniels%2C+Peter+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergsträsser1983" class="citation book cs1">Bergsträsser, G. (1983). Introduction to the Semitic Languages. 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University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-09548-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-09548-9"><bdi>978-0-520-09548-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+renaissance+of+modern+Hebrew+and+modern+standard+Arabic&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-520-09548-9&rft.au=Joshua+Blau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frenaissanceofmod0000blau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlau2010" class="citation book cs1">Blau, Joshua (2010). Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew. 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(1997), "Ancient Hebrew Phonology", in Kaye, Alan (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720041841/http://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/component/docman/doc_view/93-ancient-hebrew-phonology">Phonologies of Asia and Africa</a>, Eisenbrauns, pp. 65–83, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-019-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-019-4"><bdi>978-1-57506-019-4</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/component/docman/doc_view/93-ancient-hebrew-phonology">the original</a> on 20 July 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Hebrew+Phonology&rft.btitle=Phonologies+of+Asia+and+Africa&rft.pages=65-83&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-019-4&rft.aulast=Rendsburg&rft.aufirst=Gary+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishstudies.rutgers.edu%2Fcomponent%2Fdocman%2Fdoc_view%2F93-ancient-hebrew-phonology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRendsburg1999" class="citation cs2">Rendsburg, Gary A. (1999), "Notes on Israelian Hebrew (I)", in Avishur, Yitzhak Avishur; Deutsch, Robert (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720041518/http://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=97&Itemid=158">Michael: Historical, Epigraphical and Biblical Studies in Honor of Prof. Michael Heltzer</a>, Tel Aviv: Archaeological Center Publications, pp. 255–258, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=97&Itemid=158">the original</a> on 20 July 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Notes+on+Israelian+Hebrew+%28I%29&rft.btitle=Michael%3A+Historical%2C+Epigraphical+and+Biblical+Studies+in+Honor+of+Prof.+Michael+Heltzer&rft.place=Tel+Aviv&rft.pages=255-258&rft.pub=Archaeological+Center+Publications&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Rendsburg&rft.aufirst=Gary+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishstudies.rutgers.edu%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_view%26gid%3D97%26Itemid%3D158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosén1969" class="citation journal cs1">Rosén, H. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israel_lang_policy_rosen.htm">"Israel Language Policy and Linguistics"</a>. Ariel. 25: 48–63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ariel&rft.atitle=Israel+Language+Policy+and+Linguistics&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=48-63&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Ros%C3%A9n&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adath-shalom.ca%2Fisrael_lang_policy_rosen.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993" class="citation book cs1">Sáenz-Badillos, Angel (1993). A History of the Hebrew Language. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55634-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55634-7"><bdi>978-0-521-55634-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Hebrew+Language&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55634-7&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1enz-Badillos&rft.aufirst=Angel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShanks2010" class="citation journal cs1">Shanks, Hershel (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232512/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=2&ArticleID=9">"Oldest Hebrew Inscription Discovered in Israelite Fort on Philistine Border"</a>. Biblical Archaeology Review. 36 (2): 51–6. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=2&ArticleID=9">the original</a> on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 15 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Archaeology+Review&rft.atitle=Oldest+Hebrew+Inscription+Discovered+in+Israelite+Fort+on+Philistine+Border&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=51-6&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Shanks&rft.aufirst=Hershel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bib-arch.org%2Fbar%2Farticle.asp%3FPubID%3DBSBA%26Volume%3D36%26Issue%3D2%26ArticleID%3D9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperber1959" class="citation book cs1">Sperber, Alexander (1959). A Grammar of Masoretic Hebrew. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Masoretic+Hebrew&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pub=Ejnar+Munksgaard&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Sperber&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperber1966" class="citation book cs1">Sperber, Alexander (1966). A Historical Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Leiden: E. J. Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical+Grammar+of+Biblical+Hebrew&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Sperber&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinberg2010" class="citation web cs1">Steinberg, David (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew2a.htm">"History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language"</a>. Retrieved 15 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Ancient+and+Modern+Hebrew+Language&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Steinberg&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adath-shalom.ca%2Fhistory_of_hebrew2a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteiner1997" class="citation book cs1">Steiner, Richard C. (1997). "Ancient Hebrew". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). The Semitic Languages. Routledge. pp. 145–173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05767-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05767-7"><bdi>978-0-415-05767-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Hebrew&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages&rft.pages=145-173&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-415-05767-7&rft.aulast=Steiner&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTov1992" class="citation book cs1">Tov, Emanuel (1992). Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-3429-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-3429-2"><bdi>978-0-8006-3429-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textual+Criticism+of+the+Hebrew+Bible&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=Augsburg+Fortress&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8006-3429-2&rft.aulast=Tov&rft.aufirst=Emanuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990" class="citation book cs1">Waltke, Bruce K.; O'Connor, M. (1990). An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-31-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-31-7"><bdi>978-0-931464-31-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Biblical+Hebrew+Syntax&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-31-7&rft.aulast=Waltke&rft.aufirst=Bruce+K.&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYahalom1997" class="citation book cs1">Yahalom, Joseph (1997). Palestinian Vocalised Piyyut Manuscripts in the Cambridge Genizah Collections. Cambridge University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58399-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58399-2"><bdi>978-0-521-58399-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palestinian+Vocalised+Piyyut+Manuscripts+in+the+Cambridge+Genizah+Collections&rft.pub=Cambridge+University&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-58399-2&rft.aulast=Yahalom&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYardeni1997" class="citation book cs1">Yardeni, Ada (1997). The Book of Hebrew Script. Jerusalem: Carta. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-220-369-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-220-369-4"><bdi>978-965-220-369-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Hebrew+Script&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pub=Carta&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-965-220-369-4&rft.aulast=Yardeni&rft.aufirst=Ada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeivin1980" class="citation book cs1">Yeivin, Israel (1980). Introduction to the Tiberian Masorah. Scholars Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89130-373-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89130-373-2"><bdi>978-0-89130-373-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Tiberian+Masorah&rft.pub=Scholars+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-89130-373-2&rft.aulast=Yeivin&rft.aufirst=Israel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckermann2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Zuckermann</a>, Ghil'ad (2006). "Complement Clause Types in Israeli". In Dixon, R. M. W.; Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (eds.). Complementation: a cross-linguistic typology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Complement+Clause+Types+in+Israeli&rft.btitle=Complementation%3A+a+cross-linguistic+typology&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Zuckermann&rft.aufirst=Ghil%27ad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiblical+Hebrew" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblical_Hebrew&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biblical_Hebrew_language" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biblical Hebrew language">Biblical Hebrew language</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Gesenius%27_Hebrew_Grammar" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar">Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar</a></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Biblical Hebrew Resources <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ualberta.ca/~ebenzvi/Assist/Hebrew_Bible/hebrewbibstudy.html">Resources for the Study of Biblical Hebrew</a>, Prof. E. Ben Zvi, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alberta" title="University of Alberta">University of Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Index:A_Hebrew_and_English_Lexicon_(Brown-Driver-Briggs).djvu" class="extiw" title="s:Index:A Hebrew and English Lexicon (Brown-Driver-Briggs).djvu">Brown–Driver–Briggs Hebrew Lexicon – with an appendix containing Biblical Aramaic</a> (Wikisource)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ehebrew.net/learn-ancient-hebrew/">Free resources to study Biblical Hebrew online</a>, eHebrew.net</li></ul></li> <li>Grammar, vocabulary and writing <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://veracityomadden.com/heb/thechart.pdf">The Handy-Dandy Hebrew Grammar Chart</a>, Prof. Shawn Madden, <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Baptist_Theological_Seminary" title="Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary">Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/grammar.html">Basic Biblical Hebrew Grammar (introductory)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_One/Aleph-Bet/aleph-bet.html">Learn to write the Biblical Hebrew characters</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblescripture.net/Hebrew.html">The Alphabet of Biblical Hebrew</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hebrew_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hebrew_language" title="Template:Hebrew language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hebrew_language" title="Template talk:Hebrew language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hebrew_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hebrew language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hebrew_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Hebrew_alphabet" title="History of the Hebrew alphabet">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">Ancient inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">Transliteration to English</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_English" title="Hebraization of English">from English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gematria" title="Gematria">Gematria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biblical</a> (<a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">northern dialect</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews#Romaniote_Hebrew" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syrian_Jews#Pronunciation_of_Hebrew" title="Syrian Jews">Syrian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a> (extinct)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orthography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew_orthography" title="Biblical Hebrew orthography">Biblical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tag_(Hebrew_writing)" title="Tag (Hebrew writing)">Crowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Alphabet</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">Alef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)" title="Bet (letter)">Bet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel" title="Gimel">Gimel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet" title="Dalet">Dalet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">Hei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)" title="Waw (letter)">Vav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">Zayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">Ḥet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth" title="Teth">Tet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">Yud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph" title="Kaph">Kaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh" title="Lamedh">Lamed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem" title="Mem">Mem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)" title="Nun (letter)">Nun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">Samech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">Ayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">Pei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">Tsadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">Kuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh" title="Resh">Resh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">Shin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw" title="Taw">Tav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">Niqqud</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_vocalization" title="Samaritan vocalization">Samaritan</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shva" title="Shva">Shva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiriq" title="Hiriq">Hiriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzere" title="Tzere">Tzere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segol" title="Segol">Segol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patach" title="Patach">Pataḥ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamatz" title="Kamatz">Kamatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holam" title="Holam">Holam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kubutz_and_shuruk" title="Kubutz and shuruk">Kubutz/shuruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagesh" title="Dagesh">Dagesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappiq" title="Mappiq">Mappiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_punctuation#Hyphen_and_maqaf" title="Hebrew punctuation">Maqaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafe" title="Rafe">Rafe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Sin_and_Shin_dot" title="Shin (letter)">Sin/Shin dot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_spelling" title="Hebrew spelling">Spelling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktiv_menuqad" title="Ktiv menuqad">with Niqqud</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ktiv_hasar_niqqud#Ktiv_haser" title="Ktiv hasar niqqud">missing</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ktiv_hasar_niqqud" title="Ktiv hasar niqqud">full</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_abbreviations" title="Hebrew abbreviations">Abbreviations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plene_scriptum" title="Plene scriptum">Plene scriptum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_punctuation" title="Hebrew punctuation">Punctuation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_diacritics" title="Hebrew diacritics">Diacritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteg" title="Meteg">Meteg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">Cantillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geresh" title="Geresh">Geresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gershayim" title="Gershayim">Gershayim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverted_nun" title="Inverted nun">Inverted nun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shekel_sign" title="Shekel sign">Shekel sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_numerals" title="Hebrew numerals">Numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Phonology">Biblical Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_phonology" title="Modern Hebrew phonology">Modern Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippi%27s_law" title="Philippi's law">Philippi's law</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">Law of attenuation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language#Hebrew_grammar" title="Hebrew language">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Grammar">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Modern</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_verbs" title="Modern Hebrew verbs">Verbal morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic roots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefixes_in_Hebrew" title="Prefixes in Hebrew">Prefixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffixes_in_Hebrew" title="Suffixes in Hebrew">Suffixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segolate" title="Segolate">Segolate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vav-consecutive" title="Vav-consecutive">Vav-consecutive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Study of the Hebrew language">Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulpan" title="Ulpan">Ulpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_keyboard" title="Hebrew keyboard">Keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hebrew_writings" title="Ancient Hebrew writings">ancient</a> / <a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">modern Israeli</a> literature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_name" title="Hebrew name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_surnames" title="Hebraization of surnames">Surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicode_and_HTML_for_the_Hebrew_alphabet" title="Unicode and HTML for the Hebrew alphabet">Unicode and HTML</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gesenius-Kautsch-Cowley" class="mw-redirect" title="Gesenius-Kautsch-Cowley">Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Gesenius" title="Wilhelm Gesenius">Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown%E2%80%93Driver%E2%80%93Briggs" title="Brown–Driver–Briggs">Brown–Driver–Briggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong%27s_Concordance" title="Strong's Concordance">Strong's Concordance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_and_Aramaic_Lexicon_of_the_Old_Testament" title="Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament">Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Semitic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Semitic_languages" title="Template talk:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Semitic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaano-Akkadian_language" title="Canaano-Akkadian language">Canaano-Akkadian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilmun#People,_language_and_religion" title="Dilmun">Dilmunite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kishite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kishite language">Kishite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian#Dumaitic" title="Ancient North Arabian">Dumaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasaitic" title="Hasaitic">Hasaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hismaic" title="Hismaic">Hismaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safaitic#Language" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taymanitic" title="Taymanitic">Taymanitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thamudic" title="Thamudic">Thamudic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Dialect groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic#Middle_Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialect groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armazic_language" title="Armazic language">Armazic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_Aramaic" title="Hatran Aramaic">Ashurian and Hatran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Aramaic" title="Lebanese Aramaic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean</a></li> <li>Palestinian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Aramaic language">Samaritan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo- Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Neo-Aramaic" title="Central Neo-Aramaic">Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Neo-Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern</a> <ul><li>Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barwar" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barwar">Barwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Hertevin" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin">Hértevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koy_Sanjaq_Christian_Neo-Aramaic" title="Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic">Koy Sanjaq Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Qaraqosh" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qaraqosh">Qaraqosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Senaya" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya">Senaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a> <ul><li>Assyrian</li> <li>Chaldean</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Inter-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Koy_Sanjaq" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Koy Sanjaq">Koy Sanjaq Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanandaj_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Sanandaj Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Sanandaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Trans-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Zakho</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonite_language" title="Ammonite language">Ammonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biblical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">northern dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deir_Alla_inscription" title="Deir Alla inscription">Deir Alla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himyaritic_language" title="Himyaritic language">Himyaritic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samalian_language" title="Samalian language">Samalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern (<a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian_languages" title="Modern South Arabian languages">Mod- ern Arabian</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E1%B9%AD%E1%B8%A5ari_language" title="Baṭḥari language">Baṭḥari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%A4arsusi_language" title="Ḥarsusi language">Ḥarsusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoby%C3%B3t_language" title="Hobyót language">Hobyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehri_language" title="Mehri language">Mehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehri_language" title="Shehri language">Shehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soqotri_language" title="Soqotri language">Soqotri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ethio-Semitic_languages" title="Ethio-Semitic languages">Ethio-Semitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dahalik_language" title="Dahalik language">Dahalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trans- versal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Argobba_language" title="Argobba language">Argobba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harari_language" title="Harari language">Harari</a>–<a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">East Gurage</a> <ul><li>East Gurage <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silt%CA%BCe_language" title="Siltʼe language">Siltʼe</a> <ul><li>Inneqor</li> <li>Ulbare</li> <li>Wolane</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zay_language" title="Zay language">Zay</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>N-group <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gafat_language" title="Gafat language">Gafat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soddo_language" title="Soddo language">Soddo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tt-group <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesmes_language" title="Mesmes language">Mesmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muher_language" title="Muher language">Muher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">West Gurage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inor_language" title="Inor language">Inor</a> <ul><li>Endegen</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesqan_language" title="Mesqan language">Mesqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebat_Bet_Gurage_language" title="Sebat Bet Gurage language">Sebat Bet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaha_language" title="Chaha language">Chaha</a></li> <li>Ezha</li> <li>Gumer</li> <li>Gura</li> <li>Gyeto</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Old Arabian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faifi_language" title="Faifi language">Faifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadramautic_language" title="Hadramautic language">Hadramautic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minaean_language" title="Minaean language">Minaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatabanian_language" title="Qatabanian language">Qatabanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rijal_Alma_(speech_variety)" title="Rijal Alma (speech variety)">Rijal Alma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razihi_language" title="Razihi language">Razihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct</a> or historical languages.</li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jewish_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_languages" title="Template talk:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judaeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judaeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect#Jewish_Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Judaeo-Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judaeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judaeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judaeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judaeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judaeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judaeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judaeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayla</a>/<a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwara</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a>/<a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argots</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Ukrainish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurtish" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurtish">Udmurtish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judaeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Romance_languages" title="Judaeo-Romance languages">Judaeo-Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judaeo-Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judaeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Livornese" title="Judeo-Livornese">Judaeo-Livornese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Mantuan" title="Judeo-Mantuan">Judaeo-Mantuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Roman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Roman language">Judaeo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judaeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Provençal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judaeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judaeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judaeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judaeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" title="Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi">Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judaeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian Dari">Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Kashani" title="Judeo-Kashani">Judaeo-Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judaeo-Golpaygani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a>, Pre-1970s <a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judaeo-Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judaeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judaeo-Papiamento</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based Creole</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judaeo-Malay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German Sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Algerian Jewish Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Village_sign_language" title="Village sign language">village sign language</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" 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