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id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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<div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="تصويت الكلام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تصويت الكلام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonaci%C3%B3n" title="Fonación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fonación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Вокализация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вокализация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonadur" title="Fonadur – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Fonadur" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonaci%C3%B3" title="Fonació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fonació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonace" title="Fonace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fonace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonaci%C3%B3n" title="Fonación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fonación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="واک‌سازی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="واک‌سازی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Phonation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonaci%C3%B3n" title="Fonación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fonación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonacija" title="Fonacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fonacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8A%C3%A6%D0%BB%C3%A6%D1%81%C3%A6%D0%B2%D0%B7%C3%A6%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Хъæлæсæвзæрд – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Хъæлæсæвзæрд" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonazione" title="Fonazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fonazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonatio" title="Phonatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Phonatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembunyian" title="Pembunyian – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembunyian" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BA%E5%A3%B0" title="発声 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="発声" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fona%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Fonação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fonação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fona%C8%9Bie" title="Fonație – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fonație" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фонация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фонация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A1cia" title="Fonácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fonácia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonaatio" title="Fonaatio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fonaatio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonation" title="Fonation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fonation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фонація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" 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class="sidebar-content hlist" style="border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_phonetics" title="Acoustic phonetics">Acoustic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">Articulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_phonetics" title="Auditory phonetics">Auditory</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em;background:#f2f2f2;"> <a href="/wiki/Speech_production" title="Speech production">Articulation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.7em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">Places of articulation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Alveolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalveolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">Laryngeal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Manners_of_articulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Manners of articulation">Manners of articulation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" 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li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>The term <b>phonation</b> has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a>. Among some phoneticians, <i>phonation</i> is the process by which the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_folds" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal folds">vocal folds</a> produce certain sounds through <a href="/wiki/Quasiperiodicity" title="Quasiperiodicity">quasi-periodic</a> vibration. This is the definition used among those who study <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">laryngeal</a> anatomy and physiology and speech production in general. Phoneticians in other subfields, such as linguistic phonetics, call this process <i><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voicing</a></i>, and use the term <i>phonation</i> to refer to any oscillatory state of any part of the <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a> that modifies the airstream, of which voicing is just one example. Voiceless and supra-glottal phonations are included under this definition. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voicing">Voicing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Voicing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phonatory process, or voicing, occurs when air is expelled from the lungs through the <a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">glottis</a>, creating a pressure drop across the larynx. When this drop becomes sufficiently large, the vocal folds start to oscillate. The minimum pressure drop required to achieve phonation is called the phonation threshold pressure (PTP),<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for humans with normal vocal folds, it is approximately 2–3 cm H<sub>2</sub>O. The motion of the vocal folds during oscillation is mostly lateral, though there is also some superior component as well. However, there is almost no motion along the length of the vocal folds. The oscillation of the vocal folds serves to modulate the pressure and flow of the air through the larynx, and this modulated airflow is the main component of the sound of most <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a>. </p><p>The sound that the larynx produces is a <a href="/wiki/Harmonic_series_(music)" title="Harmonic series (music)">harmonic series</a>. In other words, it consists of a fundamental tone (called the fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(psychophysics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch (psychophysics)">pitch</a>) accompanied by harmonic overtones, which are multiples of the fundamental frequency.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93filter_model_of_speech_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Source–filter model of speech production">source–filter theory</a>, the resulting sound excites the resonance chamber that is the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_tract" title="Vocal tract">vocal tract</a> to produce the individual speech sounds. </p><p>The vocal folds will not oscillate if they are not sufficiently close to one another, are not under sufficient tension or under too much tension, or if the pressure drop across the larynx is not sufficiently large.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In linguistics, a <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phone</a> is called <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiceless</a> if there is no phonation during its occurrence.<sup id="cite_ref-Greene_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greene-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In speech, voiceless phones are associated with vocal folds that are elongated, highly tensed, and placed laterally (abducted) when compared to vocal folds during phonation.<sup id="cite_ref-Zemlin_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zemlin-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept <i>pitch</i>, can be varied through a variety of means. Large scale changes are accomplished by increasing the tension in the vocal folds through contraction of the <a href="/wiki/Cricothyroid_muscle" title="Cricothyroid muscle">cricothyroid muscle</a>. Smaller changes in tension can be effected by contraction of the <a href="/wiki/Thyroarytenoid_muscle" title="Thyroarytenoid muscle">thyroarytenoid muscle</a> or changes in the relative position of the thyroid and <a href="/wiki/Cricoid_cartilage" title="Cricoid cartilage">cricoid cartilages</a>, as may occur when the larynx is lowered or raised, either volitionally or through movement of the tongue to which the larynx is attached via the hyoid bone.<sup id="cite_ref-Zemlin_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zemlin-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to tension changes, fundamental frequency is also affected by the pressure drop across the larynx, which is mostly affected by the pressure in the lungs, and will also vary with the distance between the vocal folds. Variation in fundamental frequency is used linguistically to produce <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>. </p><p>There are currently two main theories as to how vibration of the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_folds" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal folds">vocal folds</a> is initiated: the <b>myoelastic theory</b> and the <b>aerodynamic theory</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Titze,_I._R._2006_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Titze,_I._R._2006-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two theories are not in contention with one another and it is quite possible that both theories are true and operating simultaneously to initiate and maintain vibration. A third theory, the <b>neurochronaxic theory</b>, was in considerable vogue in the 1950s, but has since been largely discredited. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Myoelastic_and_aerodynamic_theory">Myoelastic and aerodynamic theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Myoelastic and aerodynamic theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The myoelastic theory states that when the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_cords" title="Vocal cords">vocal cords</a> are brought together and breath pressure is applied to them, the cords remain closed until the pressure beneath them, the subglottic pressure, is sufficient to push them apart, allowing air to escape and reducing the pressure enough for the muscle tension recoil to pull the folds back together again. The pressure builds up once again until the cords are pushed apart, and the whole cycle keeps repeating itself. The rate at which the cords open and close, the number of cycles per second, determines the pitch of the phonation.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The aerodynamic theory is based on the <a href="/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle" title="Bernoulli's principle">Bernoulli energy law in fluids</a>. The theory states that when a stream of breath is flowing through the <a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">glottis</a> while the arytenoid cartilages are held together (by the action of the interarytenoid muscles), a push-pull effect is created on the vocal fold tissues that maintains self-sustained oscillation. The push occurs during glottal opening, when the glottis is convergent, and the pull occurs during glottal closing, when the glottis is divergent.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such an effect causes a transfer of energy from the airflow to the vocal fold tissues which overcomes losses by dissipation and sustain the oscillation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of lung pressure needed to begin phonation is defined by Titze as the oscillation threshold pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During glottal closure, the air flow is cut off until breath pressure pushes the folds apart and the flow starts up again, causing the cycles to repeat.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The textbook entitled <a href="/w/index.php?title=Myoelastic_Aerodynamic_Theory_of_Phonation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation (page does not exist)">Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation</a><sup id="cite_ref-Titze,_I._R._2006_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Titze,_I._R._2006-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by <a href="/wiki/Ingo_Titze" title="Ingo Titze">Ingo Titze</a> credits Janwillem van den Berg as the originator of the theory and provides detailed mathematical development of the theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurochronaxic_theory">Neurochronaxic theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Neurochronaxic theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This theory states that the frequency of the vocal fold vibration is determined by the <a href="/wiki/Chronaxie" title="Chronaxie">chronaxie</a> of the recurrent nerve, and not by breath pressure or muscular tension. Advocates of this theory thought that every single vibration of the vocal folds was due to an impulse from the recurrent laryngeal nerves and that the acoustic center in the brain regulated the speed of vocal fold vibration.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Speech and voice scientists have long since abandoned this theory as the muscles have been shown to not be able to contract fast enough to accomplish the vibration. In addition, persons with paralyzed vocal folds can produce phonation, which would not be possible according to this theory. Phonation occurring in excised larynges would also not be possible according to this theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="State_of_the_glottis">State of the glottis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: State of the glottis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:168px;max-width:168px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:123px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vocal_folds-201611.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Spread vocal folds" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Vocal_folds-201611.jpg/166px-Vocal_folds-201611.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Vocal_folds-201611.jpg/249px-Vocal_folds-201611.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Vocal_folds-201611.jpg/332px-Vocal_folds-201611.jpg 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="474" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Vocal folds when spread</div></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:170px;max-width:170px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:123px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vocal_folds-speaking_201611.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Phonating vocal folds" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Vocal_folds-speaking_201611.jpg/168px-Vocal_folds-speaking_201611.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Vocal_folds-speaking_201611.jpg/252px-Vocal_folds-speaking_201611.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Vocal_folds-speaking_201611.jpg/336px-Vocal_folds-speaking_201611.jpg 2x" data-file-width="511" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Vocal folds when phonating</div></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:340px;max-width:340px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:63px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glottis_positions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of glottis positions" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Glottis_positions.png/338px-Glottis_positions.png" decoding="async" width="338" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Glottis_positions.png/507px-Glottis_positions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Glottis_positions.png/676px-Glottis_positions.png 2x" data-file-width="2279" data-file-height="429" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Different glottis positions:<br /> A. Glottis closure; B. phonation position; C. whisper position; D. breath position; E. respiratory position or resting position; F. deep breathing position</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In linguistic phonetic treatments of phonation, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Peter Ladefoged</a>, phonation was considered to be a matter of points on a continuum of tension and closure of the vocal cords. More intricate mechanisms were occasionally described, but they were difficult to investigate, and until recently the state of the glottis and phonation were considered to be nearly synonymous.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladefoged-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption style="text-align: left;">Types of Laryngeal Setting<sup id="cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladefoged-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 48">: 48 </span></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th>Definition </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Modal voice</b></td> <td>Regular vibrations of the vocal cords </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Voiceless</b></td> <td>Lack of vibration of the vocal cords; <a href="/wiki/Arytenoid_cartilage" title="Arytenoid cartilage">arytenoid cartilages</a> usually apart </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Aspirated</b></td> <td>Having greater airflow than in modal voice before or after a stricture; arytenoid cartilages may be further apart than in voiceless </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Breathy voice</b></td> <td>Vocal cords vibrating but without appreciable contact; arytenoid cartilages further apart than in modal voice </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Slack voice</b></td> <td>Vocal cords vibrating but more loosely than in modal voice </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Creaky voice</b></td> <td>Vocal cords vibrating anteriorly, but with the arytenoid cartilages pressed together; lower airflow than in modal voice </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Stiff voice</b></td> <td>Vocal cords vibrating but more stiffly than in modal voice </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>If the vocal cords are completely relaxed, with the arytenoid cartilages apart for maximum airflow, the cords do not vibrate. This is <b>voiceless</b> phonation, and is extremely common with <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a>. If the arytenoids are pressed together for <b>glottal closure</b>, the vocal cords block the airstream, producing stop sounds such as the <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>. In between there is a <b>sweet spot</b> of maximum vibration. Also, the existence of an optimal glottal shape for ease of phonation has been shown, at which the lung pressure required to initiate the vocal cord vibration is minimum.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is <a href="/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">modal voice</a>, and is the normal state for vowels and <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a> in all the world's languages. However, the aperture of the arytenoid cartilages, and therefore the tension in the vocal cords, is one of degree between the end points of open and closed, and there are several intermediate situations utilized by various languages to make contrasting sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladefoged-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For example, <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a> has vowels with a partially lax phonation called <b>breathy voice</b> or <b><a href="/wiki/Murmured_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Murmured voice">murmured voice</a></b> (transcribed in IPA with a subscript umlaut <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̤</span>), while <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a> has vowels with a partially tense phonation called <b><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky voice</a></b> or <b>laryngealized voice</b> (transcribed in IPA with a subscript tilde <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">◌̰</span>). The Jalapa dialect of <a href="/wiki/Mazateco" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazateco">Mazatec</a> is unusual in contrasting both with <a href="/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">modal voice</a> in a three-way distinction. (Mazatec is a tonal language, so the glottis is making several tonal distinctions simultaneously with the phonation distinctions.)<sup id="cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladefoged-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td></td> <td colspan="2"><b>Mazatec</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>breathy voice</b></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ja̤]</span></td> <td><i>he wears</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>modal voice</b></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[já]</span></td> <td><i>tree</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>creaky voice</b></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ja̰]</span></td> <td><i>he carries</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd><i>Note: There was an editing error in the source of this information. The latter two translations may have been mixed up.</i></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a> does not have modal voice in its <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a>, but contrasts two other points along the phonation scale, with more moderate departures from modal voice, called <a href="/wiki/Slack_voice" title="Slack voice">slack voice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stiff_voice" title="Stiff voice">stiff voice</a>. The "muddy" consonants in <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese_(dialect)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghainese (dialect)">Shanghainese</a> are slack voice; they contrast with tenuis and aspirated consonants.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladefoged-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Although each language may be somewhat different, it is convenient to classify these degrees of phonation into discrete categories. A series of seven alveolar stops, with phonations ranging from an open/lax to a closed/tense glottis, are: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td><b>Open glottis</b></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a></i> (full airstream) </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̤]</span></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Murmured_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Murmured voice">breathy voice</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̥]</span></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Slack_voice" title="Slack voice">slack voice</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Sweet spot</b></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">modal voice</a></i> (maximum vibration) </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̬]</span></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Stiff_voice" title="Stiff voice">stiff voice</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̰]</span></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky voice</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Closed glottis</b></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ͡t]</span></td> <td><i>glottal closure</i> (blocked airstream) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The IPA diacritics <i>under-ring</i> and <i>subscript wedge</i>, commonly called "voiceless" and "voiced", are sometimes added to the symbol for a voiced sound to indicate more lax/open (slack) and tense/closed (stiff) states of the glottis, respectively. (Ironically, adding the 'voicing' diacritic to the symbol for a voiced consonant indicates <i>less</i> modal voicing, not more, because a modally voiced sound is already fully voiced, at its sweet spot, and any further tension in the vocal cords dampens their vibration.)<sup id="cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladefoged-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsatian language">Alsatian</a>, like several Germanic languages, has a typologically unusual phonation in its stops. The consonants transcribed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b̥/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/d̥/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/ɡ̊/</span> (ambiguously called "lenis") are partially voiced: The vocal cords are positioned as for voicing, but do not actually vibrate. That is, they are technically voiceless, but without the open glottis usually associated with voiceless stops. They contrast with both modally voiced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ/</span> and modally voiceless <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p,<span class="wrap"> </span>t,<span class="wrap"> </span>k/</span> in French borrowings, as well as aspirated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ/</span> word initially.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladefoged-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>If the arytenoid cartiledges are parted to admit turbulent airflow, the result is whisper phonation if the vocal folds are adducted, and <a href="/wiki/Whispery_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Whispery voice">whispery voice</a> phonation (murmur) if the vocal folds vibrate modally. Whisper phonation is heard in many productions of French <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">oui!</i></span>, and the "voiceless" vowels of many North American languages are actually whispered.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glottal_consonants">Glottal consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Glottal consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has long been noted that in many languages, both phonologically and historically, the <a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">glottal consonants</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɦ,<span class="wrap"> </span>h]</span> do not behave like other consonants. Phonetically, they have no <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner</a> or <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place of articulation</a> other than the state of the glottis: <i>glottal closure</i> for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ]</span>, <i>breathy voice</i> for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɦ]</span>, and <i>open airstream</i> for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span>. Some phoneticians have described these sounds as neither glottal nor consonantal, but instead as instances of pure phonation, at least in many European languages. However, in <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> they do appear to be true glottal consonants.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladefoged-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Supra-glottal_phonation">Supra-glottal phonation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Supra-glottal phonation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the last few decades it has become apparent that phonation may involve the entire larynx, with as many as six valves and muscles working either independently or together. From the glottis upward, these articulations are:<sup id="cite_ref-Edmondson_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmondson-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">glottal</a> (the vocal cords), producing the distinctions described above</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventricle_of_the_larynx" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventricle of the larynx">ventricular</a> (the 'false vocal cords', partially covering and damping the glottis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arytenoid_muscle" title="Arytenoid muscle">arytenoid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sphincter" title="Sphincter">sphincteric</a> compression forwards and upwards)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiglotto-pharyngeal_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiglotto-pharyngeal consonant">epiglotto-pharyngeal</a> (retraction of the tongue and <a href="/wiki/Epiglottis" title="Epiglottis">epiglottis</a>, potentially closing onto the pharyngeal wall)</li> <li>raising or lowering of the entire <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a></li> <li>narrowing of the <a href="/wiki/Human_pharynx" class="mw-redirect" title="Human pharynx">pharynx</a></li></ol> <p>Until the development of <a href="/wiki/Fiber_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber optics">fiber-optic</a> <a href="/wiki/Laryngoscopy" title="Laryngoscopy">laryngoscopy</a>, the full involvement of the larynx during speech production was not observable, and the interactions among the six laryngeal articulators is still poorly understood. However, at least two supra-glottal phonations appear to be widespread in the world's languages. These are <a href="/wiki/Harsh_voice" title="Harsh voice">harsh voice</a> ('ventricular' or 'pressed' voice), which involves overall constriction of the larynx, and <a href="/wiki/Faucalized_voice" title="Faucalized voice">faucalized voice</a> ('hollow' or 'yawny' voice), which involves overall expansion of the larynx.<sup id="cite_ref-Edmondson_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmondson-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Bor dialect of <a href="/wiki/Dinka_language" title="Dinka language">Dinka</a> has contrastive modal, breathy, faucalized, and harsh voice in its vowels, as well as three tones. The <i>ad hoc</i> diacritics employed in the literature are a subscript double quotation mark for faucalized voice, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a͈]</span>, and underlining for harsh voice, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a̠]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Edmondson_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmondson-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples are, </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr align="center"> <th>Voice</th> <th>modal</th> <th>breathy</th> <th>harsh</th> <th>faucalized </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <td><b>Bor Dinka</b></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕìt</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕì̤t</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕì̠t</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕì͈t</span> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td></td> <td><i>diarrhea</i></td> <td><i>go ahead</i></td> <td><i>scorpions</i></td> <td><i>to swallow</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Other languages with these contrasts are <a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a> (modal, breathy, and harsh voice), <a href="/wiki/Gr%C5%A9si_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Grũsi languages">Kabiye</a> (faucalized and harsh voice, previously seen as <a href="/wiki/Advanced_tongue_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced tongue root">±ATR</a>), <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a> (breathy and harsh voice).<sup id="cite_ref-Edmondson_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmondson-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elements of laryngeal articulation or phonation may occur widely in the world's languages as phonetic detail even when not phonemically contrastive. For example, simultaneous glottal, ventricular, and arytenoid activity (for something other than <a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiglottal consonant">epiglottal consonants</a>) has been observed in <a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nootka_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nootka language">Nuuchahnulth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thompson_language" title="Thompson language">Nlaka'pamux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sui_language" title="Sui language">Sui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amis_language" title="Amis language">Amis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pame_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pame language">Pame</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cantonese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese language">Cantonese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi language">Yi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Edmondson_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmondson-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="European_language_examples">European language examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: European language examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In languages such as <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, all <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> occur in pairs, one modally voiced and one voiceless: [b] [d] [g] [v] [z] [ʒ] → [p] [t] [k] [f] [s] [ʃ]. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, every voiced <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a> corresponds to a voiceless one. For the pairs of English <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a>, however, the distinction is better specified as <a href="/wiki/Voice_onset_time" title="Voice onset time">voice onset time</a> rather than simply voice: In initial position, /b d g/ are only partially voiced (voicing begins during the hold of the consonant), and /p t k/ are <a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a> (voicing begins only well after its release). Certain English <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> have voiced and voiceless <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" title="Allomorph">allomorphs</a>, such as: the plural, verbal, and possessive endings spelled <i>-s</i> (voiced in <i>kids</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kɪdz/</span> but voiceless in <i>kits</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kɪts/</span>), and the past-tense ending spelled <i>-ed</i> (voiced in <i>buzzed</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bʌzd/</span> but voiceless in <i>fished</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fɪʃt/</span>). </p><p>A few European languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>, have no phonemically voiced <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> but pairs of long and short consonants instead. Outside Europe, the lack of voicing distinctions is common; indeed, in <a href="/wiki/Australian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian languages">Australian languages</a> it is nearly universal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocal_registers">Vocal registers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vocal registers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a subset of a language used in a particular social setting, see <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">Register (sociolinguistics)</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonology">Phonology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Register_(phonology)" title="Register (phonology)">Register (phonology)</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, a <b>register</b> is a combination of <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> and vowel phonation into a single phonological parameter. For example, among its vowels, <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a> combines modal voice with low tone, breathy voice with falling tone, creaky voice with high tone, and <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal closure</a> with high tone. These four registers contrast with each other, but no other combination of phonation (modal, breath, creak, closed) and tone (high, low, falling) is found. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pedagogy_and_speech_pathology">Pedagogy and speech pathology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pedagogy and speech pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vocal_registration" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal registration">Vocal registration</a></div> <p>Among vocal pedagogues and speech pathologists, a <b>vocal register</b> also refers to a particular phonation limited to a particular range of <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(psychophysics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch (psychophysics)">pitch</a>, which possesses a characteristic sound quality.<sup id="cite_ref-Large_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Large-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "register" may be used for several distinct aspects of the human voice:<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>A particular part of the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_range" title="Vocal range">vocal range</a>, such as the upper, middle, or lower registers, which may be bounded by vocal breaks</li> <li>A particular phonation</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonance</a> area such as <a href="/wiki/Chest_voice" title="Chest voice">chest voice</a> or <a href="/wiki/Head_voice" title="Head voice">head voice</a></li> <li>A certain vocal <a href="/wiki/Timbre" title="Timbre">timbre</a></li></ul> <p>Four combinations of these elements are identified in speech pathology: the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_fry_register" title="Vocal fry register">vocal fry register</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Modal_register" class="mw-redirect" title="Modal register">modal register</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Falsetto_register" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsetto register">falsetto register</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Whistle_register" title="Whistle register">whistle register</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballistic_syllable" title="Ballistic syllable">Ballistic syllables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">Breathy voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">Creaky voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faucalized_voice" title="Faucalized voice">Faucalized voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsh_voice" title="Harsh voice">Harsh voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_disorders" title="List of language disorders">List of language disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_phonetics_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of phonetics topics">List of phonetics topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">Modal voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_voice" title="Slack voice">Slack voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stiff_voice" title="Stiff voice">Stiff voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strident_vowel" title="Strident vowel">Strident vowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocal_resonation" title="Vocal resonation">Vocal resonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_onset_time" title="Voice onset time">Voice onset time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Voice organ">Voice organ</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTitze1988" class="citation journal cs1">Titze, I.R. (1988). "The physics of small-amplitude oscillation of the vocal folds". <i>Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</i>. <b>83</b> (4): 1536–1552. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988ASAJ...83.1536T">1988ASAJ...83.1536T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.395910">10.1121/1.395910</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3372869">3372869</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Acoustical+Society+of+America&rft.atitle=The+physics+of+small-amplitude+oscillation+of+the+vocal+folds&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1536-1552&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3372869&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1121%2F1.395910&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1988ASAJ...83.1536T&rft.aulast=Titze&rft.aufirst=I.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucero1995" class="citation journal cs1">Lucero, J. C. (1995). "The minimum lung pressure to sustain vocal fold oscillation". <i>Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</i>. <b>98</b> (2): 779–784. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995ASAJ...98..779L">1995ASAJ...98..779L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.414354">10.1121/1.414354</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7642816">7642816</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24053484">24053484</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Acoustical+Society+of+America&rft.atitle=The+minimum+lung+pressure+to+sustain+vocal+fold+oscillation&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=779-784&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1121%2F1.414354&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24053484%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7642816&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995ASAJ...98..779L&rft.aulast=Lucero&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The human instrument. Principles of Voice Production, Prentice Hall (currently published by NCVS.org)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucero1998" class="citation journal cs1">Lucero, J. C. (1998). "Optimal glottal configuration for ease of phonation". <i>Journal of Voice</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 151–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0892-1997%2898%2980034-9">10.1016/S0892-1997(98)80034-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9649070">9649070</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Voice&rft.atitle=Optimal+glottal+configuration+for+ease+of+phonation&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=151-158&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0892-1997%2898%2980034-9&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9649070&rft.aulast=Lucero&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Greene-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Greene_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreeneLesley_Mathieson2001" class="citation book cs1">Greene, Margaret; Lesley Mathieson (2001). <i>The Voice and its Disorders</i>. John Wiley & Sons; 6th Edition. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86156-196-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86156-196-1"><bdi>978-1-86156-196-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Voice+and+its+Disorders&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%3B+6th+Edition&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-86156-196-1&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft.au=Lesley+Mathieson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zemlin-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zemlin_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zemlin_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZemlin1998" class="citation book cs1">Zemlin, Willard (1998). <i>Speech and hearing science : anatomy and physiology</i>. Allyn and Bacon; 4th edition. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-827437-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-827437-1"><bdi>0-13-827437-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speech+and+hearing+science+%3A+anatomy+and+physiology&rft.pub=Allyn+and+Bacon%3B+4th+edition&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-13-827437-1&rft.aulast=Zemlin&rft.aufirst=Willard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Titze,_I._R._2006-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Titze,_I._R._2006_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Titze,_I._R._2006_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Titze, I. R. (2006). The Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation, Iowa City:National Center for Voice and Speech, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McKinney-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McKinney_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinney_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinney_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinney_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKinney1994" class="citation book cs1">McKinney, James (1994). <i>The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults</i>. Genovex Music Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56593-940-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56593-940-0"><bdi>978-1-56593-940-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diagnosis+and+Correction+of+Vocal+Faults&rft.pub=Genovex+Music+Group&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-56593-940-0&rft.aulast=McKinney&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ladefoged-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ladefoged_9-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Ladefoged, Peter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ian_Maddieson" title="Ian Maddieson">Maddieson, Ian</a> (1996). <a href="/wiki/The_Sounds_of_the_World%27s_Languages" title="The Sounds of the World's Languages"><i>The Sounds of the World's Languages</i></a>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19815-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-19815-6"><bdi>0-631-19815-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sounds+of+the+World%27s+Languages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-631-19815-6&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Maddieson%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaver1994" class="citation book cs1">Laver (1994). <i>Principles of Phonetics</i>. pp. 189 ff, 296 ff, 344 ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Phonetics&rft.pages=189+ff%2C+296+ff%2C+344+ff&rft.date=1994&rft.au=Laver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edmondson-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Edmondson_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edmondson_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edmondson_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edmondson_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edmondson_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmondsonJohn_H._Esling2005" class="citation journal cs1">Edmondson, Jerold A.; John H. Esling (2005). "The valves of the throat and their functioning in tone, vocal register, and stress: laryngoscopic case studies". <i>Phonology</i>. <b>23</b> (2). Cambridge University Press: 157–191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS095267570600087X">10.1017/S095267570600087X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62531440">62531440</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phonology&rft.atitle=The+valves+of+the+throat+and+their+functioning+in+tone%2C+vocal+register%2C+and+stress%3A+laryngoscopic+case+studies&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=157-191&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS095267570600087X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A62531440%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Edmondson&rft.aufirst=Jerold+A.&rft.au=John+H.+Esling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Large-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Large_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarge1972" class="citation journal cs1">Large, John (February–March 1972). "Towards an Integrated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Registers". <i>The NATS Bulletin</i>. <b>28</b>: 30–35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+NATS+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Towards+an+Integrated+Physiologic-Acoustic+Theory+of+Vocal+Registers&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=30-35&rft.date=1972-02%2F1972-03&rft.aulast=Large&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhonation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phonation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.uvic.ca/ling/research/phonetics/SOG/">States of the Glottis</a> (Esling & Harris, University of Victoria)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/phonetik/EGG/page4.htm">Universität Stuttgart Speech production</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140104185623/http://auditoryneuroscience.com/vocal_folds">A video showing phonation in action </a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Phonation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Phonation" title="Template:Phonation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Phonation" title="Template talk:Phonation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Phonation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Phonation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Phonation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Phonation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">Glottal</a> states (from open to closed)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background: none;"><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">Breath</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #f7f7f7;"><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">Breathy</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background: none;"><a href="/wiki/Slack_voice" title="Slack voice">Slack voice</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #f7f7f7;"><a href="/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">Modal voice</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background: none;"><a href="/wiki/Stiff_voice" title="Stiff voice">Stiff voice</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #f7f7f7;"><a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">Creaky voice</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background: none;"><a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">Glottalized</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: papayawhip;"><a href="/wiki/Ballistic_syllable" title="Ballistic syllable">Ballistic</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">(full airstream)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">(murmur,<br /><span class="nowrap">whispery voice)</span></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">(intermediate)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">(maximum vibration)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">(intermediate)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">(restricted airstream)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">(blocked airstream)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">(fortis)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">Supra-glottal</a> phonation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faucalized_voice" title="Faucalized voice">Faucalized voice</a> ("hollow")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsh_voice" title="Harsh voice">Harsh/ventricular voice</a> ("pressed")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strident_vowel" title="Strident vowel">Strident voice</a> (epiglottal trilled)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-phonemic phonation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whispering" title="Whispering">Whisper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsetto" title="Falsetto">Falsetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibrato" title="Vibrato">Vibrato</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nonverbal_communication" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nonverbal_communication" title="Template:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nonverbal_communication" title="Template talk:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nonverbal_communication" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nonverbal_communication" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modalities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Modality_(semiotics)" title="Modality (semiotics)">Modalities</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blushing" title="Blushing">Blushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">Body language</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kinesics" title="Kinesics">Kinesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body-to-body_communication" title="Body-to-body communication">Body-to-body communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facial_Action_Coding_System" title="Facial Action Coding System">Facial Action Coding System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_expression" title="Subtle expression">Subtle expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture" title="Gesture">Gesture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gestures" title="List of gestures">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech-independent_gestures" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech-independent gestures">Speech-independent gestures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_communication" title="Haptic communication">Haptic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imitation" title="Imitation">Imitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronization#Human_movement" title="Synchronization">Interpersonal synchrony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laughter" title="Laughter">Laughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculesics" title="Oculesics">Oculesics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_contact" title="Eye contact">Eye contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupillary_response" title="Pupillary response">Pupil dilation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactic_communication" title="Olfactic communication">Olfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posture_(psychology)" title="Posture (psychology)">Posture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxemics" title="Proxemics">Proxemics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_prosody" title="Emotional prosody">Emotional prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralanguage" title="Paralanguage">Paralanguage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">Loudness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">Prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">Rhythm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Voice quality</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social context</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronemics" title="Chronemics">Chronemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-context_and_low-context_cultures" title="High-context and low-context cultures">High-context and low-context cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Interpersonal relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emoticon" title="Emoticon">Emoticon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Smiley" title="Smiley">Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-bit_message" title="One-bit message">One-bit message</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missed_call" title="Missed call">Missed call</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_service_code" title="Silent service code">Silent service code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unconscious_communication" title="Unconscious communication">Unconscious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-verbal_leakage" title="Non-verbal leakage">Non-verbal leakage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multi-faceted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Affect display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition" title="Emotion recognition">Emotion recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impression_(psychology)" title="First impression (psychology)">First impression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">Intimacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Broader_concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Broader concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_interpersonal_communicative_skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic interpersonal communicative skills">Basic interpersonal communicative skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunchi" title="Nunchi">Nunchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_skills" title="People skills">People skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cue" title="Social cue">Social cue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_competence" title="Social competence">Social competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_skills" title="Social skills">Social skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsaid" title="Unsaid">Unsaid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Further_information" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Further information</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aprosodia" title="Aprosodia">Aprosodia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder" title="Childhood disintegrative disorder">Childhood disintegrative disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyssemia" title="Dyssemia">Dyssemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_learning_disorder" title="Nonverbal learning disorder">Nonverbal learning disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_(pragmatic)_communication_disorder" title="Social (pragmatic) communication disorder">Social (pragmatic) communication disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">Mirror neuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">Cold reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_detection" title="Lie detection">Lie detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudian_slip" title="Freudian slip">Freudian slip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(poker)" title="Tell (poker)">Poker tell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_(advertising)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention (advertising)">Targeted advertising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_processing_of_body_language" title="Computer processing of body language">Computer processing of body language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition_in_conversation" title="Emotion recognition in conversation">Emotion recognition in conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture_recognition" title="Gesture recognition">Gesture recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_facial_expression_databases" title="List of facial expression databases">List of facial expression databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Birdwhistell" title="Ray Birdwhistell">Ray Birdwhistell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_communication" title="Behavioral communication">Behavioral communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assertiveness" title="Assertiveness">Assertive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deference" title="Deference">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior" title="Passive-aggressive behavior">Passive-aggressive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impression_management" 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