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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="Yes"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>Assessment and management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation: clinical practice points from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce | Pediatric Nephrology </title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Assessment and management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation: clinical practice points from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Pediatric Nephrology - Children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at risk for vitamin deficiency or excess. Vitamin status can be affected by diet, supplements, kidney function, medications,..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://media.springernature.com/full/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/467"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="467"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Assessment and management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation: clinical practice points from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="Pediatric Nephrology 2024 39:10"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-04-04"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="ReviewPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="Children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at risk for vitamin deficiency or excess. Vitamin status can be affected by diet, supplements, kidney function, medications, and dialysis. Little is known about vitamin requirements in CKD, leading to practice variation. The Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce (PRNT), an international team of pediatric kidney dietitians and pediatric nephrologists, was established to develop evidence-based clinical practice points (CPPs) to address challenges and to serve as a resource for nutritional care. Questions were formulated using PICO (Patient, Intervention, Comparator, Outcomes), and literature searches undertaken to explore clinical practice from assessment to management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation (CKD2-5D&amp;T). The CPPs were developed and finalized using a Delphi consensus approach. We present six CPPs for vitamin management for children with CKD2-5D&amp;T. We address assessment, intervention, and monitoring. We recommend avoiding supplementation of vitamin A and suggest water-soluble vitamin supplementation for those on dialysis. In the absence of evidence, a consistent structured approach to vitamin management that considers assessment and monitoring from dietary, physical, and biochemical viewpoints is needed. Careful consideration of the impact of accumulation, losses, comorbidities, and medications needs to be explored for the individual child and vitamin before supplementation can be considered. When supplementing, care needs to be taken not to over-prescribe. Research recommendations are suggested."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1432-198X"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="Pediatric Nephrology"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-04-04"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="39"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="10"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="ReviewPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="3103"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="3124"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Pediatric Nephrology"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Pediatr Nephrol"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer Berlin Heidelberg"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1432-198X"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Assessment and management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation: clinical practice points from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="39"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="10"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2024/10"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/04/04"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="3103"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="3124"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Guidelines"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x"/> <meta name="size" content="474868"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="Children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at risk for vitamin deficiency or excess. Vitamin status can be affected by diet, supplements, kidney functi"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Anderson, Caroline E."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Tuokkola, Jetta"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Qizalbash, Leila"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Harmer, Matthew"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Nelms, Christina L."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Stabouli, Stella"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Toole, Barry"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Polderman, Nonnie"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Desloovere, An"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Renken-Terhaerdt, Jose"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Vega, Molly R. 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Wong"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Snauwaert, Evelien"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="University Hospital Ghent, Ghent, Belgium"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Walle, Johan Vande"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="University Hospital Ghent, Ghent, Belgium"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Haffner, Dieter"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Hannover Medical School, Children’s Hospital, Hannover, Germany"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Paglialonga, Fabio"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Shroff, Rukshana"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health, London, UK"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Shaw, Vanessa"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health, London, UK"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Greenbaum, Larry A."/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Emory University, Atlanta, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Warady, Bradley A."/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Children’s Mercy Kansas City, Kansas City, USA"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"/> <meta name="citation_cover_date" content="2024/10/01"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="SpringerLink"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Assessment and management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation: clinical practice points from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce - Pediatric Nephrology"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at risk for vitamin deficiency or excess. Vitamin status can be affected by diet, supplements, kidney function, medications, and dialysis. Little is known about vitamin requirements in CKD, leading to practice variation.The Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce (PRNT), an international team of pediatric kidney dietitians and pediatric nephrologists, was established to develop evidence-based clinical practice points (CPPs) to address challenges and to serve as a resource for nutritional care. Questions were formulated using PICO (Patient, Intervention, Comparator, Outcomes), and literature searches undertaken to explore clinical practice from assessment to management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation (CKD2-5D&T). The CPPs were developed and finalized using a Delphi consensus approach. We present six CPPs for vitamin management for children with CKD2-5D&T. We address assessment, intervention, and monitoring. We recommend avoiding supplementation of vitamin A and suggest water-soluble vitamin supplementation for those on dialysis. In the absence of evidence, a consistent structured approach to vitamin management that considers assessment and monitoring from dietary, physical, and biochemical viewpoints is needed. Careful consideration of the impact of accumulation, losses, comorbidities, and medications needs to be explored for the individual child and vitamin before supplementation can be considered. When supplementing, care needs to be taken not to over-prescribe. Research recommendations are suggested."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://media.springernature.com/full/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/467"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-c6d59aafac.ico> <meta name="theme-color" content="#e6e6e6">   <link rel="stylesheet" media="print" href=/oscar-static/app-springerlink/css/print-b8af42253b.css> <style> 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Vitamin status can be affected by diet, supplements, kidney function, medications, and dialysis. Little is known about vitamin requirements in CKD, leading to practice variation. The Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce (PRNT), an international team of pediatric kidney dietitians and pediatric nephrologists, was established to develop evidence-based clinical practice points (CPPs) to address challenges and to serve as a resource for nutritional care. Questions were formulated using PICO (Patient, Intervention, Comparator, Outcomes), and literature searches undertaken to explore clinical practice from assessment to management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation (CKD2-5D&T). The CPPs were developed and finalized using a Delphi consensus approach. We present six CPPs for vitamin management for children with CKD2-5D&T. We address assessment, intervention, and monitoring. We recommend avoiding supplementation of vitamin A and suggest water-soluble vitamin supplementation for those on dialysis. In the absence of evidence, a consistent structured approach to vitamin management that considers assessment and monitoring from dietary, physical, and biochemical viewpoints is needed. Careful consideration of the impact of accumulation, losses, comorbidities, and medications needs to be explored for the individual child and vitamin before supplementation can be considered. When supplementing, care needs to be taken not to over-prescribe. Research recommendations are suggested.","datePublished":"2024-04-04T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2024-04-04T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"3103","pageEnd":"3124","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x","keywords":["Vitamins","Chronic kidney disease","Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce","Clinical practice points","Children","Pediatrics","Nephrology","Urology"],"image":[],"isPartOf":{"name":"Pediatric Nephrology","issn":["1432-198X","0931-041X"],"volumeNumber":"39","@type":["Periodical","PublicationVolume"]},"publisher":{"name":"Springer Berlin Heidelberg","logo":{"url":"https://www.springernature.com/app-sn/public/images/logo-springernature.png","@type":"ImageObject"},"@type":"Organization"},"author":[{"name":"Caroline E. 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Nelms","affiliation":[{"name":"Children’s Mercy Kansas City","address":{"name":"Children’s Mercy Kansas City, Kansas City, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Stella Stabouli","affiliation":[{"name":"Aristotle University, Hippokratio Hospital","address":{"name":"1st Department of Pediatrics, Aristotle University, Hippokratio Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Barry Toole","affiliation":[{"name":"Great Northern Children’s Hospital","address":{"name":"Great Northern Children’s Hospital, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Nonnie Polderman","affiliation":[{"name":"British Columbia Children’s Hospital","address":{"name":"British Columbia Children’s Hospital, Vancouver, Canada","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"An Desloovere","affiliation":[{"name":"University Hospital Ghent","address":{"name":"University Hospital Ghent, Ghent, Belgium","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Jose Renken-Terhaerdt","affiliation":[{"name":"Wilhemina Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht","address":{"name":"Wilhemina Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Molly R. Wong Vega","affiliation":[{"name":"Texas Children’s Hospital","address":{"name":"Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Evelien Snauwaert","affiliation":[{"name":"University Hospital Ghent","address":{"name":"University Hospital Ghent, Ghent, Belgium","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Johan Vande Walle","affiliation":[{"name":"University Hospital Ghent","address":{"name":"University Hospital Ghent, Ghent, Belgium","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Dieter Haffner","affiliation":[{"name":"Children’s Hospital","address":{"name":"Hannover Medical School, Children’s Hospital, Hannover, Germany","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Fabio Paglialonga","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico","address":{"name":"Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Rukshana Shroff","url":"http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8501-1072","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health","address":{"name":"University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health, London, UK","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Vanessa Shaw","url":"http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3886-6291","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health","address":{"name":"University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health, London, UK","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Larry A. 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2024</time> </li> </ul> <ul class="c-article-identifiers c-article-identifiers--cite-list"> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item"> <span data-test="journal-volume">Volume 39</span>, pages 3103–3124, (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2024</span>) </li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item c-article-identifiers__item--cite"> <a href="#citeas" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </li> </ul> <div class="app-article-masthead__buttons" data-test="download-article-link-wrapper" data-track-context="masthead"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" 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Assessment and management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation: clinical practice points from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce </div> <div data-test="inCoD" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Caroline_E_-Anderson-Aff1-Aff2-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Caroline_E_-Anderson-Aff1-Aff2-Aff3" data-author-search="Anderson, Caroline E." data-corresp-id="c1">Caroline E. Anderson<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0116-9006"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-0116-9006</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff2">2</a>,<a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Jetta-Tuokkola-Aff4-Aff5-Aff6" data-author-popup="auth-Jetta-Tuokkola-Aff4-Aff5-Aff6" data-author-search="Tuokkola, Jetta">Jetta Tuokkola</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8523-2008"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-8523-2008</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff4">4</a>,<a href="#Aff5">5</a>,<a href="#Aff6">6</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Leila-Qizalbash-Aff7" data-author-popup="auth-Leila-Qizalbash-Aff7" data-author-search="Qizalbash, Leila">Leila Qizalbash</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff7">7</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Matthew-Harmer-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Matthew-Harmer-Aff1" data-author-search="Harmer, Matthew">Matthew Harmer</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Christina_L_-Nelms-Aff8" data-author-popup="auth-Christina_L_-Nelms-Aff8" data-author-search="Nelms, Christina L.">Christina L. Nelms</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff8">8</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Stella-Stabouli-Aff9" data-author-popup="auth-Stella-Stabouli-Aff9" data-author-search="Stabouli, Stella">Stella Stabouli</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff9">9</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Barry-Toole-Aff7" data-author-popup="auth-Barry-Toole-Aff7" data-author-search="Toole, Barry">Barry Toole</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff7">7</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Nonnie-Polderman-Aff10" data-author-popup="auth-Nonnie-Polderman-Aff10" data-author-search="Polderman, Nonnie">Nonnie Polderman</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff10">10</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-An-Desloovere-Aff11" data-author-popup="auth-An-Desloovere-Aff11" data-author-search="Desloovere, An">An Desloovere</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff11">11</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Jose-Renken_Terhaerdt-Aff12" data-author-popup="auth-Jose-Renken_Terhaerdt-Aff12" data-author-search="Renken-Terhaerdt, Jose">Jose Renken-Terhaerdt</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff12">12</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Molly_R__Wong-Vega-Aff13" data-author-popup="auth-Molly_R__Wong-Vega-Aff13" data-author-search="Vega, Molly R. 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Greenbaum</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2490-021X"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-2490-021X</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff17">17</a>,<a href="#Aff18">18</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 19 authors for this article" title="Show all 19 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Bradley_A_-Warady-Aff8" data-author-popup="auth-Bradley_A_-Warady-Aff8" data-author-search="Warady, Bradley A.">Bradley A. 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Vitamin status can be affected by diet, supplements, kidney function, medications, and dialysis. Little is known about vitamin requirements in CKD, leading to practice variation.</p><p>The Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce (PRNT), an international team of pediatric kidney dietitians and pediatric nephrologists, was established to develop evidence-based clinical practice points (CPPs) to address challenges and to serve as a resource for nutritional care. Questions were formulated using PICO (Patient, Intervention, Comparator, Outcomes), and literature searches undertaken to explore clinical practice from assessment to management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation (CKD2-5D&T). The CPPs were developed and finalized using a Delphi consensus approach. We present six CPPs for vitamin management for children with CKD2-5D&T. We address assessment, intervention, and monitoring. We recommend avoiding supplementation of vitamin A and suggest water-soluble vitamin supplementation for those on dialysis. In the absence of evidence, a consistent structured approach to vitamin management that considers assessment and monitoring from dietary, physical, and biochemical viewpoints is needed. Careful consideration of the impact of accumulation, losses, comorbidities, and medications needs to be explored for the individual child and vitamin before supplementation can be considered. When supplementing, care needs to be taken not to over-prescribe. Research recommendations are suggested.</p></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3Aplaceholder%2Fimages/placeholder-figure-springernature.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40620-016-0323-4?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 1" data-track-label="10.1007/s40620-016-0323-4">A Delphi consensus panel on nutritional therapy in chronic kidney disease </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">20 June 2016</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3Aplaceholder%2Fimages/placeholder-figure-springernature.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40746-020-00190-8?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_2" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 2" data-track-label="10.1007/s40746-020-00190-8">Nutritional Management of the Pediatric CKD Patient </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">14 April 2020</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00467-021-05228-z/MediaObjects/467_2021_5228_Figa_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00467-021-05228-z?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_3" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 3" data-track-label="10.1007/s00467-021-05228-z">Randomized trial of two maintenance doses of vitamin D in children with chronic kidney disease </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">15 August 2021</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1740126595, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=467" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>Vitamins have essential roles in bodily processes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Bender D (2003) Nutritional biochemistry of the vitamins, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e992">1</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="World Health Organization (2004) Vitamin and mineral requirements in Human Nutrition, 2nd edn. World Health Organization, Geneva" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e995">2</a>]. Deficiencies and excesses may cause adverse clinical consequences, and chronic kidney disease (CKD) increases their risk. Vitamin status can be affected by diet, supplements, kidney function, and dialysis, among other factors.</p><p>The most recent pediatric guidelines [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Coleman J, Edefonti A, Watson AR (2001) Guidelines by an ad hoc European committee on the assessment of growth and nutritional status in children on chronic peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 21:1–9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/089686080102100321
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1001">3</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="KDOQI Work Group (2009) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in children with CKD: 2008 update. Executive summary Am J Kidney Dis 53:S11–S104. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2008.11.017
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1004">4</a>] for vitamin management in CKD were published over 15 years ago and are based on limited evidence. These guidelines made four key points. First, dietary intake should provide 100% of requirements for healthy children. Second, supplementation should be considered when there is inadequate intake or clinical deficiency is evident. Third, low blood concentrations may be used to confirm deficiency. Fourth, children on dialysis should receive water-soluble vitamin supplementation, if not on enteral or sip feeds (oral nutritional supplements).</p><p>Building on prior Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative recommendations [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="KDOQI Work Group (2009) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in children with CKD: 2008 update. Executive summary Am J Kidney Dis 53:S11–S104. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2008.11.017
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1010">4</a>], along with information derived from recent literature, we present a comprehensive position paper with six clinical practice points (CPPs) to address vitamin assessment, intervention, and monitoring for children with CKD stages 2–5, those on dialysis and post- kidney transplantation, all henceforth referred to as CKD. These CPPs are based on available evidence, expert opinion, and, where appropriate, extrapolation from adult studies. We address fat-soluble vitamins (A (retinol), E (tocopherol), and K (phylloquinone, menaquinone)) and water-soluble vitamins (B1 (thiamin), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B5 (pantothenic acid), B6 (pyridoxine), B7 (biotin), B9 (folate), B12 (cobalamin), and C (ascorbic acid)). Vitamin D has been extensively addressed elsewhere and is not included in this review [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Shroff R, Wan M, Nagler E, Bakkaloglu S, Coozoliina M, Bacchetta J, Edefonti A, Stefanidis C, Vande Walle J, Ariceta G, Klaus G, Haffner D, Schmitt C (2017) Clinical practice recommendations for treatment with active vitamin D analogues in children with chronic kidney disease Stages 2–5 and on dialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 32:1114–1127. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfx080
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1013">5</a>].</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Methods"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2">Methods</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>The full development process, the purpose, and plans for audit and revision of the recommendations are described in a previous Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce (PRNT) publication [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="McAlister L, Pugh P, Greenbaum L, Haffner D, Rees L, Anderson C, Desloovere A, Nelms C, Oosterveld M, Paglialonga F, Polderman N, Qizalbash L, Renken-Terhaerdt J, Tuokkola J, Warady B, Walle JV, Shaw V, Shroff R (2020) The dietary management of calcium and phosphate in children with CKD stages 2–5 and on dialysis-clinical practice recommendation from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce. Pediatr Nephrol 35:501–518. 
 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00467-019-04370-z
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1024">6</a>]. The search criteria are described below (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S1</a>). The PRNT working group, which included pediatric nephrologists, dietitians, and biochemists, defined the scope, formulated the questions, performed the literature review, developed the CPPs, and conducted the Delphi process. The Delphi group included nephrologists and dietitians from global children’s kidney centers.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Development process"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec3-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec3">Development process</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec3-content"><p>PICO (Patient, Intervention, Comparator, and Outcome) questions guided the development of actionable CPPs.</p><p><b><i>A—PICO questions</i></b></p> <blockquote class="c-blockquote"><div class="c-blockquote__body"> <p><i>Population/Patient:</i> children from birth up to 18 years of age with CKD.</p> <p><i>Intervention:</i> assessment of vitamin requirements, intake, and clinical evidence of deficiency or excess; use of supplementation and monitoring.</p> <p><i>Comparison:</i> vitamin requirements for healthy children and adults with CKD, and biochemical markers, where available <i>(or no comparator)</i></p> <p><i>Outcomes:</i> adequate vitamin intake; avoidance of vitamin deficiencies and excesses.</p> </div></blockquote><p><b><i>B—Proposed clinical questions for clinical practice points for children with CKD</i></b></p> <ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">1.</span> <p>What are the vitamin requirements?</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">2.</span> <p>Which foods are the main dietary sources?</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">3.</span> <p>How do dietary modifications affect intake?</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">4.</span> <p>What are the non-dietary factors which influence vitamin status?</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.</span> <p>How should we approach clinical assessment and monitoring?</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.</span> <p>When is dietary modification or vitamin supplementation indicated?</p> </li> </ol></div></div></section><section data-title="Literature search"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec6-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec6">Literature search</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec6-content"><p>Details of the literature search are described in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S1</a><i>.</i> Literature up to and including a publication date of January 2023 was reviewed using PICO and related clinical questions.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Clinical practice points"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec7-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec7">Clinical practice points</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec7-content"><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">1.</span> <p>What are the vitamin requirements?</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">1.1</span> <p>The vitamin requirements for children with early CKD (stages 2–3a) should approximate those of healthy children of the same chronological age</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">1.1.1</span> <p>For children with advanced CKD (stage 3b–5D&T), vitamin requirements may be less or greater than those for healthy children.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">1.1.2</span> <p>We suggest that the intake of vitamin A in CKD, where accumulation may occur, should not exceed the requirements of healthy children.</p> </li> </ol> </li> </ol> </li> </ol><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec9">Evidence and rationale</h3><p>In order to understand requirements for children with CKD, we first describe the requirements for healthy children as a comparator. A summary of internationally published recommended dietary intakes of vitamins is provided in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S2</a> [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Department of Health (1991) Dietary reference values for food energy and nutrients for the United Kingdom. Report of the Panel on Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy. Report on Health and Social Subjects. 
 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/743786/Dietary_Reference_Values_for_Food_Energy_and_Nutrients_for_the_United_Kingdom__1991_.pdf
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1226">7</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Food and Nutrition Division. FAO Rome (2001) Human vitamin and mineral requirements. Report of a joint FAO/WHO expert consultation. Bangkok, Thailand. 
 https://www.fao.org/3/y2809e/y2809e.pdf?from=article_link
 
 " href="#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1226_1">8</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Institute of Medicine (US) Panel on Micronutrients (2001) Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. 5, Vitamin K. National Academies Press, Washington, DC. 
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK222299/#_ncbi_dlg_citbx_NBK222299
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1226_2">9</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="National Health and Medical Research Council (2006) Nutrient reference values for Australia and New Zealand including recommended dietary intakes. 
 https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/nutrient-reference-values-australia-and-new-zealand-including-recommended-dietary-intakes
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1226_3">10</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Nordic Council of Ministers and the Nordic Council (2012) Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2012. Integrating nutrition and physical activity. 
 https://www.norden.org/en/publication/nordic-nutrition-recommendations-2012
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1226_4">11</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="European Food Safety Authority (2013) Scientific Opinion on nutrient requirements and dietary intakes of infants and young children in the European Union. 
 https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3408
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1229">12</a>]. Definitions of requirements can be found in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S3</a>.</p><p>The requirements of vitamins for children and adolescents with CKD have not been determined. Therefore, requirements for healthy children should be used as an initial guide for the assessment of adequate intake. This statement agrees with previous published guidelines. However, additional consideration has been given to advanced CKD, as discussed below, suggesting that requirements may be greater for some vitamins due to the presence of increased oxidative stress and dialysate- and medication-induced losses. Conversely, there is evidence that excess intake of some vitamins causes harm [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Institute of Medicine (US) Subcommittee on interpretation and uses of dietary reference intakes; Institute of Medicine (US) Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes (2000) Dietary Reference Intakes: Applications in Dietary Assessment. 6, Using the Tolerable Upper Intake Level for Nutrient Assessment of Groups. 
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK222879/
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1238">13</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals. Food Standards Agency (2003) Safe upper levels of vitamins and minerals. 
 https://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/vitmin2003.pdf
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2003" href="#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1238_1">14</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Scientific Committee on Food. European Food Safety Authority (2006) Tolerable Upper Intakes Levels for Vitamins and Minerals. 
 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/efsa_rep/blobserver_assets/ndatolerableuil.pdf
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1241">15</a>]. Children with CKD may develop clinical hypervitaminosis A due to decreased urinary excretion and absence of dialytic removal. Hence, high intake of vitamin A in CKD should be avoided [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Casey CE, Moser MC, Hambidge KM, Lum GM (1981) Zinc, copper, and vitamin A in pediatric dialysis. J Pediatr 98:434–435. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3476(81)80715-9
 
 " href="#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1244">16</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Gentile M, Fellin G, Manna G, D’Amico G, Testolin G, Porrini M, Simonetti P (1988) Vitamin A and retinol binding protein in chronic renal insufficiency. Int J Artif Organs 11:403–404" href="#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1244_1">17</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Kriley M, Warady BA (1991) Vitamin status of pediatric patients receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Clin Nutr 53:1476–1479. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/53.6.1476
 
 " href="#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1244_2">18</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Vannucchi M, Vannucchi H, Humphreys M (1992) Serum levels of vitamin A and retinol binding protein in chronic renal patients treated by continuous ambulatorial peritoneal dialysis. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 62:107–112" href="#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1244_3">19</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lipkin AC, Lenssen P (2008) Hypervitaminosis a in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell patients requiring renal replacement therapy. Nutr Clin Pract 23:621–629. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533608327082
 
 " href="#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1244_4">20</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lughetti L, Perugini C, Predieri B, Madeo S, Bellomo G, Bernasconi S, Balli F (2008) Low-density lipoprotein oxidizability in children with chronic renal failure. Pediatr Int 50:447–453. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-200X.2008.02614.x
 
 " href="#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1244_5">21</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Fassinger N, Imam A, Klurfeld DM (2010) Serum retinol, retinol-binding protein, and transthyretin in children receiving dialysis. J Ren Nutr 20:17–22. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2009.05.005
 
 " href="#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1244_6">22</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Manickavasagar B, McArdle AJ, Yadav P, Shaw V, Dixon M, Blomhoff R, Connor GO, Rees L, Ledermann S, Van’t Hoff W, Shroff R, (2015) Hypervitaminosis A is prevalent in children with CKD and contributes to hypercalcemia. Pediatr Nephrol 30:317–325. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-014-2916-2
 
 " href="#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1244_7">23</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Joyce T, Court Brown F, Wallace D, Reid CJD, Sinha MD (2018) Trace element and vitamin concentrations in paediatric dialysis patients. Pediatr Nephrol 33:159–165. 
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 " href="#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1244_8">24</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Tuokkola J, Kiviharju E, Jahnukainen T, Hölttä T (2021) Differences in dietary intake and vitamin and mineral status of infants and children on dialysis receiving feeds or eating normal food. J Ren Nutr 31:144–154. 
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 " href="#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1244_9">25</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 26" title="Harris M, Varnell C, Taylor V, Nehus ST, Zhang B, Erkan E (2022) Hypervitaminosis A in pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. J Ren Nutr 32:275–281. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2021.03.010
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1247">26</a>]. These statements, including the restriction of vitamin A intake, are consistent with prior guidelines for children with CKD.</p><p>In children with pre-dialysis CKD, we suggest increasing intake, either via diet or supplements, if B vitamins or vitamin C intakes are lower than recommended for healthy children.</p><p>Children receiving dialysis may benefit from a higher vitamin C intake. Supplementation may be beneficial for anemia and lipid management in children on dialysis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="El Mashad GM, El Sayed HM, Nosair NA (2016) Effect of vitamin C supplementation on lipid profile, serum uric acid, and ascorbic acid in children on hemodialysis. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 27:1148–1154. 
 https://doi.org/10.4103/1319-2442.194602
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1256">27</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Hongsawong N, Chawprang N, Kittisakmontri K, Vittayananan P, Srisuwan K, Chartapisak W (2021) Vitamin C deficiency and impact of vitamin C administration among pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 36:397–408. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04662-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1259">28</a>]. However, the safe amount to ingest, to avoid the risk of systemic oxalosis, is not known [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="D’Costa MR, Winkler NS, Milliner DS, Norby SM, Hickson LJ, Lieske JC (2019) Oxalosis associated with high-dose vitamin C ingestion in a peritoneal dialysis patient. Am J Kidney Dis 74:417–420. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2019.01.022
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1262">29</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Kennedy SS, Perilloux A, Pereira RC, Handelman G, Wesseling-Perry K, Salusky IB (2021) Vitamin C overload may contribute to systemic oxalosis in children receiving dialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 36:435–441. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04702-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1265">30</a>]. KDOQI [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="KDOQI Work Group (2009) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in children with CKD: 2008 update. Executive summary Am J Kidney Dis 53:S11–S104. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2008.11.017
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1268">4</a>] recommends supplementation for dialysis patients, but does not provide a specific supplementation recommendation, though does state that the safe upper limit of total intake of vitamin C is 400–1800 mg per day, depending on age. In one study, supplementation of 250 mg/day of vitamin C did not lead to hyperoxaluria [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Hongsawong N, Chawprang N, Kittisakmontri K, Vittayananan P, Srisuwan K, Chartapisak W (2021) Vitamin C deficiency and impact of vitamin C administration among pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 36:397–408. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04662-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1272">28</a>]. The UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition and European Food Safety Authority [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Department of Health (1991) Dietary reference values for food energy and nutrients for the United Kingdom. Report of the Panel on Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy. Report on Health and Social Subjects. 
 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/743786/Dietary_Reference_Values_for_Food_Energy_and_Nutrients_for_the_United_Kingdom__1991_.pdf
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1275">7</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Scientific Committee on Food. European Food Safety Authority (2006) Tolerable Upper Intakes Levels for Vitamins and Minerals. 
 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/efsa_rep/blobserver_assets/ndatolerableuil.pdf
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e1278">15</a>] have not set an upper limit for healthy children. In the absence of dietary or laboratory assessment for B vitamins, it is likely optimal to use a water-soluble multivitamin supplement in children receiving dialysis given the risk of deficiencies and low risk of excess. There are no reports of toxicity using such an approach.</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">2.</span> <p>Which foods are the main dietary source of vitamins?</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">2.1</span> <p>Children with CKD may obtain sufficient vitamin intake through intake of a varied diet and/or a nutritionally complete enteral formula.</p> </li> </ol> </li> </ol><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec11">Evidence and rationale</h3><p>The main dietary sources for each vitamin are shown in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab1">1</a>; some of these foods may need to be restricted to manage uremia, hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia, and hyperlipidemia. A varied diet can help optimize vitamin intake. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 Main dietary sources of vitamins and potential impact of dietary modifications</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">3.</span> <p>Dietary modifications and food preparation methods may impact vitamin intake.</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">3.1</span> <p>How do dietary modifications affect intake?</p> </li> </ol> </li> </ol><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec13">Evidence and rationale</h3><p>Dietary intake of vitamins in children with CKD has been reported to range from below to above estimated requirements for healthy children (Tables <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S4</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S6</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S12</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S14</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S15</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S16</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S18</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S20</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S22</a>). Diet modifications for CKD may limit vitamin-rich dietary sources (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab1">1</a>) and children with CKD are at increased risk of malnutrition, including a non-optimal vitamin status [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="My Thuc LT, Dung NQ, Ha VN, Tam ND, Hang Nga NT (2019) Actual diet and nutritional deficiencies status in children on peritoneal dialysis at the Vietnam National Hospital of Pediatrics. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 30:924–931. 
 https://doi.org/10.4103/1319-2442.265470
 
 " href="#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2102">31</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Sgambat K, Cheng YI, Charnaya O, Moudgil A (2019) The prevalence and outcome of children with failure to thrive after pediatric kidney transplantation. Pediatr Transplant 23:e13321. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/petr.13321
 
 " href="#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2102_1">32</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 33" title="Karava V, Dotis J, Kondou A, Printza N (2023) Malnutrition patterns in children with chronic kidney disease. Life (Basel) 13:713. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/life13030713
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2105">33</a>]. The risk of malnutrition may be particularly pertinent in children who have advanced CKD, including those on dialysis.</p><p>Vitamin intake can also be altered by country-specific food fortification programs and may change with cooking methods designed to reduce potassium intake. For example, boiling in water reduces vitamin content, especially of water-soluble and heat-labile vitamins [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 34" title="Maharaj PPP, Prasad S, Devi R, Gopalan R (2015) Folate content and retention in commonly consumed vegetables in the South Pacific. Food Chem 182:327–332. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.02.096
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2111">34</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Lee S, Choi Y, Jeong HS, Lee J, Sung J (2018) Effect of different cooking methods on the content of vitamins and true retention in selected vegetables. Food Sci Biotechnol 27:333–342. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-017-0281-1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2114">35</a>]. In addition, interactions with other nutrients may affect absorption and metabolism. The vitamin content of enteral formulas is specific at the time of manufacture, but content could change according to storage conditions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Frias J, Vidal-Valverde C (2001) Stability of thiamine and vitamins E and A during storage of enteral feeding formula. J Agric Food Chem 49:2313–2317. 
 https://doi.org/10.1021/jf001243d
 
 " href="#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2117">36</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Frias J, Peñas E, Vidal-Valverde C (2009) Changes in vitamin content of powder enteral formulas as a consequence of storage. Food Chem 115:1411–1416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.01.070
 
 " href="#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2117_1">37</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Baéz R, Rojas G, Sandoval-Guillén J, Valdivia-López AM (2012) Effect of storage temperature on the chemical stability of enteral formula. Adv J Food Sci Tech 4:235–242" href="#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2117_2">38</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 39" title="Yang H, Xu L, Hou L, Xu TC, Ye SH (2022) Stability of vitamin A, E, C and thiamine during storage of different powdered enteral formulas. Heliyon 8:e11460. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11460
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2120">39</a>].</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">4.</span> <p>What are the non-dietary factors which influence vitamin intake and status?</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">4.1</span> <p>Non-dietary factors, such as CKD stage, dialysis, comorbidities, and medications, should be considered when assessing and monitoring vitamin status and when planning nutritional interventions.</p> </li> </ol> </li> </ol><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec15">Evidence and rationale</h3><p>Each vitamin is considered individually below. All children, including patients with CKD, could develop vitamin deficiency due to malabsorption [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 40" title="Sathe MN, Patel AS (2010) Update in pediatrics: focus on fat-soluble vitamins. Nutr Clin Pract 25:340–346. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533610374198
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2160">40</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 41" title="Kiani AK, Dhuli K, Donato K, Aquilanti B, Velluti V, Matera G, Iaconelli A, Connelly ST, Bellinato F, Gisondi P, Bertelli M (2022) Main nutritional deficiencies. J Prev Med Hyg 63:E93–E101. 
 https://doi.org/10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2022.63.2S3.2752
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2163">41</a>]. Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab2">2</a> shows the impact of medications and how they can alter vitamin absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. The most commonly prescribed medications for consideration are proton pump inhibitors (B12), furosemide (B6, C), and warfarin (B3, K, E) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Mydlík M, Derzsiová K, Zemberová E (1999) Influence of water and sodium diuresis and furosemide on urinary excretion of vitamin B(6), oxalic acid and vitamin C in chronic renal failure. Miner Electrolyte Metab 25:352–356. 
 https://doi.org/10.1159/000057474
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2169">42</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Langan RC, Goodbred AJ (2017) Vitamin B12 deficiency: recognition and management. Am Fam Physician 96:384–389" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2172">43</a>]. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-2"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab2" data-test="table-caption">Table 2 Vitamin interactions with medications [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 135" title="Greenwood Village, CO:Truven Health Analytics. Vitamin A, Vitamin B1, Vitamin B2, Vitamin B3, Vitamin B5, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B7, Vitamin B9, Vitamin B12, Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Vitamin K. In: Micromedex: drug interactions (University of Iowa ed.) [Electronic version]. Retrieved April 24, 2023, from 
 http://www.micromedexsolutions.com/
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR135" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2186">135</a>]</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x/tables/2" aria-label="Full size table 2"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Vitamin A is partially excreted by the kidneys and is not removed by dialysis. The kidney tubules have a role in vitamin A catabolism, and thus vitamin A can accumulate in patients with CKD, especially those receiving dialysis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="KDOQI Work Group (2009) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in children with CKD: 2008 update. Executive summary Am J Kidney Dis 53:S11–S104. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2008.11.017
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2500">4</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Casey CE, Moser MC, Hambidge KM, Lum GM (1981) Zinc, copper, and vitamin A in pediatric dialysis. J Pediatr 98:434–435. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3476(81)80715-9
 
 " href="#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2503">16</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Gentile M, Fellin G, Manna G, D’Amico G, Testolin G, Porrini M, Simonetti P (1988) Vitamin A and retinol binding protein in chronic renal insufficiency. Int J Artif Organs 11:403–404" href="#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2503_1">17</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Kriley M, Warady BA (1991) Vitamin status of pediatric patients receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Clin Nutr 53:1476–1479. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/53.6.1476
 
 " href="#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2503_2">18</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Vannucchi M, Vannucchi H, Humphreys M (1992) Serum levels of vitamin A and retinol binding protein in chronic renal patients treated by continuous ambulatorial peritoneal dialysis. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 62:107–112" href="#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2503_3">19</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lipkin AC, Lenssen P (2008) Hypervitaminosis a in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell patients requiring renal replacement therapy. Nutr Clin Pract 23:621–629. 
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 " href="#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2503_4">20</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lughetti L, Perugini C, Predieri B, Madeo S, Bellomo G, Bernasconi S, Balli F (2008) Low-density lipoprotein oxidizability in children with chronic renal failure. Pediatr Int 50:447–453. 
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 " href="#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2503_5">21</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Fassinger N, Imam A, Klurfeld DM (2010) Serum retinol, retinol-binding protein, and transthyretin in children receiving dialysis. J Ren Nutr 20:17–22. 
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 " href="#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2503_6">22</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Manickavasagar B, McArdle AJ, Yadav P, Shaw V, Dixon M, Blomhoff R, Connor GO, Rees L, Ledermann S, Van’t Hoff W, Shroff R, (2015) Hypervitaminosis A is prevalent in children with CKD and contributes to hypercalcemia. Pediatr Nephrol 30:317–325. 
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 " href="#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2503_7">23</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Joyce T, Court Brown F, Wallace D, Reid CJD, Sinha MD (2018) Trace element and vitamin concentrations in paediatric dialysis patients. Pediatr Nephrol 33:159–165. 
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 " href="#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2503_8">24</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Tuokkola J, Kiviharju E, Jahnukainen T, Hölttä T (2021) Differences in dietary intake and vitamin and mineral status of infants and children on dialysis receiving feeds or eating normal food. J Ren Nutr 31:144–154. 
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 " href="#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2503_9">25</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 26" title="Harris M, Varnell C, Taylor V, Nehus ST, Zhang B, Erkan E (2022) Hypervitaminosis A in pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. J Ren Nutr 32:275–281. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2021.03.010
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2506">26</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 44" title="Werb R, Clark WF, Lindsay RM, Jones EO, Linton AL (1979) Serum vitamin A levels and associated abnormalities in patients on regular dialysis treatment. Clin Nephrol 12:63–68" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2509">44</a>] (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S27</a>). Transplant patients are considered to have CKD, and elevated levels of vitamin A may be of concern in transplant recipients, especially as kidney function declines [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Yatzidis H, Digenis P, Koutsicos D (1976) Hypervitaminosis A in chronic renal failure after transplantation. Br Med J 2:1075. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2516">45</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Jeon HJ, Shin DH, Oh J, Kee YK, Park JY, Ko K, Lee S (2022) Urinary retinol-binding protein 4 is associated with renal function and rapid renal function decline in kidney transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 54:362–366. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2021.10.028
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2519">46</a>].</p><p>There is limited evidence that blood vitamin E concentrations are elevated in adults and children with CKD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Joyce T, Court Brown F, Wallace D, Reid CJD, Sinha MD (2018) Trace element and vitamin concentrations in paediatric dialysis patients. Pediatr Nephrol 33:159–165. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-017-3773-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2525">24</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Tuokkola J, Kiviharju E, Jahnukainen T, Hölttä T (2021) Differences in dietary intake and vitamin and mineral status of infants and children on dialysis receiving feeds or eating normal food. J Ren Nutr 31:144–154. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2020.07.003
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2528">25</a>]. There is conflicting information as to whether vitamin E is lost in hemodialysis (HD) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="De Bevere V, Nelis H, Leenheer A, De Paepe M, Ringoir S (1982) Vitamin E in hemodialysis patients. JAMA 247:2371. 
 https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.247.17.2371b
 
 " href="#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2531">47</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Koca T, Berber A, Koca H, Demir T, Kohen T (2010) Effects of hemodialysis period on levels of blood trace elements and oxidative stress. Clin Exp Nephrol 14:463–468. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10157-010-0310-3
 
 " href="#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2531_1">48</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Yang S, Xiao L, Xu B, Xu X, Lui F, Sun L (2014) Effects of Vitamin E-coated dialyser on oxidative stress and inflammation status in hemodialysis patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ren Fail 36:722–731. 
 https://doi.org/10.3109/0886022x.2014.890858
 
 " href="#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2531_2">49</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Hulqvist M, Hegbrant J, Nilsson-Thorell C, Lindholm T, Nilsson P, Linden T, Hultqvist-Bengtsson U (1997) Plasma concentrations of vitamin C, vitamin E and/or malondialdehyde as markers of oxygen free radical production during hemodialysis. Clin Nephrol 47:37–46" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2534">50</a>].</p><p>Little is known about vitamin K in children with CKD. There is no evidence for an increased risk of vitamin K deficiency in CKD, though malabsorption due to gastrointestinal disease and poor intake combined with broad-spectrum antibiotics that eliminate gut bacteria producing vitamin K may cause vitamin K deficiency [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Haden, (1957) Vitamin K deficiency associated with prolonged antibiotic administration. AMA Arch Intern Med 100:986–988. 
 https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1957.00260120130015
 
 " href="#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2540">51</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Shevchuk Y, Conly J (1990) Antibiotic-associated hypoprothrombinemia: a review of prospective studies, 1966–1988. Rev Infect Dis 12:1009–1026" href="#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2540_1">52</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Bhat R, Deshmukh C (2003) A study of vitamin K status in children on prolonged antibiotic therapy. Indian Pediatr 40:36–40" href="#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2540_2">53</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 54" title="Elalfy M, Ebeid F, Elagouza I, Ibrahim F, Hassan N, Botros B (2018) Negative impact of prolonged antibiotics or persistent diarrhea on vitamin K1 levels in 2–24 weeks aged Egyptian infants. Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis 10:e2018010" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2543">54</a>]. There is no evidence of vitamin K losses in dialysis; however, low serum vitamin K levels are present in patients treated with vitamin K antagonists, a therapy mainly studied in adults with CKD who exhibit side effects such as bleeding and calciphylaxis.</p><p>Many water-soluble vitamins are lost in dialysate due to their small molecular size. Only adult data is available for B complex vitamins. There is evidence for varying degrees of losses in HD for vitamins B1 (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab3">3</a>; Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S28</a>) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Marumo F, Kamata K, Okubo M (1986) Deranged concentrations of water-soluble vitamins in the blood of undialyzed and dialyzed patients with chronic renal failure. Int J Artif Organs 9:17–24" href="#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2556">55</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Frank T, Czeche K, Bitsch R, Stein G (2000) Assessment of thiamin status in chronic renal failure patients, transplant recipients and hemodialysis patients receiving a multivitamin supplementation. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 70:159–166. 
 https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831.70.4.159
 
 " href="#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2556_1">56</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Heinz J, Domröse U, Westphal S, Luley C, Neumann KH, Dierkes J (2008) Washout of water-soluble vitamins and of homocysteine during haemodialysis: effect of high-flux and low-flux dialyser membranes. Nephrology (Carlton) 13:384–389. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1797.2008.00946.x
 
 " href="#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2556_2">57</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Ubukata M, Amemiya N, Nitta K, Takei T (2015) Serum thiamine values in end-stage renal disease patients under maintenance hemodialysis. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 85:348–355. 
 https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831/a000242
 
 " href="#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2556_3">58</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Jankowska M, Rudnicki-Velasquez P, Storoniak H, Rutkowski P, Rutkowski B, Krzymiński K, Dębska-Ślizień A (2017) Thiamine diphosphate status and dialysis-related losses in end-stage kidney disease patients treated with hemodialysis. Blood Purif 44:294–300. 
 https://doi.org/10.1159/000480651
 
 " href="#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2556_4">59</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Bévier A, Novel-Catin E, Blond E, Pelletier S, Parant F, Koppe L, Fouque D (2022) Water-soluble vitamins and trace elements losses during on-line hemodiafiltration. Nutrients 14:3454. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14173454
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2559">60</a>]. B2 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Heinz J, Domröse U, Westphal S, Luley C, Neumann KH, Dierkes J (2008) Washout of water-soluble vitamins and of homocysteine during haemodialysis: effect of high-flux and low-flux dialyser membranes. Nephrology (Carlton) 13:384–389. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1797.2008.00946.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2562">57</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Bévier A, Novel-Catin E, Blond E, Pelletier S, Parant F, Koppe L, Fouque D (2022) Water-soluble vitamins and trace elements losses during on-line hemodiafiltration. Nutrients 14:3454. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14173454
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2566">60</a>], B6 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Heinz J, Domröse U, Westphal S, Luley C, Neumann KH, Dierkes J (2008) Washout of water-soluble vitamins and of homocysteine during haemodialysis: effect of high-flux and low-flux dialyser membranes. Nephrology (Carlton) 13:384–389. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1797.2008.00946.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2569">57</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Bévier A, Novel-Catin E, Blond E, Pelletier S, Parant F, Koppe L, Fouque D (2022) Water-soluble vitamins and trace elements losses during on-line hemodiafiltration. Nutrients 14:3454. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14173454
 
 " href="#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2572">60</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Mydlík M, Derzsiová K, Válek A, Szabó T, Dandár V, Takác M (1985) Vitamins and continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Int Urol Nephrol 17:281–286. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02085415
 
 " href="#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2572_1">61</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Leblanc M, Pichette V, Geadah D, Ouimet D (2000) Folic acid and pyridoxal-5’-phosphate losses during high-efficiency hemodialysis in patients without hydrosoluble vitamin supplementation. J Ren Nutr 10:196–201. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/jren.2000.16327
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2575">62</a>], biotin [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Jung U, Helbich-Endermann M, Bitsch R, Schneider S, Stein G (1998) Are patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) deficient in Biotin and is regular Biotin supplementation required? Z Ernahrungswiss 37:363–367. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s003940050038
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2578">63</a>], and folate [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Heinz J, Domröse U, Westphal S, Luley C, Neumann KH, Dierkes J (2008) Washout of water-soluble vitamins and of homocysteine during haemodialysis: effect of high-flux and low-flux dialyser membranes. Nephrology (Carlton) 13:384–389. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1797.2008.00946.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2581">57</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Bévier A, Novel-Catin E, Blond E, Pelletier S, Parant F, Koppe L, Fouque D (2022) Water-soluble vitamins and trace elements losses during on-line hemodiafiltration. Nutrients 14:3454. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14173454
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2585">60</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Leblanc M, Pichette V, Geadah D, Ouimet D (2000) Folic acid and pyridoxal-5’-phosphate losses during high-efficiency hemodialysis in patients without hydrosoluble vitamin supplementation. J Ren Nutr 10:196–201. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/jren.2000.16327
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2588">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 64" title="Cunningham J, Sharman VL, Goodwin FJ, Marsh FP (1981) Do patients receiving haemodialysis need folic acid supplements? Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 282:1582. 
 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.282.6276.1582
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2591">64</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 65" title="Lee EY, Kim JS, Lee HJ, Yoon DS, Han BG, Shim YH, Choi SO (1999) Do dialysis patients need extra folate supplementation? Adv Perit Dial 15:247–250" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2594">65</a>]. There is evidence for varying degrees of losses in peritoneal dialysis (PD) for vitamins B2 (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab3">3</a>; Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S28</a>) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Boeschoten EW, Schrijver J, Krediet RT, Schreurs WH, Arisz L (1988) Deficiencies of vitamins in CAPD patients: the effect of supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 3:187–193" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2604">66</a>], B6 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Heinz J, Domröse U, Westphal S, Luley C, Neumann KH, Dierkes J (2008) Washout of water-soluble vitamins and of homocysteine during haemodialysis: effect of high-flux and low-flux dialyser membranes. Nephrology (Carlton) 13:384–389. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1797.2008.00946.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2607">57</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Bévier A, Novel-Catin E, Blond E, Pelletier S, Parant F, Koppe L, Fouque D (2022) Water-soluble vitamins and trace elements losses during on-line hemodiafiltration. Nutrients 14:3454. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14173454
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2610">60</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Leblanc M, Pichette V, Geadah D, Ouimet D (2000) Folic acid and pyridoxal-5’-phosphate losses during high-efficiency hemodialysis in patients without hydrosoluble vitamin supplementation. J Ren Nutr 10:196–201. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/jren.2000.16327
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2613">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Boeschoten EW, Schrijver J, Krediet RT, Schreurs WH, Arisz L (1988) Deficiencies of vitamins in CAPD patients: the effect of supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 3:187–193" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2616">66</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Mydlík M, Derzsiová K, Zemberová E (1997) Metabolism of vitamin B6 and its requirement in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int Suppl 62:S56–S59" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2619">67</a>], and folate [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Boeschoten EW, Schrijver J, Krediet RT, Schreurs WH, Arisz L (1988) Deficiencies of vitamins in CAPD patients: the effect of supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 3:187–193" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2623">66</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Henderson LS, Leung ACT, Shenkin A (1984) Vitamin status in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 4:143–145. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/089686088400400307
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2626">68</a>]; losses of B1 are low [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Boeschoten EW, Schrijver J, Krediet RT, Schreurs WH, Arisz L (1988) Deficiencies of vitamins in CAPD patients: the effect of supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 3:187–193" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2629">66</a>]. There is no information on losses or levels of vitamins B3 or B5 in adults or children receiving dialysis. Losses of folate seem to be higher with high flux HD and lower with PD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Cunningham J, Sharman VL, Goodwin FJ, Marsh FP (1981) Do patients receiving haemodialysis need folic acid supplements? Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 282:1582. 
 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.282.6276.1582
 
 " href="#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2632">64</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lee EY, Kim JS, Lee HJ, Yoon DS, Han BG, Shim YH, Choi SO (1999) Do dialysis patients need extra folate supplementation? Adv Perit Dial 15:247–250" href="#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2632_1">65</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Boeschoten EW, Schrijver J, Krediet RT, Schreurs WH, Arisz L (1988) Deficiencies of vitamins in CAPD patients: the effect of supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 3:187–193" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2635">66</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Henderson LS, Leung ACT, Shenkin A (1984) Vitamin status in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 4:143–145. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/089686088400400307
 
 " href="#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2638">68</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Blumberg A, Hanck A, Sander G (1983) Vitamin nutrition in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Clin Nephrol 20:244–250" href="#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2638_1">69</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="House AA, Wells GA, Donnelly JG, Nadler SP, Hébert PC (2000) Randomized trial of high-flux vs low-flux haemodialysis: effects on homocysteine and lipids. Nephrol Dial Transplant 15:1029–1034. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/15.7.1029
 
 " href="#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2638_2">70</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lasseur C, Parrot F, Delmas Y, Level C, Ged C, Redonnet-Vernhet I, Montaudon D, Combe C, Chauveau P (2001) Impact of high-flux/high-efficiency dialysis on folate and homocysteine metabolism. J Nephrol 14:32–35" href="#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2638_3">71</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Mudge DW, Rogers R, Hollett P, Law B, Reiger K, Petrie JJB, Price L, Johnson DW, Campbell SB, Isbel NM, Sullivan M, Hawley CM (2005) Randomized trial of FX high flux vs standard high flux dialysis for homocysteine clearance. Nephrol Dial Transplant 20:2178–2185. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfh987
 
 " href="#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2638_4">72</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 73" title="Coveney N, Polkinghorne KR, Linehan L, Corradini A, Kerr PG (2011) Water-soluble vitamin levels in extended hours hemodialysis. Hemodial Int 15:30–38. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4758.2010.00505.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2642">73</a>]. Studies in adults have not demonstrated vitamin B12 losses in dialysis patients [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Heinz J, Domröse U, Westphal S, Luley C, Neumann KH, Dierkes J (2008) Washout of water-soluble vitamins and of homocysteine during haemodialysis: effect of high-flux and low-flux dialyser membranes. Nephrology (Carlton) 13:384–389. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1797.2008.00946.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2645">57</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 65" title="Lee EY, Kim JS, Lee HJ, Yoon DS, Han BG, Shim YH, Choi SO (1999) Do dialysis patients need extra folate supplementation? Adv Perit Dial 15:247–250" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2648">65</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Boeschoten EW, Schrijver J, Krediet RT, Schreurs WH, Arisz L (1988) Deficiencies of vitamins in CAPD patients: the effect of supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 3:187–193" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2651">66</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 70" title="House AA, Wells GA, Donnelly JG, Nadler SP, Hébert PC (2000) Randomized trial of high-flux vs low-flux haemodialysis: effects on homocysteine and lipids. Nephrol Dial Transplant 15:1029–1034. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/15.7.1029
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2654">70</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 71" title="Lasseur C, Parrot F, Delmas Y, Level C, Ged C, Redonnet-Vernhet I, Montaudon D, Combe C, Chauveau P (2001) Impact of high-flux/high-efficiency dialysis on folate and homocysteine metabolism. J Nephrol 14:32–35" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e2657">71</a>]. Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab3">3</a> summarizes the losses of B vitamins in adults receiving dialysis. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-3"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab3" data-test="table-caption">Table 3 Losses of water-soluble vitamins in dialysis</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x/tables/3" aria-label="Full size table 3"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Studies have demonstrated vitamin C losses in dialysate in children on PD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Kriley M, Warady BA (1991) Vitamin status of pediatric patients receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Clin Nutr 53:1476–1479. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/53.6.1476
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3120">18</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 74" title="Zwolinska D, Grzeszczak W, Szczepanska M, Makulska I, Kilis-Pstrusinska K, Szprynger K (2009) Oxidative stress in children on peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 29:171–177" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3123">74</a>] and HD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 75" title="Zwolińska D, Grzeszczak W, Szczepańska M, Kiliś-Pstrusińska K, Szprynger K (2006) Vitamins A, E and C as non-enzymatic antioxidants and their relation to lipid peroxidation in children with chronic renal failure. Nephron Clin Pract 103:c12–c18. 
 https://doi.org/10.1159/000090506
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3126">75</a>]. In adults, there is evidence of losses in dialysate in HD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Bévier A, Novel-Catin E, Blond E, Pelletier S, Parant F, Koppe L, Fouque D (2022) Water-soluble vitamins and trace elements losses during on-line hemodiafiltration. Nutrients 14:3454. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14173454
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3129">60</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 76" title="Morena M, Cristol J-P, Bosc J-Y, Tetta C, Forret G, Leger C-L, Delcourt C, Papoz L, Descomps B, Canaud B (2002) Convective and diffusive losses of vitamin C during haemodiafiltration session: a contributive factor to oxidative stress in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17:422–427. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/17.3.422
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3132">76</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 77" title="Böhm V, Tiroke K, Schneider S, Sperschneider H, Stein G, Bitsch R (1997) Vitamin C status of patients with chronic renal failure, dialysis patients and patients after renal transplantation. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 67:262–266" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3136">77</a>] and PD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 61" title="Mydlík M, Derzsiová K, Válek A, Szabó T, Dandár V, Takác M (1985) Vitamins and continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Int Urol Nephrol 17:281–286. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02085415
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3139">61</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Boeschoten EW, Schrijver J, Krediet RT, Schreurs WH, Arisz L (1988) Deficiencies of vitamins in CAPD patients: the effect of supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 3:187–193" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3142">66</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Blumberg A, Hanck A, Sander G (1983) Vitamin nutrition in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Clin Nephrol 20:244–250" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3145">69</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 78" title="Finkelstein FO, Juergensen P, Wang S, Santacroce S, Levine M, Kotanko P, Levin NW, Handelman GJ (2011) Hemoglobin and plasma vitamin C levels in patients on peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 31:74–79. 
 https://doi.org/10.3747/pdi.2009.00154
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3148">78</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 79" title="Shah GM, Ross EA, Sabo A, Pichon M, Bhagavan H, Reynolds RD (1991) Ascorbic acid supplements in patients receiving chronic peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 18:84–90. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80295-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3151">79</a>] as well as reduction in serum vitamin C levels in adults post-HD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Bévier A, Novel-Catin E, Blond E, Pelletier S, Parant F, Koppe L, Fouque D (2022) Water-soluble vitamins and trace elements losses during on-line hemodiafiltration. Nutrients 14:3454. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14173454
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3155">60</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 76" title="Morena M, Cristol J-P, Bosc J-Y, Tetta C, Forret G, Leger C-L, Delcourt C, Papoz L, Descomps B, Canaud B (2002) Convective and diffusive losses of vitamin C during haemodiafiltration session: a contributive factor to oxidative stress in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17:422–427. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/17.3.422
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3158">76</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 77" title="Böhm V, Tiroke K, Schneider S, Sperschneider H, Stein G, Bitsch R (1997) Vitamin C status of patients with chronic renal failure, dialysis patients and patients after renal transplantation. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 67:262–266" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3161">77</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Wang S, Eide TC, Sogn EM, Berg KJ, Sund RB (1999) Plasma ascorbic acid in patients undergoing chronic haemodialysis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 55:527–532. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s002280050668
 
 " href="#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3164">80</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Fehrman-Ekholm I, Lotsander A, Logan K, Dunge D, Odar-Cederlöf I, Kallner A (2008) Concentrations of vitamin C, vitamin B12 and folic acid in patients treated with hemodialysis and on-line hemodiafiltration or hemofiltration. Scand J Urol Nephrol 42:74–80. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/00365590701514266
 
 " href="#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3164_1">81</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 82" title="Sirover WD, Liu Y, Logan A, Hunter K, Benz RL, Prasad D, Avila J, Venkatchalam T, Weisberg LS, Handelman GJ (2015) Plasma ascorbic acid concentrations in prevalent patients with end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis. J Ren Nutr 25:292–300. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2014.09.007
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3167">82</a>] and PD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Boeschoten EW, Schrijver J, Krediet RT, Schreurs WH, Arisz L (1988) Deficiencies of vitamins in CAPD patients: the effect of supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 3:187–193" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3170">66</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Henderson LS, Leung ACT, Shenkin A (1984) Vitamin status in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 4:143–145. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/089686088400400307
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3174">68</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 79" title="Shah GM, Ross EA, Sabo A, Pichon M, Bhagavan H, Reynolds RD (1991) Ascorbic acid supplements in patients receiving chronic peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 18:84–90. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80295-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3177">79</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 83" title="Ikizler TA, Burrowes JD, Byham-Gray LD, Campbell KL, Carrero J-J, Chan W, Fouque D, Friedman AN, Ghaddar S, Goldstein-Fuchs DJ, Kaysen GA, Kopple JD, Teta D, Yee-Moon Wang A, Cuppari L (2020) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in CKD: 2020 update. Am J Kidney Dis 76:S1–S107. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2020.05.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3180">83</a>] (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab3">3</a>). Higher losses have been reported with higher supplementation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 76" title="Morena M, Cristol J-P, Bosc J-Y, Tetta C, Forret G, Leger C-L, Delcourt C, Papoz L, Descomps B, Canaud B (2002) Convective and diffusive losses of vitamin C during haemodiafiltration session: a contributive factor to oxidative stress in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17:422–427. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/17.3.422
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3186">76</a>]. In one study, children on HD were more likely to have low blood concentrations compared to children on PD or with CKD2–5 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 84" title="Naseri M, Shahri HMM, Horri M, Rasoli Z, Salemian F, Jahanshahi S, Moeenolroayaa G, Pourhasan M (2015) Antioxidant vitamins status in children and young adults undergoing dialysis: a single center study. Indian J Nephrol 25:206–212. 
 https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-4065.140717
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3189">84</a>]. In adults, there are multiple studies demonstrating low blood concentrations in dialysis patients, with lower levels associated with increasing efficacy and duration of dialysis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Bévier A, Novel-Catin E, Blond E, Pelletier S, Parant F, Koppe L, Fouque D (2022) Water-soluble vitamins and trace elements losses during on-line hemodiafiltration. Nutrients 14:3454. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14173454
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3193">60</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Henderson LS, Leung ACT, Shenkin A (1984) Vitamin status in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 4:143–145. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/089686088400400307
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3196">68</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Blumberg A, Hanck A, Sander G (1983) Vitamin nutrition in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Clin Nephrol 20:244–250" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3199">69</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 73" title="Coveney N, Polkinghorne KR, Linehan L, Corradini A, Kerr PG (2011) Water-soluble vitamin levels in extended hours hemodialysis. Hemodial Int 15:30–38. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4758.2010.00505.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3202">73</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 76" title="Morena M, Cristol J-P, Bosc J-Y, Tetta C, Forret G, Leger C-L, Delcourt C, Papoz L, Descomps B, Canaud B (2002) Convective and diffusive losses of vitamin C during haemodiafiltration session: a contributive factor to oxidative stress in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17:422–427. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/17.3.422
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3205">76</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 77" title="Böhm V, Tiroke K, Schneider S, Sperschneider H, Stein G, Bitsch R (1997) Vitamin C status of patients with chronic renal failure, dialysis patients and patients after renal transplantation. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 67:262–266" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3208">77</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Shah GM, Ross EA, Sabo A, Pichon M, Bhagavan H, Reynolds RD (1991) Ascorbic acid supplements in patients receiving chronic peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 18:84–90. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80295-2
 
 " href="#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3212">79</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Wang S, Eide TC, Sogn EM, Berg KJ, Sund RB (1999) Plasma ascorbic acid in patients undergoing chronic haemodialysis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 55:527–532. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s002280050668
 
 " href="#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3212_1">80</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Fehrman-Ekholm I, Lotsander A, Logan K, Dunge D, Odar-Cederlöf I, Kallner A (2008) Concentrations of vitamin C, vitamin B12 and folic acid in patients treated with hemodialysis and on-line hemodiafiltration or hemofiltration. Scand J Urol Nephrol 42:74–80. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/00365590701514266
 
 " href="#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3212_2">81</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 82" title="Sirover WD, Liu Y, Logan A, Hunter K, Benz RL, Prasad D, Avila J, Venkatchalam T, Weisberg LS, Handelman GJ (2015) Plasma ascorbic acid concentrations in prevalent patients with end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis. J Ren Nutr 25:292–300. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2014.09.007
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3215">82</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 85" title="Raimann JG, Abbas SR, Liu L, Larive B, Beck G, Kotanko P, Levin NW, Handelman G; Frequent Hemodialysis Network Trial (2019) The effect of increased frequency of hemodialysis on vitamin C concentrations: an ancillary study of the randomized Frequent Hemodialysis Network (FHN) daily trial. BMC Nephrol 20:179. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12882-019-1311-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3218">85</a>] (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab3">3</a>). In addition, furosemide increases urinary losses of vitamin C [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Mydlík M, Derzsiová K, Zemberová E (1999) Influence of water and sodium diuresis and furosemide on urinary excretion of vitamin B(6), oxalic acid and vitamin C in chronic renal failure. Miner Electrolyte Metab 25:352–356. 
 https://doi.org/10.1159/000057474
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3224">42</a>].</p><p>In the transplant population, there are very limited data, with one small study suggesting no evidence of low status, and perhaps altered B vitamin metabolism with elevated B6 concentrations despite a lack of supplementation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 86" title="Harmer M, Wootton S, Gilbert R, Anderson C (2019) Vitamin B6 in pediatric renal transplant recipients. J Ren Nutr 29:205–208. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2018.09.003
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3230">86</a>].</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.</span> <p>How should we approach clinical assessment and monitoring?</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.1</span> <p>Dietary</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.1.1</span> <p>We suggest that the vitamin intake of children with CKD should be assessed by diet history/diet records, including food and drink, formulas and nutritional supplements, and a review of medications.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.2.1</span> <p>We suggest that the frequency of assessment of vitamin intake should be influenced by dietary modifications, child’s age, CKD stage, dialysis modality, and intake of medications that interfere with vitamin metabolism.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.1.3</span> <p>Assessment may need to be more frequent if there are signs or symptoms of deficiency or excess.</p> </li> </ol> </li> </ol> </li> </ol><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec18">Evidence and rationale</h3><p>Dietary assessment is clinically important given evidence of insufficient dietary intake of vitamins (Tables <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S4</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S6</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S12</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S14</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S15</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S16</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S18</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S20</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S22</a>) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Kriley M, Warady BA (1991) Vitamin status of pediatric patients receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Clin Nutr 53:1476–1479. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/53.6.1476
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3335">18</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Tuokkola J, Kiviharju E, Jahnukainen T, Hölttä T (2021) Differences in dietary intake and vitamin and mineral status of infants and children on dialysis receiving feeds or eating normal food. J Ren Nutr 31:144–154. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2020.07.003
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3339">25</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Hongsawong N, Chawprang N, Kittisakmontri K, Vittayananan P, Srisuwan K, Chartapisak W (2021) Vitamin C deficiency and impact of vitamin C administration among pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 36:397–408. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04662-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3342">28</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="My Thuc LT, Dung NQ, Ha VN, Tam ND, Hang Nga NT (2019) Actual diet and nutritional deficiencies status in children on peritoneal dialysis at the Vietnam National Hospital of Pediatrics. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 30:924–931. 
 https://doi.org/10.4103/1319-2442.265470
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3345">31</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="My Thuc LT, Dung NQ, Ha VN, Tam ND, Hang Nga NT (2019) Actual diet and nutritional deficiencies status in children on peritoneal dialysis at the Vietnam National Hospital of Pediatrics. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 30:924–931. 
 https://doi.org/10.4103/1319-2442.265470
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3348">31</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Stockberger RA, Parrott KA, Alexander SR, Miller LT, Leklem JE, Jenkins RD (1987) Vitamin B-6 status of children undergoing continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Nutr Res 7:1021–1030. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5317(87)80173-2
 
 " href="#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3351">87</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Coleman JE, Watson AR (1992) Micronutrient supplementation in children on continuous cycling peritoneal dialysis (CCPD). Adv Perit Dial 8:396–401" href="#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3351_1">88</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Warady BA, Kriley M, Alon U, Hellerstein S (1994) Vitamin status of infants receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 8:354–356. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00866365
 
 " href="#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3351_2">89</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Foreman JW, Abitbol CL, Trachtman H, Garin EH, Feld LG, Strife CF, Massie MD, Boyle RM, Chan JC (1996) Nutritional intake in children with renal insufficiency: a report of the growth failure in children with renal diseases study. J Am Coll Nutr 15:579–585. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.1996.10718633
 
 " href="#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3351_3">90</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Pereira AM, Hamani N, Nogueira PC, Carvalhaes JT (2000) Oral vitamin intake in children receiving long-term dialysis. J Ren Nutr 10:24–29. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s1051-2276(00)90019-0
 
 " href="#ref-CR91" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3351_4">91</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Don T, Friedlander S, Wong W (2010) Dietary intakes and biochemical status of B vitamins in a group of children receiving dialysis. J Ren Nutr 20:23–28. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2009.04.008
 
 " href="#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3351_5">92</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Kim H, Lim H, Choue R (2014) Compromised diet quality is associated with decreased renal function in children with chronic kidney disease. Clin Nutr Res 3:142–149. 
 https://doi.org/10.7762/cnr.2014.3.2.142
 
 " href="#ref-CR93" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3351_6">93</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 94" title="Nelms CL, Shaw V, Greenbaum LA, Anderson C, Desloovere A, Haffner D, Oosterveld MJS, Paglialonga F, Polderman N, Qizalbash L, Rees L, Renken-Terhaerdt J, Tuokkola J, Vande Walle J, Shroff R, Warady BA (2021) Assessment of nutritional status in children with kidney diseases-clinical practice recommendations from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce. Pediatr Nephrol 36:995–1010. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04852-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3354">94</a>]. A complete dietary assessment should include intake from food, formulas, nutritional supplements, and intake from medications [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 94" title="Nelms CL, Shaw V, Greenbaum LA, Anderson C, Desloovere A, Haffner D, Oosterveld MJS, Paglialonga F, Polderman N, Qizalbash L, Rees L, Renken-Terhaerdt J, Tuokkola J, Vande Walle J, Shroff R, Warady BA (2021) Assessment of nutritional status in children with kidney diseases-clinical practice recommendations from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce. Pediatr Nephrol 36:995–1010. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04852-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3358">94</a>] with consideration of the effect of food preparation on vitamin content and bioavailability. Assessment of dietary intake has been described in detail in a previous PRNT publication [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 94" title="Nelms CL, Shaw V, Greenbaum LA, Anderson C, Desloovere A, Haffner D, Oosterveld MJS, Paglialonga F, Polderman N, Qizalbash L, Rees L, Renken-Terhaerdt J, Tuokkola J, Vande Walle J, Shroff R, Warady BA (2021) Assessment of nutritional status in children with kidney diseases-clinical practice recommendations from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce. Pediatr Nephrol 36:995–1010. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04852-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3361">94</a>], which recommended three 24-h dietary recalls or a 3–4-day diet diary/food record. However, due to potential significant variation in daily intake [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 95" title="Erkkola M, Kyttälä P, Takkinen H-M, Kronberg-Kippilä C, Nevalainen J, Simell O, Ilonen J, Veijola R, Knip M, Virtanen SM (2011) Nutrient intake variability and number of days needed to assess intake in preschool children. Br J Nutr 106:130–140. 
 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114510005167
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR95" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3364">95</a>], it is necessary to review adequacy over longer periods of time before taking action [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 83" title="Ikizler TA, Burrowes JD, Byham-Gray LD, Campbell KL, Carrero J-J, Chan W, Fouque D, Friedman AN, Ghaddar S, Goldstein-Fuchs DJ, Kaysen GA, Kopple JD, Teta D, Yee-Moon Wang A, Cuppari L (2020) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in CKD: 2020 update. Am J Kidney Dis 76:S1–S107. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2020.05.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3367">83</a>].</p><p>Vitamin intake should be reviewed whenever there is a major change in diet (e.g., conversion from formula to table food, adoption of a vegan diet), when a patient initiates dialysis, when there is a clinical issue that may affect vitamin balance (e.g., malabsorption, initiation of a medication that may affect vitamin levels), or when there are signs and symptoms of deficiency or excess. Dietetic assessment is best carried out by a specialized pediatric kidney dietitian or a suitably trained healthcare professional with the necessary skills and competencies. Vitamin intake based on food records or diet diaries should ideally be calculated using software with a reliable database of foods and nutrients, bearing in mind the differences in vitamin bioavailability and content due to seasonal variation.</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.2</span> <p>Physical</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.2.1</span> <p>We suggest individualized evaluation for physical signs and clinical symptoms of vitamin deficiency or excess.</p> </li> </ol> </li> </ol><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec20">Evidence and rationale</h3><p>Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab4">4</a> outlines the clinical manifestations of deficiency and excess, roles of vitamins in the body, and bioavailability of vitamins. The impact of accumulation and losses are described where relevant for each vitamin below (statement 5.3). A clinical examination for signs and symptoms of vitamin deficiency or excess (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab4">4</a>) is suggested as part of routine care for children with a variety of chronic conditions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 96" title="Berger MM, Shenkin A, Schweinlin A, Amrein K, Augsburger M, Biesalski H-K, Bischoff SC, Casaer MP, Gundogan K, Lepp H-L, de Man AME, Muscogiuri G, Pietka M, Pironi L, Rezzi S, Cuerda C (2022) ESPEN micronutrient guideline. Clin Nutr 41:1357–1424. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2022.02.015
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR96" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3415">96</a>]. In the absence of evidence, expert opinion suggests the same assessment should be undertaken for children with CKD. The frequency of assessment should be determined by clinical judgment and the outcome of relevant dietary and biochemical assessments. One challenge is that some of these signs and symptoms overlap with clinical manifestations of CKD (e.g., impaired growth, poor appetite, emesis, diarrhea, and increased fractures). Hence, the clinician must actively consider if vitamin deficiency or excess is a possible explanation for the clinical findings. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-4"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab4" data-test="table-caption">Table 4 Clinical manifestations of deficiency and excess, roles of vitamins in the body and their bioavailability (adapted from [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 136" title="EFSA (2013) EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies), 2013. Scientific Opinion on nutrient requirements and dietary intakes of infants and young children in the European Union. In: European Food Standards Authority. 
 https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3408
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR136" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3428">136</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 137" title="Vega MRW, Cerminara D, Desloovere A, Paglialonga F, Renken-Terhaerdt J, Walle JV, Shaw V, Stabouli S, Anderson CE, Haffner D, Nelms CL, Polderman N, Qizalbash L, Tuokkola J, Warady BA, Shroff R, Greenbaum LA (2023) Nutritional management of children with acute kidney injury-clinical practice recommendations from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce. Pediatr Nephrol 38:3559–3580. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-023-05884-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e3431">137</a>])</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x/tables/4" aria-label="Full size table 4"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.3</span> <p>Biochemical</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.3.1</span> <p>Routine biochemical assessment of vitamin status is not indicated.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.3.2</span> <p>We suggest biochemical assessment when there are signs or symptoms of deficiency or excess, and in children with:</p><ul class="u-list-style-dash"> <li> <p>unexplained hypercalcemia or elevated intracranial pressure—assess vitamin A.</p> </li> <li> <p>unexplained macrocytic anemia—assess vitamins folate and B12.</p> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.3.3</span> <p>Consider biochemical assessment if there are risk factors for deficiencies or excess in children:</p><ul class="u-list-style-dash"> <li> <p>receiving peritoneal dialysis—assess vitamins C, B2, B6, and folate.</p> </li> <li> <p>receiving hemodialysis—assess vitamins C, B1, B5, B6, biotin, and folate.</p> </li> <li> <p>taking medication that may interfere with vitamin metabolism and/or absorption - assess applicable vitamins</p> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">5.3.4</span> <p>Biochemical assessment should ideally be undertaken when fasted, when not acutely ill, and pre-hemodialysis session.</p><ul class="u-list-style-dash"> <li> <p>measure C-reactive protein (CRP) when assessing vitamin C and B6 levels.</p> </li> </ul> </li> </ol> </li> </ol><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec22">Evidence and rationale</h3><p>Routine biochemical assessment of vitamin status is not indicated unless there is evidence of malabsorption. Previous guidelines recommended routine biochemical assessment, but there is no evidence in the existing literature that routine monitoring is necessary. This statement differs from previously published guidelines based on current evidence. Vitamin biochemical assessment, as described in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab4">4</a>, is, however, appropriate in patients with signs and symptoms compatible with vitamin deficiency or excess. The frequency of monitoring vitamin biochemical status should be determined using clinical judgment. Individual vitamin considerations are discussed below.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec23">Vitamin A</h3><p>Hypercalcemia secondary to hypervitaminosis A has been reported in pediatric and adult dialysis patients [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Manickavasagar B, McArdle AJ, Yadav P, Shaw V, Dixon M, Blomhoff R, Connor GO, Rees L, Ledermann S, Van’t Hoff W, Shroff R, (2015) Hypervitaminosis A is prevalent in children with CKD and contributes to hypercalcemia. Pediatr Nephrol 30:317–325. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-014-2916-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4053">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 44" title="Werb R, Clark WF, Lindsay RM, Jones EO, Linton AL (1979) Serum vitamin A levels and associated abnormalities in patients on regular dialysis treatment. Clin Nephrol 12:63–68" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4056">44</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Farrington K, Miller P, Varghese Z, Baillod RA, Moorhead JF (1981) Vitamin A toxicity and hypercalcaemia in chronic renal failure. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 282:1999–2002. 
 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.282.6281.1999
 
 " href="#ref-CR97" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4059">97</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Praga M, Diaz Rubio P, Morales JM, Cañizares F, Ruilope LM, Gutierrez-Millet V, Nieto J, Rodicio JL (1987) Implications of hypervitaminosis A on the calcium-phosphate metabolism and on blood lipids in hemodialysis. Am J Nephrol 7:281–286. 
 https://doi.org/10.1159/000167486
 
 " href="#ref-CR98" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4059_1">98</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Fishbane S, Frei GL, Finger M, Dressler R, Silbiger S (1995) Hypervitaminosis A in two hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 25:346–349. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-6386(95)90020-9
 
 " href="#ref-CR99" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4059_2">99</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 100" title="Bhalla K, Ennis D, Ennis E (2005) Hypercalcemia caused by iatrogenic hypervitaminosis A. J Am Diet Assoc 105:119–121. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2004.10.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4062">100</a>]. Retinol is a form of vitamin A; elevated retinol levels increase osteoclastic breakdown of bone and decrease osteoblastic bone formation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 26" title="Harris M, Varnell C, Taylor V, Nehus ST, Zhang B, Erkan E (2022) Hypervitaminosis A in pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. J Ren Nutr 32:275–281. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2021.03.010
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4065">26</a>]. Vitamin A toxicity may also cause increased intracranial pressure [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Hathcock J, Hattan D, Jenkins J, McDonald J, Sundaresan P, Wilkening V (1990) Evaluation of vitamin A toxicity. Am J Clin Nutr 52:183–202" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4069">101</a>]. Hence, biochemical assessment for vitamin A excess, along with evaluation of vitamin intake, should be considered in a patient with advanced CKD and unexplained hypercalcemia or raised intracranial pressure.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec24">Vitamin E</h3><p>There is no evidence that deficiency or excess from elevated vitamin E levels occurs in CKD. Thus, we do not recommend vitamin E levels be measured.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec25">Vitamin K</h3><p>Vitamin K-dependent proteins play an important role in coagulation and deficiency can lead to increased bleeding [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Institute of Medicine (US) Panel on Micronutrients (2001) Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. 5, Vitamin K. National Academies Press, Washington, DC. 
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK222299/#_ncbi_dlg_citbx_NBK222299
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4089">9</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Nordic Council of Ministers and the Nordic Council (2012) Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2012. Integrating nutrition and physical activity. 
 https://www.norden.org/en/publication/nordic-nutrition-recommendations-2012
 
 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4092">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="European Food Safety Authority (2013) Scientific Opinion on nutrient requirements and dietary intakes of infants and young children in the European Union. 
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 . Accessed 30 May 2023" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4095">12</a>]. Hence, assessment for vitamin K deficiency by measuring prothrombin time (PT) (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab4">4</a>) is appropriate when there is unexplained bleeding or bruising, especially in a patient with risk factors for deficiency (statement 4.0).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec26">Vitamin B complex</h3><p>Routine measurement of B complex vitamins is not indicated in children with CKD; suboptimal as well as good biochemical status has been described in the literature [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Kriley M, Warady BA (1991) Vitamin status of pediatric patients receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Clin Nutr 53:1476–1479. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/53.6.1476
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4109">18</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Joyce T, Court Brown F, Wallace D, Reid CJD, Sinha MD (2018) Trace element and vitamin concentrations in paediatric dialysis patients. Pediatr Nephrol 33:159–165. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4112">24</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Tuokkola J, Kiviharju E, Jahnukainen T, Hölttä T (2021) Differences in dietary intake and vitamin and mineral status of infants and children on dialysis receiving feeds or eating normal food. J Ren Nutr 31:144–154. 
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 " href="#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4118">86</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Stockberger RA, Parrott KA, Alexander SR, Miller LT, Leklem JE, Jenkins RD (1987) Vitamin B-6 status of children undergoing continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Nutr Res 7:1021–1030. 
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 " href="#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4128_4">106</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Canepa A, Carrea A, Caridi G, Dertenois L, Minniti G, Cerone R, Canini S, Calevo MG, Perfumo F (2003) Homocysteine, folate, vitamin B12 levels, and C677T MTHFR mutation in children with renal failure. Pediatr Nephrol 18:225–229. 
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 " href="#ref-CR109" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4128_7">109</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Pontes KSDS, Klein MRST, da Costa MS, Rosina KTC, Barreto APMM, Silva MIB, Rioja SDS (2019) Vitamin B12 status in kidney transplant recipients: association with dietary intake, body adiposity and immunosuppression. Br J Nutr 122:450–458 
 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114519001417
 
 " href="#ref-CR110" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4128_8">110</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Joyce T, Rasmussen P, Melhem N, Clothier J, Booth C, Sinha MD (2020) Vitamin and trace element concentrations in infants and children with chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 35:1463–1470. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04536-0
 
 " href="#ref-CR111" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4128_9">111</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 112" title="Harshman LA, Lee-Son K, Jetton JG (2018) Vitamin and trace element deficiencies in the pediatric dialysis patient. Pediatr Nephrol 33:1133–1143. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-017-3751-z
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR112" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4131">112</a>], as shown in Tables <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S5</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S7</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S13</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S17</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S19</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S21</a>, and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S23</a>. The reference normal values for the B complex vitamins are often based on limited data in children and thus must be interpreted with caution.</p><p>Measurement of B12 and folate levels in patients with CKD is most recommended as part of the evaluation of unexplained macrocytic anemia. For patients with a borderline B12 level, an elevated methylmalonic acid (MMA) level supports a diagnosis of B12 deficiency; MMA is usually elevated in CKD patients, but high or disproportionally elevated levels of MMA for CKD stage may suggest B12 deficiency [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Herrmann W, Schorr H, Geisel J, Riegel W (2001) Homocysteine, cystathionine, methylmalonic acid and B-vitamins in patients with renal disease. Clin Chem Lab Med 39:739–746. 
 https://doi.org/10.1515/CCLM.2001.123
 
 " href="#ref-CR113" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4162">113</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Oberley MJ, Yang DT (2013) Laboratory testing for cobalamin deficiency in megaloblastic anemia. Am J Hematol 88:522–526. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/ajh.23421
 
 " href="#ref-CR114" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4162_1">114</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 115" title="Stabler SP (2013) Clinical practice. Vitamin B12 deficiency. N Engl J Med 368:149–160. 
 https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMcp1113996
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR115" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4165">115</a>]. Treatment of folic acid deficiency may mask the macrocytic anemia and worsen the neurological manifestations of B12 deficiency, and thus B12 levels should be monitored in patients treated for folic acid deficiency [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 83" title="Ikizler TA, Burrowes JD, Byham-Gray LD, Campbell KL, Carrero J-J, Chan W, Fouque D, Friedman AN, Ghaddar S, Goldstein-Fuchs DJ, Kaysen GA, Kopple JD, Teta D, Yee-Moon Wang A, Cuppari L (2020) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in CKD: 2020 update. Am J Kidney Dis 76:S1–S107. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2020.05.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4168">83</a>].</p><p>Noteworthy is recognition that acute inflammation, assessed by the measurement of CRP, lowers the level of vitamin B6 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 116" title="Gerasimidis K, Bronsky J, Catchpole A, Embleton N, Fewtrell M, Hojsak I, Indrio F, Hulst J, Koglmeier J, de Koning B, Lapillonne A, Molgaard C, Moltu SJ, Norsa L, Verduci E, Domellof M; ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition (2020) Assessment and interpretation of vitamin and trace element status in sick children. A Position Paper from the ESPGHAN Committee in Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 70:873–881. 
 https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0000000000002688
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR116" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4174">116</a>]. Hence, CRP should be determined when measuring B6 and the level of B6 should be repeated if it is initially low in the setting of an elevated CRP level.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec27">Vitamin C</h3><p>Routine measurement of vitamin C is not indicated in children with CKD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Tuokkola J, Kiviharju E, Jahnukainen T, Hölttä T (2021) Differences in dietary intake and vitamin and mineral status of infants and children on dialysis receiving feeds or eating normal food. J Ren Nutr 31:144–154. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2020.07.003
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4185">25</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Hongsawong N, Chawprang N, Kittisakmontri K, Vittayananan P, Srisuwan K, Chartapisak W (2021) Vitamin C deficiency and impact of vitamin C administration among pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 36:397–408. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04662-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4188">28</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 74" title="Zwolinska D, Grzeszczak W, Szczepanska M, Makulska I, Kilis-Pstrusinska K, Szprynger K (2009) Oxidative stress in children on peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 29:171–177" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4191">74</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 75" title="Zwolińska D, Grzeszczak W, Szczepańska M, Kiliś-Pstrusińska K, Szprynger K (2006) Vitamins A, E and C as non-enzymatic antioxidants and their relation to lipid peroxidation in children with chronic renal failure. Nephron Clin Pract 103:c12–c18. 
 https://doi.org/10.1159/000090506
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4194">75</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 84" title="Naseri M, Shahri HMM, Horri M, Rasoli Z, Salemian F, Jahanshahi S, Moeenolroayaa G, Pourhasan M (2015) Antioxidant vitamins status in children and young adults undergoing dialysis: a single center study. Indian J Nephrol 25:206–212. 
 https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-4065.140717
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4197">84</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 89" title="Warady BA, Kriley M, Alon U, Hellerstein S (1994) Vitamin status of infants receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 8:354–356. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00866365
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4201">89</a>]. Plasma vitamin C can be measured if there is clinical suspicion of deficiency or excess (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab4">4</a>). Since oxalate is a byproduct of vitamin C metabolism (statement 6.2), plasma or urine oxalate can also be measured if vitamin C excess is suspected [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="D’Costa MR, Winkler NS, Milliner DS, Norby SM, Hickson LJ, Lieske JC (2019) Oxalosis associated with high-dose vitamin C ingestion in a peritoneal dialysis patient. Am J Kidney Dis 74:417–420. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2019.01.022
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4207">29</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 117" title="Assimos DG (2004) Vitamin C supplementation and urinary oxalate excretion. Rev Urol 6:167" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR117" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4210">117</a>]. Plasma vitamin C should be measured in a fasting state, and before dialysis in HD patients. Moreover, acute inflammation lowers the level of vitamin C [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 116" title="Gerasimidis K, Bronsky J, Catchpole A, Embleton N, Fewtrell M, Hojsak I, Indrio F, Hulst J, Koglmeier J, de Koning B, Lapillonne A, Molgaard C, Moltu SJ, Norsa L, Verduci E, Domellof M; ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition (2020) Assessment and interpretation of vitamin and trace element status in sick children. A Position Paper from the ESPGHAN Committee in Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 70:873–881. 
 https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0000000000002688
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR116" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4213">116</a>]. Thus, CRP should be measured when measuring vitamin C. If the CRP is elevated, the vitamin C concentration should be repeated once the CRP level has normalized.</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.</span> <p>When is dietary modification or supplementation indicated?</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.1</span> <p>Intervention is indicated:</p><ul class="u-list-style-dash"> <li> <p>if dietary assessment suggests a risk of deficiency or excess.</p> </li> <li> <p>if clinical and/or biochemical evidence suggests a risk of deficiency or excess.</p> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.2</span> <p>Fat-soluble vitamins</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.2.1</span> <p>Dietary sources rich in vitamin A should be limited in children with CKD.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.2.2</span> <p>If nutritional supplements and formulas are indicated, consider one with a lower vitamin A content.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.2.3</span> <p>If a multivitamin supplement is indicated, consider one with a low or zero vitamin A content.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.2.4</span> <p>Avoid routine vitamin E and K supplementation unless a comorbidity predisposing to deficiency is present.</p> </li> </ol> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.3</span> <p>Water-soluble vitamins</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.3.1</span> <p>In the case of low water-soluble vitamin intake, consider dietary modification and/or vitamin supplementation.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.3.2</span> <p>Water-soluble vitamin supplementation (particularly vitamins C, B6, and folate) may be needed in children on dialysis because of dialysate losses.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.3.3</span> <p>Water-soluble vitamin supplementation may be needed in children while taking medications that interfere with vitamin metabolism.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.3.4</span> <p>We suggest folate and vitamin B12 supplementation may be required in children with macrocytic anemia and biochemical evidence of deficiency.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">6.3.5</span> <p>Consider the benefits versus risks of vitamin C supplementation due to its metabolism to oxalate.</p> </li> </ol> </li> </ol> </li> </ol><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec31">Evidence and rationale</h3><p>There are limited studies describing the dietary intake and serum concentrations of vitamins in children with CKD, and results vary with CKD stage. Reported intakes range from lower to higher than the estimated requirements for healthy children, with higher intakes in children receiving vitamin supplements [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Kriley M, Warady BA (1991) Vitamin status of pediatric patients receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Clin Nutr 53:1476–1479. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/53.6.1476
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4391">18</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Kriley M, Warady BA (1991) Vitamin status of pediatric patients receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Clin Nutr 53:1476–1479. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/53.6.1476
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4394">18</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Manickavasagar B, McArdle AJ, Yadav P, Shaw V, Dixon M, Blomhoff R, Connor GO, Rees L, Ledermann S, Van’t Hoff W, Shroff R, (2015) Hypervitaminosis A is prevalent in children with CKD and contributes to hypercalcemia. Pediatr Nephrol 30:317–325. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4397">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Tuokkola J, Kiviharju E, Jahnukainen T, Hölttä T (2021) Differences in dietary intake and vitamin and mineral status of infants and children on dialysis receiving feeds or eating normal food. J Ren Nutr 31:144–154. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4400">25</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Hongsawong N, Chawprang N, Kittisakmontri K, Vittayananan P, Srisuwan K, Chartapisak W (2021) Vitamin C deficiency and impact of vitamin C administration among pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 36:397–408. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR119" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4483">119</a>]. Risk of excess intake for those vitamins that accumulate with declining kidney function is greatest when patients receive vitamin supplements (Tables <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S4</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S6</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S12</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S14</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S15</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S16</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S18</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S20</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S22</a>). These practice points are consistent with previous guidelines but include additional guidance on when and how to adjust dietary intake and prescribe vitamin supplements.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec32">Fat-soluble vitamins</h3><p>Supplementation of fat-soluble vitamins is not recommended.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec33">Vitamin A</h3><p>There is a high risk of vitamin A toxicity, due to decreased excretion. A diet with high amounts of vitamin A-rich foods can far exceed the recommended intake for healthy children. Hence, the nutritional evaluation in children with CKD should include assessment for high intake of vitamin A from dietary sources (e.g., consumption of liver). Formulas, nutritional supplements, and vitamin supplements may also lead to excessive intake of vitamin A [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Kriley M, Warady BA (1991) Vitamin status of pediatric patients receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Clin Nutr 53:1476–1479. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/53.6.1476
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4533">18</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 22" title="Fassinger N, Imam A, Klurfeld DM (2010) Serum retinol, retinol-binding protein, and transthyretin in children receiving dialysis. J Ren Nutr 20:17–22. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2009.05.005
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4536">22</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Manickavasagar B, McArdle AJ, Yadav P, Shaw V, Dixon M, Blomhoff R, Connor GO, Rees L, Ledermann S, Van’t Hoff W, Shroff R, (2015) Hypervitaminosis A is prevalent in children with CKD and contributes to hypercalcemia. Pediatr Nephrol 30:317–325. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-014-2916-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4539">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 89" title="Warady BA, Kriley M, Alon U, Hellerstein S (1994) Vitamin status of infants receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 8:354–356. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00866365
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4542">89</a>]. Consequently, it has been proposed that children with CKD be prescribed no or the lowest vitamin A content possible when using nutritional or vitamin supplements, with the goal to limit intake to the recommended intake for healthy children, or lower [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Coleman J, Edefonti A, Watson AR (2001) Guidelines by an ad hoc European committee on the assessment of growth and nutritional status in children on chronic peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 21:1–9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/089686080102100321
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4545">3</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec34">Vitamin E</h3><p>There are no studies of vitamin E supplementation in children with CKD. Supplementation studies in adult patients are limited with inconclusive results. Supplementation is not recommended, and excess intake should be avoided [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 83" title="Ikizler TA, Burrowes JD, Byham-Gray LD, Campbell KL, Carrero J-J, Chan W, Fouque D, Friedman AN, Ghaddar S, Goldstein-Fuchs DJ, Kaysen GA, Kopple JD, Teta D, Yee-Moon Wang A, Cuppari L (2020) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in CKD: 2020 update. Am J Kidney Dis 76:S1–S107. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2020.05.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4557">83</a>]. A meta-analysis of supplementation trials suggested a dose-dependent relationship of increased all-cause mortality (0.4%) with high-dose vitamin E supplementation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 120" title="Miller ER 3rd, Pastor-Barriuso R, Dalal D, Riemersma RA, Appel LJ, Guallar E (2005) Meta-analysis: high-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortality. Ann Intern Med 142:37–46. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR120" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4560">120</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec35">Vitamin K</h3><p>There is no evidence to support the routine supplementation of vitamin K in patients with CKD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 121" title="Witham M, Lees J, White M, Band M, Bell S, Chantler D, Ford I, Fulton R, Kennedy G, Littleford R, McCrea I, McGlynn D, Panarelli M, Ralston M, Rutherford E, Severn A, Thomson N, Traynor J, Struthers A, Wetherall K, Mark P (2020) Vitamin K supplementation to improve vascular stiffness in CKD: the K4Kidneys randomized controlled trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 31:2434–2445. 
 https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2020020225
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR121" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4571">121</a>]. It is important to avoid vitamin K supplementation in patients receiving warfarin for anticoagulation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 83" title="Ikizler TA, Burrowes JD, Byham-Gray LD, Campbell KL, Carrero J-J, Chan W, Fouque D, Friedman AN, Ghaddar S, Goldstein-Fuchs DJ, Kaysen GA, Kopple JD, Teta D, Yee-Moon Wang A, Cuppari L (2020) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in CKD: 2020 update. Am J Kidney Dis 76:S1–S107. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2020.05.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4574">83</a>]. Children receiving frequent antibiotic therapy should be carefully monitored for risk of deficiency.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec36">Water-soluble vitamins</h3><p>Water-soluble vitamins are commonly lost in dialysate. Sufficient dietary intake may not occur due to overall poor intake, selective eating, and dietary modifications due to CKD. Eating a varied diet rich in water-soluble vitamins, with due regard for necessary dietary modifications, is encouraged. Given the cost and limits of biochemical assessment, use of a balanced water-soluble multivitamin supplement is a practical option in children with poor dietary intake for sustained periods of time, increased losses due to dialysis, or chronic furosemide therapy (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab2">2</a>). Since commercial vitamin supplements may provide a far higher intake than requirements, it is recommended that children with CKD are monitored for clinical evidence of vitamin excess. Children receiving enteral or oral formulas will likely not need a multivitamin supplement.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec37">Vitamin B complex</h3><p>There are no trials looking at the effects of vitamin B complex intake on serum levels in children with CKD. Study results in adults vary, with patients receiving dialysis having low or adequate blood concentrations with and without supplementation (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#MOESM1">S28</a>) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 56" title="Frank T, Czeche K, Bitsch R, Stein G (2000) Assessment of thiamin status in chronic renal failure patients, transplant recipients and hemodialysis patients receiving a multivitamin supplementation. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 70:159–166. 
 https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831.70.4.159
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4599">56</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 61" title="Mydlík M, Derzsiová K, Válek A, Szabó T, Dandár V, Takác M (1985) Vitamins and continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Int Urol Nephrol 17:281–286. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02085415
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4602">61</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Boeschoten EW, Schrijver J, Krediet RT, Schreurs WH, Arisz L (1988) Deficiencies of vitamins in CAPD patients: the effect of supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 3:187–193" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4605">66</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Henderson LS, Leung ACT, Shenkin A (1984) Vitamin status in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 4:143–145. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/089686088400400307
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4608">68</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Blumberg A, Hanck A, Sander G (1983) Vitamin nutrition in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Clin Nephrol 20:244–250" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4612">69</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 73" title="Coveney N, Polkinghorne KR, Linehan L, Corradini A, Kerr PG (2011) Water-soluble vitamin levels in extended hours hemodialysis. Hemodial Int 15:30–38. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4758.2010.00505.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4615">73</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 79" title="Shah GM, Ross EA, Sabo A, Pichon M, Bhagavan H, Reynolds RD (1991) Ascorbic acid supplements in patients receiving chronic peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 18:84–90. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80295-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4618">79</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Kopple JD, Mercurio K, Blumenkrantz MJ, Jones MR, Tallos J, Roberts C, Card B, Saltzman R, Casciato DA, Swendseid ME (1981) Daily requirement for pyridoxine supplements in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 19:694–704. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1981.69
 
 " href="#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4621">122</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Ramirez G, Chen M, Boyce HW, Fuller SM, Butcher DE, Brueggemeyer CD, Newton JL (1986) The plasma and red cell vitamin B levels of chronic hemodialysis patients: a longitudinal study. Nephron 42:41–46. 
 https://doi.org/10.1159/000183631
 
 " href="#ref-CR123" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4621_1">123</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Descombes E, Hanck AB, Fellay G (1993) Water soluble vitamins in chronic hemodialysis patients and need for supplementation. Kidney Int 43:1319–1328. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1993.185
 
 " href="#ref-CR124" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4621_2">124</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 125" title="Moriwaki K, Kanno Y, Nakamoto H, Okada H, Suzuki H (2000) Vitamin B6 deficiency in elderly patients on chronic peritoneal dialysis. Adv Perit Dial 16:308–312" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR125" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4624">125</a>]. Hyperhomocysteinemia, which may be secondary to folate or B12 deficiency, is common in children with CKD, including post-transplant [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 107" title="Canepa A, Carrea A, Caridi G, Dertenois L, Minniti G, Cerone R, Canini S, Calevo MG, Perfumo F (2003) Homocysteine, folate, vitamin B12 levels, and C677T MTHFR mutation in children with renal failure. Pediatr Nephrol 18:225–229. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-002-1058-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR107" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4627">107</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 108" title="Hamatani R, Otsu M, Chikamoto H, Akioka Y, Hattori M (2014) Plasma homocysteine and folate levels and dietary folate intake in adolescents and young adults who underwent kidney transplantation during childhood. Clin Exp Nephrol 18:151–156. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10157-013-0819-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR108" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4631">108</a>]. Although there are reports of improved hematologic parameters [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 126" title="Bamgbola OF, Kaskel F (2005) Role of folate deficiency on erythropoietin resistance in pediatric and adolescent patients on chronic dialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 20:1622–1629. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-005-2021-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR126" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4634">126</a>], homocysteine levels [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 127" title="Schröder CH, de Boer AW, Giesen AM, Monnens LA, Blom H (1999) Treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia in children on dialysis by folic acid. Pediatr Nephrol 13:583–585. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s004670050748
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR127" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4637">127</a>], and oxidative stress indices [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 128" title="Bennett-Richards K, Kattenhorn M, Donald A, Oakley G, Varghese Z, Rees L, Deanfield JE (2002) Does oral folic acid lower total homocysteine levels and improve endothelial function in children with chronic renal failure? Circulation 105:1810–1815. 
 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.0000014417.95833.1d
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR128" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4640">128</a>] with folate supplementation in children with CKD, there is no evidence for empirical supplementation with pharmacological doses of folate in the absence of biochemical-proven deficiency.</p><p>When folate supplementation is initiated, consider vitamin B12 supplementation if biochemical measurements of B12 are not available [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 83" title="Ikizler TA, Burrowes JD, Byham-Gray LD, Campbell KL, Carrero J-J, Chan W, Fouque D, Friedman AN, Ghaddar S, Goldstein-Fuchs DJ, Kaysen GA, Kopple JD, Teta D, Yee-Moon Wang A, Cuppari L (2020) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in CKD: 2020 update. Am J Kidney Dis 76:S1–S107. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2020.05.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4646">83</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec38">Vitamin C</h3><p>There are no body stores of vitamin C and thus blood concentrations decrease quickly after stopping supplementation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Boeschoten EW, Schrijver J, Krediet RT, Schreurs WH, Arisz L (1988) Deficiencies of vitamins in CAPD patients: the effect of supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 3:187–193" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4657">66</a>]. Supplementation may increase levels, although the evidence of clinical benefit is limited [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 83" title="Ikizler TA, Burrowes JD, Byham-Gray LD, Campbell KL, Carrero J-J, Chan W, Fouque D, Friedman AN, Ghaddar S, Goldstein-Fuchs DJ, Kaysen GA, Kopple JD, Teta D, Yee-Moon Wang A, Cuppari L (2020) KDQOI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in CKD: 2020 update. Am J Kidney Dis 76:S1–S107. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2020.05.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4660">83</a>]. Supplementation of children may not be sufficient to normalize blood vitamin C concentration in those who receive dialysis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Tuokkola J, Kiviharju E, Jahnukainen T, Hölttä T (2021) Differences in dietary intake and vitamin and mineral status of infants and children on dialysis receiving feeds or eating normal food. J Ren Nutr 31:144–154. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2020.07.003
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4663">25</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Hongsawong N, Chawprang N, Kittisakmontri K, Vittayananan P, Srisuwan K, Chartapisak W (2021) Vitamin C deficiency and impact of vitamin C administration among pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 36:397–408. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04662-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4666">28</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 75" title="Zwolińska D, Grzeszczak W, Szczepańska M, Kiliś-Pstrusińska K, Szprynger K (2006) Vitamins A, E and C as non-enzymatic antioxidants and their relation to lipid peroxidation in children with chronic renal failure. Nephron Clin Pract 103:c12–c18. 
 https://doi.org/10.1159/000090506
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4669">75</a>]. In adults, there are multiple studies demonstrating improvement in vitamin C blood concentrations with supplementation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Henderson LS, Leung ACT, Shenkin A (1984) Vitamin status in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 4:143–145. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/089686088400400307
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4673">68</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Blumberg A, Hanck A, Sander G (1983) Vitamin nutrition in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Clin Nephrol 20:244–250" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4676">69</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 77" title="Böhm V, Tiroke K, Schneider S, Sperschneider H, Stein G, Bitsch R (1997) Vitamin C status of patients with chronic renal failure, dialysis patients and patients after renal transplantation. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 67:262–266" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4679">77</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Shah GM, Ross EA, Sabo A, Pichon M, Bhagavan H, Reynolds RD (1991) Ascorbic acid supplements in patients receiving chronic peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 18:84–90. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80295-2
 
 " href="#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4682">79</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Wang S, Eide TC, Sogn EM, Berg KJ, Sund RB (1999) Plasma ascorbic acid in patients undergoing chronic haemodialysis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 55:527–532. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s002280050668
 
 " href="#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4682_1">80</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Fehrman-Ekholm I, Lotsander A, Logan K, Dunge D, Odar-Cederlöf I, Kallner A (2008) Concentrations of vitamin C, vitamin B12 and folic acid in patients treated with hemodialysis and on-line hemodiafiltration or hemofiltration. Scand J Urol Nephrol 42:74–80. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/00365590701514266
 
 " href="#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4682_2">81</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 82" title="Sirover WD, Liu Y, Logan A, Hunter K, Benz RL, Prasad D, Avila J, Venkatchalam T, Weisberg LS, Handelman GJ (2015) Plasma ascorbic acid concentrations in prevalent patients with end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis. J Ren Nutr 25:292–300. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2014.09.007
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4685">82</a>].</p><p>In one pediatric study, intravenous supplementation with 250 mg vitamin C post-HD decreased total and LDL cholesterol [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="El Mashad GM, El Sayed HM, Nosair NA (2016) Effect of vitamin C supplementation on lipid profile, serum uric acid, and ascorbic acid in children on hemodialysis. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 27:1148–1154. 
 https://doi.org/10.4103/1319-2442.194602
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4691">27</a>]. In adult kidney transplant recipients, lower vitamin C concentrations were associated with a higher risk of graft failure [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 129" title="Sotomayor CG, Bustos NI, Yepes-Calderon M, Arauna D, de Borst MH, Berger SP, Rodrigo R, Dullaart RPF, Navis GJ, Bakker SJL (2021) Plasma vitamin C and risk of late graft failure in kidney transplant recipients: results of the transplantlines biobank and cohort study. Antioxidants (Basel) 10:631. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10050631
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4694">129</a>].</p><p>Functional iron deficiency is an important cause of anemia in CKD patients, and vitamin C may increase iron bioavailability [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 130" title="Deved V, Poyah P, James MT, Tonelli M, Manns BJ, Walsh M, Hemmelgarn BR; Alberta Kidney Disease Network (2009) Ascorbic acid for anemia management in hemodialysis patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis 54:1089–1097. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2009.06.040
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR130" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4700">130</a>]. Studies have demonstrated a benefit of oral vitamin C supplementation on anemia indices in children with CKD 4–5D [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Hongsawong N, Chawprang N, Kittisakmontri K, Vittayananan P, Srisuwan K, Chartapisak W (2021) Vitamin C deficiency and impact of vitamin C administration among pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 36:397–408. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04662-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4703">28</a>] and adults on PD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 78" title="Finkelstein FO, Juergensen P, Wang S, Santacroce S, Levine M, Kotanko P, Levin NW, Handelman GJ (2011) Hemoglobin and plasma vitamin C levels in patients on peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 31:74–79. 
 https://doi.org/10.3747/pdi.2009.00154
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4706">78</a>]; anemia indices have also improved with intravenous vitamin C supplementation in adult HD patients [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 131" title="Tarng DC, Wei YH, Huang TP, Kuo BI, Yang WC (1999) Intravenous ascorbic acid as an adjuvant therapy for recombinant erythropoietin in hemodialysis patients with hyperferritinemia. Kidney Int 55:2477–2486. 
 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1755.1999.00479.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR131" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4709">131</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 132" title="Shahrbanoo K, Taziki O (2008) Effect of intravenous ascorbic acid in hemodialysis patients with anemia and hyperferritinemia. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 19:933–936" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR132" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4712">132</a>]. Excess supplementation and intake of vitamin C may, however, lead to elevated blood oxalate concentrations. Due to decreased oxalate excretion in the urine, plasma oxalate levels increase in children and adults receiving dialysis, but the effect on tissue levels of oxalate is uncertain. There are case reports of systemic oxalosis in children and adults [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="D’Costa MR, Winkler NS, Milliner DS, Norby SM, Hickson LJ, Lieske JC (2019) Oxalosis associated with high-dose vitamin C ingestion in a peritoneal dialysis patient. Am J Kidney Dis 74:417–420. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2019.01.022
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4716">29</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Kennedy SS, Perilloux A, Pereira RC, Handelman G, Wesseling-Perry K, Salusky IB (2021) Vitamin C overload may contribute to systemic oxalosis in children receiving dialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 36:435–441. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04702-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4719">30</a>]. Most studies did not see an elevation in serum oxalate levels with a maximum vitamin C supplementation of 250 mg per day [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Hongsawong N, Chawprang N, Kittisakmontri K, Vittayananan P, Srisuwan K, Chartapisak W (2021) Vitamin C deficiency and impact of vitamin C administration among pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 36:397–408. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-020-04662-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4722">28</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 131" title="Tarng DC, Wei YH, Huang TP, Kuo BI, Yang WC (1999) Intravenous ascorbic acid as an adjuvant therapy for recombinant erythropoietin in hemodialysis patients with hyperferritinemia. Kidney Int 55:2477–2486. 
 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1755.1999.00479.x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR131" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4725">131</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 133" title="Canavese C, Petrarulo M, Massarenti P, Berutti S, Fenoglio R, Pauletto D, Lanfranco G, Bergamo D, Sandri L, Marangella M (2005) Long-term, low-dose, intravenous vitamin C leads to plasma calcium oxalate supersaturation in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 45:540–549. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2004.10.025
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4728">133</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 134" title="Liu Y, Weisberg LS, Langman CB, Logan A, Hunter K, Prasad D, Avila J, Venkatchalam T, Berns JS, Handelman GJ, Sirover WD (2016) Plasma oxalate levels in prevalent hemodialysis patients and potential implications for ascorbic acid supplementation. Clin Biochem 49:1133–1139. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR134" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4731">134</a>], while some did with supplementation of 500 mg per day [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 82" title="Sirover WD, Liu Y, Logan A, Hunter K, Benz RL, Prasad D, Avila J, Venkatchalam T, Weisberg LS, Handelman GJ (2015) Plasma ascorbic acid concentrations in prevalent patients with end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis. J Ren Nutr 25:292–300. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4735">82</a>]. Thus, supplementation should be provided with caution and total intake of vitamin C from diet and formulas should not exceed 250 mg per day [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Hongsawong N, Chawprang N, Kittisakmontri K, Vittayananan P, Srisuwan K, Chartapisak W (2021) Vitamin C deficiency and impact of vitamin C administration among pediatric patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 36:397–408. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4738">28</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Kennedy SS, Perilloux A, Pereira RC, Handelman G, Wesseling-Perry K, Salusky IB (2021) Vitamin C overload may contribute to systemic oxalosis in children receiving dialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 36:435–441. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d92938340e4741">30</a>].</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Results of the Delphi survey"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec39-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec39">Results of the Delphi survey</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec39-content"><p>Thirty-one responses were received via an electronic Delphi survey, comprising 18 dietitians and 13 pediatric nephrologists across 16 countries. Delphi respondents are listed under Acknowledgements as “Participants in Delphi survey.”</p><p>Of the six clinical practice recommendation statements, overall, a 91.1% consensus was achieved with a “strongly agree” or “agree” response, 6.6% had a “neutral” response, 1.7% “disagree,” and 0.5% “strongly disagree” response. All but one statement met the stipulated 70% or higher level of consensus. The one statement received a response rate of 65% agreement (statement 5.3.1). The respondents queried the need for vitamin D biochemical assessment and suggested routine biochemical assessment in chronic disease. Vitamin D has been extensively reviewed in previous publications and was not in scope for this review. The most recent vitamin D review reference is noted in the paper. Evidence covered in the rationale does not currently support routine biochemical vitamin assessment and a research recommendation has been made to explore criteria for biochemical assessment. The taskforce team carefully reviewed all of the statements in light of these responses; none required significant change.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Summary of statements"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec40-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec40">Summary of statements</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec40-content"><p>A summary of statements is provided in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x#Tab5">5</a>. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-5"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab5" data-test="table-caption">Table 5 Summary of clinical practice point statements</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x/tables/5" aria-label="Full size table 5"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Research recommendations"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec41-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec41">Research recommendations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec41-content"><p>There is a need for well-designed longitudinal observational studies of the dietary intake of vitamins and the serum status of vitamins over time, accompanied by randomized controlled studies designed to help determine the vitamin requirements for children with CKD. The most pressing topics to explore are:</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec42">Intake/requirements</h3> <ul class="u-list-style-bullet"> <li> <p>Determination of the requirements for optimal health, specifically:</p> </li> </ul><ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <p>- vitamin K—the potential for improved vascular and bone health.</p> </li> <li> <p>- vitamin A—benefits and risks of limiting intake below reference requirements.</p> </li> <li> <p>- vitamin C—safe upper level regarding oxalate accumulation, kidney stone formation, and nausea</p> </li> <li> <p>- vitamin C and B complex—losses on dialysis, effects of diuretics, and urine losses.</p> </li> <li> <p>- impact of transplantation on vitamin status.</p> </li> <li> <p>- development of dietary intake assessment methods that reflect true intake and/or dietary risk.</p> </li> <li> <p>- exploration of the relationship between outcome measures such as improved cognition, growth, and quality of life, with improved vitamin status.</p> </li> </ul><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec43">Biochemical status</h3> <ul class="u-list-style-bullet"> <li> <p>Assessment methods for vitamin biochemical status.</p> </li> <li> <p>Determination of the safe serum concentrations of:</p> </li> </ul><ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <p>- vitamin A</p> </li> <li> <p>- vitamin C with respect to oxalate</p> </li> </ul><ul class="u-list-style-bullet"> <li> <p>Assessment of status in children not receiving vitamin supplements.</p> </li> </ul><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec44">Supplementation</h3> <ul class="u-list-style-bullet"> <li> <p>Development of optimal age-based multivitamin supplement.</p> </li> <li> <p>Determination of the amount of supplementation needed to achieve normal serum concentrations, body stores, and functions.</p> </li> <li> <p>Exploration of the benefit and long-term safety of:</p> </li> </ul><ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <p>- vitamin E supplementation and other antioxidant vitamins in improving clinical outcomes such as cardiovascular risk, disease progression, and mortality.</p> </li> <li> <p>- vitamin K supplementation with long-term use of antibiotics and for bone health.</p> </li> <li> <p>- vitamin C supplementation on oxalosis, cardiovascular risk and/or erythrocyte lifespan, lipid levels, and anemia management.</p> </li> <li> <p>- vitamin B3 supplementation on lipid levels and phosphate management.</p> </li> <li> <p>- folate supplementation on anemia management.</p> </li> </ul></div></div></section><section data-title="Conclusions"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec45-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec45">Conclusions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec45-content"><p>Vitamins have essential roles in body processes. CKD can alter vitamin intake and biochemical status and thus requirements may differ in children with CKD compared with their healthy peers. We present clinical practice points designed to address clinical issues pertaining to vitamin status in children with CKD as a key aspect of their nutritional management. Ensuring sufficient vitamin intake and status is essential not only to prevent deficiencies and excess, but also to help ensure long-term health. Consuming rich dietary sources of most vitamins should be promoted. 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Vitaflo International Ltd. has funded the meetings held by the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce. RS is funded by a National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), CDF-2016-09-038, Career Development Fellowship. This publication presents independent research funded by the NIHR.</p><p>Participants in the Delphi survey</p><p>Dietitians: Bajaj, M, Chennai, India; Campana, C, Rome, Italy; Collins, S, Sydney, Australia; Feile, S, Heidelberg, Germany; Friedlander, S, Auckland, New Zealand; Grammenos, K, Katerini, Greece; Grassi, M, Milan, Italy; Holmes, A, Liverpool, UK; Jing, L, Beijing, China; Juarez-Calderon, M, Houston, US; Levitt, R, San Diego, US; Mattilda, A, Bangalore, India; Olesen, A, Aarhus, Denmark; Parnarauskienė, J, Vilnius, Lithuania; Sgambat, K, Washington, US; Valadez Benitez, N, Mexico; Van der Vaerent, K, Leuven, Belgium; Winderlich, J, Melbourne, Australia; Yeung, C, Hong Kong, China.</p><p>Paediatric Nephrologists: Cano, F, Santiago, Chile; Dickens, A, Auckland, New Zealand; Edefonti, A, Milan, Italy; Govindan, S, Chennai, India; Iyengar, A, Bangalore, India; Koch, V, S. Paulo, Brazil; Ma, A, Hong Kong, China; Moudgil, A, Washington, US; Platt, C, Bristol, UK; Prikhodina, L, Moscow, Russia; Sinha, A, New Delhi, India; Verrina, E, Genova, Italy; Xu, H, Shanghai, China.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Caroline E. Anderson & Matthew Harmer</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Human Development & Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Caroline E. Anderson</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">University of Winchester, Winchester, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Caroline E. Anderson</p></li><li id="Aff4"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Clinical Nutrition Unit, Internal Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Jetta Tuokkola</p></li><li id="Aff5"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Jetta Tuokkola</p></li><li id="Aff6"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Medicine, Endocrinology and Clinical Nutrition, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Jetta Tuokkola</p></li><li id="Aff7"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Great Northern Children’s Hospital, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Leila Qizalbash & Barry Toole</p></li><li id="Aff8"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Children’s Mercy Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Christina L. Nelms & Bradley A. Warady</p></li><li id="Aff9"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">1st Department of Pediatrics, Aristotle University, Hippokratio Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Stella Stabouli</p></li><li id="Aff10"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">British Columbia Children’s Hospital, Vancouver, Canada</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Nonnie Polderman</p></li><li id="Aff11"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">University Hospital Ghent, Ghent, Belgium</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">An Desloovere, Evelien Snauwaert & Johan Vande Walle</p></li><li id="Aff12"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Wilhemina Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Jose Renken-Terhaerdt</p></li><li id="Aff13"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Molly R. Wong Vega</p></li><li id="Aff14"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Hannover Medical School, Children’s Hospital, Hannover, Germany</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Dieter Haffner</p></li><li id="Aff15"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Fabio Paglialonga</p></li><li id="Aff16"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health, London, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Rukshana Shroff & Vanessa Shaw</p></li><li id="Aff17"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Larry A. 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Anderson, C.E., Tuokkola, J., Qizalbash, L. <i>et al.</i> Assessment and management of vitamin status in children with CKD stages 2–5, on dialysis and post-transplantation: clinical practice points from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce. <i>Pediatr Nephrol</i> <b>39</b>, 3103–3124 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s00467-024-06303-x?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul 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