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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Recruitment and support</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recruitment_and_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Character_of_warfare_and_the_Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Character_of_warfare_and_the_Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Character of warfare and the Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Character_of_warfare_and_the_Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_the_campaigns_of_the_Dutch_Revolt,_1566–1609" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_the_campaigns_of_the_Dutch_Revolt,_1566–1609"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Role in the campaigns of the Dutch Revolt, 1566–1609</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>First modern military and mathematics academy in Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_modern_military_and_mathematics_academy_in_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Cultural legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Army of Flanders</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Terciosmarchando.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Terciosmarchando.jpg/300px-Terciosmarchando.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Terciosmarchando.jpg/450px-Terciosmarchando.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Terciosmarchando.jpg/600px-Terciosmarchando.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2215" data-file-height="1623" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The Army of Flanders' deployment for the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nieuwpoort" title="Battle of Nieuwpoort">Battle of Nieuwpoort</a> (1600).</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Active</th><td class="infobox-data">1567–1706 (dissolution)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Disbanded</th><td class="infobox-data">1706</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Allegiance</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/King_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Spain">King of Spain</a> as hereditary prince of the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Low Countries</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Branch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Army" title="Spanish Army">Spanish Army</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Role</th><td class="infobox-data">Security, control, and defense of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Size</th><td class="infobox-data">10,000<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1567)<br />86,235<sup id="cite_ref-Parker315_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker315-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1574)<br />49,765<sup id="cite_ref-Parker315_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker315-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1607)<br />77,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1639)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Garrison/HQ</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Notable commanders</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo">Duke of Alba</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Juli%C3%A1n_Romero" title="Julián Romero">Julián Romero</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Sancho_d%27Avila" title="Sancho d'Avila">Sancho Dávila</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma">Duke of Parma</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Ambrosio_Spinola" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrosio Spinola">Ambrosio Spínola</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Cardinal-Infante_Ferdinand_of_Austria" title="Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria">Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Acu%C3%B1a_y_Meneses,_Marqu%C3%A9s_de_Assentar" title="Pedro de Acuña y Meneses, Marqués de Assentar">Marqués de Assentar</a><br /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Fernandez_de_Medrano&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sebastian Fernandez de Medrano (page does not exist)">Sebastian Fernandez de Medrano</a></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military unit</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_de_los_Tercios_Espa%C3%B1oles_(Cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_con_el_%C3%81guila_Bic%C3%A9fala).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Bandera_de_los_Tercios_Espa%C3%B1oles_%28Cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_con_el_%C3%81guila_Bic%C3%A9fala%29.svg/300px-Bandera_de_los_Tercios_Espa%C3%B1oles_%28Cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_con_el_%C3%81guila_Bic%C3%A9fala%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Bandera_de_los_Tercios_Espa%C3%B1oles_%28Cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_con_el_%C3%81guila_Bic%C3%A9fala%29.svg/450px-Bandera_de_los_Tercios_Espa%C3%B1oles_%28Cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_con_el_%C3%81guila_Bic%C3%A9fala%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Bandera_de_los_Tercios_Espa%C3%B1oles_%28Cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_con_el_%C3%81guila_Bic%C3%A9fala%29.svg/600px-Bandera_de_los_Tercios_Espa%C3%B1oles_%28Cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_con_el_%C3%81guila_Bic%C3%A9fala%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the Spanish <i>Tercios</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Army of Flanders</b> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">Ejército de Flandes</i> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">Leger van Vlaanderen</i>) was a multinational army in the service of the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">kings of Spain</a> that was based in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a> during the 16th to 18th centuries. It was notable for being the longest-serving army of the period, being in continuous service from 1567 until its disestablishment in 1706 and taking part in numerous pivotal battles of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a> (1566–1609) and the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648). Because it employed or pioneered many developing military concepts more reminiscent of later military units, enjoying permanent, standing regiments (<i><a href="/wiki/Tercios" class="mw-redirect" title="Tercios">tercios</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Barracks" title="Barracks">barracks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_hospital" title="Military hospital">military hospitals</a> and rest homes long before they were adopted in most of Europe, the Army of Flanders has been considered the world's <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> first modern professional standing army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHale198567_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHale198567-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sustained at huge cost and at significant distances from <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a>, the Army of Flanders also became infamous for successive <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutinies</a> and its ill-disciplined activity on and off the battlefield, including the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp" title="Sack of Antwerp">Sack of Antwerp</a> in 1576. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creation_of_the_Army">Creation of the Army</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Creation of the Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">Cologne War</a></div> <p>The Army of Flanders formed the longest standing army in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, operating from 1567 until 1706.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker199672_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker199672-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was established following <a href="/wiki/Beeldenstorm" title="Beeldenstorm">a wave of iconoclasm</a> in the provinces of the Netherlands in 1565 and 1566.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZagorin198295_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZagorin198295-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The provinces were ruled by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, and as trouble mounted he decided to reinforce the existing forces of the governor, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Parma" title="Margaret of Parma">Margaret of Parma</a>, with a more substantial force. This was both a political reaction against the perceived rebellion, but also a response to the <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a> views being shown by the protesters, establishing a religious flavour to the military response.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZagorin198297_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZagorin198297-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>King Phillip's possessions stretched across Europe, and were reflected in the creation of the new army. In 1567 it was intended that 8,000 Spanish foot and 1,200 horse would form the nucleus of a new army for the Netherlands, to be sent from north Italy via Savoy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker198589_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker198589-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was envisaged at this stage that the total number might potentially reach 70,000, composed of 60,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, under the command of <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker198590_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker198590-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The force would be sent through Europe via a sequence of friendly or neutral territories, which would become known as the '<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a>'; surveying of the route began in 1566. </p><p>Eventually the Spanish authorities concluded that recruiting 70,000 troops was both excessive and too expensive. In the end, only 10,000 Spanish and a regiment of <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a> infantry under Count Alberic de Lodron were sent, although their formation, dispatch and march north was a considerable accomplishment for the time. Arriving in the Netherlands, they joined the 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Walloons" title="Walloons">Walloons</a> and Germans already serving <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Parma" title="Margaret of Parma">Margaret of Parma</a>, who then resigned in favour of Alba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1985102_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1985102-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Spanish troops proved to be unruly, they formed an essential professional basis for the new army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1985104_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1985104-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Backed by the new Army of Flanders, Alba arrested and tried around 12,000 people, of whom 1,000 were condemned to death, while others had their property confiscated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZagorin198298_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZagorin198298-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recruitment_and_support">Recruitment and support</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Recruitment and support"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg/220px-CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg/330px-CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg/440px-CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="449" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption>The '<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a>', linking Spain's northern territories with those in Italy and the Peninsula. In an ambitious undertaking, Spain used the Spanish Road to reinforce her position in the Netherlands with the new Army of Flanders in 1567.</figcaption></figure> <p>The size of the Army of Flanders would vary over the period in response to contemporary challenges and threats. The initial force that combined in the Netherlands in 1567 was a little over 20,000 strong; after the defeat of <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_Orange" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of Orange">William I of Orange</a> the following year, the Spanish planned for an enduring force of 3,200 <a href="/wiki/Walloons" title="Walloons">Walloon</a> and 4,000 Spanish infantry along the borders of the Netherlands, backed by 4,000 Spanish infantry and 500 light cavalry forming a strategic reserve.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker,_1985:114_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker,_1985:114-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Dutch_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch revolt">Dutch revolt</a> meant that the Army had to enlarge considerably in 1572, reaching, on paper, if not in reality, a strength of 86,000 by 1574.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Army was a multinational force, drawn primarily from the various <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> possessions of the Habsburgs but also from the Britain and Ireland, as well as Lutheran parts of Germany. There was a clear contemporary hierarchy as to the value of different soldiers; Spanish soldiers were considered the best; then Italians, followed by English, Irish and Burgundian troops; then Germans, then finally local Walloons. Parker has argued that the Germans in fact performed much better than they were given credit for by contemporary commanders.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their value on the field, Spanish troops in the Army were particularly unpopular with the local people, and at two key moments were sent out of the Netherlands to assuage local opinion. </p><p>Recruitment occurred by various methods, including the commissioning of recruiting captains, who would attempt to enroll volunteers from a given recruiting region each year, and contractors, who would attempt to hire troops from across Europe. It is estimated that around 25% of the Army had served their military apprenticeships elsewhere, with more than 50% recruited outside the Low Countries.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its best, this system could achieve remarkable surges – the increase in the Army in 1572 used all these methods, and its success was a major accomplishment for the Spanish military establishment.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1590s, there was increasingly fierce competition for suitable veterans among Catholic France, embroiled in its <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">civil wars of religion</a>, the Habsburg Empire's other commitments and the Army of Flanders, with premiums being paid for transfers into the respective armies.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 17th century, the similarities between the Habsburg army of Hungary and the Army of Flanders made competition for recruits particularly intense.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cost of recruiting for the Army created tensions between Philip II's policy in the Netherlands, and his need to maintain a strong presence in the Mediterranean against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although volunteers were the norm, <i>in extremis</i> other methods could be used; Spain raised a <i>tercio</i> of <a href="/wiki/Catalan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalan people">Catalan</a> criminals to fight in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a trend Philip II continued for most Catalan criminals for the rest of his reign.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pay remained fixed throughout most of the period, three <i><a href="/wiki/Escudo" title="Escudo">escudos</a></i> per day up until 1634, then four <i>escudos</i> thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the highest social level, the Army of Flanders enjoyed a sequence of senior officers drawn from the nobility. Having senior noble commanders was considered extremely important in the Army,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> more so than in equivalent armies in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the lowest, the Army, like most of the period, had a substantial train of <a href="/wiki/Camp_follower" title="Camp follower">camp followers</a>. Drawn from the lower classes, they made up a large percentage of the overall size of the Army in the field,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and represented a considerable logistical burden in campaigns. </p><p>As time went on, the Army of Flanders began to enjoy various distinctly modern institutions, often before they were adopted by the rest of Europe. Alba set up a military hospital at <a href="/wiki/Mechelen" title="Mechelen">Mechelen</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Duchy of Brabant</a> in 1567; it was closed the following year, but after many complaints by mutineers it reopened in 1585, ultimately having 49 staff and 330 beds, paid for partially by the troops. The 'Garrison of our Lady of Hal' was created as a more permanent rest home for crippled veterans. A public trustee was also appointed in 1596 to administer the wills of soldiers who had fallen in service.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1609, a number of small <a href="/wiki/Barracks" title="Barracks">barracks</a> (<i>baraques</i>, called after the French version of the Catalan <i>barraca</i>) were created away from the main urban centres to house the Army – a move that was eventually copied by other nations.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Character_of_warfare_and_the_Army">Character of warfare and the Army</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Character of warfare and the Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ostenda_obsessa_et_capta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Ostenda_obsessa_et_capta.jpg/220px-Ostenda_obsessa_et_capta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Ostenda_obsessa_et_capta.jpg/330px-Ostenda_obsessa_et_capta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Ostenda_obsessa_et_capta.jpg/440px-Ostenda_obsessa_et_capta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1713" /></a><figcaption>A map showing the extensive <a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">polygonal</a> fortifications around the city of <a href="/wiki/Ostend" title="Ostend">Ostend</a>, 1601–4, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">a prolonged siege</a> which cost the Army of Flanders 80,000 casualties, and the Dutch 60,000.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Army of Flanders had been built upon the concept of the Spanish <i><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">tercio</a></i>, a pike-heavy infantry formation that well suited the nature of warfare in the Netherlands. The large areas of flat ground, the <i>platteland</i>, was criss-crossed by rivers and drainage channels, dotted by numerous towns and cities well placed to dominate the surrounding landscape, increasingly defended with <a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">polygonal fortifications</a>. Siege warfare, rather than set-piece battles, dominated the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>, especially in the 16th century. Away from the major sieges, the war took on an almost <a href="/wiki/Guerilla_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerilla warfare">guerilla</a> style of small engagements and skirmishes, with much of both the Army of Flanders and the Dutch forces dispersed across the countryside;<sup id="cite_ref-Parker_1996,_p.40_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker_1996,_p.40-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1639, for example, just under half of the Army, then 77,000 strong, was distributed across 208 small garrisons.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This pattern reflected the Dutch disposition as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker_1996,_p.40_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker_1996,_p.40-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Siege warfare was extremely expensive, both in terms of casualties and money. In 1622 the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bergen-op-Zoom_(1622)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Bergen-op-Zoom (1622)">siege of Bergen-op-Zoom</a> cost Spinola 9,000 men,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whilst the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">siege of Ostend</a> in 1601-4 cost the Army of Flanders 80,000 in casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">siege of Breda</a> during 1624–5 was so expensive financially that the advance had to pause through 1625 – no more money was available to exploit the success.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 17th century, the conflict gradually changed, as the Spanish-Dutch borders became smaller and more secure and the number of sieges slowly reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Army of Flanders gradually changed in response to these developments in warfare. The Spanish experiences fighting the Swedish, with their more flexible, firepower-oriented tactics of open battle, resulted in a decision to alter the balance of the Flanders <i>tercios</i> in 1634. A new ratio of 75% musketeers to 25% pike was decided on; this delivered more firepower, but was weaker in defending against cavalry, as was demonstrated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi (1643)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice this adjusted ratio was only applied to newly formed units.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker,_1996_p.60_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker,_1996_p.60-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also attempts to introduce the heavier <a href="/wiki/Musket" title="Musket">musket</a> to replace the lighter <a href="/wiki/Arquebus" title="Arquebus">arquebus</a>; the poor physical quality of new recruits, who could often not lift the heavier weapon, however, meant that this rule often had to be broken in practice,<sup id="cite_ref-Parker,_1996_p.60_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker,_1996_p.60-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the local Walloons being felt to be particularly weak and requiring the arquebus.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The efforts to deploy the Army of Flanders against France also encouraged changes. Generally speaking, the Army required more infantry for operations in the north against the Dutch, and more cavalry for operations in the south against the French.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Army of Flanders was rarely strong in terms of cavalry, however; in 1572 Alba had discharged all his heavy cavalry,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and until the 1630s the Army's cavalry was mainly light cavalry, used to patrol the <i>platteland.</i><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Horses themselves were often in short supply – after the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rouen_(1591%E2%80%931592)" title="Siege of Rouen (1591–1592)">relief of Rouen</a> in 1592, for example, two thirds of the Spanish cavalry lacked mounts.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On campaign, the Army of Flanders were considered highly disciplined in the field, being cohesive, with good support facilities. When necessary, they could achieve significant military feats, such as their building of a bridge over the <a href="/wiki/Seine" title="Seine">Seine</a> to escape pursuit in 1592.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, even by early modern standards the Army was considered very ill-disciplined off the field, as illustrated by a colloquial Spanish phrase in response to unruly behaviour which came rhetorically to question whether the person believed they were serving in Flanders.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_the_campaigns_of_the_Dutch_Revolt,_1566–1609"><span id="Role_in_the_campaigns_of_the_Dutch_Revolt.2C_1566.E2.80.931609"></span>Role in the campaigns of the Dutch Revolt, 1566–1609</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Role in the campaigns of the Dutch Revolt, 1566–1609"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif/220px-Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif/330px-Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif/440px-Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif 2x" data-file-width="1890" data-file-height="1522" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kenau_Simonsdochter_Hasselaer" title="Kenau Simonsdochter Hasselaer">Kenau Simonsdochter Hasselaer</a> defending the walls during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Haarlem" title="Siege of Haarlem">Siege of Haarlem</a> (1572–1573). The successful siege cost the Army of Flanders 10,000 men.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Army of Flanders was to play a key part in all the campaigns of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a> (1567–1609). The <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a> had first brought the army into Flanders, and despite losing the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Heiligerlee_(1568)" title="Battle of Heiligerlee (1568)">Battle of Heiligerlee (1568)</a> to <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_Orange" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of Orange">William I of Orange</a>, the rebel leader, was able to pacify the north until a resurgence of rebel activity occurred in 1572. Alba sent his son <a href="/wiki/Fadrique_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_4th_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Duke of Alba">Fadrique</a> to quell the insurrection with some 30,000 men, Spaniards, Walloons, and Germans. The Army of Flanders crushed the weak defenses of <a href="/wiki/Zutphen" title="Zutphen">Zutphen</a> and put nearly every man in town to death, hanging some by the feet while drowning 500 others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961449_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961449-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Naarden" title="Massacre of Naarden">Naarden</a> the women were publicly raped, then every living thing was put to the sword.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratt2013160_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratt2013160-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Army of Flanders now pushed through Amsterdam and, basing there, advanced against <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Haarlem" title="Siege of Haarlem">Haarlem</a> at the beginning of December 1572. Haarlem had a garrison of some 4,000 troops led by <a href="/wiki/Wigbolt_Ripperda" title="Wigbolt Ripperda">Wigbolt Ripperda</a>. The citizens would fight resolutely alongside the soldiers. For weeks on end, the Spanish guns pounded the city defences but to no avail; they also tried tunnelling towards the city walls to mine the remaining defences but the Dutch dug counter-tunnels and blew up any Spanish and their tunnels they might meet. From the outside, William of Orange made use of the winter freeze to smuggle in provisions over the frozen <a href="/wiki/Haarlemmermeer" title="Haarlemmermeer">Haarlem Lake</a> on sledges. This was done under the very noses of the shocked Spanish, who had never seen skating. Even after the freeze, in early 1573, William's <a href="/wiki/Geuzen" title="Geuzen">Sea Beggars</a> maintained the supply line by boat under the cover of a thick mist which hung over the lake. The Dutch made frequent sorties, cut off the heads of the soldiers they captured and rolled them into the Spanish lines in barrels; the Spaniards hanged their prisoners on crosses facing the enemy; and the Dutch defenders taunted the Spanish besiegers by staging parodies of Catholic rituals on the cities ramparts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961449_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961449-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratt2013161_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratt2013161-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unrelenting savage raids by both sides continued through February and March 1573, the Army of Flanders suffering heavy losses. Fadrique was by now so exasperated that he wrote to his father, asking if he might break off the siege. The Duke of Alba sneeringly replied that he would send his own wife if Fadrique was not up to the job. The turning point was reached in early April 1573 when Spanish-led ships from Amsterdam routed the Sea Beggars on the Haarlem Lake. This was the end of the clandestine supply routes. William sent 5,000 men in an effort to relieve Haarlem. The Spanish learnt of the plan and the troops were slaughtered in an ambush. After seven months, when the city's inhabitants had been reduced to eating weeds, rats, and shoe leather, the city surrendered. The Haarlem garrison was massacred, and the townsfolk were raped and pillaged. The horrors of the siege were somewhat offset by subsequent events. King Philip diverted funds to his Mediterranean <a href="/wiki/Holy_League_(1571)" title="Holy League (1571)">campaign against the Ottomans</a> and the Army of Flanders mutinied due to the resultant lack of wages. They eventually moved on but failed to capture <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alkmaar" title="Siege of Alkmaar">Alkmaar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a>. Unable to deal with the crisis, Alba was replaced by the more moderate <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga_y_Requesens" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens">Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens</a> in 1573. The Army of Flanders retained its battlefield superiority: <a href="/wiki/Sancho_d%27Avila" title="Sancho d'Avila">Sancho d'Avila</a> with 5,000 Spaniards and 1,000 Walloons destroyed <a href="/wiki/Louis_of_Nassau" title="Louis of Nassau">Louis of Nassau</a>'s German mercenary army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mookerheyde" title="Battle of Mookerheyde">Battle of Mookerheyde</a> on 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother <a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Nassau-Dillenburg" title="Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg">Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack199658_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack199658-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with the loss of his brothers, William had to mourn the loss of 3,800 soldiers killed; Spanish casualties were no more than 200. Requesens was hampered by the bankruptcy of the Spanish Crown in 1575, which left him without funds to maintain his army. The Army of Flanders mutinied, and shortly after Requesens' death in 1576 almost effectively ceased to exist, disintegrating in various mutinous factions.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Don_John_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Don John of Austria">Don John of Austria</a> took over the command of the province, attempting to restore some semblance of military discipline but failing to prevent the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp" title="Sack of Antwerp">Sack of Antwerp</a> by mutinous soldiers. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maastricht_1579.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Maastricht_1579.jpg/220px-Maastricht_1579.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Maastricht_1579.jpg/330px-Maastricht_1579.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Maastricht_1579.jpg/440px-Maastricht_1579.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>The Army of Flanders taking <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maastricht_(1579)" title="Siege of Maastricht (1579)">Maastricht</a> in 1579</figcaption></figure> <p>By the time that <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma">Alexander Farnese</a>, the future Duke of Parma, took control of the army in 1578, the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> were increasingly split between the rebellious north and those southern provinces still loyal to Spain. With the arrival of large numbers of troops from Spain,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrossman2007175_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2007175-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Farnese set about consolidating Spanish control in the south, beginning with Maastricht. Farnese commenced the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maastricht_(1579)" title="Siege of Maastricht (1579)">Siege of Maastricht</a> on 12 March 1579. He ordered his troops to sap the walls. The inhabitants of Maastricht too were digging to reach the Spanish tunnels. Deep underground the fighting continued. Hundreds of Spanish soldiers died as boiling water was poured into their tunnels. Others died because of a lack of oxygen when the Dutch defenders ignited fires within them. Another 500 Spanish soldiers died when a mine, which they planned to use to blow up the wall, exploded prematurely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961454_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961454-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the night of 29 June, Farnese managed to get into the city while the exhausted defenders were asleep. Spanish units who breached the city walls first raped the women (some of whom, in fighting to defend the city, had transgressed gender roles and forfeited their right to mercy), then massacred the population. By 1585, Farnese had reconquered the cities of Brussels, Ghent, and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Duchy of Brabant</a> and most of Flanders. At this point the Army was diverted from its original function of fighting the northern rebels to addressing the problem of England, at war with Spain. Farnese believed that the Army could hope to cross the Channel in force, relying upon a Catholic uprising in England to support it; instead, Philip decided to undertake a naval attack using the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> in 1588. The Army of Flanders moved against Ostend and Dunkirk in preparations for a <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada#Planned_invasion_of_England" title="Spanish Armada">follow-up manoeuver</a> across the Channel in support of the Armada, but the defeat of the main naval force brought an end to these plans. </p><p>Farnese was ultimately removed as governor, being replaced by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ernst_I_von_Mansfeld-Vorderort" title="Peter Ernst I von Mansfeld-Vorderort">Peter Ernst I von Mansfeld-Vorderort</a> in 1592 and <a href="/wiki/Archduke_Ernest_of_Austria" title="Archduke Ernest of Austria">Archduke Ernest of Austria</a> in 1594. By the time <a href="/wiki/Albert_VII,_Archduke_of_Austria" title="Albert VII, Archduke of Austria">Archduke Albert of Austria</a> – the husband of Infanta <a href="/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia" title="Isabella Clara Eugenia">Isabella Clara Eugenia</a> was given custody of the Netherlands by the Spanish king in 1595, the Dutch north appeared to be an increasingly independent country, protected by the able military commander <a href="/wiki/Maurice_of_Orange" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurice of Orange">Maurice of Orange</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Dutch_States_Army" title="Dutch States Army">Dutch States Army</a>. The Dutch continued to consolidate their control over various towns through a sequence of successful sieges, whilst the Army of Flanders saw itself increasingly pointed southwards, against France, being used as a strike force in <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1590)" title="Siege of Paris (1590)">1590</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rouen_(1591)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Rouen (1591)">1592</a>, and fighting to take <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Doullens" title="Siege of Doullens">Doullens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambrai" title="Cambrai">Cambrai</a> (1595) and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_(1596)" title="Siege of Calais (1596)">Calais</a> (1596).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Army of Flanders also <a href="/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">operated in Germany</a>, capturing <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Neuss" title="Destruction of Neuss">Neuss</a> (1586), <a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a> (1588) and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rheinberg_(1586%E2%80%9390)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Rheinberg (1586–90)">Rheinberg</a> (1590). Despite the failure of the Army to reoccupy the north, it continued to the end of the period as an effective fighting force, with its campaigns in 1605 and 1606 being notable for their 'vitality' and vigour.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mutinies_in_the_Army_of_Flanders">Mutinies in the Army of Flanders</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mutinies in the Army of Flanders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Army of Flanders had become particularly well known for its frequent <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutinies</a>, especially during the 1570s. These mutinies, or <i>alteraciones</i>, stemmed from the mismatch between Spain's strategic military ambitions and her fiscal means. Spain was the only European power to be able to project military force on the scale and distance of the Army of Flanders; backed by gold and especially silver from her <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">American colonies</a>, Spain had huge funds available. In practice, however, the costs of such a large military force outstripped even Spain's ability to pay for it. In 1568, the defence costs for the army in Flanders amounted to 1,873,000 <a href="/wiki/Dutch_guilder" title="Dutch guilder">florins</a> a year.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker,_1985:114_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker,_1985:114-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1574, the enlarged army was costing 1,200,000 florins a month.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even with increased taxation, the Low Countries could not hope to support such a force, but funds from <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a> were limited – only 300,000 florins arrived each month at the time from Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This underlying fiscal tension was only just manageable in normal years; in years like 1575, when King Phillip II was forced to default on his loans yet again, there was simply no money available to pay the Army of Flanders. Mutinies usually ensued – ultimately the Army of Flanders mutinied 45 times between 1572 and 1609,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the mutinies coming to have a formal character and process of their own. The longest mutiny was the <a href="/wiki/Mutiny_of_Hoogstraten" title="Mutiny of Hoogstraten">Mutiny of Hoogstraten</a>, which ran from 1 September 1602 to 18 May 1604.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg/220px-Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg/330px-Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg/440px-Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1905" data-file-height="1444" /></a><figcaption>Mutinous troops of the Army of Flanders ransack the <i><a href="/wiki/Grote_Markt_(Antwerp)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grote Markt (Antwerp)">Grote Markt</a></i> during the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp" title="Sack of Antwerp">Sack of Antwerp</a>, in a Dutch engraving of 1576 by Franc Hogenburg.</figcaption></figure> <p>Broadly speaking, these mutinies resulted in three problems. First, the mutinies were unpredictable and frightening events for any military leader to deal with. Second, they encouraged the troops to live off the locals, extracting 'free lodgings, and encouraging theft and plunder'<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which drastically reduced local support for the Spanish cause. Third, the pauses in the campaigns caused by the mutinies allowed the Dutch to recover lost ground each time. </p><p>The first mutiny occurred in 1573, with the soldiers ultimately being paid off with 60 florins each,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> two further mutinies followed, freezing the progress of the Spanish campaign. Mutinies continued in 1575 and 1576, up until the death of the Army's commander, <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga_y_Requesens" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens">Requesens</a>. The Army effectively collapsed, sustaining itself by extorting money and food from the local peoples – widespread fresh Dutch revolts recommenced, accompanied by a general outcry of 'death to the Spaniards'.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new commander in the Netherlands, <a href="/wiki/Don_John_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Don John of Austria">Don John of Austria</a> was unable to restore order, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp" title="Sack of Antwerp">Sack of Antwerp</a>, a horrific event in which 1,000 houses were destroyed and 8,000 people killed by rampaging soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The States General, influenced by the sack, signed the <a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Ghent" title="Pacification of Ghent">Pacification of Ghent</a> only four days later, unifying the rebellious provinces and the loyal provinces with the goal of removing all Spanish soldiers from the Netherlands, as well as stopping the persecution of heretics. This effectively destroyed every accomplishment the Spanish had made in the past ten years. Attempting to mollify the situation, Don John removed his Spanish troops from the country in 1577, before recalling them shortly afterwards when the political situation worsened again. When Don John died, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma">Alexander Farnese</a> replaced him as governor and set out to moderate Spanish policy in Catholic Flanders while reducing Protestant outposts by force. This policy backfired. In 1579 his troops <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maastricht_(1579)" title="Siege of Maastricht (1579)">sacked Maastricht</a>, killing over 10,000 civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_the_Thirty_Years'_War,_1618–48"><span id="Role_in_the_Thirty_Years.27_War.2C_1618.E2.80.9348"></span>Role in the Thirty Years' War, 1618–48</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Role in the Thirty Years' War, 1618–48"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg/220px-Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg/330px-Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg/440px-Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">Battle of White Mountain</a>, 1620, a triumph for the Army of Flanders and the Army of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(German)" title="Catholic League (German)">Catholic League</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the opening campaigns of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648), the Army of Flanders played an important role for the Imperial factions as a mobile field army. During the Palatinate phase (1618–1625), the Army, 20,000 strong,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was sent under <a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola" title="Ambrogio Spinola">Ambrogio Spinola</a> to support the Emperor, pinning down the Protestant Union whilst <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a> intervened against <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Bohemia</a>. Joined by the Army of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(German)" title="Catholic League (German)">Catholic League</a>, the two forces decisively defeated Frederick V at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">Battle of White Mountain</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>, in 1620. In addition to becoming Catholic once more, Bohemia would remain in Habsburg hands for nearly three hundred years. The Army of Flanders then outflanked the Dutch in preparation for a renewed offensive against the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">United Provinces</a>, occupying the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Palatinate" title="Electoral Palatinate">Electoral Palatinate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_of_Breda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Siege_of_Breda.jpg/220px-Siege_of_Breda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Siege_of_Breda.jpg/330px-Siege_of_Breda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Siege_of_Breda.jpg/440px-Siege_of_Breda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="1535" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Siege of Breda</a> in 1624 by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Callot" title="Jacques Callot">Jacques Callot</a>, showing the <i><a href="/wiki/Tercios" class="mw-redirect" title="Tercios">tercios</a></i> of Army of Flanders.</figcaption></figure> <p>Having made a success on the battlefield, the Army then turned against the Dutch. Spinola made considerable progress from 1621 onwards, finally retaking <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda after a famous siege</a> in 1624. The cost of this siege, however, was far in excess of Spain's resources, and the Army was put on the defensive for the remainder of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Steadily placed under increased pressure, the Army's position could have been untenable, but in 1634 Spain exploited the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a> once again, bringing fresh forces from Spanish Italy under the command of the <a href="/wiki/Cardinal-Infante_Ferdinand_of_Austria" title="Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria">Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria</a>; they destroyed <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a>'s army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Battle of Nördlingen</a> before cutting west to reinforce the Army of Flanders. Any Spanish advantage, however, would be undercut by the new Franco-Dutch alliance that threatened to engulf the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a> in a pincer movement between her two enemies. France and <a href="/wiki/Oxenstierna" title="Oxenstierna">Oxenstierna</a> agreed to a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hamburg_(1638)" title="Treaty of Hamburg (1638)">treaty at Hamburg</a>, extending the annual French subsidy of 400,000 <a href="/wiki/Riksdaler" class="mw-redirect" title="Riksdaler">riksdalers</a> for three years, but Sweden would not fight against Spain. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg/220px-La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg/330px-La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg/440px-La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="593" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Battle of Rocroi</a> (1643) resulting in the destruction of many of the long-serving professionals at the heart of the Army of Flanders.</figcaption></figure> <p>With the French entry into the war in 1636, the Army of Flanders initially made a good showing, counter-attacking and <a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Somme" title="Crossing of the Somme">threatening Paris</a> in 1636.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next few years, however, France's military strength continued to grow and the earlier successes of the Army would be overshadowed by their defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Battle of Rocroi</a> in 1643. Spain had responded to French pressure on <a href="/wiki/County_of_Burgundy" title="County of Burgundy">Franche-Comté</a> and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a> that year by deploying the Army from Flanders, through the <a href="/wiki/Ardennes" title="Ardennes">Ardennes</a> into northern France, threatening an advance onto Paris. The ensuing battle, as the Army set siege to <a href="/wiki/Rocroi" title="Rocroi">Rocroi</a>, turned against the Spanish and their defeat became inevitable. The French commander, <a href="/wiki/Louis,_Grand_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis, Grand Condé">Louis, duc d'Enghien</a>, attempted to negotiate terms for surrender for the remaining Spanish infantry, but a misunderstanding led to the French troops attacking the Spanish forces with no quarter being given. Of the 18,000 strong Spanish army, 7,000 prisoners were taken and 8,000 killed, with the majority of these losses being the much-prized Spanish soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The destruction of so much of the Army had immediate strategic ramifications. Spain could no longer continue its planned advance on Paris, and within five weeks had begun to make the first moves towards a negotiations that would culminate in the 1648 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, historians have traced the decline and collapse of Spanish military power in Europe from the Battle of Rocroi;<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the defeat, however, can be overstated. A substantial part of the Army of Flanders, some 6,000 men under Beck, failed to turn up in time to fight at Rocroi and formed the nucleus of the new Army of Flanders afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some recent historians have increasingly seen 1643 as a somewhat arbitrary date – Spain remained powerful and capable of defending itself in Flanders for many years afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson,_p.34-5_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson,_p.34-5-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_final_years_of_the_Army,_1648–1706"><span id="The_final_years_of_the_Army.2C_1648.E2.80.931706"></span>The final years of the Army, 1648–1706</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The final years of the Army, 1648–1706"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rocroi,_el_%C3%BAltimo_tercio,_por_Augusto_Ferrer-Dalmau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Rocroi%2C_el_%C3%BAltimo_tercio%2C_por_Augusto_Ferrer-Dalmau.jpg/220px-Rocroi%2C_el_%C3%BAltimo_tercio%2C_por_Augusto_Ferrer-Dalmau.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Rocroi%2C_el_%C3%BAltimo_tercio%2C_por_Augusto_Ferrer-Dalmau.jpg/330px-Rocroi%2C_el_%C3%BAltimo_tercio%2C_por_Augusto_Ferrer-Dalmau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Rocroi%2C_el_%C3%BAltimo_tercio%2C_por_Augusto_Ferrer-Dalmau.jpg/440px-Rocroi%2C_el_%C3%BAltimo_tercio%2C_por_Augusto_Ferrer-Dalmau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1017" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Battle of Rocroi</a>. Some point to successes like <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes, 1656</a> as showing the arbitrariness of using Rocroi, 1643, as the start of the decline.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson,_p.34-5_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson,_p.34-5-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>After the end of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>, a financially constrained Spanish government steadily reduced the size of the Army of Flanders; this trend continued after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War</a> that continued after the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> in 1648.<sup id="cite_ref-Davis,_p.223-5_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis,_p.223-5-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite its decline in numbers and quality, the army remained "an opponent to be treated with respect" at least until the 1650s,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though it started to rely more on auxiliary forces such as the allied army of <a href="/wiki/Louis,_Grand_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis, Grand Condé">Louis, Grand Condé</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Cavalier" title="Cavalier">Royalist Army in Exile</a> loyal to <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II of England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201614–16_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarratt201614–16-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dunes_(1658)" title="Battle of the Dunes (1658)">Battle of Dunkirk</a> in 1658, resulting in a defeat for the Army of Flanders at the hands of the French, produced a renewed peace.<sup id="cite_ref-Davis,_p.223-5_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis,_p.223-5-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1659, Madrid increasingly relied on the aid of Dutch and English troops to restrain <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a>'s ambitions to annex the Spanish Netherlands (roughly present-day <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>), in which Spain showed declining interest after more than a century of war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolan2008444_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENolan2008444-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent scholarship has highlighted the deep-seated problems emerging in the Spanish state and military from the 1630s onwards. The <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Guzm%C3%A1n,_Count-Duke_of_Olivares" title="Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares">Count-Duke of Olivares</a>, the key advisor to King <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV</a>, had attempted to reenergize the Army of Flanders by injecting increasing numbers of the aristocracy into the senior ranks; the results had included rank inflation, a fragmented system of command and a raft of temporary appointments.<sup id="cite_ref-Gonzalez_de_Leon,_2008_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez_de_Leon,_2008-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1650s, the officer-to-man ratio in the Army had reached the unsustainable levels of one to four.<sup id="cite_ref-Gonzalez_de_Leon,_2008_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez_de_Leon,_2008-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recruitment had steadily shifted; by the mid-17th century, troops were increasingly being raised less by contractor and contractors, and more by either capturing men or selecting them as levies from cities and towns via lotteries, known as <i>quintas</i> or <i>suertes</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Army especially suffered from this, as it could no longer receive adequate numbers of recruits from Spain and Italy due to France having closed the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a>. Instead it had to rely on locally raised forces or mercenaries who were not up to the old standards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612,_13_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612,_13-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The infrastructure and support services were considerably improved, but not as much as elsewhere, and the Army was increasingly perceived as a 'broken force' in European affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With money continuing to be tight, visitors to the provinces in the second half of the century reported seeing the Army in an appalling state, with soldiers begging and short of food.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these problems, the Army continued its reputation for professionalism; when Spain became involved in the 1672 to 1678 <a href="/wiki/Franco-Dutch_War" title="Franco-Dutch War">Franco-Dutch War</a>, three of its <i>tercios</i> formed part of the Allied army under <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William of Orange</a> which sought to outflank French forces near <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Seneffe" title="Battle of Seneffe">Seneffe</a> in August 1674. Taken by surprise, the Spanish infantry held their positions for most of the day, their courage and discipline rescuing William from what could otherwise have been a serious defeat. They were finally forced to retreat in the early evening, leaving behind their dead, which included their commander the <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Acu%C3%B1a_y_Meneses,_Marqu%C3%A9s_de_Assentar" title="Pedro de Acuña y Meneses, Marqués de Assentar">Marqués de Assentar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2010511–512_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2010511–512-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_modern_military_and_mathematics_academy_in_Europe">First modern military and mathematics academy in Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: First modern military and mathematics academy in Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1675 the Army of Flanders enrolled in the first modern Royal Military Academy in Europe. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Military_and_Mathematics_Academy_of_Brussels" title="Royal Military and Mathematics Academy of Brussels">Royal Military and Mathematics Academy of Brussels</a> (spanish: Academia Militar del Ejército de los Países Bajos; also known as the Royal Military and Mathematics Academy of the Netherlands or Academia Militar de Bruselas<sup id="cite_ref-Kashima2017_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kashima2017-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) was founded in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> (1675) by its sole director <a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Medrano" title="Sebastián Fernández de Medrano">Sebastián Fernández de Medrano</a><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Mora, 1646 - Brussels, February 18, 1705), Battle General, General of the Artillery, General Prefect, <a href="/wiki/Alf%C3%A9rez" title="Alférez">Alferez</a> and Master of Mathematics, at the request of the Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, <a href="/wiki/Carlos_de_Arag%C3%B3n_de_Gurrea,_9th_Duke_of_Villahermosa" title="Carlos de Aragón de Gurrea, 9th Duke of Villahermosa">Carlos de Aragón de Gurrea, 9th Duke of Villahermosa</a>, in order to correct the shortage of artillerymen and engineers from the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a>. The 9th Duke of Villahermosa wrote to <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II</a> on 18 July, 1680 declaring Medrano so effective that "the experience previously acquired and the theory of mathematics have been so advanced [by Medrano] that H. M. no longer needs to make use of engineers and artisans from other nations, in whom confidence risks so much, we have achieved this by having Spaniards experts in these matters." </p><p>Sebastian Fernandez de Medrano chose the new Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Antonio_de_Agurto,_1st_Marquess_of_Gasta%C3%B1aga" title="Francisco Antonio de Agurto, 1st Marquess of Gastañaga">Francisco Antonio de Agurto Salcedo Medrano Zuñiga, 1st Marquess of Gastañaga</a> as the patron and protector of the Brussels Academy and dedicated his academic book <i>The Engineer Part One, of Modern Military Architecture</i> to the Marquess of Gastañaga on 1 March 1687.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1688, the army of Flanders led by the Marquess of Gastañaga numbered 25,539 officers and men and by 1689 the total strength of his army increased to 31,743 men. This was the peak strength of the Army of Flanders in the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">Nine Years War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This Royal Military Academy of Flanders was renowned for the diverse origin of its officer cadets, for the innovative features of its plan of studies, the theoretical and practical basis of its learning process apart from the relevant assignments given to its officer cadets who were also known as the “Great Masters of War” coined by the treatise writer, Count of Clonard. It was created in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> to train the most distinguished officers in the peninsula in the Art of War. This center can be considered as the first project of General Military Training as well as the forefather of the future <a href="/wiki/General_Military_Academy" title="General Military Academy">Academia General Militar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the century, the final days of the Army of Flanders were not far away. The <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1701–14) saw French and Allied invasions and the disintegration of central Spanish authority in the peninsula, which destroyed the basis of the Army of Flanders and it was formally disbanded in 1706. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_legacy">Cultural legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cultural legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LariviereBatailleDunes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/LariviereBatailleDunes.jpg/220px-LariviereBatailleDunes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/LariviereBatailleDunes.jpg/330px-LariviereBatailleDunes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/LariviereBatailleDunes.jpg/440px-LariviereBatailleDunes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2562" data-file-height="2237" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dunes_(1658)" title="Battle of the Dunes (1658)">Battle of the Dunes</a> in 1658, another defeat illustrating the steady decline of the Army of Flanders during the second half of the 17th century.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Army of Flanders left a strong influence on various parts of Spanish culture. The patron saint of the modern Spanish infantry, for example, is the <a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Immaculate Conception</a>. This stems from an incident in 1585, when during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Empel" title="Battle of Empel">Battle of Empel</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">tercio</a></i> of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francisco_Arias_de_Bobadilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francisco Arias de Bobadilla (page does not exist)">Francisco Arias de Bobadilla</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Arias_de_Bobadilla" class="extiw" title="es:Francisco Arias de Bobadilla">es</a>]</span> was trapped on the island of Bommel by the Dutch squadron of Admiral Holako. Stranded in mid-winter, his men were fast running out of food, but de Bobadilla refused to surrender. One of his soldiers, digging a trench, then discovered a wooden picture of the Immaculate Conception – de Bobadilla placed this on a makeshift altar, and prayed for divine intervention. That night the weather turned yet colder and the river <a href="/wiki/Meuse" title="Meuse">Meuse</a> surrounding the island froze over; de Bobadilla's men were able to cross the river on the ice, raid Holako's stranded ships and defeat the Dutch. The Army of Flanders adopted the Immaculate Conception as their patroness, and in turn this was followed by the modern Spanish infantry. </p><p>Various phrases from the military in Flanders remain in the Spanish language. <i>Poner una pica en Flandes,</i> – 'to put a pike in Flanders' – refers to something extremely difficult or costly, referring to the expense involved in sending Spanish forces to Flanders. <i>Pasar por los bancos de Flandes,</i> – 'to go through the banks of Flanders', refers to overcoming a difficulty, such as the notorious sand-bank protecting the river-strewn Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-3"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, <i>El ejército de Flandes y el Camino Español, 1567–1659</i>, p. 323</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parker315-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parker315_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parker315_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, <i>El ejército de Flandes y el Camino Español, 1567–1659</i>, p. 315</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarratt2016">Barratt (2016)</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHale198567-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHale198567_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHale1985">Hale (1985)</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker199672-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker199672_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1996">Parker 1996</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZagorin198295-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZagorin198295_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZagorin1982">Zagorin 1982</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZagorin198297-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZagorin198297_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZagorin1982">Zagorin 1982</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker198589-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker198589_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1985">Parker 1985</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker198590-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker198590_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1985">Parker 1985</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1985102-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1985102_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1985">Parker 1985</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1985104-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1985104_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1985">Parker 1985</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZagorin198298-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZagorin198298_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZagorin1982">Zagorin 1982</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parker,_1985:114-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parker,_1985:114_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parker,_1985:114_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1985:114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1975: 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 2004: p.26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1996, p.49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 2004, p.33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1996 p.5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 2004, p.35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zagorin, p.109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, page 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, page 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackay, p.9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black, pg. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, p.23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1996 p.77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1996 pp.72–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1996 p.78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parker_1996,_p.40-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parker_1996,_p.40_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parker_1996,_p.40_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker 1996, p.40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker 1996, p.17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, p.41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">van der Hoeven, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, p.42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 2004, p.11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black, p.150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parker,_1996_p.60-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parker,_1996_p.60_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parker,_1996_p.60_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1996 p.60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gonzalez de Leon, p.323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1996 p.169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 2004: p.9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 2004, p.9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1996 p.70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black, pg. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ruff, p.61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961449-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961449_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961449_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1961">Durant & Durant 1961</a>, p. 449.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratt2013160-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratt2013160_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPratt2013">Pratt 2013</a>, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratt2013161-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPratt2013161_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPratt2013">Pratt 2013</a>, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack199658-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack199658_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlack1996">Black 1996</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 2004, p.191-3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2007175-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrossman2007175_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrossman2007">Grossman 2007</a>, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961454-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1961454_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1961">Durant & Durant 1961</a>, p. 454.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black, p.111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black, p.116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1985:165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker 1985:172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1996 p.59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nimwegen, p. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1975:172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1985: p.162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zagorin, p.110-1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker 1985:178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nolan, 2006: p.666.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackay, p.5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black, p.130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Israel, p.8-10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Munck, p.48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wedgewood, p.458.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wedgewood, p. 463.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example Wedgewood, 1938.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black, p.147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anderson,_p.34-5-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Anderson,_p.34-5_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anderson,_p.34-5_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, p.34-5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis,_p.223-5-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davis,_p.223-5_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davis,_p.223-5_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, p.223-5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarratt201614–16-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201614–16_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarratt2016">Barratt (2016)</a>, pp. 14–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENolan2008444-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolan2008444_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNolan2008">Nolan 2008</a>, p. 444.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gonzalez_de_Leon,_2008-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gonzalez_de_Leon,_2008_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gonzalez_de_Leon,_2008_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gonzalez de Leon, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackay, pg. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612,_13-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarratt201612,_13_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarratt2016">Barratt (2016)</a>, pp. 12, 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 1996 p.80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, p.109-10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2010511–512-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Nimwegen2010511–512_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVan_Nimwegen2010">Van Nimwegen 2010</a>, pp. 511–512.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kashima2017-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kashima2017_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKashima" class="citation conference cs1">Kashima, Akihiro. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acdht.com/download/2017/04kashima.pdf"><i>City Planning and Architectural Education in the Establishment of the Academies in 18th-Century Spain</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The Second Asian Conference of Design History and Theory – Design Education beyond Boundaries – ACDHT 2017. Tsuda University, Tokyo. p. 46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=City+Planning+and+Architectural+Education+in+the+Establishment+of+the+Academies+in+18th-Century+Spain&rft.place=Tsuda+University%2C+Tokyo&rft.pages=46&rft.aulast=Kashima&rft.aufirst=Akihiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facdht.com%2Fdownload%2F2017%2F04kashima.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Master of History Booklet</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.arts.kuleuven.be/english/education/history/files/master-of-history-booklet">https://www.arts.kuleuven.be/english/education/history/files/master-of-history-booklet</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedrano1687" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Medrano, Sebastián Fernández de (1687). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tc4cUlGoQbkC&q=mecanas%20y%20protector"><i>El ingeniero: primera parte, de la moderna architectura militar ...</i></a> (in Spanish). en casa de Lamberto Marchant, mercader de libros, al Buen Pastor.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+ingeniero%3A+primera+parte%2C+de+la+moderna+architectura+militar+...&rft.pub=en+casa+de+Lamberto+Marchant%2C+mercader+de+libros%2C+al+Buen+Pastor&rft.date=1687&rft.aulast=Medrano&rft.aufirst=Sebasti%C3%A1n+Fern%C3%A1ndez+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtc4cUlGoQbkC%26q%3Dmecanas%2520y%2520protector&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStapleton2003" class="citation book cs1">Stapleton, John Michael (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sVIGkAEACAAJ"><i>Forging a Coalition Army: William III, the Grand Alliance, and the Confederate Army in the Spanish Netherlands, 1688-1697</i></a>. Ohio State University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forging+a+Coalition+Army%3A+William+III%2C+the+Grand+Alliance%2C+and+the+Confederate+Army+in+the+Spanish+Netherlands%2C+1688-1697&rft.pub=Ohio+State+University&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Stapleton&rft.aufirst=John+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsVIGkAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ejercito.defensa.gob.es/en/unidades/Zaragoza/agm/Historial/index.html">"Contenido - Spanish army"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Contenido+-+Spanish+army&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fejercito.defensa.gob.es%2Fen%2Funidades%2FZaragoza%2Fagm%2FHistorial%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, 2004, p.48.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anderson, M. S. <i>War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime, 1618–1789.</i> London: Fontana. 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London: Routledge. (2002)</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack1996" class="citation book cs1">Black, Jeremy (1996). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492-1792, Volume 2</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+Atlas+of+Warfare%3A+Renaissance+to+Revolution%2C+1492-1792%2C+Volume+2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Davis, Paul K. <i>100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. (2001)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant1961" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will; Durant, Ariel (1961). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofreasonbegin07dura_0"><i>The Age of Reason Begins: A History of European Civilization in the Period of Shakespeare, Bacon, Montaigne, Rembrandt, Galileo, and Descartes: 1558–1648</i></a></span>. Simon and Schuster. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofreasonbegin07dura_0/page/454">454</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780671013202" title="Special:BookSources/9780671013202"><bdi>9780671013202</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Reason+Begins%3A+A+History+of+European+Civilization+in+the+Period+of+Shakespeare%2C+Bacon%2C+Montaigne%2C+Rembrandt%2C+Galileo%2C+and+Descartes%3A+1558%E2%80%931648&rft.pages=454&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=9780671013202&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fageofreasonbegin07dura_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gonzalez de Leon, Fernando. <i>The Road to Rocroi: Class, Culture and Command in the Spanish Army of Flanders, 1567–1659.</i> Leiden: Brill. 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(1964)</li> <li>Mackay, Ruth. <i>The Limits of Royal Authority: Resistance and Authority in the 17th century Castile.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1999)</li> <li>Munck, Thomas. <i>17th century Europe, 1598–1700.</i> London: Macmillan. (1990)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNolan2008" class="citation book cs1">Nolan, Cathal J. (2008). <i>Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650-1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wars+of+the+Age+of+Louis+XIV%2C+1650-1715%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Global+Warfare+and+Civilization&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Nolan&rft.aufirst=Cathal+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1985" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (1985). <i>The Dutch Revolt</i> (1990 ed.). Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140137125" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140137125"><bdi>978-0140137125</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+Revolt&rft.edition=1990&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0140137125&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1996" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (1996). <i>The Military Revolution: Military innovation and the rise of the West, 1500–1800</i>. CUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521479585" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521479585"><bdi>978-0521479585</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Military+Revolution%3A+Military+innovation+and+the+rise+of+the+West%2C+1500%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=CUP&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0521479585&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2004" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (2004). <i>The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659</i> (2008 ed.). CUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521543927" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521543927"><bdi>978-0521543927</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Army+of+Flanders+and+the+Spanish+Road%2C+1567%E2%80%931659&rft.edition=2008&rft.pub=CUP&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0521543927&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratt2013" class="citation book cs1">Pratt, Fletcher (2013). <i>The Battles that Changed History</i>. Courier Corporation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Battles+that+Changed+History&rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Pratt&rft.aufirst=Fletcher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ruff, Julius R. <i>Violence in Early Modern Europe, 1500–1800.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (2001)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Nimwegen2010" class="citation book cs1">Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2010). <i>The Dutch Army and the Military Revolutions, 1588–1688</i>. Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1843835752" title="Special:BookSources/978-1843835752"><bdi>978-1843835752</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+Army+and+the+Military+Revolutions%2C+1588%E2%80%931688&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1843835752&rft.aulast=Van+Nimwegen&rft.aufirst=Olaf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWedgwood1938" class="citation book cs1">Wedgwood, C.V. (1938). <i>The Thirty Years War</i> (2005 ed.). New York Review of Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-146-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-146-2"><bdi>978-1-59017-146-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years+War&rft.edition=2005&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.date=1938&rft.isbn=978-1-59017-146-2&rft.aulast=Wedgwood&rft.aufirst=C.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZagorin1982" class="citation book cs1">Zagorin, Perez (1982). <i>Rebels and Rulers, 1500–1660. Volume II: Provincial rebellion: Revolutionary civil wars, 1560–1660</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebels+and+Rulers%2C+1500%E2%80%931660.+Volume+II%3A+Provincial+rebellion%3A+Revolutionary+civil+wars%2C+1560%E2%80%931660&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Zagorin&rft.aufirst=Perez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArmy+of+Flanders" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&oldid=1253367484">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Army_of_Flanders&oldid=1253367484</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Armies_of_Spain" title="Category:Armies of Spain">Armies of Spain</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Category:Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Warfare_of_the_early_modern_period" title="Category:Warfare of the early modern period">Warfare of the early modern period</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spanish_Netherlands" title="Category:Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Category:Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_Spain" title="Category:Military units and formations of Spain">Military units and formations of Spain</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_established_in_1567" title="Category:Military units and formations established in 1567">Military units and formations established in 1567</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_disestablished_in_1706" title="Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1706">Military units and formations disestablished in 1706</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1567_establishments_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Category:1567 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire">1567 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Spanish-language_sources_(es)" title="Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)">CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Spanish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Spanish-language text">Articles containing Spanish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Dutch-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Dutch-language text">Articles containing Dutch-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_June_2017" title="Category:Use dmy dates from June 2017">Use dmy dates from June 2017</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 October 2024, at 16:28<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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