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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button 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Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A3%D8%AB%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B0%D8%A8" title="تأثير الإجماع الكاذب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تأثير الإجماع الكاذب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efecte_del_fals_consens" title="Efecte del fals consens – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Efecte del fals consens" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efekt_fale%C5%A1n%C3%A9ho_konsenzu" title="Efekt falešného konsenzu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Efekt falešného konsenzu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efecto_del_falso_consenso" title="Efecto del falso consenso – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Efecto del falso consenso" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efiko_de_falsa_konsento" title="Efiko de falsa konsento – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Efiko de falsa konsento" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontsentsu_faltsuaren_efektua" title="Kontsentsu faltsuaren efektua – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kontsentsu faltsuaren efektua" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B0%D8%A8" title="اثر اجماع کاذب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اثر اجماع کاذب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effet_de_faux_consensus" title="Effet de faux consensus – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Effet de faux consensus" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efecto_do_falso_consenso" title="Efecto do falso consenso – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Efecto do falso consenso" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%AE_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A7%D6%86%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF" title="Կեղծ համերաշխության էֆեկտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կեղծ համերաշխության էֆեկտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effetto_del_falso_consenso" title="Effetto del falso consenso – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Effetto del falso consenso" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A7%D7%98_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%A0%D7%96%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%92%D7%95%D7%99" title="אפקט הקונצנזוס השגוי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אפקט הקונצנזוס השגוי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamis_konszenzus" title="Hamis konszenzus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hamis konszenzus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valse_consensus_effect" title="Valse consensus effect – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Valse consensus effect" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%81%BD%E3%81%AE%E5%90%88%E6%84%8F%E5%8A%B9%E6%9E%9C" title="偽の合意効果 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="偽の合意効果" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolg%CA%BBon_konsensus_effekti" title="Yolgʻon konsensus effekti – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yolgʻon konsensus effekti" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efeito_do_falso_consenso" title="Efeito do falso consenso – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Efeito do falso consenso" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Эффект ложного консенсуса – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эффект ложного консенсуса" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_consensus" title="False consensus – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="False consensus" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%BE%DB%95%DA%B5%DB%95" title="کاریگەریی کۆدەنگیی ھەڵە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کاریگەریی کۆدەنگیی ھەڵە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yksimielisyysharha" title="Yksimielisyysharha – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Yksimielisyysharha" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsk_konsensus-effekt" title="Falsk konsensus-effekt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Falsk konsensus-effekt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D1%81%D1%83" title="Ефект хибного консенсусу – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ефект хибного консенсусу" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E5%85%B1%E8%AF%86%E6%95%88%E5%BA%94" title="错误共识效应 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="错误共识效应" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/100px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/150px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/200px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="94" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Fields of study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compliance_(psychology)" title="Compliance (psychology)">Compliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disobedience" class="mw-redirect" title="Disobedience">Disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_influences" class="mw-redirect" title="Group influences">Group influences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_perception" title="Social perception">Social perception</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Attribution theory">Attribution theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-perception_theory" title="Self-perception theory">Self-perception theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotyping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">Social and cultural norms</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Behavioural_influences" title="Template:Behavioural influences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Behavioural_influences" title="Template talk:Behavioural influences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Behavioural_influences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Behavioural influences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, the <b>false consensus effect</b>, also known as <b>consensus bias</b>, is a pervasive <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive bias</a> that causes people to "see their own behavioral choices and judgments as relatively common and appropriate to existing circumstances".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossGreeneHouse1977_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossGreeneHouse1977-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, they assume that their personal qualities, characteristics, beliefs, and actions are relatively widespread through the general population. </p><p>This false consensus is significant because it increases <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" title="Overconfidence effect">overconfidence effect</a>). It can be derived from a desire to conform and be liked by others in a <a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">social environment</a>. This bias is especially prevalent in group settings where one thinks the collective opinion of their own group matches that of the larger population. Since the members of a group reach a consensus and rarely encounter those who dispute it, they tend to believe that everybody thinks the same way. The false-consensus effect is not restricted to cases where people believe that their values are shared by the majority, but it still manifests as an overestimate of the extent of their belief.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, when confronted with evidence that a consensus does not exist, people often assume that those who do not agree with them are defective in some way.<sup id="cite_ref-psyblog_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-psyblog-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no single cause for this cognitive bias; the <a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">availability heuristic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">self-serving bias</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism_(psychology)" title="Naïve realism (psychology)">naïve realism</a> have been suggested as at least partial underlying factors. The bias may also result, at least in part, from non-social stimulus-reward associations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETarantolaKumaranDayanDe_Martino2017_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarantolaKumaranDayanDe_Martino2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maintenance of this cognitive bias may be related to the tendency to make decisions with relatively little information.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When faced with uncertainty and a limited sample from which to make decisions, people often "project" themselves onto the situation. When this personal knowledge is used as input to make generalizations, it often results in the false sense of being part of the majority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyers201538_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyers201538-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The false consensus effect has been widely observed and supported by empirical evidence. Previous research has suggested that cognitive and perceptional factors (motivated projection, accessibility of information, emotion, etc.) may contribute to the consensus bias, while recent studies have focused on its neural mechanisms. One recent study has shown that consensus bias may improve decisions about other people's preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETarantolaKumaranDayanDe_Martino2017_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarantolaKumaranDayanDe_Martino2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ross, Green and House first defined the false consensus effect in 1977 with emphasis on the relative commonness that people perceive about their own responses; however, similar projection phenomena had already caught attention in psychology. Specifically, concerns with respect to connections between individual's personal predispositions and their estimates of peers appeared in the literature for a while. For instances, Katz and Allport in 1931 illustrated that students’ estimates of the amount of others on the frequency of cheating was positively correlated to their own behavior. Later, around 1970, same phenomena were found on political beliefs and <a href="/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Prisoner's dilemma">prisoner's dilemma</a> situation. In 2017, researchers identified a persistent egocentric bias when participants learned about other people's snack-food preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETarantolaKumaranDayanDe_Martino2017_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarantolaKumaranDayanDe_Martino2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, recent studies suggest that the false consensus effect can also affect professional decision makers; specifically, it has been shown that even experienced marketing managers project their personal product preferences onto consumers.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_theoretical_approaches">Major theoretical approaches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Major theoretical approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The false-consensus effect can be traced back to two parallel theories of <a href="/wiki/Social_perception" title="Social perception">social perception</a>, "the study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAronsonWilsonAkertSommers201586_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAronsonWilsonAkertSommers201586-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first is the idea of social comparison. The principal claim of <a href="/wiki/Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a>'s (1954) <a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_theory" title="Social comparison theory">social comparison theory</a> was that individuals evaluate their thoughts and attitudes based on other people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002294_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002294-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may be motivated by a desire for confirmation and the need to feel good about oneself. As an extension of this theory, people may use others as sources of information to define social reality and guide behavior. This is called <a href="/wiki/Informational_social_influence" class="mw-redirect" title="Informational social influence">informational social influence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAronsonWilsonAkertSommers2015231_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAronsonWilsonAkertSommers2015231-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002293_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002293-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem, though, is that people are often unable to accurately perceive the social norm and the actual attitudes of others. In other words, research has shown that people are surprisingly poor "intuitive psychologists" and that our social judgments are often inaccurate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002294_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002294-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This finding helped to lay the groundwork for an understanding of biased processing and inaccurate social perception. The false-consensus effect is just one example of such an inaccuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002293_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002293-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second influential theory is <a href="/wiki/Social_projection" title="Social projection">projection</a>, the idea that people project their own attitudes and beliefs onto others.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea of projection is not a new concept. In fact, it can be found in <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>'s work on the <a href="/wiki/Defense_mechanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense mechanism">defense mechanism</a> of projection, D.S. Holmes' work on "attributive projection" (1968), and Gustav Ichheisser's work on social perception (1970).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilovich1990_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilovich1990-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> D.S. Holmes, for example, described social projection as the process by which people "attempt to validate their beliefs by projecting their own characteristics onto other individuals".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002294_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002294-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Here a connection can be made between the two stated theories of social comparison and projection. First, as social comparison theory explains, individuals constantly look to peers as a reference group and are motivated to do so in order to seek confirmation for their own attitudes and beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002294_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002294-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The false-consensus effect, as defined by <a href="/wiki/Lee_Ross" title="Lee Ross">Ross</a>, Greene, and House in 1977, came to be the culmination of the many related theories that preceded it. In their well-known series of four studies, Ross and associates hypothesized and then demonstrated that people tend to overestimate the popularity of their own beliefs and preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossGreeneHouse1977_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossGreeneHouse1977-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies were both conducted in hypothetical situations by questionnaire surveys and in authentic conflict situations. For questionnaire studies, participants were presented with hypothetical events and then were not only asked to indicate their own behavioral choices and characteristics under the provided circumstances, but also asked to rate the responses and traits of their peers who referred as "actors". As for real occasion studies, participants were actually confronted with the conflict situations in which they were asked to choose behavioral alternatives and to judge the traits as well as decisions of two supposedly true individuals who had attended in the study. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossGreeneHouse1977_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossGreeneHouse1977-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the raters made more "extreme predictions" about the personalities of the actors that did not share the raters' own preference. In fact, the raters may have even thought that there was something wrong with the people expressing the alternative response.<sup id="cite_ref-psyblog_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-psyblog-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the ten years after the influential Ross et al. study, close to 50 papers were published with data on the false-consensus effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198772_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198772-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theoretical approaches were also expanded. The theoretical perspectives of this era can be divided into four categories: (a) selective exposure and cognitive availability, (b) salience and focus of attention, (c) logical information processing, and (d) motivational processes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198772_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198772-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the researchers and designers of these theories believe that there is not a single right answer. Instead, they admit that there is overlap among the theories and that the false-consensus effect is most likely due to a combination of these factors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller1987_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller1987-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selective_exposure_and_cognitive_availability">Selective exposure and cognitive availability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Selective exposure and cognitive availability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This theory is closely tied to the availability heuristic, which suggests that perceptions of similarity (or difference) are affected by how easily those characteristics can be recalled from memory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198772_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198772-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And as one might expect, similarities between oneself and others are more easily recalled than differences. This is in part because people usually associate with those who are similar to themselves. This selected exposure to similar people may bias or restrict the "sample of information about the true diversity of opinion in the larger social environment".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of the selective exposure and availability heuristic, it is natural for the similarities to prevail in one's thoughts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller1987_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller1987-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="#CITEREFBotvin_et_al.1992">Botvin et al. (1992)</a> did a popular study on the effects of the false-consensus effect among a specific adolescent community in an effort to determine whether students show a higher level of false-consensus effect among their direct peers as opposed to society at large.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The participants of this experiment were 203 college students ranging in age from 18 to 25 (with an average age of 18.5). The participants were given a questionnaire and asked to answer questions regarding a variety of social topics. For each social topic, they were asked to answer how they felt about the topic and to estimate the percentage of their peers who would agree with them. The results determined that the false-consensus effect was extremely prevalent when participants were describing the rest of their college community; out of twenty topics considered, sixteen of them prominently demonstrated the false-consensus effect. The high levels of false-consensus effect seen in this study can be attributed to the group studied; because the participants were asked to compare themselves to a group of peers that they are constantly around (and view as very similar to themselves), the levels of false-consensus effect increased.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salience_and_focus_of_attention">Salience and focus of attention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Salience and focus of attention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This theory suggests that when an individual focuses solely on their own preferred position, they are more likely to overestimate its popularity, thus falling victim to the false-consensus effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because that position is the only one in their immediate consciousness. Performing an action that promotes the position will make it more salient and may increase the false-consensus effect. If, however, more positions are presented to the individual, the degree of the false-consensus effect might decrease significantly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logical_information_processing">Logical information processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Logical information processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This theory assumes that active and seemingly rational thinking underlies an individual's estimates of similarity among others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study done by Fox, Yinon, and Mayraz, researchers were attempting to determine whether or not the levels of the false-consensus effect changed in different age groups. In order to come to a conclusion, it was necessary for the researchers to split their participants into four different age groups. Two hundred participants were used, and gender was not considered to be a factor. Just as in the previous study mentioned, this study used a questionnaire as its main source of information. The results showed that the false-consensus effect was extremely prevalent in all groups, but was the most prevalent in the oldest age group (the participants who were labeled as "old-age home residents"). They showed the false-consensus effect in all 12 areas that they were questioned about. The increase in false-consensus effect seen in the oldest age group can be accredited to their high level of "logical" reasoning behind their decisions; the oldest age group has obviously lived the longest, and therefore feels that they can project their beliefs onto all age groups due to their (seemingly objective) past experiences and wisdom. The younger age groups cannot logically relate to those older to them because they have not had that experience and do not pretend to know these objective truths. These results demonstrate a tendency for older people to rely more heavily on situational attributions (life experience) as opposed to internal attributions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYinonMayrazFox1994_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYinonMayrazFox1994-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motivational_processes">Motivational processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Motivational processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This theory stresses the benefits of the false-consensus effect: namely, the perception of increased social validation, social support, and self-esteem. It may also be useful to exaggerate similarities in social situations in order to increase liking.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198774_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198774-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Belief_in_a_favorable_future">Belief in a favorable future</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Belief in a favorable future"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of false consensus effect can also be extended to predictions about future others. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_in_a_favorable_future&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Belief in a favorable future (page does not exist)">Belief in a favorable future</a> is the belief that future others will change their preferences and beliefs in alignment with one's own.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersMooreNorton2017_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersMooreNorton2017-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rogers, Moore, and Norton (2017)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersMooreNorton2017_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersMooreNorton2017-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> find that belief in a favorable future is greater in magnitude than the false-consensus effect for two reasons: </p> <ol><li>It is based in future others whose beliefs are not directly observable, and</li> <li>It is focused on future beliefs, which gives these future others time to "discover" the truth and change their beliefs.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img 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dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abilene_paradox" title="Abilene paradox">Abilene paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">Attribution bias</a> – Systematic errors made when people evaluate their own and others' behaviors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation bias</a> – Bias confirming existing attitudes</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Engineering_of_Consent" title="The Engineering of Consent">The Engineering of Consent</a>" – Essay and book by Edward Bernays</li> <li><a href="/wiki/False-uniqueness_effect" title="False-uniqueness effect">False-uniqueness effect</a> – Cognitive bias of wrongly viewing yourself as unique</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Fundamental attribution error</a> – Psychological phenomenon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a> – Psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusory_superiority" title="Illusory superiority">Illusory superiority</a> – Cognitive bias</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">List of cognitive biases</a> – Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_Consent" title="Manufacturing Consent"><i>Manufacturing Consent</i></a> – 1988 book by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omission_bias" title="Omission bias">Omission bias</a> – Tendency to favor inaction over action</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" title="Overconfidence effect">Overconfidence effect</a> – Personal cognitive bias</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_Kael#Nixon_quote" title="Pauline Kael">Pauline Kael § Nixon quote</a> – American film critic (1919–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_ignorance" title="Pluralistic ignorance">Pluralistic ignorance</a> – Incorrect perception of others' beliefs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoconsensus" title="Pseudoconsensus">Pseudoconsensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Psychological projection</a> – Attributing parts of the self to others</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_bias" title="Social comparison bias">Social comparison bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_projection" title="Social projection">Social projection</a> – Psychological tendency of people to expect others to act or think similarly to themselves</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossGreeneHouse1977-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossGreeneHouse1977_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossGreeneHouse1977_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossGreeneHouse1977_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRossGreeneHouse1977">Ross, Greene & House 1977</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChoiCha2019" class="citation journal cs1">Choi, Incheol; Cha, Oona (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6917617">"Cross-Cultural Examination of the False Consensus Effect"</a>. <i>Frontiers in 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(2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0901_3">"Social Projection to Ingroups and Outgroups: A Review and Meta-Analysis"</a>. <i>Personality and Social Psychology Review</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 32–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15327957pspr0901_3">10.1207/s15327957pspr0901_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1088-8683">1088-8683</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15745863">15745863</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10229838">10229838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Personality+and+Social+Psychology+Review&rft.atitle=Social+Projection+to+Ingroups+and+Outgroups%3A+A+Review+and+Meta-Analysis&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-47&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=1088-8683&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10229838%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15745863&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1207%2Fs15327957pspr0901_3&rft.aulast=Robbins&rft.aufirst=Jordan+M.&rft.au=Krueger%2C+Joachim+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1207%2Fs15327957pspr0901_3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+consensus+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilovich1990-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilovich1990_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGilovich1990">Gilovich 1990</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198772-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198772_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198772_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198772_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarksMiller1987">Marks & Miller 1987</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller1987-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller1987_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller1987_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarksMiller1987">Marks & Miller 1987</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198773_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarksMiller1987">Marks & Miller 1987</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumanGeher2002_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaumanGeher2002">Bauman & Geher 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYinonMayrazFox1994-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYinonMayrazFox1994_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYinonMayrazFox1994">Yinon, Mayraz & Fox 1994</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198774-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarksMiller198774_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarksMiller1987">Marks & Miller 1987</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersMooreNorton2017-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersMooreNorton2017_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersMooreNorton2017_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersMooreNorton2017">Rogers, Moore & Norton 2017</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link 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"Age and the False-Consensus Effect". <i>The Journal of Social Psychology</i>. <b>134</b> (6): 717–725. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00224545.1994.9923006">10.1080/00224545.1994.9923006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7869703">7869703</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Age+and+the+False-Consensus+Effect&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=717-725&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00224545.1994.9923006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7869703&rft.aulast=Yinon&rft.aufirst=Yoel&rft.au=Mayraz%2C+Avigail&rft.au=Fox%2C+Shaul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+consensus+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKunda1999" class="citation book cs1">Kunda, Ziva (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BjnOMFtYiwUC&pg=PA396"><i>Social Cognition: Making Sense of People</i></a>. MIT Press. pp. 396–401. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-61143-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-61143-5"><bdi>978-0-262-61143-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40618974">40618974</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Cognition%3A+Making+Sense+of+People&rft.pages=396-401&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40618974&rft.isbn=978-0-262-61143-5&rft.aulast=Kunda&rft.aufirst=Ziva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBjnOMFtYiwUC%26pg%3DPA396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+consensus+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFieldsSchuman1976" class="citation journal cs1">Fields, James M.; Schuman, Howard (1976). "Public Beliefs About the Beliefs of the Public". <i>Public Opinion Quarterly</i>. <b>40</b> (4): 427. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F268330">10.1086/268330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Opinion+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Public+Beliefs+About+the+Beliefs+of+the+Public&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=427&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F268330&rft.aulast=Fields&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft.au=Schuman%2C+Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+consensus+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProninPuccioRoss2002" class="citation book cs1">Pronin, Emily; Puccio, Carolyn; Ross, Lee (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FfTVDY-zrCoC&pg=PA642">"Understanding Misunderstanding: Social Psychological Perspectives"</a>. In Gilovich, Thomas; Griffin, Dale; Kahneman, Daniel (eds.). <i>Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 636–665. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511808098.038">10.1017/CBO9780511808098.038</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521792608" title="Special:BookSources/9780521792608"><bdi>9780521792608</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Understanding+Misunderstanding%3A+Social+Psychological+Perspectives&rft.btitle=Heuristics+and+Biases%3A+The+Psychology+of+Intuitive+Judgment&rft.pages=636-665&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511808098.038&rft.isbn=9780521792608&rft.aulast=Pronin&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft.au=Puccio%2C+Carolyn&rft.au=Ross%2C+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFfTVDY-zrCoC%26pg%3DPA642&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFalse+consensus+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=False_consensus_effect&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/false_consensus.htm">Changing minds: the false consensus effect</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.overcomingbias.com/2008/03/mind-projection.html">Overcoming Bias: Mind Projection Fallacy</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biases" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biases" title="Template:Biases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biases" title="Template talk:Biases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Biases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive biases</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acquiescence_bias" title="Acquiescence bias">Acquiescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity_effect" title="Ambiguity effect">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_bias" title="Affinity bias">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoring (cognitive bias)">Anchoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_bias" title="Attentional bias">Attentional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">Attribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93observer_asymmetry" title="Actor–observer asymmetry">Actor–observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Correspondence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority_bias" title="Authority bias">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_bias" title="Automation bias">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">Availability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief_bias" title="Belief bias">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">Blind spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias" title="Choice-supportive bias">Choice-supportive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment" title="Escalation of commitment">Commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion_fade" title="Compassion fade">Compassion fade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declinism" title="Declinism">Declinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_bias" title="Distinction bias">Distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect" title="Dunning–Kruger effect">Dunning–Kruger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge" title="Curse of knowledge">Curse of knowledge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_bias" title="Emotional bias">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_incentives_bias" title="Extrinsic incentives bias">Extrinsic incentives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fading_affect_bias" title="Fading affect bias">Fading affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)" title="Framing effect (psychology)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_illusion" title="Frequency illusion">Frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_pond_effect" title="Frog pond effect">Frog pond effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">Halo effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_effect" title="Horn effect">Horn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_attribution_bias" title="Hostile attribution bias">Hostile attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_bias" title="Impact bias">Impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotype" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality_bias" title="Intentionality bias">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency" title="Illusion of transparency">Illusion of transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect" title="Mere-exposure effect">Mere-exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_bias" title="Narrative bias">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negativity_bias" title="Negativity bias">Negativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalcy_bias" title="Normalcy bias">Normalcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omission_bias" title="Omission bias">Omission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Optimism bias">Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity" title="Out-group homogeneity">Out-group homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcome_bias" title="Outcome bias">Outcome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_bias" title="Precision bias">Precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_bias" title="Present bias">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-innovation_bias" title="Pro-innovation bias">Pro-innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proximity_bias" title="Proximity bias">Proximity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Response_bias" title="Response bias">Response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_bias" title="Restraint bias">Restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">Self-serving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_bias" title="Social comparison bias">Social comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence_bias" title="Social influence bias">Social influence bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_effect" title="Spotlight effect">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribute_substitution" title="Attribute substitution">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-saving_bias" title="Time-saving bias">Time-saving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias" title="Trait ascription bias">Trait ascription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_illusion" title="Turkey illusion">Turkey illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" title="Von Restorff effect">von Restorff effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-risk_bias" title="Zero-risk bias">Zero-risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">In animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bias_(statistics)" title="Bias (statistics)">Statistical biases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forecast_bias" title="Forecast bias">Forecast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_user_bias" title="Healthy user bias">Healthy user</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(epidemiology)" title="Information bias (epidemiology)">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)" title="Information bias (psychology)">Psychological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_time_bias" title="Lead time bias">Lead time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_time_bias" title="Length time bias">Length time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Non-response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer_bias" title="Observer bias">Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omitted-variable_bias" title="Omitted-variable bias">Omitted-variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_bias" title="Recall bias">Recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-selection_bias" title="Self-selection bias">Self-selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social-desirability_bias" title="Social-desirability bias">Social desirability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrum_bias" title="Spectrum bias">Spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic error">Systematic error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verification_bias" title="Verification bias">Verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bias" title="Wet bias">Wet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other biases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basking_in_reflected_glory" title="Basking in reflected glory">Basking in reflected glory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9formation_professionnelle" title="Déformation professionnelle">Déformation professionnelle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FUTON_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="FUTON bias">FUTON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_bias" title="Inductive bias">Inductive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_bias" title="Infrastructure bias">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherent_bias" title="Inherent bias">Inherent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_in_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Bias in education">In education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liking_gap" title="Liking gap">Liking gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_news_media_and_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States news media and the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_South_Asia" title="Media bias in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_the_Ukrainian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">Publication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reporting_bias" title="Reporting bias">Reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hat_bias" title="White hat bias">White hat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bias reduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_mitigation" title="Cognitive bias mitigation">Cognitive bias mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debiasing" title="Debiasing">Debiasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)" title="Heuristic (psychology)">Heuristics in judgment and decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Lists: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#Memory_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">Memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conformity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conformity" title="Template:Conformity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conformity" title="Template talk:Conformity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conformity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conformity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conformity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Enforcement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proscription" title="Proscription">Proscription</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Damnatio_memoriae" title="Damnatio memoriae">Damnatio memoriae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissident" title="Dissident">Dissident</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dissenter" title="Dissenter">Dissenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exile" title="Exile">Exile</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sacer" title="Homo sacer">Homo sacer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ostracism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blacklisting" title="Blacklisting">Blacklisting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deplatforming" title="Deplatforming">Deplatforming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_death" title="Civil death">Civil death</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vogelfrei" title="Vogelfrei">Vogelfrei</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Persona_non_grata" title="Persona non grata">Persona non grata</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_enemy" title="Public enemy">Public enemy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_state" title="Enemy of the state">Enemy of the state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">Shunning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governmental pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Left-wing nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_conservatism" title="National conservatism">National conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Group pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">Brainwashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closure_(sociology)" title="Closure (sociology)">Closure (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_reality" title="Consensus reality">Consensus reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_shock" title="Culture shock">Culture shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">Dogma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">False consensus effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_missing_out" title="Fear of missing out">Fear of missing out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazing" title="Hazing">Hazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_mentality" title="Herd mentality">Herd mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identification_(psychology)" title="Identification (psychology)">Identification (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Mere exposure effect">Mere exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milieu_control" title="Milieu control">Milieu control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_(sociology)" title="Normalization (sociology)">Normalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_social_influence" title="Normative social influence">Normative social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(sociology)" title="Passing (sociology)">Passing (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_ignorance" title="Pluralistic ignorance">Pluralistic ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosocial" title="Psychosocial">Psychosocial issue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purity_spiral" title="Purity spiral">Purity spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">Operant conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rally_%27round_the_flag_effect" title="Rally 'round the flag effect">Rally 'round the flag effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contagion" title="Social contagion">Social contagion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_addiction" title="Behavioral addiction">Addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_contagion" title="Behavioral contagion">Behavioral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_Contagion_Models" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime Contagion Models">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterical_contagion" title="Hysterical contagion">Hysterical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copycat_suicide" title="Copycat suicide">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_contagion" title="Emotional contagion">Emotional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_of_silence" title="Spiral of silence">Spiral of silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teasing" title="Teasing">Teasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_positivity" title="Toxic positivity">Toxic positivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_personality" title="Authoritarian personality">Authoritarian personality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_leadership_style" title="Authoritarian leadership style">Authoritarian leadership style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_authoritarian_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-wing authoritarian personality">Right-wing authoritarian personality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_freak" title="Control freak">Control freak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder">Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conformity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compliance_(psychology)" title="Compliance (psychology)">Compliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_reinforcement" title="Communal reinforcement">Communal reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countersignaling" title="Countersignaling">Countersignaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creeping_normality" title="Creeping normality">Creeping normality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">Herd behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalization_(sociology)" title="Internalization (sociology)">Internalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_of_deviance" title="Normalization of deviance">Normalization of deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_falsification" title="Preference falsification">Preference falsification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_proof" title="Social proof">Social proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">Social reality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experiments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments" title="Asch conformity experiments">Asch conformity experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaching_experiment" title="Breaching experiment">Breaching experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford prison experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anticonformity_(psychology)" title="Anticonformity (psychology)">Anticonformity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-social_behaviour" title="Anti-social behaviour">Anti-social behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auto-segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Auto-segregation">Auto-segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_advocate" title="Devil's advocate">Devil's advocate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissent" title="Dissent">Dissent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissent" title="Political dissent">Political</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eccentricity_(behavior)" title="Eccentricity (behavior)">Eccentricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">Hermit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiosyncrasy" title="Idiosyncrasy">Idiosyncrasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insubordination" title="Insubordination">Insubordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_clown" title="Pueblo clown">Pueblo clown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_team" title="Red team">Red team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_value" title="Shock value">Shock value</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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