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<span>Type</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Type-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Type subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Type-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mild_or_low-carbon_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mild_or_low-carbon_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Mild or low-carbon steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mild_or_low-carbon_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-High-tensile_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-tensile_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>High-tensile steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-tensile_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Higher-carbon_steels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Higher-carbon_steels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Higher-carbon steels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Higher-carbon_steels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-AISI_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#AISI_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>AISI classification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-AISI_classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle AISI classification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-AISI_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Low-carbon_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low-carbon_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Low-carbon steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low-carbon_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medium-carbon_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medium-carbon_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Medium-carbon steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medium-carbon_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-carbon_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-carbon_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>High-carbon steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-carbon_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ultra-high-carbon_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultra-high-carbon_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ultra-high-carbon steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultra-high-carbon_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heat_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Heat treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case_hardening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_hardening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Case hardening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_hardening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forging_temperature_of_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forging_temperature_of_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Forging temperature of steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forging_temperature_of_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon steel</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B0_%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A" title="فولاذ كربوني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فولاذ كربوني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8A%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Въглеродна стомана – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Въглеродна стомана" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uglji%C4%8Dni_%C4%8Delik" title="Ugljični čelik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ugljični čelik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_al_carboni" title="Acer al carboni – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Acer al carboni" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulstofst%C3%A5l" title="Kulstofstål – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kulstofstål" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/AHSS" title="AHSS – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="AHSS" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ts%C3%BCaneerimine" title="Tsüaneerimine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tsüaneerimine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acero_al_carbono" title="Acero al carbono – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Acero al carbono" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon%C5%9Dtalo" title="Karbonŝtalo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Karbonŝtalo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C" title="فولاد کربنی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فولاد کربنی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acier_au_carbone" title="Acier au carbone – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Acier au carbone" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aceiro_%C3%B3_carbono" title="Aceiro ó carbono – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Aceiro ó carbono" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%84%EC%86%8C%EA%B0%95" title="탄소강 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="탄소강" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4" title="कार्बन इस्पात – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कार्बन इस्पात" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uglji%C4%8Dni_%C4%8Delik" title="Ugljični čelik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ugljični čelik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baja_karbon" title="Baja karbon – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Baja karbon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/AHSS" title="AHSS – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="AHSS" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%A4%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%9F" title="פלדת פחמן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פלדת פחמן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%82%AD%E7%B4%A0%E9%8B%BC" title="炭素鋼 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="炭素鋼" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stal_niestopowa" title="Stal niestopowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stal niestopowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Высокоуглеродистая сталь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Высокоуглеродистая сталь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Carbon steel" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogljikovo_jeklo" title="Ogljikovo jeklo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ogljikovo jeklo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B3%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Угљенични челик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Угљенични челик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelegirani_%C4%8Delik" title="Nelegirani čelik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nelegirani čelik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolst%C3%A5l" title="Kolstål – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kolstål" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonlu_%C3%A7elik" title="Karbonlu çelik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Karbonlu çelik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Вуглецева сталь – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вуглецева сталь" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9p_carbon" title="Thép carbon – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thép carbon" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E9%8B%BC" title="碳鋼 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="碳鋼" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q967996#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="View the content page [c]" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steels</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg/150px-%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg/225px-%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg/300px-%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3861" data-file-height="2574" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phases</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">Ferrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">Austenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">Cementite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">Martensite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">Graphite</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">Microstructures</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Heat_treatment">Spheroidite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">Pearlite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bainite" title="Bainite">Bainite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ledeburite" title="Ledeburite">Ledeburite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)#Physical_processes" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempered martensite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Widmanst%C3%A4tten_pattern" title="Widmanstätten pattern">Widmanstätten structures</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Classes</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carbon steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_steel" title="Spring steel">Spring steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloy_steel" title="Alloy steel">Alloy steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraging_steel" title="Maraging steel">Maraging steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_steel" title="High-speed steel">High-speed steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weathering_steel" title="Weathering steel">Weathering steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_steel" title="Tool steel">Tool steel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other iron-based materials</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_iron" title="Gray iron">Gray iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron#White_cast_iron" title="Cast iron">White iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ductile_iron" title="Ductile iron">Ductile iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malleable_iron" title="Malleable iron">Malleable iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Carbon steel</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> with <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> content from about 0.05 up to 2.1 percent by weight. The definition of carbon steel from the <a href="/wiki/American_Iron_and_Steel_Institute" title="American Iron and Steel Institute">American Iron and Steel Institute</a> (AISI) states: </p> <ul><li>no minimum content is specified or required for <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a>, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect;</li> <li>the specified minimum for <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> does not exceed 0.40%;</li> <li>or the specified maximum for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> 1.65%; <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> 0.60%; copper 0.60%.<sup id="cite_ref-kts_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kts-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The term <i>carbon steel</i> may also be used in reference to steel which is not <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a>; in this use carbon steel may include <a href="/wiki/Alloy_steel" title="Alloy steel">alloy steels</a>. High carbon steel has many different uses such as milling machines, cutting tools (such as <a href="/wiki/Chisel" title="Chisel">chisels</a>) and high strength wires. These applications require a much finer microstructure, which improves the toughness. </p><p>As the carbon content percentage rises, steel has the ability to become <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">harder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">stronger</a> through <a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">heat treating</a>; however, it becomes less <a href="/wiki/Ductile" class="mw-redirect" title="Ductile">ductile</a>. Regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces <a href="/wiki/Weldability" title="Weldability">weldability</a>. In carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carbon steel is often divided into two main categories: low-carbon steel and high-carbon steel. It may also contain other elements, such as manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon, which can affect its properties. Carbon steel can be easily machined and welded, making it versatile for various applications. It can also be heat treated to improve its strength, hardness, and durability. </p><p>Carbon steel is susceptible to rust and corrosion, especially in environments with high moisture levels and/or salt. It can be shielded from corrosion by coating it with paint, varnish, or other protective material. Alternatively, it can be made from a stainless steel alloy that contains chromium, which provides excellent corrosion resistance. Carbon steel can be alloyed with other elements to improve its properties, such as by adding chromium and/or nickel to improve its resistance to corrosion and oxidation or adding molybdenum to improve its strength and toughness at high temperatures. </p><p>It is an environmentally friendly material, as it is easily recyclable and can be reused in various applications. It is energy-efficient to produce, as it requires less energy than other metals such as aluminium and copper.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Type">Type</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Type"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/SAE_steel_grades" title="SAE steel grades">SAE steel grades</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mild_or_low-carbon_steel"><span class="anchor" id="Mild_steel"></span>Mild or low-carbon steel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mild or low-carbon steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.30% carbon<sup id="cite_ref-kts_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kts-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form. Surface hardness can be increased with <a href="/wiki/Carburization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carburization">carburization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-efunda_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-efunda-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (7,850 kg/m<sup>3</sup>; 0.284 lb/cu in)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a> is 200 GPa (29<span style="margin-left:0.2em">×<span style="margin-left:0.1em">10</span></span><s style="display:none">^</s><sup>6</sup> psi).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Low-carbon steels<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> display <i>yield-point runout</i> where the material has two <a href="/wiki/Yield_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Yield point">yield points</a>. The first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper and lower yield point then the surface develops <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCder_bands" class="mw-redirect" title="Lüder bands">Lüder bands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low-carbon steels contain less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier to handle.<sup id="cite_ref-efunda_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-efunda-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical applications of low carbon steel are car parts, pipes, construction, and food cans.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="High-tensile_steel">High-tensile steel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: High-tensile steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High-tensile steels are low-carbon, or steels at the lower end of the medium-carbon range,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which have additional alloying ingredients in order to increase their strength, wear properties or specifically <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>. These alloying ingredients include <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>. Impurities such as <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> have their maximum allowable content restricted. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/41xx_steel" title="41xx steel">41xx steel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4140_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="4140 steel">4140 steel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=4145_steel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4145 steel (page does not exist)">4145 steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4340_steel" title="4340 steel">4340 steel</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=300M_steel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="300M steel (page does not exist)">300M steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=EN25_steel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EN25 steel (page does not exist)">EN25 steel</a> – 2.521% nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=EN26_steel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EN26 steel (page does not exist)">EN26 steel</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Higher-carbon_steels">Higher-carbon steels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Higher-carbon steels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the range of 0.30–1.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> can significantly affect the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> in particular make the steel <a href="/wiki/Red-short" class="mw-redirect" title="Red-short">red-short</a>, that is, brittle and crumbly at high working temperatures. Low-alloy carbon steel, such as <a href="/wiki/A36_steel" title="A36 steel">A36</a> grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melt around 1,426–1,538 °C (2,600–2,800 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a> is often added to improve the <a href="/wiki/Hardenability" title="Hardenability">hardenability</a> of low-carbon steels. These additions turn the material into a <a href="/wiki/Low-alloy_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-alloy steel">low-alloy steel</a> by some definitions, but <a href="/wiki/American_Iron_and_Steel_Institute" title="American Iron and Steel Institute">AISI</a>'s definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight. There are two types of higher carbon steels which are high carbon steel and the ultra high carbon steel. The reason for the limited use of high carbon steel is that it has extremely poor ductility and weldability and has a higher cost of production. The applications best suited for the high carbon steels is its use in the spring industry, farm industry, and in the production of wide range of high-strength wires.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="AISI_classification">AISI classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: AISI classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/SAE_steel_grades" title="SAE steel grades">SAE steel grades</a></div> <p>The following classification method is based on the American <a href="/wiki/SAE_steel_grades" title="SAE steel grades">AISI/SAE standard</a>. Other international standards including <a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Institut_f%C3%BCr_Normung" title="Deutsches Institut für Normung">DIN</a> (Germany), GB (China), <a href="/wiki/British_Standards" title="British Standards">BS/EN</a> (UK), AFNOR (France), UNI (Italy), SS (Sweden) , UNE (Spain), JIS (Japan), ASTM standards, and others. </p><p>Carbon steel is broken down into four classes based on carbon content:<sup id="cite_ref-kts_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kts-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low-carbon_steel">Low-carbon steel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Low-carbon steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Low-carbon steel has 0.05 to 0.15% carbon (plain carbon steel) content.<sup id="cite_ref-kts_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kts-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medium-carbon_steel">Medium-carbon steel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Medium-carbon steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medium-carbon steel has approximately 0.3–0.5% carbon content.<sup id="cite_ref-kts_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kts-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance. It is used for large parts, forging and automotive components.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High-carbon_steel">High-carbon steel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: High-carbon steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High-carbon steel has approximately 0.6 to 1.0% carbon content.<sup id="cite_ref-kts_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kts-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is very strong, used for springs, edged tools, and high-strength wires.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultra-high-carbon_steel">Ultra-high-carbon steel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ultra-high-carbon steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ultra-high-carbon steel has approximately 1.25–2.0% carbon content.<sup id="cite_ref-kts_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kts-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes such as (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles, and <a href="/wiki/Punch_(metalworking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Punch (metalworking)">punches</a>. Most steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using <a href="/wiki/Powder_metallurgy" title="Powder metallurgy">powder metallurgy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heat_treatment">Heat treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Heat treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heat_transfer_steel_diag2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Heat_transfer_steel_diag2.png/250px-Heat_transfer_steel_diag2.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Heat_transfer_steel_diag2.png/375px-Heat_transfer_steel_diag2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Heat_transfer_steel_diag2.png/500px-Heat_transfer_steel_diag2.png 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="417" /></a><figcaption>Iron-carbon <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">phase diagram</a>, showing the temperature and carbon ranges for certain types of heat treatments</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Heat_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat treatment">Heat treatment</a></div> <p>The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. Note that the electrical and thermal conductivity are only slightly altered. As with most strengthening techniques for steel, <a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a> (elasticity) is unaffected. All treatments of steel trade ductility for increased strength and vice versa. Iron has a higher solubility for carbon in the <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a> phase; therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process annealing, start by heating the steel to a temperature at which the austenitic phase can exist. The steel is then quenched (heat drawn out) at a moderate to low rate allowing carbon to diffuse out of the austenite forming iron-carbide (cementite) and leaving ferrite, or at a high rate, trapping the carbon within the iron thus forming martensite. The rate at which the steel is cooled through the <a href="/wiki/Eutectoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectoid">eutectoid</a> temperature (about 727 °C or 1,341 °F) affects the rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite and forms cementite. Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will leave iron carbide finely dispersed and produce a fine grained <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a> and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid steel (less than 0.77 wt% C) results in a lamellar-pearlitic structure of iron carbide layers with α-<a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a> (nearly pure iron) between. If it is hypereutectoid steel (more than 0.77 wt% C) then the structure is full pearlite with small grains (larger than the pearlite lamella) of <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a> formed on the grain boundaries. A eutectoid steel (0.77% carbon) will have a pearlite structure throughout the grains with no cementite at the boundaries. The relative amounts of constituents are found using the <a href="/wiki/Lever_rule" title="Lever rule">lever rule</a>. The following is a list of the types of heat treatments possible: </p> <dl><dt>Spheroidizing</dt> <dd>Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 °C (1,300 °F) for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can form at lower temperatures but the time needed drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled process. The result is a structure of rods or spheres of cementite within primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on which side of the eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels and allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of steel.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Full annealing</a></dt> <dd>A hypoeutectoid carbon steel (carbon composition smaller than the eutectoid one) is heated to approximately 30 to 50 °C (86 to 120 °F) above the austenictic temperature (A<sub>3</sub>), whereas a hypereutectoid steel is heated to a temperature above the eutectoid one (A<sub>1</sub>) for a certain number of hours; this ensures all the <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a> transforms into <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a> (although <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a> might still exist in hypereutectoid steels). The steel must then be cooled slowly, in the realm of 20 °C (36 °F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where the furnace is turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic structure, which means the "bands" of <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a> are thick.<sup id="cite_ref-Alvarenga_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alvarenga-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fully annealed steel is soft and <a href="/wiki/Ductile" class="mw-redirect" title="Ductile">ductile</a>, with no internal stresses, which is often necessary for cost-effective forming. Only spheroidized steel is softer and more ductile.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>Process annealing</dt> <dd>A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel with less than 0.3% C. The steel is usually heated to 550 to 650 °C (1,000 to 1,200 °F) for 1 hour, but sometimes temperatures as high as 700 °C (1,300 °F). The image above shows the process annealing area.</dd> <dt>Isothermal annealing</dt> <dd>It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the upper critical temperature. This temperature is maintained for a time and then reduced to below the lower critical temperature and is again maintained. It is then cooled to room temperature. This method eliminates any temperature gradient.</dd> <dt>Normalizing</dt> <dd>Carbon steel is heated to approximately 550 °C (1,000 °F) for 1 hour; this ensures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The steel is then air-cooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 °C (100 °F) per minute. This results in a fine pearlitic structure, and a more-uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher strength than annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength and hardness.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a></dt> <dd>Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing temperatures and then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to the critical temperature. The critical temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a general rule is lower as the carbon content increases. This results in a martensitic structure; a form of steel that possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline structure, properly termed body-centered tetragonal (BCT), with much internal stress. Thus quenched steel is extremely hard but <a href="/wiki/Brittle" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle">brittle</a>, usually too brittle for practical purposes. These internal stresses may cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is approximately three times harder (four with more carbon) than normalized steel.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">Martempering</a> (marquenching)</dt> <dd>Martempering is not actually a tempering procedure, hence the term <i>marquenching</i>. It is a form of isothermal heat treatment applied after an initial quench, typically in a molten salt bath, at a temperature just above the "martensite start temperature". At this temperature, residual stresses within the material are relieved and some bainite may be formed from the retained austenite which did not have time to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control the ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching, the ductility increases with a minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this solution until the inner and outer temperatures of the part equalize. Then the steel is cooled at a moderate speed to keep the temperature gradient minimal. Not only does this process reduce internal stresses and stress cracks, but it also increases impact resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a></dt> <dd>This is the most common heat treatment encountered because the final properties can be precisely determined by the temperature and time of the tempering. Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to a temperature below the <a href="/wiki/Eutectoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectoid">eutectoid</a> temperature and then cooling. The elevated temperature allows very small amounts spheroidite to form, which restores ductility but reduces hardness. Actual temperatures and times are carefully chosen for each composition.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">Austempering</a></dt> <dd>The austempering process is the same as martempering, except the quench is interrupted and the steel is held in the molten salt bath at temperatures between 205 and 540 °C (400 and 1,000 °F), and then cooled at a moderate rate. The resulting steel, called bainite, produces an acicular microstructure in the steel that has great strength (but less than martensite), greater ductility, higher impact resistance, and less distortion than martensite steel. The disadvantage of austempering is it can be used only on a few sheets of steel, and it requires a special salt bath.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Case_hardening">Case hardening</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Case hardening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Case_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Case hardening">Case hardening</a></div> <p>Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a hard, wear-resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a tough and ductile interior. Carbon steels are not very <a href="/wiki/Hardenability" title="Hardenability">hardenable</a> meaning they can not be hardened throughout thick sections. Alloy steels have a better hardenability, so they can be through-hardened and do not require case hardening. This property of carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear characteristics but leaves the core flexible and shock-absorbing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forging_temperature_of_steel">Forging temperature of steel</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Forging temperature of steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><sup id="cite_ref-Mat_hand_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mat_hand-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Steel type </th> <th colspan="2">Maximum forging temperature </th> <th colspan="2">Burning temperature </th></tr> <tr> <th>(°F) </th> <th>(°C) </th> <th>(°F) </th> <th>(°C) </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left">1.5% carbon</td> <td>1,920</td> <td>1,049</td> <td>2,080</td> <td>1,140 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left">1.1% carbon</td> <td>1,980</td> <td>1,082</td> <td>2,140</td> <td>1,171 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left">0.9% carbon</td> <td>2,050</td> <td>1,121</td> <td>2,230</td> <td>1,221 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left">0.5% carbon</td> <td>2,280</td> <td>1,249</td> <td>2,460</td> <td>1,349 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left">0.2% carbon</td> <td>2,410</td> <td>1,321</td> <td>2,680</td> <td>1,471 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left">3.0% <a href="/wiki/Nickel_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel steel">nickel steel</a></td> <td>2,280</td> <td>1,249</td> <td>2,500</td> <td>1,371 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left">3.0% <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nickel%E2%80%93chromium_steel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nickel–chromium steel (page does not exist)">nickel–chromium steel</a></td> <td>2,280</td> <td>1,249</td> <td>2,500</td> <td>1,371 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left">5.0% nickel (case-hardening) steel</td> <td>2,320</td> <td>1,271</td> <td>2,640</td> <td>1,449 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Chromium%E2%80%93vanadium_steel" title="Chromium–vanadium steel">Chromium–vanadium steel</a></td> <td>2,280</td> <td>1,249</td> <td>2,460</td> <td>1,349 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/High-speed_steel" title="High-speed steel">High-speed steel</a></td> <td>2,370</td> <td>1,299</td> <td>2,520</td> <td>1,385 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steel</a></td> <td>2,340</td> <td>1,282</td> <td>2,520</td> <td>1,385 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Austenitic_chromium%E2%80%93nickel_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Austenitic chromium–nickel steel">Austenitic chromium–nickel steel</a></td> <td>2,370</td> <td>1,299</td> <td>2,590</td> <td>1,420 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left">Silico-manganese <a href="/wiki/Spring_steel" title="Spring steel">spring steel</a></td> <td>2,280</td> <td>1,249</td> <td>2,460</td> <td>1,350 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aermet" title="Aermet">Aermet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_working" title="Cold working">Cold working</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eglin_steel" title="Eglin steel">Eglin steel</a> (a low-cost precipitation-hardened high-strength steel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">Forging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_working" title="Hot working">Hot working</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraging_steel" title="Maraging steel">Maraging steel</a> (precipitation-hardened high-strength steels)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a> (high-strength steels)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span 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a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.totalmateria.com/articles/Art62.htm">"Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels"</a>. <i>Total Materia</i>. 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"Influence of Carbide Morphology and Microstructure on the Kinetics of Superficial Decarburization of C-Mn Steels". <i>Metall Mater Trans A</i>. <b>46</b> (1): 123–133. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015MMTA...46..123A">2015MMTA...46..123A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11661-014-2600-y">10.1007/s11661-014-2600-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:136871961">136871961</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metall+Mater+Trans+A&rft.atitle=Influence+of+Carbide+Morphology+and+Microstructure+on+the+Kinetics+of+Superficial+Decarburization+of+C-Mn+Steels&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=123-133&rft.date=2014-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A136871961%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11661-014-2600-y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015MMTA...46..123A&rft.aulast=Alvarenga&rft.aufirst=HD&rft.au=Van+de+Putte%2C+T&rft.au=Van+Steenberge%2C+N&rft.au=Sietsma%2C+J&rft.au=Terryn%2C+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+steel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, p. 386</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, pp. 386–387</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, pp. 373–377</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, pp. 389–390</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, pp. 387–388</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, p. 391</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mat_hand-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mat_hand_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradyClauser,_Henry_R.Vaccari_A.,_John1997" class="citation book cs1">Brady, George S.; Clauser, Henry R.; Vaccari A., John (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/materialshandboo14geor"><i>Materials Handbook</i></a></span> (14th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-007084-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-007084-9"><bdi>0-07-007084-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+Handbook&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=14th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-07-007084-9&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=George+S.&rft.au=Clauser%2C+Henry+R.&rft.au=Vaccari+A.%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmaterialshandboo14geor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+steel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_steel&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Carbon_steel" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Carbon steel">Carbon steel</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeGarmoBlackKohser2003" class="citation cs2">DeGarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), <i>Materials and Processes in Manufacturing</i> (9th ed.), Wiley, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-65653-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-65653-4"><bdi>0-471-65653-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+and+Processes+in+Manufacturing&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-471-65653-4&rft.aulast=DeGarmo&rft.aufirst=E.+Paul&rft.au=Black%2C+J+T.&rft.au=Kohser%2C+Ronald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+steel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOberg1996" class="citation cs2">Oberg, E.; et al. (1996), <i>Machinery's Handbook</i> (25th ed.), Industrial Press Inc, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8311-2599-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8311-2599-3"><bdi>0-8311-2599-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Machinery%27s+Handbook&rft.edition=25th&rft.pub=Industrial+Press+Inc&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8311-2599-3&rft.aulast=Oberg&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+steel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithHashemi2006" class="citation cs2">Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006), <i>Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering</i> (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-295358-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-295358-6"><bdi>0-07-295358-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Materials+Science+and+Engineering&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-07-295358-6&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rft.au=Hashemi%2C+Javad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+steel" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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