CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html>    <html lang="en-US">  <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width"> <title>P | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</title> <link rel="profile" href="https://gmpg.org/xfn/11"> <link rel="pingback" href="https://iep.utm.edu/xmlrpc.php">  <meta name='robots' content='max-image-preview:large' /> <style>img:is([sizes="auto" i], [sizes^="auto," i]) { contain-intrinsic-size: 3000px 1500px }</style> <script> MathJax = { tex: { inlineMath: [['$','$'],['\$','\$']], processEscapes: true }, options: { ignoreHtmlClass: 'tex2jax_ignore|editor-rich-text' } }; </script> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//cdnjs.cloudflare.com' /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy » Feed" href="https://iep.utm.edu/feed/" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy » Comments Feed" href="https://iep.utm.edu/comments/feed/" /> <script> window._wpemojiSettings = {"baseUrl":"https:\/\/s.w.org\/images\/core\/emoji\/15.0.3\/72x72\/","ext":".png","svgUrl":"https:\/\/s.w.org\/images\/core\/emoji\/15.0.3\/svg\/","svgExt":".svg","source":{"concatemoji":"https:\/\/iep.utm.edu\/wp-includes\/js\/wp-emoji-release.min.js?ver=6.7.2"}}; /*! This file is auto-generated */ !function(i,n){var o,s,e;function c(e){try{var t={supportTests:e,timestamp:(new Date).valueOf()};sessionStorage.setItem(o,JSON.stringify(t))}catch(e){}}function p(e,t,n){e.clearRect(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height),e.fillText(t,0,0);var t=new Uint32Array(e.getImageData(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height).data),r=(e.clearRect(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height),e.fillText(n,0,0),new Uint32Array(e.getImageData(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height).data));return t.every(function(e,t){return e===r[t]})}function u(e,t,n){switch(t){case"flag":return n(e,"\ud83c\udff3\ufe0f\u200d\u26a7\ufe0f","\ud83c\udff3\ufe0f\u200b\u26a7\ufe0f")?!1:!n(e,"\ud83c\uddfa\ud83c\uddf3","\ud83c\uddfa\u200b\ud83c\uddf3")&&!n(e,"\ud83c\udff4\udb40\udc67\udb40\udc62\udb40\udc65\udb40\udc6e\udb40\udc67\udb40\udc7f","\ud83c\udff4\u200b\udb40\udc67\u200b\udb40\udc62\u200b\udb40\udc65\u200b\udb40\udc6e\u200b\udb40\udc67\u200b\udb40\udc7f");case"emoji":return!n(e,"\ud83d\udc26\u200d\u2b1b","\ud83d\udc26\u200b\u2b1b")}return!1}function f(e,t,n){var r="undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope?new OffscreenCanvas(300,150):i.createElement("canvas"),a=r.getContext("2d",{willReadFrequently:!0}),o=(a.textBaseline="top",a.font="600 32px Arial",{});return e.forEach(function(e){o[e]=t(a,e,n)}),o}function t(e){var t=i.createElement("script");t.src=e,t.defer=!0,i.head.appendChild(t)}"undefined"!=typeof Promise&&(o="wpEmojiSettingsSupports",s=["flag","emoji"],n.supports={everything:!0,everythingExceptFlag:!0},e=new Promise(function(e){i.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded",e,{once:!0})}),new Promise(function(t){var n=function(){try{var e=JSON.parse(sessionStorage.getItem(o));if("object"==typeof e&&"number"==typeof e.timestamp&&(new Date).valueOf()<e.timestamp+604800&&"object"==typeof e.supportTests)return e.supportTests}catch(e){}return null}();if(!n){if("undefined"!=typeof Worker&&"undefined"!=typeof OffscreenCanvas&&"undefined"!=typeof URL&&URL.createObjectURL&&"undefined"!=typeof Blob)try{var e="postMessage("+f.toString()+"("+[JSON.stringify(s),u.toString(),p.toString()].join(",")+"));",r=new Blob([e],{type:"text/javascript"}),a=new Worker(URL.createObjectURL(r),{name:"wpTestEmojiSupports"});return void(a.onmessage=function(e){c(n=e.data),a.terminate(),t(n)})}catch(e){}c(n=f(s,u,p))}t(n)}).then(function(e){for(var t in e)n.supports[t]=e[t],n.supports.everything=n.supports.everything&&n.supports[t],"flag"!==t&&(n.supports.everythingExceptFlag=n.supports.everythingExceptFlag&&n.supports[t]);n.supports.everythingExceptFlag=n.supports.everythingExceptFlag&&!n.supports.flag,n.DOMReady=!1,n.readyCallback=function(){n.DOMReady=!0}}).then(function(){return e}).then(function(){var e;n.supports.everything||(n.readyCallback(),(e=n.source||{}).concatemoji?t(e.concatemoji):e.wpemoji&&e.twemoji&&(t(e.twemoji),t(e.wpemoji)))}))}((window,document),window._wpemojiSettings); </script> <style id='wp-emoji-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> img.wp-smiley, img.emoji { display: inline !important; border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; height: 1em !important; width: 1em !important; margin: 0 0.07em !important; vertical-align: -0.1em !important; background: none !important; padding: 0 !important; } </style> <style id='pdfemb-pdf-embedder-viewer-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> .wp-block-pdfemb-pdf-embedder-viewer{max-width:none} </style> <link rel='stylesheet' id='awsm-ead-public-css' href='https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/plugins/embed-any-document/css/embed-public.min.css?ver=2.7.6' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='parent-style-css' href='https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/themes/twentyfourteen/style.css?ver=6.7.2' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='child-style-css' href='https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/themes/twentyfourteen-child/style.css?ver=6.7.2' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='twentyfourteen-lato-css' href='https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/themes/twentyfourteen/fonts/font-lato.css?ver=20230328' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='genericons-css' href='https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/themes/twentyfourteen/genericons/genericons.css?ver=3.0.3' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='twentyfourteen-style-css' href='https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/themes/twentyfourteen-child/style.css?ver=20241112' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='twentyfourteen-block-style-css' href='https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/themes/twentyfourteen/css/blocks.css?ver=20240708' type='text/css' media='all' />  <script src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.min.js?ver=3.7.1" id="jquery-core-js"></script> <script src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery-migrate.min.js?ver=3.4.1" id="jquery-migrate-js"></script> <script src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/plugins/stop-user-enumeration/frontend/js/frontend.js?ver=1.7" id="stop-user-enumeration-js" defer data-wp-strategy="defer"></script> <script src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/themes/twentyfourteen/js/functions.js?ver=20230526" id="twentyfourteen-script-js" defer data-wp-strategy="defer"></script> <link rel="https://api.w.org/" href="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-json/" /><link rel="alternate" title="JSON" type="application/json" href="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-json/wp/v2/pages/357" /><link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" title="RSD" href="https://iep.utm.edu/xmlrpc.php?rsd" /> <meta name="generator" content="WordPress 6.7.2" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://iep.utm.edu/p/" /> <link rel='shortlink' href='https://iep.utm.edu/?p=357' /> <link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (JSON)" type="application/json+oembed" href="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fp%2F" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="/wp-content/media/fbrfg/apple-touch-icon.png?v=XBrrnd5baw"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="/wp-content/media/fbrfg/favicon-32x32.png?v=XBrrnd5baw" sizes="32x32"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="/wp-content/media/fbrfg/favicon-16x16.png?v=XBrrnd5baw" sizes="16x16"> <link rel="manifest" href="/wp-content/media/fbrfg/manifest.json?v=XBrrnd5baw"> <link rel="mask-icon" href="/wp-content/media/fbrfg/safari-pinned-tab.svg?v=XBrrnd5baw" color="#5bbad5"> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="/wp-content/media/fbrfg/favicon.ico?v=XBrrnd5baw"> <meta name="msapplication-config" content="/wp-content/media/fbrfg/browserconfig.xml?v=XBrrnd5baw"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff"> <style type="text/css" id="twentyfourteen-header-css"> .site-title, .site-description { clip: rect(1px 1px 1px 1px); /* IE7 */ clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); position: absolute; } </style> <style id="wp-custom-css"> body { background-color: white !important; background-image: none !important; } .headimage { width:34%; 聽height:auto; } h1{text-align:left} h2{text-align:left} h3{text-align:left} h4{text-align:left} h5{text-align:left} h6{text-align:left} ol{text-align:left} li{text-align:left} /* hyphenation */ p { font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif, sans-serif; -moz-hyphens: auto; -ms-hyphens: auto; -webkit-hyphens: auto; hyphens: auto; word-wrap: break-word; } </style> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-8636035-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script> </head> <body data-rsssl=1 class="page-template-default page page-id-357 wp-embed-responsive group-blog header-image full-width singular"> <div id="page" class="hfeed site"> <div id="site-header"> <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/" rel="home" style='display:block;'> <img src="/wp-content/media/IEP-logo-remastered.png" alt=""> </a> </div> <header id="masthead" class="site-header" role="banner"> <div class="header-main"> <h1 class="site-title"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/" rel="home">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></h1> <div class="search-toggle"> <a href="#search-container" class="screen-reader-text">Search</a> </div> <nav id="primary-navigation" class="site-navigation primary-navigation" role="navigation"> <button class="menu-toggle">Primary Menu</button> <a class="screen-reader-text skip-link" href="#content">Skip to content</a> <div class="menu-toc-container"><ul id="menu-toc" class="nav-menu"><li id="menu-item-16644" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16644"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/a/">A</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16645" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16645"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/b/">B</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16646" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16646"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/c/">C</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16647" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16647"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/d/">D</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16648" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16648"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/e/">E</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16649" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16649"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/f/">F</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16650" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16650"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/g/">G</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16651" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16651"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/h/">H</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16652" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16652"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/i/">I</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16653" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16653"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/j/">J</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16654" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16654"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/k/">K</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16655" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16655"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/l/">L</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16656" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16656"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/m/">M</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16657" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16657"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/n/">N</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16658" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16658"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/o/">O</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16659" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page current-menu-item page_item page-item-357 current_page_item menu-item-16659"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/p/" aria-current="page">P</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16660" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16660"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/q/">Q</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16661" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16661"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/r/">R</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16662" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16662"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/s/">S</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16663" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16663"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/t/">T</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16664" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16664"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/u/">U</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16665" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16665"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/v/">V</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16666" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16666"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/w/">W</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16667" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16667"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/x/">X</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16668" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16668"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/y/">Y</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16669" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16669"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/z/">Z</a></li> </ul></div> </nav> </div> <div id="search-container" class="search-box-wrapper hide"> <div class="search-box"> <script> (function() { var cx = '001101905209118093242:rsrjvdp2op4'; var gcse = document.createElement('script'); gcse.type = 'text/javascript'; gcse.async = true; gcse.src = (document.location.protocol == 'https:' ? 'https:' : 'http:') + '//www.google.com/cse/cse.js?cx=' + cx; var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(gcse, s); })(); </script> <gcse:searchbox-only></gcse:searchbox-only> </div> </div> </header> <div id="main" class="site-main"> <div id="main-content" class="main-content"> <div id="primary" class="content-area"> <div id="content" class="site-content" role="main"> <article id="post-357" class="post-357 page type-page status-publish hentry">  <div class="entry-content"> <h1>P</h1> <ul class="index-list"> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pacifism/" title="Pacifism" rel="bookmark">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/panpsych/" title="Panpsychism" rel="bookmark">Panpsychism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/para-log/" title="Paraconsistent Logic" rel="bookmark">Paraconsistent Logic</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/paracase/" title="Paradigm Case Arguments" rel="bookmark">Paradigm Case Arguments</a></li> <li>Paradox <ul> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/contrary-to-duty-paradox/" title="Contrary-to-Duty Paradox" rel="bookmark">Contrary-to-Duty Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/liar-paradox/" title="Liar Paradox" rel="bookmark">Liar Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/par-log/" title="Logical Paradoxes" rel="bookmark">Logical Paradoxes</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/fict-par/" title="Paradox of Fiction, The" rel="bookmark">Paradox of Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/par-russ/" title="Russell’s Paradox" rel="bookmark">Russell’s Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/par-rusm/" title="Russell-Myhill Paradox" rel="bookmark">Russell-Myhill Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/yablo-pa/" title="Yablo Paradox" rel="bookmark">Yablo Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/zenos-paradoxes/" title="Zeno’s Paradoxes" rel="bookmark">Zeno’s Paradoxes</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/parmenid/" title="Parmenides" rel="bookmark">Parmenides</a></li> <li><span style="line-height: 1.5em;"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/morlpat/" title="Moral Particularism" rel="bookmark">Particularism, Moral</a></span></li> <li><span style="line-height: 1.5em;"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pascal-b/" title="Pascal, Blaise" rel="bookmark">Pascal, Blaise</a></span> <ul> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pasc-wag/" title="Pascal’s Wager about God" rel="bookmark">Pascal’s Wager about God</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pascal-j/" title="Pascal, Jacqueline" rel="bookmark">Pascal, Jacqueline</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/peace/" title="Philosophy of Peace" rel="bookmark">Peace, Philosophy of</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/peirce-charles-sanders/" title="Peirce, Charles Sanders" rel="bookmark">Peirce, Charles Sanders</a> <ul class="index-list"> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/peircear/" title="Peirce, Charles Sanders: Architectonic Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Architectonic Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/peir-log/" title="Peirce鈥檚 Logic" rel="bookmark">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/peircepr/" title="Peirce, Charles Sanders: Pragmatism" rel="bookmark">Pragmatism</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pejorati/" title="Pejorative Language" rel="bookmark">Pejorative Language</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/epis-per/" title="Epistemology of Perception, The" rel="bookmark">Perception, Epistemology of</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/perc-obj/" title="Perception, Objects of" rel="bookmark">Perception, Objects of</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/person-i/" title="Personal Identity" rel="bookmark">Personal Identity</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/personal/" title="Personalism" rel="bookmark">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/persp-sc/" title="Perspectivism in Science" rel="bookmark">Perspectivism in Science</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/phen-con/" title="Phenomenal Conservatism" rel="bookmark">Phenomenal Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/phenom/" title="Phenomenology" rel="bookmark">Phenomenology</a> <ul> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/cognitive-phenomenology/" title="Cognitive Phenomenology" rel="bookmark">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/met-phen/" title="Metaphor and Phenomenology" rel="bookmark">Metaphor</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/phenomsc/" title="Phenomenology and Natural Science" rel="bookmark">Natural Science</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/phen-psy/" title="Phenomenological Psychology" rel="bookmark">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/phen-red/" title="Phenomenological Reduction, The" rel="bookmark">Reduction</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/phe-time/" title="Phenomenology and Time-Consciousness" rel="bookmark">Time-Consciousness</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/philo/" title="Philo of Alexandria" rel="bookmark">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/philodem/" title="Philodemus of Gadara" rel="bookmark">Philodemus of Gadara</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/con-meta/" title="Metaphilosophy" rel="bookmark">Philosophy: What Philosophy Is鈥擟ontemporary Perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/philosophy-of-anthropology/" title="Anthropology, The Philosophy of" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/phi-film/" title="Philosophy through Film" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of Film</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/history/" title="History, Philosophy of" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of History</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/lang-phi/" title="Language, Philosophy of" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of Language</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/law-phil/" title="Law, Philosophy of" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of Law</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/love/" title="Philosophy of Love" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of Love</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/music-an/" title="Philosophy of Music: Analytic Perspectives" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of Music</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/religion/" title="Philosophy of Religion" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/sexualit/" title="Philosophy of Sexuality" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/war/" title="War, The Philosophy of" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of War</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/know-arg/" title="Knowledge Argument Against Physicalism" rel="bookmark">Physicalism, The Knowledge Argument Against</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/plato/" title="Plato" rel="bookmark">Plato</a> <ul class="index-list"> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/plato-academy/" title="Plato: The Academy" rel="bookmark">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pla-laws/" title="Plato: The Laws" rel="bookmark"><em>Laws</em></a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/meno-2/" title="Plato’s Meno" rel="bookmark"><em>Meno</em></a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/midplato/" title="Platonism, Middle" rel="bookmark">Middle Period</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/platoorg/" title="Plato: Organicism" rel="bookmark">Organicism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/phaedo/" title="Plato: Phaedo" rel="bookmark"><em>Phaedo</em></a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/platopol/" title="Plato: Political Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Political Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/republic/" title="Plato: The Republic" rel="bookmark"><em>Republic</em></a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/theatetu/" title="Plato: Theaetetus" rel="bookmark"><em>Theaetetus</em></a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/timaeus/" title="Plato: The Timaeus" rel="bookmark"><em>Timaeus</em></a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pla-thei/" title="Platonism and Theism" rel="bookmark">Platonism and Theism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/mathplat/" title="Platonism, Mathematical" rel="bookmark">Platonism, Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/plotinus/" title="Plotinus" rel="bookmark">Plotinus</a> <ul> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/plot-v-e/" title="Plotinus: Virtue Ethics" rel="bookmark">Virtue Ethics</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/poincare/" title="Poincar茅, Jules Henri" rel="bookmark">Poincar茅, Jules Henri</a> <ul> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/poi-math/" title="Poincare鈥檚 Philosophy of Mathematics" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of Mathematics</a></li> </ul> </li> <li>Political Philosophy <ul class="index-list"> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas-political-philosophy/" title="Aquinas: Political Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/aristotle-politics/" title="Aristotle: Politics" rel="bookmark">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/hum-mili/" title="Military Intervention, Humanitarian" rel="bookmark">Armed Humanitarian Intervention</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/augustine-political-and-social-philosophy/" title="Augustine: Political and Social Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/political-constructivism/" title="Political Constructivism" rel="bookmark">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/distributive-justice/" title="Distributive Justice" rel="bookmark">Distributive Justice</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/" title="Hobbes, Thomas: Moral and Political Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/hum-rts/" title="Human Rights" rel="bookmark">Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/interven/" title="Interventionism" rel="bookmark">Interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/justwar/" title="Just War Theory" rel="bookmark">Just War Theory</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/justwest/" title="Justice, Western Theories of" rel="bookmark">Justice, Western Theories of</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/locke-po/" title="Locke, John: Political Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/p-macint/" title="MacIntyre: Political Philosophy" rel="bookmark">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/polphil/" title="Political Philosophy: Methodology" rel="bookmark">Methodology</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/natlaw/" title="Natural Law" rel="bookmark">Natural Law</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/noz-poli/" title="Nozick, Robert: Political Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/poli-obl/" title="Political Obligation" rel="bookmark">Obligation</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pacifism/" title="Pacifism" rel="bookmark">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/platopol/" title="Plato: Political Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/prop-con/" title="Property" rel="bookmark">Property</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/punishme/" title="Punishment" rel="bookmark">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/rawls/" title="Rawls, John" rel="bookmark">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/polreal/" title="Political Realism" rel="bookmark">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/rel-poli/" title="Religion and Politics" rel="bookmark">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pol-rev/" title="Political Revolution" rel="bookmark">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/totalita/" title="Totalitarianism" rel="bookmark">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/war/" title="War, The Philosophy of" rel="bookmark">War</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/alexander-polyhistor/" title="Alexander Polyhistor" rel="bookmark">Polyhistor, Alexander</a></li> <li>Popper, Karl <ul> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/karl-popper-critical-ratiotionalism/" title="Popper: Critical Rationalism" rel="bookmark">Critical Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pop-sci/" title="Popper, Karl: Philosophy of Science" rel="bookmark">Philosophy of Science</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/popp-pol/" title="Karl Popper: Political Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Political Philosophy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/portroyl/" title="Port Royal Logic" rel="bookmark">Port Royal Logic</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/legalpos/" title="Legal Positivism" rel="bookmark">Positivism, Legal</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/postmodernism/" title="Postmodernism" rel="bookmark">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/prac-med/" title="Practical Reason, Medieval Theories of" rel="bookmark">Practical Reason, Medieval Theories of</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pragmati/" title="Pragmatism" rel="bookmark">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/blame-and-praise/" title="Praise and Blame" rel="bookmark">Praise and Blame</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pre-caut/" title="Precautionary Principles" rel="bookmark">Precautionary Principles</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/presocra/" title="Presocratics" rel="bookmark">Presocratics</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/predicative-and-impredicative-definitions/" title="Predicative and Impredicative Definitions" rel="bookmark">Predicative and Impredicative Definitions</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/priestly/" title="Priestley, Joseph" rel="bookmark">Priestley, Joseph</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/prior-an/" title="A.N. Prior’s Logic" rel="bookmark">Prior, Arthur: Logic</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/probability-and-induction/" title="Probability and Induction" rel="bookmark">Probability and Induction</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/problem-of-the-criterion/" title="Problem of the Criterion" rel="bookmark">Problem of the Criterion</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/processp/" title="Process Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Process Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/deductive-theoretic-conceptions-of-logical-consequence/" title="Logical Consequence, Deductive-Theoretic Conceptions of" rel="bookmark">Proof-Theoretic Conceptions of Logical Consequence</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/prop-fun/" title="Proper Functionalism" rel="bookmark">Proper Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/prop-con/" title="Property" rel="bookmark">Property</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/properties/" title="Properties" rel="bookmark">Properties</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/humili-p/" title="Humility Regarding Intrinsic Properties" rel="bookmark">Properties, Humility Regarding Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/prop-ati/" title="Propositional Attitudes" rel="bookmark">Propositional Attitudes</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/propositional-logic-sentential-logic/" title="Propositional Logic" rel="bookmark">Propositional Logic</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/truthpro/" title="Truth, Prosentential Theory of" rel="bookmark">Prosentential Theory of Truth</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/protagor/" title="Protagoras" rel="bookmark">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pseudodi/" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite" rel="bookmark">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pseudoscience-demarcation/" title="Pseudoscience and the Demarcation Problem" rel="bookmark">Pseudoscience and the Demarcation Problem</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/psychological-egoism/" title="Psychological Egoism" rel="bookmark">Psychological Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/evol-psy/" title="Evolutionary Psychology" rel="bookmark">Psychology, Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pudgalavada-buddhist-philosophy/" title="Pudgalavada Buddhist Philosophy" rel="bookmark">Pudgalav膩da Buddhist Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/punishme/" title="Punishment" rel="bookmark">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/m-p-puni/" title="Moral Permissibility of Punishment" rel="bookmark">Punishment, The Moral Permissibility of</a></li> </ul> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> <div id="secondary"> <h2 class="site-description">An encyclopedia of philosophy articles written by professional philosophers.</h2> <nav role="navigation" class="navigation site-navigation secondary-navigation"> <div class="menu-pages-container"><ul id="menu-pages" class="menu"><li id="menu-item-16670" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16670"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/home/about/">About</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16677" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16677"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/submit/">Submissions</a></li> <li id="menu-item-40301" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-40301"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/editor-list/">Editors</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16676" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-16676"><a href="https://iep.utm.edu/volunteer/">Volunteer</a></li> </ul></div> </nav> <div id="primary-sidebar" class="primary-sidebar widget-area" role="complementary"> <aside id="text-3" class="widget widget_text"><h1 class="widget-title">Stay Connected</h1> <div class="textwidget"><p> &nbsp&nbsp<a href="https://www.facebook.com/iephilosophy"><img src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/media/Facebook.png"></a> &nbsp&nbsp<a href="https://x.com/iephilosophy"><img src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/media/X-1.png"></a> &nbsp&nbsp<a href="https://iep.utm.edu/feed/"><img src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/media/Feed.png"></a> </p></div> </aside><aside id="categories-2" class="widget widget_categories"><h1 class="widget-title">Browse by Topic</h1><form action="https://iep.utm.edu" method="get"><label class="screen-reader-text" for="cat">Browse by Topic</label><select name='cat' id='cat' class='postform'> <option value='-1'>Select Category</option> <option class="level-0" value="45">History of Philosophy</option> <option class="level-1" value="49">   17th Century European</option> <option class="level-1" value="50">   18th Century European</option> <option class="level-1" value="51">   19th Century European</option> <option class="level-1" value="53">   Ancient Philosophy</option> <option class="level-1" value="99">   History Misc.</option> <option class="level-1" value="60">   History of Analytic</option> <option class="level-1" value="64">   Medieval Philosophy</option> <option class="level-1" value="102">   Philosophers</option> <option class="level-1" value="48">   Renaissance Philosophy</option> <option class="level-0" value="46">Metaphysics & Epistemology</option> <option class="level-1" value="57">   Epistemology</option> <option class="level-1" value="65">   Metaphysics</option> <option class="level-1" value="66">   Mind & Cognitive Science</option> <option class="level-1" value="67">   Philosophy of Language</option> <option class="level-1" value="70">   Philosophy of Religion</option> <option class="level-1" value="1">   Uncategorized</option> <option class="level-0" value="47">Philosophical Traditions</option> <option class="level-1" value="52">   American Philosophy</option> <option class="level-1" value="55">   Chinese Philosophy</option> <option class="level-1" value="56">   Continental Philosophy</option> <option class="level-1" value="59">   Feminist Philosophy</option> <option class="level-1" value="61">   Indian Philosophy</option> <option class="level-1" value="62">   Islamic Philosophy</option> <option class="level-1" value="100">   Tradition Misc.</option> <option class="level-0" value="74">Science, Logic, & Mathematics</option> <option class="level-1" value="63">   Logic</option> <option class="level-1" value="69">   Philosophy of Mathematics</option> <option class="level-1" value="71">   Philosophy of Science</option> <option class="level-0" value="41">Value Theory</option> <option class="level-1" value="98">   Aesthetics</option> <option class="level-1" value="54">   Bioethics</option> <option class="level-1" value="58">   Ethics</option> <option class="level-1" value="68">   Philosophy of Law</option> <option class="level-1" value="72">   Political Philosophy</option> <option class="level-1" value="101">   Value Misc.</option> </select> </form><script> (function() { var dropdown = document.getElementById( "cat" ); function onCatChange() { if ( dropdown.options[ dropdown.selectedIndex ].value > 0 ) { dropdown.parentNode.submit(); } } dropdown.onchange = onCatChange; })(); </script> </aside> </div> </div> </div> <footer id="colophon" class="site-footer" role="contentinfo"> <div class="site-info"> <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/?p=601">漏 Copyright <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> and its Authors </a> | ISSN 2161-0002 </div> </footer> </div>  <script src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/plugins/embed-any-document/js/pdfobject.min.js?ver=2.7.6" id="awsm-ead-pdf-object-js"></script> <script id="awsm-ead-public-js-extra"> var eadPublic = []; </script> <script src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-content/plugins/embed-any-document/js/embed-public.min.js?ver=2.7.6" id="awsm-ead-public-js"></script> <script src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-includes/js/dist/hooks.min.js?ver=4d63a3d491d11ffd8ac6" id="wp-hooks-js"></script> <script src="https://iep.utm.edu/wp-includes/js/dist/i18n.min.js?ver=5e580eb46a90c2b997e6" id="wp-i18n-js"></script> <script id="wp-i18n-js-after"> wp.i18n.setLocaleData( { 'text direction\u0004ltr': [ 'ltr' ] } ); wp.i18n.setLocaleData( { 'text direction\u0004ltr': [ 'ltr' ] } ); </script> <script src="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/mathjax/2.7.7/MathJax.js?config=TeX-MML-AM_CHTML" id="mathjax-js"></script> </body> </html>