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vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entry_into_World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Entry into World War I</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Entry_into_World_War_I-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Entry into World War I subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Entry_into_World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brokering_peace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brokering_peace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Brokering peace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brokering_peace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_submarine_warfare_against_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_submarine_warfare_against_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>German submarine warfare against Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_submarine_warfare_against_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_opinion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_opinion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Public opinion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_opinion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Economic factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austria-Hungary_and_Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austria-Hungary_and_Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austria-Hungary_and_Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Paris_Peace_Conference_and_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Paris_Peace_Conference_and_the_Treaty_of_Versailles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Paris_Peace_Conference_and_the_Treaty_of_Versailles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Paris_Peace_Conference_and_the_Treaty_of_Versailles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Treaty_of_Versailles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaty_of_Versailles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Treaty of Versailles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaty_of_Versailles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Senate_rejection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Senate_rejection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Senate rejection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Senate_rejection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Idealism,_moralism_and_Wilsonianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idealism,_moralism_and_Wilsonianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Idealism, moralism and Wilsonianism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Idealism,_moralism_and_Wilsonianism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Idealism, moralism and Wilsonianism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Idealism,_moralism_and_Wilsonianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Missionary_diplomacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Missionary_diplomacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Missionary diplomacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Missionary_diplomacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourteen_Points" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourteen_Points"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Fourteen Points</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourteen_Points-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principles_of_Wilsonianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principles_of_Wilsonianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Principles of Wilsonianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principles_of_Wilsonianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_of_Wilsonianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_Wilsonianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Impact of Wilsonianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_Wilsonianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_interpretations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_interpretations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Alternative interpretations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_interpretations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Latin America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biographical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Biographical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peace_treaties_and_Wilsonianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_treaties_and_Wilsonianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Peace treaties and Wilsonianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peace_treaties_and_Wilsonianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources_and_year_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources_and_year_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.7</span> <span>Primary sources and year books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources_and_year_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p> The foreign policy under the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">presidency of Woodrow Wilson</a> deals with American diplomacy, and political, economic, military, and cultural relationships with the rest of the world from 1913 to 1921. Although Wilson had no experience in foreign policy, he made all the major decisions, usually with the top advisor <a href="/wiki/Edward_M._House" title="Edward M. House">Edward M. House</a>. His foreign policy was based on his messianic philosophical belief that America had the utmost obligation to spread its principles while reflecting the 'truisms' of American thought.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Wilson executed the Democratic Party foreign policy which since 1900 had, according to <a href="/wiki/Arthur_S._Link" title="Arthur S. Link">Arthur S. Link</a>:</p><blockquote><p>consistently condemned militarism, imperialism, and interventionism in foreign policy. They instead advocated world involvement along liberal-internationalist lines. Wilson's appointment of <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a> as Secretary of State indicated a new departure, for Bryan had long been the leading opponent of imperialism and militarism and a pioneer in the world peace movement.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The main foreign policy issues Wilson faced were civil war in neighboring Mexico; keeping out of World War I and protecting American neutral rights; deciding to enter and fight in 1917; and reorganizing world affairs with peace treaties and a League of Nations in 1919. Wilson had a physical collapse in late 1919 that left him too handicapped to closely supervise foreign or domestic policy. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #d69d36"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color: #002466;color:inherit;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson,_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait,_1919_(cropped)_c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919_%28cropped%29_c.jpg/75px-Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919_%28cropped%29_c.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919_%28cropped%29_c.jpg/113px-Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919_%28cropped%29_c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919_%28cropped%29_c.jpg/150px-Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson%2C_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_portrait%2C_1919_%28cropped%29_c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1637" data-file-height="2177" /></a></span></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color: #002466;color: #FFF;"><div><span class="tmp-color" style="color: #FFF">This article is part of <br />a series about</span></div><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #FFF; text-decoration: inherit;">Woodrow Wilson</span></a></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_of_Woodrow_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Early life of Woodrow Wilson">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Boyhood_Home" title="Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home">Boyhood home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Boyhood_Home_(Columbia,_South_Carolina)" title="Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home (Columbia, South Carolina)">South Carolina home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_academic_career_of_Woodrow_Wilson#President_of_Princeton_University" title="Early life and academic career of Woodrow Wilson">President of Princeton University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1910_New_Jersey_gubernatorial_election" title="1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election">New Jersey gubernatorial election</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">28th President of the United States</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">Presidency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency">Timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">First term</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912 presidential election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1912_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1912 Democratic National Convention">Convention</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidential transition of Woodrow Wilson">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="First inauguration of Woodrow Wilson">1st inauguration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Foreign policy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a> <ul><li><a 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Constitution">18th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19th Amendment</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Foreign policy 1917-1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimmermann_telegram" title="Zimmermann telegram">Zimmermann telegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasher_incident" title="Thrasher incident">Thrasher incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">Entry into war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Austria-Hungary" title="United States declaration of war on Austria-Hungary">Against Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1917)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)">Against Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_I" title="United States home front during World War I">American home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilsonian_Armenia" title="Wilsonian Armenia">Wilsonian Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Four_(World_War_I)" title="Big Four (World War I)">Big Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Woodrow_Wilson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Woodrow Wilson">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Woodrow Wilson Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race" title="Woodrow Wilson and race">Wilson and race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_House_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Woodrow Wilson House (Washington, D.C.)">Wilson House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_School_of_Public_and_International_Affairs" title="Princeton School of Public and International Affairs">Princeton School of Public and International Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars" title="Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars">Wilson Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Presidential_Library" title="Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library">Presidential Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilsonianism" title="Wilsonianism">Wilsonianism</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson's signature"><img alt="Woodrow Wilson's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Woodrow_Wilson_Signature_2.svg/150px-Woodrow_Wilson_Signature_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Woodrow_Wilson_Signature_2.svg/225px-Woodrow_Wilson_Signature_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Woodrow_Wilson_Signature_2.svg/300px-Woodrow_Wilson_Signature_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="289" /></a></span></div> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Seal of the President of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></span></span></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Woodrow_Wilson_series" title="Template:Woodrow Wilson series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Woodrow_Wilson_series" title="Template talk:Woodrow Wilson series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Woodrow_Wilson_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Woodrow Wilson series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leadership">Leadership</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For advice and trouble shooting in foreign policy Wilson relied heavily on his trusted friend "Colonel" <a href="/wiki/Edward_M._House" title="Edward M. House">Edward M. House</a>. Wilson came to distrust House's independence in 1919, and ended all contact.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After winning the presidency in the <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912 election</a>, Wilson had no alternative choice for the premier cabinet position of Secretary of State. <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a> had long been the dominant leader of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> and had been essential to Wilson's presidential nomination. Nevertheless, the president-elect was worried about Bryan's radical reputation, and especially about his independent base.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bryan had travelled the world giving speeches, promoting peace, and meeting with world leaders. Wilson had no such experience; he had studied English constitutional history in depth, but not its diplomatic history. He had not travelled widely outside the U.S. and Britain. Bryan proved very useful in helping pass major progressive domestic reforms through Congress, especially the Federal Reserve law. In foreign policy they worked together well at first. Bryan handled routine work and Wilson made the major decisions. Since Bryan had such a strong base in the Democratic Party, Wilson kept him informed, and allowed Bryan to pursue his own peace-priority of drafting 30 treaties with other countries that required both signatories to submit all disputes to an investigative tribunal. However he and Wilson clashed over U.S. neutrality in wartime. Bryan resigned in June 1915 after Wilson sent to Berlin a note of protest in response to the <a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania" title="Sinking of the RMS Lusitania">Sinking of the RMS Lusitania</a>, a British passenger liner, by a German <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boat</a>, with the death of 128 Americans. Bryan thought they travelled at their own risk into a war zone, while Wilson considered it was a violation of the laws of war to sink a passenger ship without giving the passengers a chance to reach the lifeboats.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wilson selected <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lansing" title="Robert Lansing">Robert Lansing</a> to replace Bryan because he was proficient in routine work and passive in ideas and initiative. Unlike Bryan he lacked a political base. The result was that Wilson could be—and indeed actually was—freer to personally make all major foreign policy decisions. <a href="/wiki/John_Milton_Cooper" class="mw-redirect" title="John Milton Cooper">John Milton Cooper</a> concludes that it was one of Wilson's worst mistakes as president.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wilson told <a href="/wiki/Colonel_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonel House">Colonel House</a> that as president he would practically be his own Secretary of State, and "Lansing would not be troublesome by uprooting or injecting his own views."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Lansing advocated "<a href="/wiki/Benevolent_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Benevolent neutrality">benevolent neutrality</a>" at the start of the war, but shifted away from the ideal after increasing interference and violation of the rights of neutrals by Great Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Lester H. Woolsey, a top aide in the State Department and later Lansing's law partner, Lansing by mid-1915 had very strong views against Germany. He kept these to himself because Wilson disagreed. Lansing expressed his views by manipulating the work of the State Department to minimize conflict with Britain and maximize public awareness of Germany's faults. Woolsey states:</p><blockquote><p>Although the President cherished the hope that the United States would not be drawn into the war, and while this was the belief of many officials, Mr. Lansing early in July, 1915, came to the conclusion that the German ambition for world domination was the real menace of the war, particularly to democratic institutions. In order to block this German ambition, he believed that the progress of the war would eventually disclose to the American people the purposes of the German Government; that German activities in the United States and in Latin America should be carefully investigated and frustrated; that the American republics to the south should be weaned from the German influences; that friendly relations with Mexico should be maintained even to the extent of recognizing the Carranza faction; that the Danish West Indies should be acquired in order to remove the possibility of Germany's obtaining a foothold in the Caribbean by conquest of Denmark or otherwise; that the United States should enter the war if it should appear that Germany would become the victor; and that American public opinion must be awakened in preparation for this contingency. This outline of Mr. Lansing's views explains why the Lusitania dispute was not brought to the point of a break. It also explains why, though Americans were incensed at the British interference with commerce, the controversy was kept within the arena of debate.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The two key Allied ambassadors were <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Spring_Rice" title="Cecil Spring Rice">Cecil Spring Rice</a> for Britain and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Jules_Jusserand" title="Jean Jules Jusserand">Jean Jules Jusserand</a> for France. The latter was highly successful, achieving popularity with Americans from many backgrounds and perspectives.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However Spring-Rice was a close friend of Wilson's enemies Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge, and never was comfortable in the Wilsonian milieu. Wilson distrusted Spring-Rice as incompetent and a mischief-maker. House solved the problem by a close friendship with <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Wiseman,_10th_Baronet" title="Sir William Wiseman, 10th Baronet">Sir William Wiseman</a>, a British banker who took charge of financial negotiations as well as intelligence operations.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Bernstorff" title="Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff">Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff</a> was the German ambassador—suave and sophisticated. He tried and failed to get Berlin to accept Wilson's proposals for peace plans. Meanwhile, he was organizing propaganda activities. However, after the war he denied any involvement with sabotage activities to disrupt the shipment of American supplies to the Allies, such as the monster <a href="/wiki/Black_Tom_explosion" title="Black Tom explosion">Black Tom explosion</a> in 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Latin America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> American foreign policy under Wilson marked a departure from President Taft's "Dollar Diplomacy." Wilson wished to correct the American errors of the nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, Wilson desired to extend American friendship to the nations of Latin America. In his 1913 Address Before the Southern Commercial Congress, Wilson states:</p><blockquote><p>In emphasizing the points which must unite us in sympathy and in spiritual interest with the Latin-American peoples we are only emphasizing the points of our own life, and we should prove ourselves untrue to our own traditions if we proved ourselves untrue friends to them. Do not think, therefore, gentlemen, that the questions of the day are mere questions of policy and diplomacy. They are shot through with the principles of life. We dare not turn from the principle that morality and not expediency is the thing that must guide us and that we will never condone iniquity because it is most convenient to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Wilson believed that America ought to conduct itself morally and in accordance with its own traditions rather than operating exclusively out of American interest. Wilson was willing to exert American power to attempt to change or influence Latin American nations' internal politics, such as when he withheld recognition of Mexican President Huerta's administration. Wilson, however, justified his lack of recognition on moral grounds since Huerta had seized power in a coup. Wilson believed resisting recognition would force Huerta to allow for free elections.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus Wilson placed a high importance on conducting American foreign policy for moral ends. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Panama_Canal">Panama Canal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Panama Canal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a> opened in 1914, just after the start of World War 1. It fulfilled the long-term dream of building a canal across Central America and making possible quick movement between the Atlantic and the Pacific.. For the US Navy the canal allowed quick movement of fleets between the Pacific and the Atlantic. Economically it opened new opportunities to the shippers to reach the Far East. Britain insisted that treaty agreements meant its ships would pay the same toll as American ships, and Congress agreed to the same tolls for every nation.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To further protect the Canal, in 1917, the US purchased the strategically located <a href="/wiki/Danish_West_Indies" title="Danish West Indies">Danish West Indies</a> for $25 million, in gold, from <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Danish_West_Indies" title="Treaty of the Danish West Indies">Denmark</a>. The territory was renamed the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a>. Its population of 27,000 was over 90 per cent Black; its economy was based on sugar.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mexico">Mexico</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mexico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_United_States_involvement_in_the_Mexican_Revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution (page does not exist)">The United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a></div> <p>Washington had long recognized the dictatorial government of <a href="/wiki/Porfirio_D%C3%ADaz" title="Porfirio Díaz">Porfirio Díaz</a>. As Díaz approached eighty years old, he announced he was not going to run in the scheduled 1910 elections. This set off a flurry of political activity about presidential succession. Washington wanted any new president to continue Díaz's policies that had been favorable to American mining and oil interests and produced stability domestically and internationally. However Díaz suddenly reneged on his promise not to run, exiled General <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Reyes" title="Bernardo Reyes">Bernardo Reyes</a>, the most viable candidate. He had the most popular opposition candidate, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Francisco I. Madero</a> jailed. After the rigged 1910 reelection of Diaz, political unrest became open rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VillaUncleSamBerrymanCartoon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/VillaUncleSamBerrymanCartoon.png/250px-VillaUncleSamBerrymanCartoon.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/VillaUncleSamBerrymanCartoon.png/375px-VillaUncleSamBerrymanCartoon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/VillaUncleSamBerrymanCartoon.png/500px-VillaUncleSamBerrymanCartoon.png 2x" data-file-width="4298" data-file-height="5202" /></a><figcaption>Uncle Sam saying "I've had about enough of this" as a small and barefoot <a href="/wiki/Pancho_Villa" title="Pancho Villa">Pancho Villa</a>, smoking gun in hand, runs away. In 1916 Wilson sent a punitive expedition to capture Villa after he murdered Americans in New Mexico. It never caught Villa but did anger Mexicans.</figcaption></figure> <p>After his <a href="/wiki/Federal_Army" title="Federal Army">Federal Army</a> failed to suppress the insurgents, Díaz resigned and went into exile. An interim government was installed, and new elections were held in October 1911. These were won by Madero. Initially, Washington was optimistic about Madero. He had disbanded the rebel forces that had forced Díaz to resign; retain the Federal Army; and appeared to be open to friendly policies. However the U.S. began to sour on the relationship with Madero and began actively working with opponents to the regime. The new president <a href="/wiki/Victoriano_Huerta" title="Victoriano Huerta">Victoriano Huerta</a> won recognition from all major countries except the U.S. Wilson, who took office shortly after Madero's assassination, rejected the legitimacy of Huerta's "government of butchers" and demanded that Mexico hold democratic elections to replace him.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Tampico_Affair" title="Tampico Affair">Tampico Affair</a> of April 9, 1914 nine American sailors were seized for about an hour by Huerta's soldiers. The local commander apologized and released the sailors but refused the demand of the American admiral to salute the U.S. flag and punish the arrested officer. The conflict escalated with Washington's approval and <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Veracruz" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of Veracruz">the U.S. Navy seized Veracruz</a>. Some 170 Mexican soldiers and an unknown number of Mexican civilians were killed in the takeover, as well as 22 Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pancho_Villa" title="Pancho Villa">Pancho Villa</a> (1878–1923), a local bandit who built up a regional base, became a major national figure when he led anti-Huerta forces in the <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalist_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutionalist Army">Constitutionalist Army</a> 1913–14. At the height of his power and popularity in late 1914 and early 1915, Washington considered recognizing him as Mexico's legitimate authority. However Villa was decisively defeated by Constitutionalist General <a href="/wiki/Alvaro_Obreg%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvaro Obregón">Alvaro Obregón</a> in summer 1915, and the U.S. aided Constitutionalist leader <a href="/wiki/Venustiano_Carranza" title="Venustiano Carranza">Venustiano Carranza</a> directly against Villa. Villa, much weakened, conducted a raid on the small border village of <a href="/wiki/Columbus,_New_Mexico" title="Columbus, New Mexico">Columbus, New Mexico</a> killing 18 Americans. His goal was to goad Wilson into a war with Carranza.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead Wilson sent the Army on a <a href="/wiki/Pancho_Villa_Expedition" title="Pancho Villa Expedition">limited punitive expedition</a> led by General <a href="/wiki/John_J._Pershing" title="John J. Pershing">John J. Pershing</a> deep into Mexico. It failed to capture Villa.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mexican public and elite opinion turned strongly against the U.S. and war was growing more and more likely. Wilson realized that escalating tensions with Germany were much more important and recalled the invasion force in early 1917 as war with Germany approached.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zimmerman_telegram_-_the_temptation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Zimmerman_telegram_-_the_temptation.png/300px-Zimmerman_telegram_-_the_temptation.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Zimmerman_telegram_-_the_temptation.png/450px-Zimmerman_telegram_-_the_temptation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Zimmerman_telegram_-_the_temptation.png/600px-Zimmerman_telegram_-_the_temptation.png 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="949" /></a><figcaption>Germany offers 3 southwestern states to Mexico if it joins a war against USA. Editorial cartoon from <i>Dallas Morning News</i> 2 March 1917</figcaption></figure> <p>Meanwhile, Germany was trying to divert American attention from Europe by sparking a war. It sent Mexico the <a href="/wiki/Zimmermann_Telegram" class="mw-redirect" title="Zimmermann Telegram">Zimmermann Telegram</a> in January 1917, offering a military alliance to <a href="/wiki/Reconquista_(Mexico)" title="Reconquista (Mexico)">reclaim</a> lands the United States had forcibly taken via conquest in the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a>. British intelligence intercepted the message, and revealed it to the American government when tensions were high. Wilson released it to the press, escalating demands for American war against Germany. The Mexican government rejected the proposal after its military warned of massive defeat if they attempted to follow through with the plan. Mexico stayed neutral; selling large amounts of oil to Britain for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nicaragua"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Nicaragua–United States relations">Nicaragua–United States relations</a></div> <p>According to Benjamin Harrison, Wilson was committed in Latin America to the fostering of democracy and stable governments, as well as fair economic policies.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wilson was largely frustrated by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Nicaragua" title="United States occupation of Nicaragua">chaotic situation in Nicaragua</a>. <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_D%C3%ADaz" title="Adolfo Díaz">Adolfo Díaz</a> won the presidency in 1911 and replaced European financing with loans from New York banks. Facing a Liberal rebellion, he called on the United States for protection and Wilson obliged. Nicaragua assumed a quasi-<a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> status under the 1916 <a href="/wiki/Bryan%E2%80%93Chamorro_Treaty" title="Bryan–Chamorro Treaty">Bryan–Chamorro Treaty</a>. Under the treaty Nicaragua promised it would not declare war on anyone, would not grant territorial concessions, and would not contract outside debts without Washington's approval. It permitted the US to build a naval base at Fonseca Bay, and gave the US the sole option to construct and control an inter-oceanic canal. The US had no intention of building a canal, but one of the guarantee that no other nation could do so. The US paid Nicaragua $3 million for this option. The original draft also asserted the duty of the United States to intervene militarily in case of domestic turmoil – but that provision was rejected by Democrats in the Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaty was extremely unpopular in the Caribbean region, but it was observed by both sides until 1933. Díaz was now able to serve out his entire term; he retired in 1917, and moved to the United States, though he briefly returned to power in 1926–1929. According to George Baker, the main effect of the treaty was a higher degree of both political and financial stability in Nicaragua.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> (1929-1933) opposed the relationship. Finally in 1933, President <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D Roosevelt</a> invoked his new <a href="/wiki/Good_Neighbor_policy" title="Good Neighbor policy">Good Neighbor policy</a> to end American intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asia">Asia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:21_demands_1915_China_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/21_demands_1915_China_Japan.jpg/375px-21_demands_1915_China_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="375" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/21_demands_1915_China_Japan.jpg/563px-21_demands_1915_China_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/21_demands_1915_China_Japan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="641" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>China unprepared to answer 21 demands by Japan in 1915; Bradley in <i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Daily_News" title="Chicago Daily News">Chicago Daily News</a></i> March 13, 1915</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_China%E2%80%93United_States_relations_to_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="History of China–United States relations to 1948">History of China–United States relations to 1948</a></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> overthrew the emperor in 1911, The Taft administration recognized the new <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Chinese_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the Chinese Republic">Government of the Chinese Republic</a> as the legitimate government of China. In practice <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">a number of powerful regional warlords</a> were in control and the central government handled foreign policy and little else. </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a></i> were a set of secret demands made in 1915 by Japan to <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> the general who served as president of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%9349)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912–49)">Republic of China</a> The demands would greatly extend Japanese control. Japan would keep the former German concessions it had conquered at the start of World War I in 1914. Japan would be stronger in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Manchuria#Russian_and_Japanese_encroachment" title="History of Manchuria">Manchuria</a> and South Mongolia. It would have an expanded role in railways. The most extreme demands—the fifth set—would gave Japan a decisive voice in China's finance, policing, and government affairs. Indeed, they would make China in effect a protectorate of Japan, and thereby reduce Western influence. Japan was in a strong position, as the Western powers were in a stalemated war with Germany. Britain and Japan had <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Japanese Alliance">a military alliance since 1902</a>, and in 1914 London had asked Tokyo to enter the war. Beijing published the secret demands and appealed to Washington and London. They were sympathetic and pressured Tokyo. In the final 1916 settlement, Japan gave up its fifth set of demands. It gained a little in China, but lost a great deal of prestige in Washington and London.<sup id="cite_ref-Bruce_Elleman_2015_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruce_Elleman_2015-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> E. T. Williams, the senior expert on the Far East in the State Department, argued in January 1915: </p> <dl><dd>Our present commercial interests in Japan are greater than those in China, but the look ahead shows <i>our interest</i> to be <i>a strong and independent China</i> rather than one held in subjection by Japan. China has certain claims upon our sympathy. If we do not recognize them...we are in danger of <i>losing our influence in the Far East</i> and of adding to the dangers of the situation.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Wilson has been criticized for accepting at the Paris Peace Conference the transfer of the <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">German concession in Shandong</a> to Japan, instead of allowing China to reclaim it.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However Bruce Elleman has argued that Wilson did not betray China because his action was in accord with widely recognized treaties which China had signed with Japan during the war. Wilson tried to get Japan to promise to return the concessions in 1922, but the Chinese delegation rejected that compromise. The result in China was the growth of intense nationalism characterized by the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a>, and the tendency of intellectuals and activists in the 1920s to look to Moscow for leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bruce_Elleman_2015_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruce_Elleman_2015-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Wilson was in touch with several former Princeton students who were missionaries in China, and he strongly endorsed their work. In 1916 he told a delegation of ministers:</p><blockquote><p> This is the most amazing and inspiring vision - this vision of that great sleeping nation suddenly awakened by the voice of Christ. Could there be any greater contribution to the future momentum of the moral forces of the world than could be made by quickening the force, which is being set of foot in China? China is at present inchoate; as a nation it is a congeries of parts, in each of which there is energy, but which are unbound in any essential and active unit, and just as soon as unity comes, its power will come in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1913, California enacted the <a href="/wiki/California_Alien_Land_Law_of_1913" title="California Alien Land Law of 1913">California Alien Land Law of 1913</a> to exclude resident Japanese non-citizens from owning any land in the state. Tokyo protested strongly, and Wilson sent Bryan to California to mediate. Bryan was unable to get California to relax the restrictions, and Wilson accepted the law even though it violated a 1911 treaty with Japan. The law bred resentment in Japan which lingered into the 1920s and 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishii-Lansing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Ishii-Lansing.jpg/300px-Ishii-Lansing.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Ishii-Lansing.jpg/450px-Ishii-Lansing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Ishii-Lansing.jpg/600px-Ishii-Lansing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4614" data-file-height="3345" /></a><figcaption>Viscount <a href="/wiki/Ishii_Kikujir%C5%8D" title="Ishii Kikujirō">Ishii Kikujirō</a>, Japanese special envoy, with Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lansing" title="Robert Lansing">Robert Lansing</a> in Washington in 1917 for the signing of the Lansing–Ishii Agreement</figcaption></figure> <p>During World War I, both nations <a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">fought on the Allied side</a>. With the cooperation of its ally Great Britain, Japan's military <a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I#Events_of_1914" title="Japan during World War I">took control of German bases in China and the Pacific</a>, and in 1919 after the war, with U.S. approval, was given a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> mandate over the German islands north of the equator, with Australia getting the rest. The U.S. did not want any mandates.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Japan's aggressive approach in its dealings with China, however, was a continual source of tension—indeed eventually leading to World War II between the two nations. Trouble arose between Japan on the one hand and China, Britain and the U.S. on the other over Japan's <a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a> made on China in 1915. These demands forced China to acknowledge Japanese possession of the former German holdings and its economic dominance of Manchuria, and had the potential of turning China into a puppet state. Washington expressed strongly negative reactions to Japan's rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a>. In the Bryan Note issued by Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a> on March 13, 1915, the U.S., while affirming Japan's "special interests" in Manchuria, Mongolia and Shandong, expressed concern over further encroachments to Chinese sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1917 the <a href="/wiki/Lansing%E2%80%93Ishii_Agreement" title="Lansing–Ishii Agreement">Lansing–Ishii Agreement</a> was negotiated. Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lansing" title="Robert Lansing">Robert Lansing</a> specified American acceptance that Manchuria was under Japanese control, while still nominally under Chinese sovereignty. Japanese Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Ishii_Kikujiro" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishii Kikujiro">Ishii Kikujiro</a> noted Japanese agreement not to limit American commercial opportunities elsewhere in China. The agreement also stated that neither would take advantage of the war in Europe to seek additional rights and privileges in Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Japan insisted that Germany's concessions in China, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Peninsula" title="Shandong Peninsula">Shandong Peninsula</a>, be transferred to Japan. President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> fought vigorously against Japan's demands regarding China, but backed down upon realizing the Japanese delegation had widespread support.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In China there was outrage and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_China" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in China">anti-Japanese sentiment</a> escalated. The <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a> emerged as a student demand for China's honor.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1922 the U.S. brokered a solution of the <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong Problem</a>. China was awarded nominal sovereignty over all of Shandong, including the former German holdings, while in practice Japan's economic dominance continued.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philippines">Philippines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Philippines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Insular_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands" title="Insular Government of the Philippine Islands">Insular Government of the Philippine Islands</a></div> <p>The Democratic party in the United States had strongly opposed acquisitions of the Philippines in the first place, and increasingly became committed to independence. Wilson himself was a conservative in the 1890s and supported McKinley's foreign policy and favored annexation of the Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The election of a Democratic president and Congress in 1912 opened up opportunities and Wilson had changed. He now wanted the islands to be governed by Filipinos until it became independent.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He appointed <a href="/wiki/Francis_Burton_Harrison" title="Francis Burton Harrison">Francis Burton Harrison</a> as governor, and Harrison replaced nearly all the mainlanders with Filipinos in the bureaucracy. By 1921, of the 13,757 bureaucrats, 13,143 were Filipinos; they held 56 of the top 69 positions.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Filipino_nationalism" title="Filipino nationalism">Philippine nationalists</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Manuel_L._Quezon" title="Manuel L. Quezon">Manuel L. Quezon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sergio_Osme%C3%B1a" title="Sergio Osmeña">Sergio Osmeña</a> enthusiastically endorsed the draft <a href="/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)" title="Jones Law (Philippines)">Jones Bill</a> of 1912, which provided for <a href="/wiki/Republic_Day_(Philippines)" title="Republic Day (Philippines)">Philippine independence</a> after eight years, but later changed their views, opting for a bill which focused less on time than on the conditions of independence. The nationalists demanded complete and absolute independence to be guaranteed by the United States, since they feared that too-rapid independence from American rule without such guarantees might cause the Philippines to fall into Japanese hands. The Jones Bill was rewritten and passed a Congress controlled by Democrats in 1916 with a later date of independence.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jones_Law_poster_Philippines_1916.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Jones_Law_poster_Philippines_1916.jpeg/250px-Jones_Law_poster_Philippines_1916.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Jones_Law_poster_Philippines_1916.jpeg/375px-Jones_Law_poster_Philippines_1916.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Jones_Law_poster_Philippines_1916.jpeg/500px-Jones_Law_poster_Philippines_1916.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="822" /></a><figcaption>This poster advertises the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)" title="Jones Law (Philippines)">Jones Law</a>. Wilson is third from the left.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)" title="Jones Law (Philippines)">Jones Law</a>, or Philippine Autonomy Act, replaced the Organic Act as the constitution for the territory. Its preamble stated that the eventual independence of the Philippines would be American policy, subject to the establishment of a stable government. The law maintained an appointed governor-general, but established a bicameral Philippine Legislature and replaced the appointive Philippine Commission with an elected senate.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Filipino activists suspended the independence campaign during the World War and supported the United States and the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies of World War I</a> against the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>. After the war they resumed their independence drive with great vigour.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed a "Declaration of Purposes", which stated the inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign. A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and means of attaining liberation ideal. This commission recommended the sending of an independence mission to the United States. The "Declaration of Purposes" referred to the Jones Law as a veritable pact, or covenant, between the American and Filipino peoples whereby the United States promised to recognize the independence of the Philippines as soon as a stable government should be established. American Governor-General Harrison had concurred in the report of the Philippine Legislature as to a stable government.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russia_and_its_Revolution">Russia and its Revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Russia and its Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></div> <p>President Wilson believed that with the end of Tsarist rule the new country would eventually transition to a modern democracy after the end of the chaos of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>, and that intervention against Soviet Russia would only turn the country against the United States. He likewise publicly advocated a policy of noninterference in the war in the Fourteen Points, although he argued that the Russia's prewar <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Polish territory</a> should be ceded to the newly independent <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a>. Additionally many of Wilson's political opponents in the United States, including the Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Foreign_Relations" title="United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations">Senate Foreign Relations Committee</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a>, believed that an independent <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> should be established. Despite this the United States, as a result of the fear of <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a> expansion into Russian-held territory and their support for the Allied-aligned <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Legion" title="Czechoslovak Legion">Czech Legion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polar_Bear_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar Bear Expedition">sent a small number of troops</a> to <a href="/wiki/Far_North_(Russia)" title="Far North (Russia)">Northern Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. The United States also provided indirect aid such as food and supplies to the <a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 Wilson and British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a>, despite the objections of French President <a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a> and Italian Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sidney Sonnino</a>, pushed forward an idea to convene a summit at <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCkada" title="Büyükada">Prinkipo</a> between the Bolsheviks and the <a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a> to form a common Russian delegation to the Conference. The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)">Soviet Commissariat of Foreign Affairs</a>, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Chicherin" title="Georgy Chicherin">Georgy Chicherin</a>, received British and American envoys respectfully but had no intentions of agreeing to the deal due to their belief that the Conference was composed of an old <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> order that would be swept away in a <a href="/wiki/World_revolution" title="World revolution">world revolution</a>. By 1921, after the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> gained the upper hand in the Russian Civil War, <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_the_Romanov_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Execution of the Romanov family">executed</a> the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Romanov" title="House of Romanov">Romanov imperial family</a>, repudiated the <a href="/wiki/Repudiation_of_debt_at_the_Russian_Revolution" title="Repudiation of debt at the Russian Revolution">tsarist debt</a>, and called for a world revolution by the working class, it was regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Rogue_state" title="Rogue state">pariah nation</a> by most of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beyond the Russian Civil War, relations were also dogged by claims of American companies for compensation for the <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">nationalized industries</a> they had invested in.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Famine and starvation raged in Russia and parts of Eastern Europe after the war. A very large food relief operation, centered mostly in Russia, was primarily funded by the U.S. government, as well as philanthropies, and Britain and France. The <a href="/wiki/American_Relief_Administration" title="American Relief Administration">American Relief Administration</a>, 1919–1923, at first was under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wilson had been reluctant to join but he sent two forces into Russia. The <a href="/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Force,_Siberia" title="American Expeditionary Force, Siberia">American Expeditionary Force, Siberia</a> was a formation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> involved in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>, from 1918 to 1920. The other force was the <a href="/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Force,_North_Russia" title="American Expeditionary Force, North Russia">American Expeditionary Force, North Russia</a> a part of the larger Allied French and British <a href="/wiki/North_Russia_Intervention" class="mw-redirect" title="North Russia Intervention">North Russia Intervention</a>, under the command of British General <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ironside,_1st_Baron_Ironside#First_World_War" title="Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside">Edmund Ironside</a>. The Siberian force was ostensibly designed to help the 40,000 men of the <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Legion" title="Czechoslovak Legion">Czechoslovak Legion</a>, who were being held up by Bolshevik forces as they attempted to make their way along the Trans-Siberian Railroad to Vladivostok, and it was hoped, eventually to the Western Front. They had escaped from Russian POW camps and were headed to join the Allies on the Western Front. The North Russia force had a mission of preventing the German army from seizing Allied munitions sent there before Russia dropped out of the war. Neither force had an officially acknowledged combat mission. Historians have speculated that Wilson shared the anti-Bolshevik ambitions of the larger <a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Entry_into_World_War_I">Entry into World War I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Entry into World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">American entry into World War I</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_bryter_de_diplomatiska_f%C3%B6rbindelserna_med_Tyskland_3_februari_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/USA_bryter_de_diplomatiska_f%C3%B6rbindelserna_med_Tyskland_3_februari_1917.jpg/260px-USA_bryter_de_diplomatiska_f%C3%B6rbindelserna_med_Tyskland_3_februari_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/USA_bryter_de_diplomatiska_f%C3%B6rbindelserna_med_Tyskland_3_februari_1917.jpg/390px-USA_bryter_de_diplomatiska_f%C3%B6rbindelserna_med_Tyskland_3_februari_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/USA_bryter_de_diplomatiska_f%C3%B6rbindelserna_med_Tyskland_3_februari_1917.jpg/520px-USA_bryter_de_diplomatiska_f%C3%B6rbindelserna_med_Tyskland_3_februari_1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2951" data-file-height="2091" /></a><figcaption>President Wilson before Congress, announcing the break in official relations with Germany on 3 February 1917</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brokering_peace">Brokering peace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Brokering peace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the outbreak of the war in 1914 until January 1917, Wilson's primary goal was using American neutrality to broker a peace conference that would end the war. In the first two years neither side was interested in negotiations.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, that changed in late 1916 when, <a href="/wiki/Philip_D._Zelikow" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip D. Zelikow">Philip D. Zelikow</a> argues, both sides were ready for peace negotiations, if Wilson would be the broker. However, Wilson waited too long, failed to realize the importance of his financial power over Britain, and put mistaken reliance on <a href="/wiki/Edward_M._House" title="Edward M. House">Colonel House</a> and Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lansing" title="Robert Lansing">Robert Lansing</a>, who undermined his proposals by encouraging Britain to stall. Zelikow emphasizes that German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Bethmann_Hollweg" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethmann Hollweg">Bethmann Hollweg</a> was seriously interested in peace, but he had to fend off the demands of <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">Paul von Hindenburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff" title="Erich Ludendorff">Erich Ludendorff</a> who were taking dictatorial control of Germany. Zelikow argues that when Wilson finally did make his peace proposal in January 1917, it was too little and too late, and instead of peace the war escalated. Hindenburg and Ludendorff had convinced the Kaiser that victory was at hand by using unrestricted submarine warfare, and moving troops in from the Russian front to smash the French and British front lines.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wilson's decision to enter the war came in April 1917, more than two and a half years after the war began. The main reasons were the German submarine campaign to sink American ships carrying supplies to Britain, and his determination to make the world safe for democracy. Joseph Siracusa argues that Wilson's own position evolved from, 1914 to 1917. He finally decided that war was necessary because Germany threatened American global ideals of democracy and peace through militarism and Prussian autocracy. Furthermore, it was a threat to American commerce on the high seas, and to American rights as a neutral.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public opinion, elite opinion, and Members of Congress gave Wilson strong support by April 1917. The U.S. took an independent role and did not have a formal alliance with Britain or France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_submarine_warfare_against_Britain">German submarine warfare against Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: German submarine warfare against Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> in August 1914, the United States declared neutrality and worked to broker a peace. It insisted on its neutral rights, which included allowing private corporations and banks to sell supplies or loan money to either side. With the tight British blockade, there were almost no sales or loans to Germany, only to the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a>. Americans were shocked by the <a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a>—German Army atrocities against civilians in Belgium. Britain was favored by elite <a href="/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestants" title="White Anglo-Saxon Protestants">WASP</a> element. Pro-war forces were led by ex-president Theodore Roosevelt, who repeatedly denounced Wilson for timidity and cowardice. Wilson insisted on neutrality, denouncing both British and German violations. The British seized American property; the Germans seized American lives. In 1915 a German U-boat (a kind of submarine) torpedoed the unarmed British passenger liner <a href="/wiki/RMS_Lusitania" title="RMS Lusitania">RMS <i>Lusitania</i></a>. It sank in 20 minutes, killing 128 American civilians and over 1,000 Britons. It was against the laws of war to sink any passenger ship without allowing the passengers to reach the life boats. American opinion turned strongly against Germany as a bloodthirsty threat to civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany apologized and promised to stop attacks by its U-boats. Both sides rejected Wilson's repeated efforts to negotiate an end to the war. Berlin reversed course in early 1917 when it saw the opportunity to strangle Britain's food supply by unrestricted submarine warfare. The Kaiser and Germany's real rulers, the Army commanders, realized it meant war with the United States, but expected they could defeat the Allies before the Americans could play a major military role. Germany started sinking American merchant ships in early 1917. Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war in April 1917. He neutralized the antiwar element by arguing this was a war with the main long-term postwar goal of ending aggressive militarism and making the world "safe for democracy."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_opinion">Public opinion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Public opinion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Apart from <a href="/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="White Anglo-Saxon Protestant">White Anglo-Saxon Protestant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglophile" title="Anglophile">Anglophile</a> <a href="/wiki/High_society" title="High society">high society</a> demanding a <a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a> with the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, American public opinion in 1914-1916 reflected a strong desire to stay out of the war. Support for American neutrality was particularly strong among those whom Wilson later demonised as <a href="/wiki/Hyphenated_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphenated Americans">Hyphenated Americans</a>; <a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans" title="Irish Americans">Irish Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German Americans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavian Americans">Scandinavian Americans</a>, as well as among church leaders, women, and the rural white South.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due in large part to the <a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">anti-German</a> <a href="/wiki/Atrocity_propaganda" title="Atrocity propaganda">atrocity propaganda</a> <a href="/wiki/British_propaganda_during_World_War_I" title="British propaganda during World War I">composed</a> by <a href="/wiki/British_Intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="British Intelligence">British Intelligence</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wellington_House" title="Wellington House">Wellington House</a> and introduced into the American news media by <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australian</a>-born <i><a href="/wiki/Providence_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Providence Journal">Providence Journal</a></i> editor <a href="/wiki/John_R._Rathom" title="John R. Rathom">John R. Rathom</a>, pro-Neutrality groups completely lost their broader influence. By early 1917 most Americans had come to believe that <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Germany">Imperial Germany</a> was the aggressor in Europe and the enemy of world peace.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_factors">Economic factors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Economic factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the country was at peace, American banks made huge loans to the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Entente powers</a>, which were used mainly to buy munitions, raw materials, and food from across the Atlantic. Although Wilson made minimal preparations for the army before 1917, he did authorize a massive shipbuilding program for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a>. The president was <a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election" title="1916 United States presidential election">narrowly re-elected</a> in 1916 on an anti-war platform. </p><p>By 1917, with Belgium and Northern France occupied, with Russia <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">ending Tsarist rule</a>, and with the remaining Entente nations low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the British economic embargo and naval blockade was causing shortages of fuel and food in Germany, which then decided to resume <a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_submarine_warfare_(February_1917)" class="mw-redirect" title="Unrestricted submarine warfare (February 1917)">unrestricted submarine warfare</a>. The aim was to break the transatlantic supply chain to Britain from other nations, although the German high command realized that sinking American-flagged ships would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. </p><p>Germany's <a href="/wiki/Zimmermann_Telegram" class="mw-redirect" title="Zimmermann Telegram">Zimmermann Telegram</a> outraged Americans just as German submarines started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson asked Congress for "a <a href="/wiki/The_war_to_end_war" title="The war to end war">war to end all wars</a>" that would "make the world safe for democracy", and Congress voted to <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1917)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)">declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US immediately provided money and more supplies, and a small military force. American troops began major combat operations on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a> under General <a href="/wiki/John_J._Pershing" title="John J. Pershing">John J. Pershing</a> in the summer of 1918, arriving at the rate of 10,000 soldiers a day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austria-Hungary_and_Ottoman_Empire">Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Austria-Hungary" title="United States declaration of war on Austria-Hungary">United States declaration of war on Austria-Hungary</a></div> <p>The Senate, in a 74 to 0 vote, declared war on <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> on December 7, 1917, citing Austria-Hungary's severing of diplomatic relations with the United States, its use of unrestricted submarine warfare and <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">its alliance</a> with Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-AHS1_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHS1-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The declaration passed in the House by a vote of 365 to 1. The US never declared war on Germany's other allies the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Ottoman Empire–United States relations">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Bulgaria–United States relations">Bulgaria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Paris_Peace_Conference_and_the_Treaty_of_Versailles">The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Big_Four_(World_War_I)" title="Big Four (World War I)">Big Four (World War I)</a></div> <p>The Paris Peace Conference convened in January 1919 in Paris, hosted by France. The conference was called to establish the terms of the peace after World War I. Though nearly thirty nations participated, the representatives of Great Britain, France, the United States, and Italy became known as the “Big Four.” Italy quit after losing itsa claim to <a href="/wiki/Fiume_question" title="Fiume question">Fiume</a>, leaving the Big Three: Wilson, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> and French premier <a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a>. They dominated the proceedings and drafted the Treaty of Versailles to end the war with Germany. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> articulated the compromises reached at the Paris conference. It included the planned formation of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, which would serve both as an international forum and an international collective security arrangement. Wilson focused on the League, but fatally refused to work with the Republicans who controlled Congress. Clemenceau focused on permanently weakening Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lloyd George, sitting he said between Jesus Christ and Napoleon, tried to fashion compromises.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> According to Michael Neiberg:</p><blockquote><p>Wilson received an ecstatic welcome from the people of Europe. At least for a little while, Europeans tired of war and conflict saw him as a potential savior from the old system and a possible architect of a newer, more just world. But that feeling did not last long. European leaders quickly came to dislike Wilson's constant moralizing, his lack of understanding of the problems of Europe, and his stubborn unwillingness to see the destruction of France with his own eyes for fear, he said, of the devastation hardening his heart toward Germany. By the time the conference ended, almost everyone in Europe, and many members of the American delegation itself, had grown weary of Wilson and frustrated with his ineffectiveness at the conference.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaty_of_Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Treaty of Versailles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference were complicated. Great Britain, France, and Italy fought together as the Allied Powers. The United States, entered the war in 1917 as an "Associated Power." While the U.S. fought alongside the Allies, it was not bound by treaty with any of them. Nor was it bound to honor pre-existing agreements among the Allied Powers. These secret agreements focused on postwar redistribution of territories. President Wilson strongly opposed many of these arrangements, including Italian demands on the Adriatic. This often led to significant disagreements among the "Big Four."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wilson strongly opposed the Italian demand for control of Fiume, and had the support of Britain and France, whereupon the Italian delegation went home. However Colonel House had been supporting a compromise with the Italians, which alienated Wilson. Their close relationship slowly came to an end.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Treaty negotiations were complicated by the absence of other important nations. The Allies excluded the defeated Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria). Russia had fought as one of the Allies until December 1917, when its new Bolshevik Government withdrew from the war. The Bolshevik decision to repudiate Russia's outstanding financial debts to the Allies and to publish the texts of secret agreements between the Allies angered the Allies. The Big Four refused to recognize the new government in Moscow and did not invite its representatives to the Peace Conference.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to French and British wishes, the Treaty of Versailles subjected Germany to strict punitive measures. The Treaty required the new German Government to surrender approximately 10 percent of its prewar territory in Europe and all of its colonies. It placed the harbor city of Danzig (now Gdansk) and the coal-rich Saarland under the administration of the League of Nations, and allowed France to exploit the economic resources of the Saarland until 1935. It limited the German Army and Navy in size, and allowed for the trial of Kaiser Wilhelm II and a number of other high-ranking German officials as war criminals. Under the terms of Article 231 of the Treaty, the Germans accepted responsibility for the war and the liability to pay financial reparations to the Allies. The Inter-Allied Commission determined the amount and presented its findings in 1921. The amount they determined was 132 billion gold <a href="/wiki/Reichsmark" title="Reichsmark">Reichsmark</a>, or 32 billion U.S. dollars, on top of the initial $5 billion payment demanded by the Treaty. Germans grew to resent the harsh conditions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_resists_League_of_Nations_1919.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/USA_resists_League_of_Nations_1919.jpg/300px-USA_resists_League_of_Nations_1919.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="406" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/USA_resists_League_of_Nations_1919.jpg/450px-USA_resists_League_of_Nations_1919.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/USA_resists_League_of_Nations_1919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="491" data-file-height="665" /></a><figcaption>Childish USA resists Wilson's attempt to join League of Nations 1919, from <a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch (magazine)</a> (London)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Senate_rejection">Senate rejection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Senate rejection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the Treaty of Versailles did not satisfy all parties concerned, by the time President Woodrow Wilson returned to the United States in July 1919, U.S. public opinion probably favored ratification of the Treaty, including the Covenant of the League of Nations. With a two-thirds majority required for ratification, Senate voted on several versions but never ratified any.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The opposition focused on Article 10 of the Treaty, which dealt with collective security and the League of Nations. This article, opponents argued, ceded the war powers of the U.S. Government to the League's Council. The opposition came from two groups: the “Irreconcilables,” who refused to join the League of Nations under any circumstances, and “Reservationists,” led by Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chairman, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a>, who wanted amendments made before they would ratify the Treaty. While Chairman Lodge's attempt to pass amendments to the Treaty was unsuccessful in September, he did manage to attach 14 “reservations” to it in November. In a final vote on March 19, 1920, the Treaty of Versailles fell short of ratification by seven votes. Consequently, the U.S. Government signed the Treaty of Berlin on August 25, 1921. This separate peace treaty with Germany stipulated that the United States would enjoy all “rights, privileges, indemnities, reparations or advantages” conferred to it by the Treaty of Versailles, but left out any mention of the League of Nations, which the United States never joined.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Wilson_destroys_autocracy_with_his_14_points.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/President_Wilson_destroys_autocracy_with_his_14_points.jpg/220px-President_Wilson_destroys_autocracy_with_his_14_points.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/President_Wilson_destroys_autocracy_with_his_14_points.jpg/330px-President_Wilson_destroys_autocracy_with_his_14_points.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/President_Wilson_destroys_autocracy_with_his_14_points.jpg/440px-President_Wilson_destroys_autocracy_with_his_14_points.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="518" /></a><figcaption>President Wilson tells George Washington he destroys autocracy with his 14 points</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Idealism,_moralism_and_Wilsonianism"><span id="Idealism.2C_moralism_and_Wilsonianism"></span>Idealism, moralism and Wilsonianism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Idealism, moralism and Wilsonianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wilsonianism" title="Wilsonianism">Wilsonianism</a></div> <p>A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, Wilson appealed to a gospel of service and promoted a profound sense of moralism. Wilson's idealistic <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">internationalism</a>, now referred to as "Wilsonianism," calls for the United States to enter the world arena to fight for democracy, and has been a contentious position in <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign policy in the United States">American foreign policy</a>, serving as a model for "idealists" to emulate and "realists" to reject ever since.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Missionary_diplomacy">Missionary diplomacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Missionary diplomacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Missionary_diplomacy" title="Missionary diplomacy">Missionary diplomacy</a> was Wilson's idea that Washington had a <a href="/wiki/Moral_responsibility" title="Moral responsibility">moral responsibility</a> to deny diplomatic recognition to any Latin American government that was not democratic. It was an expansion of President <a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a>'s 1823 <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fourteen_Points">Fourteen Points</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Fourteen Points"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a> was Wilson's statement of principles that was to be used for <a href="/wiki/Peace_negotiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace negotiation">peace negotiations</a> to end the war. The principles were outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms to Congress by President Wilson. By October 1918, the new German government was negotiating with Wilson for peace based on the Fourteen Points.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, his main Allied colleagues (<a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a> of France, and <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> of Great Britain) were skeptical of the applicability of Wilsonian idealism.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wilson called for the abolition of secret treaties, a <a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">reduction in armaments</a>, an <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">adjustment in colonial claims</a> in the interests of both native peoples and colonists, and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_seas" title="Freedom of the seas">freedom of the seas</a>. Wilson also made proposals intended to ensure world peace in the future. For example, he proposed the <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">removal of economic barriers</a> between nations, and the promise of <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> for national minorities. Most important of all, the Fourteenth Point, was a world organization that would guarantee the "political independence and territorial integrity [of] great and small states alike"—a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his intense negotiations with Clemenceau and Lloyd George he was reluctantly willing to compromise on this point and that, but always insisted on keeping the League.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principles_of_Wilsonianism">Principles of Wilsonianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Principles of Wilsonianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The principles associated with "Wilsonianism" across the 20th century and into the 21st include:<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Conferences and bodies devoted to resolving conflict, especially the League of Nations and the United Nations.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Advocacy of the spread of <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anne-Marie_Slaughter" title="Anne-Marie Slaughter">Anne-Marie Slaughter</a> writes that Wilson expected and hoped "that democracy would result from self-determination, but he never sought to spread democracy directly."<sup id="cite_ref-Slaughter_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slaughter-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaughter writes that Wilson's League of Nations was similarly intended to foster democracy by serving as "a high wall behind which nations" (especially small nations) "could exercise their right of self determination" but that Wilson did not envision that the U.S. would affirmatively intervene to "direct" or "shape" democracies in foreign nations.<sup id="cite_ref-Slaughter_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slaughter-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> of peoples;<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Advocacy of the spread of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Support for <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a>, and at least partial opposition to <a href="/wiki/American_isolationism" class="mw-redirect" title="American isolationism">American isolationism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-collective_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collective-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Support for <a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">multilateralism</a> through collective deliberation among nations<sup id="cite_ref-Slaughter_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slaughter-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Support for open diplomacy and opposition to <a href="/wiki/Secret_treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret treaties">secret treaties</a><sup id="cite_ref-collective_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collective-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Support for <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_navigation" title="Freedom of navigation">freedom of navigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_seas" title="Freedom of the seas">freedom of the seas</a><sup id="cite_ref-collective_99-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collective-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_Wilsonianism">Impact of Wilsonianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Impact of Wilsonianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>American foreign relations since 1914 have rested on Wilsonian idealism, argues historian <a href="/wiki/David_M._Kennedy_(historian)" title="David M. Kennedy (historian)">David Kennedy</a>. "Wilson's ideas continue to dominate American foreign policy in the twenty-first century. In the aftermath of 9/11 they have, if anything, taken on even greater vitality."<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Wilson was a remarkably effective writer and thinker and his diplomatic policies had a profound influence on the world. Diplomatic historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Russell_Mead" title="Walter Russell Mead">Walter Russell Mead</a> has explained:</p><blockquote><p>Wilson's principles survived the eclipse of the Versailles system and that they still guide European politics today: self-determination, democratic government, collective security, international law, and a league of nations. Wilson may not have gotten everything he wanted at Versailles, and his treaty was never ratified by the Senate, but his vision and his diplomacy, for better or worse, set the tone for the twentieth century. France, Germany, Italy, and Britain may have sneered at Wilson, but every one of these powers today conducts its European policy along Wilsonian lines. What was once dismissed as visionary is now accepted as fundamental. This was no mean achievement, and no European statesman of the twentieth century has had as lasting, as benign, or as widespread an influence.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_interpretations">Alternative interpretations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Alternative interpretations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historians and political analysts have been largely Wilsonian in their approach to American diplomatic history, according to Lloyd Ambrosius. However, there are two alternative schools of thought as well. Ambrosius argues that Wilsonianism is based on national self-determination and democracy; open door globalization based on open markets for trade and finance; collective security as typified by Wilson's idea of the League of Nations as well as NATO; and a hope bordering on a promise of future peace and progress.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Realism is the first alternative school, based on the outlook and policies of Theodore Roosevelt, and represented most famously by <a href="/wiki/George_Kennan" class="mw-redirect" title="George Kennan">George Kennan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Richard_Nixon_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration">Richard Nixon</a>. They blame Wilson for giving too much emphasis on Democracy—that for realists was a low priority—they would eagerly work with dictators who supported American positions. A third approach emerged from the New Left in the 1960s, led by <a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_School_(diplomatic_history)" title="Wisconsin School (diplomatic history)">"Wisconsin School"</a>. It is called "Revisionism" and argues that selfish economic motivations, not idealism or realism, motivated Wilsonianism. Ambrosius argues that historians generally agree that Wilsonianism was the main intellectual force in battling the Nazis in 1945 and the Soviet communists in 1989. It seemed to be the dominant factor in world affairs by 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wilsonians were shocked when the Chinese Communists rejected democracy in the <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a>, and when Putin rejected it for Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wilsonians were dismayed when <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration">George W. Bush</a>'s initiative to bring democracy to the Middle East after 9/11 failed.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It produced not an <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a>, but instead antidemocratic results most famously in Egypt, Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomatic history of World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history of World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China%E2%80%93United_States_relations_to_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="History of China–United States relations to 1948">History of China–United States relations to 1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="France–United States relations">France–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Germany–United States relations">Germany–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Japan–United States relations">Japan–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Latin America–United States relations">Latin America–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Mexico–United States relations">Mexico–United States relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_the_Mexican_Revolution" title="United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution">United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="United Kingdom–United States relations">United Kingdom–United States relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Hines_Page" title="Walter Hines Page">Walter Hines Page</a>, US ambassador</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States in World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_M._House" title="Edward M. House">Edward M. House</a>, Colonel House was Wilson's main advisor</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKissinger1994" class="citation book cs1">Kissinger, Henry (1994). <i>Diplomacy</i>. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. p. 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diplomacy&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster+Paperbacks&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Kissinger&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William A. Link and Arthur S. Link, <i>American Epoch: A History of the United States Since 1900. Vol. 1. War, Reform, and Society, 1900-1945</i> (7th ed, 1993) p 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson's wife froze out House after the president became disabled. Charles E. Neu, <i>Colonel House: A Biography of Woodrow Wilson's Silent Partner</i> (2015) pp. 427, 432, 434.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur S. Link, <i>Wilson, Volume II: The New Freedom</i> (1956) 2:7–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">August Heckscher, <i>Woodrow Wilson</i> (1991) pp 269-270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernest R. May, <i>The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917</i> (1959) pp 137–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Milton Cooper, <i>Woodrow Wilson: a biography</i> (2009) p. 295</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur S. Link, <i>Wilson: the struggle for neutrality 1914-1915</i> (1960) 3:427-428</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1914-20v01/d277">Papers relating to the foreign relations of the United States, The Lansing Papers, 1914–1920, Volume I, Document 277</a>. In the enclosure it is stated that "If the British Government is expecting an attitude of “benevolent neutrality” on our part—a position which is not neutral and which is not governed by the principles of neutrality—they should know that nothing is further from our intention."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lester H. Woolsey, "Robert Lansing's Record as Secretary of State." Current History 29.3 (1928): 386-387</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Young, <i>An American by Degrees: The Extraordinary Lives of French Ambassador Jules Jusserand</i> (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Neu, (2015) pp 148, 219, 309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Link, <i>Wilson</i> 5:278–280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reinhard R. Doerries, <i>Imperial Challenge: Ambassador Count Bernstorff and German-American Relations, 1908-1917</i> (1989)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Irving Max Schwab, "Sabotage at Black Tom Island: A wake-up call for America." <i>International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence</i> 25.2 (2012): 367-391.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-before-the-southern-commercial-congress-mobile-alabama">"Address Before the Southern Commercial Congress in Mobile, Alabama | The American Presidency Project"</a>. <i>www.presidency.ucsb.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.presidency.ucsb.edu&rft.atitle=Address+Before+the+Southern+Commercial+Congress+in+Mobile%2C+Alabama+%7C+The+American+Presidency+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fdocuments%2Faddress-before-the-southern-commercial-congress-mobile-alabama&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-before-the-southern-commercial-congress-mobile-alabama">"Address Before the Southern Commercial Congress in Mobile, Alabama | The American Presidency Project"</a>. <i>www.presidency.ucsb.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.presidency.ucsb.edu&rft.atitle=Address+Before+the+Southern+Commercial+Congress+in+Mobile%2C+Alabama+%7C+The+American+Presidency+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fdocuments%2Faddress-before-the-southern-commercial-congress-mobile-alabama&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenderson1984" class="citation journal cs1">Henderson, Peter V. N. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1007454?searchText=Wilson+and+recognition&searchUri=/action/doBasicSearch?Query=Wilson+and+recognition&so=rel&ab_segments=0/basic_search_gsv2/control&refreqid=fastly-default:66246e575232eed6129eca435435690a&seq=8">"Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico"</a>. <i>The Americas</i>. <b>41</b> (2): 151–176. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1007454">10.2307/1007454</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-1615">0003-1615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Americas&rft.atitle=Woodrow+Wilson%2C+Victoriano+Huerta%2C+and+the+Recognition+Issue+in+Mexico&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=151-176&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1007454&rft.issn=0003-1615&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=Peter+V.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1007454%3FsearchText%3DWilson%2Band%2Brecognition%26searchUri%3D%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DWilson%2Band%2Brecognition%26so%3Drel%26ab_segments%3D0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol%26refreqid%3Dfastly-default%3A66246e575232eed6129eca435435690a%26seq%3D8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William S. Coker, "The Panama Canal Tolls Controversy: A Different Perspective." <i>Journal of American History</i> 55.3 (1968): 555-564 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1891013">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leila Amos Pendleton, "Our New Possessions-The Danish West Indies." <i>Journal of Negro History</i> 2.3 (1917): 267-288. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.2307/2713768">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl M. Schmitt, <i>Mexico and the United States, 1821-1973</i> (1974) pp 108–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter V. N. Henderson, "Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico," <i>The Americas</i> (1984) 41#2 pp. 151–176 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1007454">1007454</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack Sweetman, <i>The Landing at Veracruz: 1914</i> (Naval Institute Press, 1968).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael E. Neagle, "A Bandit Worth Hunting: Pancho Villa and America's War on Terror in Mexico, 1916-1917." <i>Terrorism and Political Violence</i> 33.7 (2021): 1492-1510.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James W. Hurst, <i>Pancho Villa and BlackJack Pershing: The Punitive Expedition in Mexico</i> (2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James A. Sandos, "Pancho Villa and American Security: Woodrow Wilson's Mexican Diplomacy Reconsidered." <i>Journal of Latin American Studies</i> 13.2 (1981): 293-311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Boghardt, <i>The Zimmermann Telegram: Intelligence, Diplomacy, and America's Entry into World War I</i> (Naval Institute Press, 2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin T Harrison, "Woodrow Wilson in Nicaragua," <i>Caribbean Quarterly</i> (2005) 51#1 pp 25-36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur S. Link, <i>Wilson: The New Freedom</i> (1956) pp. 331–342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur S. Link, ed., <i>The Papers of Woodrow Wilson volume 27: 1913</i> (1978) pp 470, 526–530, 552</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George W. Baker, Jr., "The Wilson Administration and Nicaragua,1913-1921," <i>Americas</i> (1966) 22#4 pp 339-376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alan McPherson, "Herbert Hoover, Occupation Withdrawal, and the Good Neighbor Policy." <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i> 44.4 (2014): 623-639. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/36951451/Hoover_FINAL_as_published.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bruce_Elleman_2015-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bruce_Elleman_2015_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bruce_Elleman_2015_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce Elleman, <i>Wilson and China: A Revised History of the Shandong Question</i> (Routledge, 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur S. Link, <i>Wilson, Volume III: The Struggle for Neutrality, 1914-1915</i> (1960) pp 276, quoting E.T. Williams, head of the Far Eastern Division; italics in his memo to Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Madeleine Chi, "China and Unequal Treaties at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919." <i>Asian Profile</i> 1.1 (1973): 49-61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce A. Elleman, "Did Woodrow Wilson really betray the Republic of China at Versailles?" <i>American Asian Review</i> (1995) 13#1 pp 1-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eugene P. Trani, "Woodrow Wilson, China, and the Missionaries, 1913—1921." <i>Journal of Presbyterian History</i> 49.4 (1971): 328-351, quoting pp 332-333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herbert P. Le Pore, "Hiram Johnson, Woodrow Wilson, and the California Alien Land Law Controversy of 1913." <i>Southern California Quarterly</i> 61.1 (1979): 99–110. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41170813">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Link, <i>Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era</i> (1954) pp. 84–87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cathal J. Nolan, et al. <i>Turbulence in the Pacific: Japanese-U.S. Relations during World War I</i> (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter LaFeber, <i>The Clash: A History of U.S.-Japan Relations</i> pp.106-116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Chal Vinson, "The Annulment of the Lansing-Ishii Agreement." <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> (1958): 57-69. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3637211">Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Whitney Griswold, <i>The Far Eastern Policy of the United States</i> (1938) pp 239-68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhitian Luo, "National humiliation and national assertion-The Chinese response to the twenty-one demands," <i>Modern Asian Studies</i> (1993) 27#2 pp 297-319.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Griswold, <i>The Far Eastern Policy of the United States</i> (1938) pp 326-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clement (2009) p 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roy Watson Curry, "Woodrow Wilson and Philippine Policy." <i>Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i> 41.3 (1954): 435-452. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1897492">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tony Smith, <i>America's mission: The United States and the worldwide struggle for democracy in the twentieth century</i> (1994) pp 37-59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wong Kwok Chu, "The Jones Bills 1912–16: A Reappraisal of Filipino Views on Independence", <i>Journal of Southeast Asian Studies</i> 1982 13(2): 252–269</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chanrobles.com/joneslaw.htm">Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 (Jones Law)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sonia M. Zaide, <i>The Philippines: A Unique Nation</i> (1994) p. 312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zaide, pp. 312–313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. W. Brands, <i>Bound to empire: the United States and the Philippines</i> (Oxford UP, 1992) pp 104-118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Fourteen-Points">"Fourteen Points | Text & Significance"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Fourteen+Points+%7C+Text+%26+Significance&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FFourteen-Points&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargaret_MacMillan2003" class="citation book cs1">Margaret MacMillan (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/paris1919sixmont00macm/page/63"><i>Paris 1919 : six months that changed the world</i></a>. Random House. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/paris1919sixmont00macm/page/63">63–82</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780375508264" title="Special:BookSources/9780375508264"><bdi>9780375508264</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paris+1919+%3A+six+months+that+changed+the+world&rft.pages=63-82&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780375508264&rft.au=Margaret+MacMillan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fparis1919sixmont00macm%2Fpage%2F63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_E._Davis_and_Eugene_P._Trani2009" class="citation book cs1">Donald E. Davis and Eugene P. Trani (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dy6v1j8NfycC&pg=PA48"><i>Distorted Mirrors: Americans and Their Relations with Russia and China in the Twentieth Century</i></a>. University of Missouri Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826271891" title="Special:BookSources/9780826271891"><bdi>9780826271891</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distorted+Mirrors%3A+Americans+and+Their+Relations+with+Russia+and+China+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780826271891&rft.au=Donald+E.+Davis+and+Eugene+P.+Trani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddy6v1j8NfycC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bertrand M. Patenaude, "A Race against Anarchy: Even after the Great War ended, famine and chaos threatened Europe. Herbert Hoover rescued the continent, reviving trade, rebuilding infrastructure, and restoring economic order, holding a budding Bolshevism in check." <i>Hoover Digest</i> 2 (2020): 183-200 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hoover.org/research/race-against-anarchy">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas Smith, <i>The Russian job: the forgotten story of how America saved the Soviet Union from ruin</i> (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pJmEDwAAQBAJ">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Betty Miller Unterberger, "President Wilson and the Decision to Send American Troops to Siberia." <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 24.1 (1955): 63-74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eugene P. Trani, "Woodrow Wilson and the decision to intervene in Russia: a reconsideration." <i>Journal of Modern History</i> 48.3 (1976): 440-461.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Justus D. Doenecke, "Neutrality Policy and the Decision for War." in <i>A Companion to Woodrow Wilson</i> (2013): 241–269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Zelikow, <i>The Road Less Traveled: The Secret Battle to End the Great War, 1916-1917</i> (PublicAffairs, 2021).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph M. Siracusa, "American Policy-Makers, World War I, and the Menace of Prussianism, 1914-1920," <i>Australasian Journal of American Studies</i> (1998) 17#2 pp 1-30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerald_A_Combs2015" class="citation book cs1">Jerald A Combs (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eWRsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT325"><i>The History of American Foreign Policy: v.1: To 1920</i></a>. pp. 325–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317456377" title="Special:BookSources/9781317456377"><bdi>9781317456377</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+American+Foreign+Policy%3A+v.1%3A+To+1920&rft.pages=325-&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781317456377&rft.au=Jerald+A+Combs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeWRsBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a wartime American analysis see Charles A. Ellwood, "Making the world safe for democracy." <i>The Scientific Monthly</i> 7.6 (1918): 511-524 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/7088.pdf">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeanette_Keith2004" class="citation book cs1">Jeanette Keith (2004). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/richmanswarpoorm00keit"><i>Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight: Race, Class, and Power in the Rural South during the First World War</i></a></span>. U. of North Carolina Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/richmanswarpoorm00keit/page/n11">1</a>–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-7589-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-7589-6"><bdi>978-0-8078-7589-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rich+Man%27s+War%2C+Poor+Man%27s+Fight%3A+Race%2C+Class%2C+and+Power+in+the+Rural+South+during+the+First+World+War&rft.pages=1-5&rft.pub=U.+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-7589-6&rft.au=Jeanette+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frichmanswarpoorm00keit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cooper, <i>The Vanity of Power</i> (1969) pp. 19–27, 202, 223–224.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/war_end_01.shtml">"World War One"</a>. BBC History.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+War+One&rft.pub=BBC+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fworldwars%2Fwwone%2Fwar_end_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLink1972" class="citation book cs1">Link, Arthur S. (1972). <i>Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917</i>. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 252–282.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Woodrow+Wilson+and+the+Progressive+Era%2C+1910%E2%80%931917&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=252-282&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Link&rft.aufirst=Arthur+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AHS1-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AHS1_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/image/HJRes169_WWI_Austria-Hungary.htm">H.J.Res.169: Declaration of War with Austria-Hungary, WWI</a>, United States Senate</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Patrick, "Woodrow Wilson, the Ottomans, and World War I." <i>Diplomatic History</i> 42.5 (2018): 886-910.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/paris-peace">US State Department, Office of the Historian, "Home Milestones 1914-1920 The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles" (2017)</a>. a US government document.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret MacMillan, <i>Paris 1919: Six months that changed the world</i> (2007) p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael S. Neiberg, <i>The Treaty of Versailles: A Concise History</i> (Oxford UP, 2017) p. xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Clarence Nixon, "Big Four" <i>The Virginia Quarterly Review</i> 19.4 (1943): 513-521. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26441516">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Neu (2015) p 416.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On Italy and Wilson see Arthur Walworth, <i>Wilson and his Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919</i> (WW Norton, 1986) pp 335–358.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Kennan, . "Russia and the Versailles Conference." <i>The American Scholar</i> (1960): 13-42 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41208718">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret MacMillan, <i>Paris 1919: Six months that changed the world</i> (Random House, 2001) pp 63–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacMillan, <i>Paris 1919</i> (2001) pp 194–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ralph A. Stone, ed. <i>Wilson and the League of Nations: why America's rejection?</i> (1967) pp 1-11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theodore P. Greene, ed. <i>Wilson At Versailles</i> (1957) "Introduction" pp v to x. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/WilsonAtVersailles">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patricia O'Toole, <i>The Moralist: Woodrow Wilson and the World He Made</i> (2019) pp. xv to xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard M. Gamble, "Savior Nation: Woodrow Wilson and the Gospel of Service," <i>Humanitas</i> 14#1 1(2001) pp 4+.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. M. Carroll, "Wilsonian Diplomacy: Friends and Enemies." <i>Canadian Review of American Studies 19.2</i> (1988): 211-226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tony Smith, <i>America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy</i> (Princeton University Press, 2012) pp 60-83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John L. Snell, "Wilson on Germany and the fourteen points." <i>Journal of Modern History</i> 26.4 (1954): 364-369 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1876113">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Irwin_Unger" title="Irwin Unger">Irwin Unger</a>, <i>These United States</i> (2007) 561.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/fourteen-points">"Wilson's Fourteen Points, 1918 - 1914–1920 - Milestones - Office of the Historian"</a>. <i>history.state.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.state.gov&rft.atitle=Wilson%27s+Fourteen+Points%2C+1918+-+1914%E2%80%931920+-+Milestones+-+Office+of+the+Historian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fmilestones%2F1914-1920%2Ffourteen-points&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Margaret MacMillan, <i>Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World</i> (2007) pp 83–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John A. Thompson, "Wilsonianism: the dynamics of a conflicted concept." <i>International Affairs</i> 86.1 (2010): 27-47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Fromkin, "What Is Wilsonianism?" <i>World Policy Journal</i> 11.1 (1994): 100-111 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40209353">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Amos Perlmutter, <i>Making the world safe for democracy: A century of Wilsonianism and its totalitarian challengers</i> (U of North Carolina Press, 1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trygve Throntveit, "Wilsonianism." in <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History</i> (2019).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edsitement.neh.gov/curriculum-unit/woodrow-wilson-and-foreign-policy">"Woodrow Wilson and foreign policy"</a>. <i>EDSITEment</i>. National Endowment for the Humanities.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EDSITEment&rft.atitle=Woodrow+Wilson+and+foreign+policy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedsitement.neh.gov%2Fcurriculum-unit%2Fwoodrow-wilson-and-foreign-policy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Slaughter-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Slaughter_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Slaughter_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Slaughter_96-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Anne-Marie Slaughter, "Wilsonianism in the Twenty-first Century" in <i>The Crisis of American Foreign Policy: Wilsonianism in the Twenty-first Century</i> (edited by G. John Ikenberry, Thomas J. Knock, Anne Marie-Slaughter & Tony Smith: Princeton UP, 2009), pp. 94-96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erez Manela, <i>The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism</i> (2007), pp. 41-42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/wilson/impact-and-legacy">"Woodrow Wilson, Impact and Legacy"</a>. Miller Center. 4 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-01-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Woodrow+Wilson%2C+Impact+and+Legacy&rft.pub=Miller+Center&rft.date=2016-10-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fwilson%2Fimpact-and-legacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-collective-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-collective_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-collective_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-collective_99-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd_E._Ambrosius2002" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd E. Ambrosius (2002). <i>Wilsonianism: Woodrow Wilson and His Legacy in American Foreign Relations</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 42–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wilsonianism%3A+Woodrow+Wilson+and+His+Legacy+in+American+Foreign+Relations&rft.pages=42-51&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Lloyd+E.+Ambrosius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholas J. Cull, "Public Diplomacy Before Gullion: The Evolution of a Phrase" in Nancy Snow & Philip M. Taylor, eds. <i>Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy</i> (Routledge: 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joel Ira Holwitt, <i>"Execute Against Japan": The U.S. Decision to Conduct Unrestricted Submarine Warfare</i> (Texas A&M Press, 2008), pp. 16-17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David M. Kennedy, "What 'W' Owes to 'WW': President Bush May Not Even Know It, but He Can Trace His View of the World to Woodrow Wilson, Who Defined a Diplomatic Destiny for America That We Can't Escape." <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i> Vol: 295. Issue: 2. (March 2005) pp 36+.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For the presidential implementation of Wilsonianism see Tony Smith, <i>America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy</i> (2nd ed. Princeton University Press, 2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.randomhouse.com/knopf/authors/mead/excerpt.html">Walter Russell Mead, <i>Special Providence,</i> (2001)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lloyd E. Ambrosius, "Woodrow Wilson and World War I." in <i>A Companion to American Foreign Relations</i> (2006): 149-167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ambrosius, p. 149-150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David G. Haglund, and Deanna Soloninka. "Woodrow Wilson Still Fuels Debate on 'Who Lost Russia?'." Orbis 60.3 (2016): 433-452.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lloyd E. Ambrosius, "Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical comparisons of ends and means in their foreign policies." Diplomatic History 30.3 (2006): 509-543.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce S. Thornton, "The Arab Spring implodes: we failed to understand the wave of change--or to shape it--because we failed to understand Islamism." Hoover Digest 2 (2014): 130-138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tony Smith, “Wilsonianism after Iraq." in <i>The Crisis of American Foreign Policy</i> (Princeton University Press, 2008) pp. 53-88.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The source for 1919 is <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/paris-peace">US State Department, Office of the Historian, "Home Milestones 1914-1920 The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles" (2017)</a>, a U.S. government document that is not copyright. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woodrow_Wilson_postage_stamp_issues.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Woodrow_Wilson_postage_stamp_issues.jpeg/300px-Woodrow_Wilson_postage_stamp_issues.jpeg" decoding="async" width="300" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Woodrow_Wilson_postage_stamp_issues.jpeg/450px-Woodrow_Wilson_postage_stamp_issues.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Woodrow_Wilson_postage_stamp_issues.jpeg/600px-Woodrow_Wilson_postage_stamp_issues.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1696" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Calhoun, Frederick S. <i>Power and Principle: Armed Intervention in wilsonion Foreign Policy</i> (Kent State UP, 1986).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClements1992" class="citation book cs1">Clements, Kendrick A. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyofwood00clem"><i>The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson</i></a>. University Press of Kansas.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Woodrow+Wilson&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Clements&rft.aufirst=Kendrick+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpresidencyofwood00clem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span>; covers all major foreign policy issues</li> <li>Combs, Jerald A. <i>The History of American Foreign Policy: From 1895</i> (Routledge, 2017), textbook</li> <li>Gardner, Lloyd C. <i>Safe for democracy: the Anglo-American response to revolution, 1913-1923</i> (Oxford UP, 1984).</li> <li>Hannigan, Robert E. <i>The New World Power</i> (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/New-World-Power-American-1898-1917-ebook/dp/B00E1XZJUI/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Herring, George C. <i>From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776</i> (Oxford UP, 2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr">online</a>, textbook</li> <li>Link, Arthur S. <i>Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917</i> (1954), major scholarly survey <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsonpr00link">online</a>; brief summary of Link biography vol 2-3-4-5</li> <li>Link, Arthur S. <i>Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies</i> (1957) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015004819630">online</a></li> <li>Link, Arthur S. ed. <i>Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913–1921</i> (1982). essays by 7 scholars <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5fs4DwAAQBAJ&dq=Woodrow+Wilson+and+a+Revolutionary+World++Arthur+S.+Link&pg=PT6">online</a></li> <li>Perkins, Bradford. <i>The Great Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1895–1914</i> (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatrapprocheme0000perk">online</a></li> <li>Reed, James. <i>The Missionary Mind and American East Asian Policy, 1911–1915</i> (Harvard UP, 1983).</li> <li>Robinson, Edgar Eugene, and Victor J. West. <i>The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson, 1913-1917</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foreignpolicywo02westgoog">online</a> useful survey with many copies of primary sources.</li> <li>Smith, Tony. <i>America's mission call in the United States and the worldwide struggle for democracy in the twentieth century</i> (1994).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1972" class="citation journal cs1">Wells, Samuel F. (1972). "New Perspectives on Wilsonian Diplomacy: The Secular Evangelism of American Political Economy". <i>Perspectives in American History</i>. <b>6</b>: 389–419.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+in+American+History&rft.atitle=New+Perspectives+on+Wilsonian+Diplomacy%3A+The+Secular+Evangelism+of+American+Political+Economy&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=389-419&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Samuel+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I">World War I</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ambrosius, Lloyd E. "Woodrow Wilson and World War I" in <i>A Companion to American Foreign Relations,</i> edited by Robert D. Schulzinger. (2003).</li> <li>Bruce, Robert B. <i>A Fraternity of Arms: America and France in the Great War</i> (UP of Kansas. 2003).</li> <li>Clarke, Michael. "Primacy Unrequited: American Grand Strategy Under Wilson." in <i>American Grand Strategy and National Security</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp. 117–150.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClements2004" class="citation journal cs1">Clements, Kendrick A. (2004). "Woodrow Wilson and World War I". <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>34</b>: 62–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1741-5705.2004.00035.x">10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00035.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Woodrow+Wilson+and+World+War+I&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=62-82&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1741-5705.2004.00035.x&rft.aulast=Clements&rft.aufirst=Kendrick+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cooper, Jr., John Milton. <i>The Vanity of Power: American Isolationism and the First World War 1914-1917</i> (Greenwood, 1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vanityofpowerame0000coop">online</a></li> <li>Cude, Michael R. <i>Woodrow Wilson: The First World War and Modern Internationalism</i> (Routledge, 2024).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDayer1976" class="citation journal cs1">Dayer, Roberta A. (1976). "Strange Bedfellows: J. P. Morgan & Co., Whitehall and the Wilson Administration During World War I". <i>Business History</i>. <b>18</b> (2): 127–151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00076797600000014">10.1080/00076797600000014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+History&rft.atitle=Strange+Bedfellows%3A+J.+P.+Morgan+%26+Co.%2C+Whitehall+and+the+Wilson+Administration+During+World+War+I&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=127-151&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00076797600000014&rft.aulast=Dayer&rft.aufirst=Roberta+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoenecke2013" class="citation book cs1">Doenecke, Justus D. (2013). "Neutrality Policy and the Decision for War". <i>A Companion to Woodrow Wilson</i>. pp. 241–269. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118445693.ch13">10.1002/9781118445693.ch13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118445693" title="Special:BookSources/9781118445693"><bdi>9781118445693</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neutrality+Policy+and+the+Decision+for+War&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Woodrow+Wilson&rft.pages=241-269&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118445693.ch13&rft.isbn=9781118445693&rft.aulast=Doenecke&rft.aufirst=Justus+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Doenecke, Justus D. <i>Nothing less than war: a new history of America's entry into World War I</i> (UP of Kentucky, 2011).</li> <li>Doerries, Reinhard R. <i>Imperial Challenge: Ambassador Count Bernstorff and German-American Relations, 1908-1917</i> (1989).</li> <li>Epstein, Katherine C. “The Conundrum of American Power in the Age of World War I,” <i>Modern American History</i> (2019): 1-21.</li> <li>Esposito, David M. <i>The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson: American War Aims in World War I.</i> (1996).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerns2013" class="citation journal cs1">Ferns, Nicholas (2013). "Loyal Advisor? Colonel Edward House's Confidential Trips to Europe, 1913–1917". <i>Diplomacy & Statecraft</i>. <b>24</b> (3): 365–382. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592296.2013.817926">10.1080/09592296.2013.817926</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159469024">159469024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomacy+%26+Statecraft&rft.atitle=Loyal+Advisor%3F+Colonel+Edward+House%27s+Confidential+Trips+to+Europe%2C+1913%E2%80%931917&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=365-382&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09592296.2013.817926&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159469024%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ferns&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Flanagan, Jason C. "Woodrow Wilson's" Rhetorical Restructuring": The Transformation of the American Self and the Construction of the German Enemy." <i>Rhetoric & Public Affairs</i> 7.2 (2004): 115-148. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/52897101/Flanagan_Wilsons_Rhetorical_Restructuring_R_PA_Vol_7_Issue_2.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Floyd, Ryan. <i>Abandoning American Neutrality: Woodrow Wilson and the Beginning of the Great War, August 1914–December 1915</i> (Springer, 2013).</li> <li>Gilbert, Charles. <i>American financing of World War I</i> (1970) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanfinancin0000gilb">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannigan2017" class="citation book cs1">Hannigan, Robert E. (2017). <i>The Great War and American Foreign Policy, 1914-24</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.9783%2F9780812293289">10.9783/9780812293289</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812293289" title="Special:BookSources/9780812293289"><bdi>9780812293289</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+War+and+American+Foreign+Policy%2C+1914-24&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.9783%2F9780812293289&rft.isbn=9780812293289&rft.aulast=Hannigan&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Horn, Martin. <i>Britain, France, and the Financing of the First World War</i> (2002), with details on US role</li> <li>Kawamura, Noriko. <i>Turbulence in the Pacific: Japanese-US Relations During World War I</i> (Greenwood, 2000).</li> <li>Kazin, Michael. <i>War Against War: The American Fight for Peace, 1914-1918</i> (2017).</li> <li>Kennedy, Ross A. "Wilson's Wartime Diplomacy: The United States and the First World War, 1914–1918." in <i>A Companion to US Foreign Relations: Colonial Era to the Present</i> (2020): 304–324.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2001" class="citation journal cs1">Kennedy, Ross A. (2001). "Woodrow Wilson, World War I, and American National Security". <i>Diplomatic History</i>. <b>25</b>: 1–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0145-2096.00247">10.1111/0145-2096.00247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomatic+History&rft.atitle=Woodrow+Wilson%2C+World+War+I%2C+and+American+National+Security&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=1-32&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0145-2096.00247&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Ross+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKernek1975" class="citation journal cs1">Kernek, Sterling J. (1975). "Distractions of Peace during War: The Lloyd George Government's Reactions to Woodrow Wilson, December, 1916-November, 1918". <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>65</b> (2): 1–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1006183">10.2307/1006183</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1006183">1006183</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Distractions+of+Peace+during+War%3A+The+Lloyd+George+Government%27s+Reactions+to+Woodrow+Wilson%2C+December%2C+1916-November%2C+1918&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-117&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1006183&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1006183%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kernek&rft.aufirst=Sterling+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Levin Jr., N. Gordon. <i>Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution</i> (Oxford UP, 1968), New Left approach.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAvoy2021" class="citation journal cs1">McAvoy, Shawn (2021). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'We should not expect great benefit from America': Japanese Expansion and the Breakdown of Communication within the Wilson Administration in 1914". <i>Journal of Asia Pacific Studies</i>. <b>6</b> (2): 163–174. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/EBSCOhost_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EBSCOhost (identifier)">EBSCO<i>host</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AN=152071887">152071887</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asia+Pacific+Studies&rft.atitle=%27We+should+not+expect+great+benefit+from+America%27%3A+Japanese+Expansion+and+the+Breakdown+of+Communication+within+the+Wilson+Administration+in+1914&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=163-174&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=McAvoy&rft.aufirst=Shawn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>May, Ernest R. <i>The World War and American isolation : 1914-1917</i> (1959) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldwaramerican0000unse">online</a>, a major scholarly study</li> <li>Mayer, Arno J. <i>Wilson vs. Lenin: Political Origins of the New Diplomacy 1917-1918</i> (1969)</li> <li>Safford, Jeffrey J. <i>Wilsonian Maritime Diplomacy, 1913–1921.</i> 1978.</li> <li>Smith, Daniel M. <i>The Great Departure: The United States in World War I, 1914-1920</i> (1965).</li> <li>Startt, James D. <i>Woodrow Wilson, the Great War, and the Fourth Estate</i> (Texas A&M UP, 2017) 420 pp.</li> <li>Stevenson, David. <i>The First World War and International Politics</i> (1991), Covers the diplomacy of all the major powers.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThrontveit2017" class="citation book cs1">Throntveit, Trygve (2017). <i>Power without Victory</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7208%2Fchicago%2F9780226460079.001.0001">10.7208/chicago/9780226460079.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226459905" title="Special:BookSources/9780226459905"><bdi>9780226459905</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+without+Victory&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7208%2Fchicago%2F9780226460079.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780226459905&rft.aulast=Throntveit&rft.aufirst=Trygve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Trask, David F. <i>The United States in the Supreme War Council: American War Aims and Inter-Allied Strategy, 1917-1918</i> (1961)</li> <li>Tooze, Adam. <i>The Deluge: The Great War, America and the Remaking of the Global Order, 1916-1931</i> (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-deluge-adam-tooze-audio">audio</a>; emphasis on economics</li> <li>Tucker, Robert W. <i>Woodrow Wilson and the Great War: Reconsidering America's Neutrality</i> (U of Virginia Press, 2007).</li> <li>Venzon, Anne ed. <i>The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia</i> (1995), Very thorough coverage.</li> <li>Walworth, Arthur. <i>America's moment, 1918: American diplomacy at the end of World War I</i> (1977) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americasmoment1900arth">online</a></li> <li>Woodward, David R. <i>Trial by Friendship: Anglo-American Relations, 1917–1918 </i> (1993).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1960" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, Esmond (March 1960). "The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson: A Re-Assessment. Part 1: Woodrow Wilson and the First World War". <i>History Today</i>. <b>10</b> (3): 149–157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=The+Foreign+Policy+of+Woodrow+Wilson%3A+A+Re-Assessment.+Part+1%3A+Woodrow+Wilson+and+the+First+World+War&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=149-157&rft.date=1960-03&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Esmond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Young, Ernest William. <i>The Wilson Administration and the Great War</i> (1922) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wilsonadministr00youngoog">online edition</a></li> <li>Zahniser, Marvin R. <i>Uncertain Friendship: American-French diplomatic relations through the Cold War</i> (1975). pp 195–229.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2021" class="citation magazine cs1">Ferguson, Niall (9 April 2021). "All the difference: The peacemaking initiative that failed, at vast cost". <i>Times Literary Supplement</i>. No. 6158. pp. 23–26. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Gale_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gale (identifier)">Gale</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA658753511">A658753511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Times+Literary+Supplement&rft.atitle=All+the+difference%3A+The+peacemaking+initiative+that+failed%2C+at+vast+cost&rft.issue=6158&rft.pages=23-26&rft.date=2021-04-09&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Niall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/CSPAN3_20210517_083500_1916-17_World_War_I_Peace_Talks/start/60/end/120">C-SPAN interview</a>;</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America_2">Latin America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Latin America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution#International_dimensions" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution § International dimensions</a></div> <ul><li>Baker, George W. "The Wilson Administration and Nicaragua, 1913–1921." <i>The Americas</i> 22.4 1966): 339–376.</li> <li>Bemis, Samuel Flagg. <i>The Latin American Policy of the United States.</i> (1943) pp 168–201 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.6941">online</a></li> <li>Boghardt, Thomas. <i>The Zimmermann telegram: intelligence, diplomacy, and America's entry into World War I</i> (Naval Institute Press, 2012).</li> <li>De Quesada, Alejandro. <i>The Hunt for Pancho Villa: The Columbus Raid and Pershing's Punitive Expedition 1916–17</i> (Bloomsbury, 2012).</li> <li>Gardner, Lloyd C. <i>Safe for democracy: the Anglo-American response to revolution, 1913-1923</i> (Oxford UP, 1984).</li> <li>Gilderhus, Mark T. <i>Diplomacy and Revolution: US-Mexican Relations under Wilson and Carranza</i> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diplomacyrevolut00mark">online</a></li> <li>Haley, P. Edward. <i>Revolution and Intervention: The Diplomacy of Taft and Wilson with Mexico, 1910-1917</i> (MIT Press, 1970).</li> <li>Hannigan, Robert E. <i>The New World Power</i> (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/New-World-Power-American-1898-1917-ebook/dp/B00E1XZJUI/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Katz, Friedrich. <i>The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution</i> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secretwarinmexic0000katz">online</a></li> <li>McPherson, Alan. <i>A Short History of US Interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean</i>(John Wiley & Sons, 2016).</li> <li>Neagle, Michael E. "A Bandit Worth Hunting: Pancho Villa and America's War on Terror in Mexico, 1916-1917." <i>Terrorism and Political Violence</i> 33.7 (2021): 1492–1510.</li> <li>Quirk, Robert E. <i>An affair of honor: Woodrow Wilson and the occupation of Veracruz</i> (1962). on Mexico <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/affairofhonorwoo0000quir">online</a></li> <li>Sandos, James A. "Pancho Villa and American Security: Woodrow Wilson's Mexican Diplomacy Reconsidered" <i>Journal of Latin American Studies</i> 13#2 (1981): 293–311. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/156072">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Tuchman" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Tuchman" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbara Tuchman">Tuchman, Barbara W.</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zimmermanntelegr00barb_0"><i>The Zimmermann Telegram</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-32425-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-32425-0"><bdi>0-345-32425-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Zimmermann+Telegram&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-345-32425-0&rft.aulast=Tuchman&rft.aufirst=Barbara+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fzimmermanntelegr00barb_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>Sherman, David. "Barbara Tuchman's The Zimmermann Telegram: secrecy, memory, and history." <i>Journal of Intelligence History</i> 19.2 (2020): 125–148.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographical">Biographical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Biographical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrosius2006" class="citation journal cs1">Ambrosius, Lloyd E. (2006). "Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies". <i>Diplomatic History</i>. <b>30</b> (3): 509–543. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-7709.2006.00563.x">10.1111/j.1467-7709.2006.00563.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomatic+History&rft.atitle=Woodrow+Wilson+and+George+W.+Bush%3A+Historical+Comparisons+of+Ends+and+Means+in+Their+Foreign+Policies&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=509-543&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-7709.2006.00563.x&rft.aulast=Ambrosius&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Clements, Kendrick A. <i>Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman</i> (1987) 288pp; major scholarly biography <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-Statesman-Kendricks-Clements/dp/1566632676/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Clements, Kendrick A. <i>William Jennings Bryan, missionary isolationist</i> (U of Tennessee Press, 1982) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/williamjenningsb00clem">online</a>; focus on foreign policy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_M._Cooper_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="John M. Cooper (historian)">Cooper, John Milton</a>. <i>Woodrow Wilson: A Biography</i> (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsonbio0000coop">online</a>; major scholarly biography</li> <li>Doerries, Reinhard R. <i>Imperial Challenge: Ambassador Count Bernstorff and German-American Relations, 1908-1917</i> (1989)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerns2013" class="citation journal cs1">Ferns, Nicholas (September 2013). "Loyal Advisor? Colonel Edward House's Confidential Trips to Europe, 1913–1917". <i>Diplomacy & Statecraft</i>. <b>24</b> (3): 365–382. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592296.2013.817926">10.1080/09592296.2013.817926</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159469024">159469024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomacy+%26+Statecraft&rft.atitle=Loyal+Advisor%3F+Colonel+Edward+House%27s+Confidential+Trips+to+Europe%2C+1913%E2%80%931917&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=365-382&rft.date=2013-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09592296.2013.817926&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159469024%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ferns&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler1966" class="citation thesis cs1">Fowler, Wilton Bonham (1966). <i>Sir William Wiseman and the Anglo-American war partnership, 1917-1918</i> (Thesis). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51693434">51693434</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/302236948">302236948</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Sir+William+Wiseman+and+the+Anglo-American+war+partnership%2C+1917-1918&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51693434&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Wilton+Bonham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Graebner. Norman A. ed <i>An Uncertain Tradition: American Secretaries of State in the Twentieth Century</i> (1961) covers Bryan (pp 79–100) and Lansing (pp 101–127) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncertaintraditi011319mbp">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeckscher1991" class="citation book cs1">Heckscher, August (1991). <i>Woodrow Wilson</i>. Easton Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Woodrow+Wilson&rft.pub=Easton+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Heckscher&rft.aufirst=August&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilson00heck">online</a></li> <li>Hodgson, Godfrey. <i>Woodrow Wilson's Right Hand: The Life of Colonel Edward M. House.</i> (2006); short popular biography <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsonsri00hodg">online</a></li> <li>Lazo, Dimitri D. "A question of Loyalty: Robert Lansing and the Treaty of Versailles." <i>Diplomatic History</i> 9.1 (1985): 35–53.</li> <li>Link, Arthur Stanley. <i>Wilson</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28wilson%29%20AND%20creator%3A%28link%29&">online</a> <ul><li><i>Wilson: The New Freedom</i> vol 2 (1956)</li> <li><i>Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914–1915</i> vol 3 (1960)</li> <li><i>Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915–1916</i> vol 4 (1964)</li> <li><i>Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916–1917</i> vol 5 (1965)</li></ul></li> <li>Neu, Charles E. <i>Colonel House: A Biography of Woodrow Wilson's Silent Partner</i> (Oxford UP, 2015), 699 pp</li> <li>Neu, Charles E. <i>The Wilson Circle: President Woodrow Wilson and His Advisers</i> (2022)</li> <li>O'Toole, Patricia. <i>The Moralist: Woodrow Wilson and the World He Made</i> (2018)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalworth1958" class="citation book cs1">Walworth, Arthur (1958). <i>Woodrow Wilson, Volume I, Volume II</i>. Longmans, Green.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Woodrow+Wilson%2C+Volume+I%2C+Volume+II&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Walworth&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span>; 904pp; full scale scholarly biography; winner of Pulitzer Prize; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilson00walw">online free 2nd ed. 1965</a></li> <li>Walworth, Arthur. <i>Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919</i> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wilsonhispeacema0000walw">online</a></li> <li>Williams, Joyce Grigsby. <i>Colonel House and Sir Edward Grey: A Study in Anglo-American Diplomacy</i> (1984) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/imh/article/download/10717/15146/">online review</a></li> <li>Woolsey, Lester H. "Robert Lansing's Record as Secretary of State." <i>Current History</i> 29.3 (1928): 384–396. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45333036">online</a></li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Evening_World_-_Treaty_signed_June_28_1919.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/The_Evening_World_-_Treaty_signed_June_28_1919.jpg/400px-The_Evening_World_-_Treaty_signed_June_28_1919.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/The_Evening_World_-_Treaty_signed_June_28_1919.jpg/600px-The_Evening_World_-_Treaty_signed_June_28_1919.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/The_Evening_World_-_Treaty_signed_June_28_1919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="703" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>Treaty was signed June 28, 1919</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peace_treaties_and_Wilsonianism">Peace treaties and Wilsonianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Peace treaties and Wilsonianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ambrosius, Lloyd E. <i>Woodrow Wilson and the American diplomatic tradition: The treaty fight in perspective</i> (Cambridge UP, 1990) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsoname0000ambr">online</a>.</li> <li>Ambrosius, Lloyd E. "Wilson, the Republicans, and French Security after World War I." <i>Journal of American History</i> (1972): 341–352. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1890194">Online</a></li> <li>Ambrosius, Lloyd E. "World War I and the Paradox of Wilsonianism." <i>Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era</i> 17.1 (2018): 5-22.</li> <li>Ambrosius, Lloyd E. <i>Wilsonian Statecraft: Theory and Practice of Liberal Internationalism During World War I</i> (1991).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrosius2002" class="citation book cs1">Ambrosius, Lloyd E. (2002). <i>Wilsonianism</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781403970046">10.1057/9781403970046</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6009-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6009-2"><bdi>978-1-4039-6009-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wilsonianism&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781403970046&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-6009-2&rft.aulast=Ambrosius&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bacino, Leo C. <i>Reconstructing Russia: US policy in revolutionary Russia, 1917-1922</i> (Kent State UP, 1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reconstructingru0000baci">online</a>.</li> <li>Bailey, Thomas A. <i> Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace</i> (1963) on Paris, 1919 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsonlos00bail">online</a></li> <li>Bailey, Thomas A. <i>Woodrow Wilson and the great betrayal</i> (1945) on Senate defeat. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laapush.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Versailles1.pdf">conclusion-ch 22</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsongre00bailrich">online</a></li> <li>Birdsall, Paul <i>Versailles Twenty Years After</i> (1941).</li> <li>Canfield, Leon H. <i>The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson; prelude to a world in crisis</i> (1966) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyofwood0000canf">online</a></li> <li>Cooper, John Milton, Jr. <i>Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations</i> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/breakingheartofw00coop">online</a></li> <li>Curry, George. "Woodrow Wilson, Jan Smuts, and the Versailles Settlement." <i>American Historical Review</i> 66.4 (1961): 968–986. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1845866">Online</a></li> <li>Duff, John B. "The Versailles Treaty and the Irish-Americans." <i>Journal of American History</i> 55.3 (1968): 582–598. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1891015">Online</a></li> <li>Fifield, R H. <i>Woodrow Wilson and the Far East: the diplomacy of the Shantung question</i> (Thomas Y. Crowell, 1952).</li> <li>Graebner, Norman A. and Edward M. Bennett, eds. <i>The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision</i> (Cambridge UP, 2011).</li> <li>Floto, Inga. <i>Colonel House in Paris: A Study of American Policy at the Paris Peace Conference 1919</i> (Princeton UP, 1980).</li> <li>Foglesong, David S. "Policies toward Russia and intervention in the Russian revolution." in <i>A Companion to Woodrow Wilson</i> (2013): 386–405.</li> <li>Greene, Theodore, ed. <i>Wilson At Versailles</i> (1949) short excerpts from scholarly studies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/WilsonAtVersailles">online free</a></li> <li>Ikenberry, G. John, Thomas J. Knock, Anne-Marie Slaughter, and Tony Smith. <i>The Crisis of American Foreign Policy: Wilsonianism in the Twenty-first Century</i> (Princeton UP, 2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crisisofamerican0000unse_y1a1">online</a></li> <li>Jianbiao, Ma. "“At Gethsemane”: The Shandong Decision at the Paris Peace Conference and Wilson's identity crisis." <i>Chinese Studies in History</i> 54.1 (2021): 45-62.</li> <li>Kendall, Eric M. "Diverging Wilsonianisms: Liberal Internationalism, the Peace Movement, and the Ambiguous Legacy of Woodrow Wilson" (PhD. Dissertation, Case Western Reserve University, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=case1323399909&disposition=inline">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170419200035/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=case1323399909&disposition=inline">Archived</a> 2017-04-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 354pp; with bibliography of primary and secondary sources pp 346–54.</li> <li>Kennedy, Ross A. <i>The will to believe: Woodrow Wilson, World War I, and America's strategy for peace and security</i> (Kent State UP, 2008).</li> <li>Knock, Thomas J. <i>To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order</i> (Princeton UP, 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/toendallwarswood0000knoc">online</a></li> <li>Macmillan, Margaret. <i>Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World</i> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/paris1919sixmont00macm">online</a></li> <li>Menchik, Jeremy. "Woodrow Wilson and the Spirit of Liberal Internationalism." <i>Politics, Religion & Ideology</i> (2021): 1-23.</li> <li>Perlmutter, Amos. <i>Making the world safe for democracy : a century of Wilsonianism and its totalitarian challengers</i> (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingworldsafef0000perl">online</a></li> <li>Pierce, Anne R. <i>Woodrow Wilson & Harry Truman: Mission and Power in American Foreign Policy</i> (Routledge, 2017).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowaski2017" class="citation book cs1">Powaski, Ronald E. (2017). "Woodrow Wilson Versus Henry Cabot Lodge: The Battle over the League of Nations, 1918–1920". <i>American Presidential Statecraft</i>. pp. 67–111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-50457-5_3">10.1007/978-3-319-50457-5_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-50456-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-50456-8"><bdi>978-3-319-50456-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Woodrow+Wilson+Versus+Henry+Cabot+Lodge%3A+The+Battle+over+the+League+of+Nations%2C+1918%E2%80%931920&rft.btitle=American+Presidential+Statecraft&rft.pages=67-111&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-50457-5_3&rft.isbn=978-3-319-50456-8&rft.aulast=Powaski&rft.aufirst=Ronald+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Roberts, Priscilla. "Wilson, Europe's Colonial Empires," in <i>A Companion to Woodrow Wilson</i> (2013): 492+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Priscilla-Roberts-2/publication/295211242_Wilson_Europe's_Colonial_Empires_and_the_Issue_of_Imperialism_In_A_Companion_to_Woodrow_Wilson_ed_Ross_A_Kennedy_Wiley-Blackwell_2013_pp_492-517/links/5a3e6725a6fdcce197016036/Wilson-Europes-Colonial-Empires-and-the-Issue-of-Imperialism-In-A-Companion-to-Woodrow-Wilson-ed-Ross-A-Kennedy-Wiley-Blackwell-2013-pp-492-517.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>Smith, Tony. <i>Why Wilson Matters: The Origin of American Liberal Internationalism and Its Crisis Today</i> (Princeton University Press, 2017)</li> <li>Smith, Tony. <i>America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy</i> (2nd ed. Princeton UP, 2012).</li> <li>Stone, Ralph A. ed. <i>Wilson and the League of Nations: why America's rejection?</i> (1967) short excerpts from 15 historians.</li> <li>Stone, Ralph A. <i>The irreconcilables; the fight against the League of Nations</i> (1970) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/irreconcilablesf0000ston">online</a></li> <li>Tillman, Seth P. <i>Anglo-American relations at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://archive.org/details/angloamericanrel0000till">https://archive.org/details/angloamericanrel0000till</a>) [1961 online]</li> <li>Walworth, Arthur. <i>Wilson and his Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919</i> (WW Norton, 1986) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wilsonhispeacema0000walw">online</a></li> <li>Wolff, Larry. <i>Woodrow Wilson and the Reimagining of Eastern Europe</i> (Stanford University Press, 2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-gilded-age-and-progressive-era/article/abs/eastern-europe-in-the-wilsonian-world-larry-wolff-woodrow-wilson-and-the-reimagining-of-eastern-europe-stanford-stanford-university-press-2020-xi-286-pp-3000-paper-isbn-9781503611191/A8535DF0C7CCD7C2984FD9CCE20A8FE0">online review</a>.</li> <li>Wright, Esmond. "The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson: A Re-Assessment. Part 2: Wilson and the Dream of Reason" <i>History Today</i> (Apr 1960) 19#4 pp 223–231</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ambrosius, Lloyd E. "Woodrow Wilson and Wilsonianism a Century Later." (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://preprints.apsanet.org/engage/api-gateway/apsa/assets/orp/resource/item/5f3eba5cb94be50019ee400e/original/woodrow-wilson-and-wilsonianism-a-century-later.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Cooper, John Milton. "The World War and American Memory" <i>Diplomatic History</i> (2014) 38#4 pp 727–736. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26376599">online</a>.</li> <li>Doenecke, Justus D. "American Diplomacy, Politics, Military Strategy, and Opinion‐Making, 1914–18: Recent Research and Fresh Assignments." <i>Historian</i> 80.3 (2018): 509–532.</li> <li>Doenecke, Justus D. <i>The Literature of Isolationism: A Guide to Non-Interventionist Scholarship, 1930-1972</i> (R. Myles, 1972).</li> <li>Doenecke, Justus D. <i>Nothing Less Than War: A New History of America's Entry into World War I</i> (2014)</li> <li>Fordham, Benjamin O. "Revisionism reconsidered: exports and American intervention in World War I." <i>International Organization</i> 61#2 (2007): 277–310.</li> <li>Gerwarth, Robert. "The Sky beyond Versailles: The Paris Peace Treaties in Recent Historiography." <i>Journal of Modern History</i> 93.4 (2021): 896-930.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerring1974" class="citation journal cs1">Herring, Pendleton (1974). "Woodrow Wilson—Then and Now". <i>PS: Political Science & Politics</i>. <b>7</b> (3): 256–259. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1049096500011422">10.1017/S1049096500011422</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155226093">155226093</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PS%3A+Political+Science+%26+Politics&rft.atitle=Woodrow+Wilson%E2%80%94Then+and+Now&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=256-259&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1049096500011422&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155226093%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Herring&rft.aufirst=Pendleton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeene2016" class="citation journal cs1">Keene, Jennifer D. (2016). "Remembering the "Forgotten War": American Historiography on World War I". <i>Historian</i>. <b>78</b> (3): 439–468. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fhisn.12245">10.1111/hisn.12245</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151761088">151761088</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historian&rft.atitle=Remembering+the+%22Forgotten+War%22%3A+American+Historiography+on+World+War+I&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=439-468&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fhisn.12245&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151761088%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Keene&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kennedy, Ross A. ed. <i>A Companion to Woodrow Wilson </i> (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/book.html?id=g9781444337372_9781444337372">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> coverage of major scholarly studies by experts</li> <li>McKillen, Elizabeth. "Integrating labor into the narrative of Wilsonian internationalism: A literature review." <i>Diplomatic History</i> 34.4 (2010): 643–662.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeiberg2018" class="citation book cs1">Neiberg, Michael S. (2018). "American Entry into the First World War as an Historiographical Problem". <i>The Myriad Legacies of 1917</i>. pp. 35–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-73685-3_3">10.1007/978-3-319-73685-3_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-73684-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-73684-6"><bdi>978-3-319-73684-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=American+Entry+into+the+First+World+War+as+an+Historiographical+Problem&rft.btitle=The+Myriad+Legacies+of+1917&rft.pages=35-54&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-73685-3_3&rft.isbn=978-3-319-73684-6&rft.aulast=Neiberg&rft.aufirst=Michael+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Saunders, Robert M. "History, Health and Herons: The Historiography of Woodrow Wilson's Personality and Decision-Making." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1994): 57–77. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551193">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Sharp, Alan. <i>Versailles 1919: A Centennial Perspective</i> (Haus Publishing, 2018).</li> <li>Showalter, Dennis. “The United States in the Great War: A Historiography.” <i>OAH Magazine of History</i> 17#1 (2002), pp. 5–13, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163557">online</a></li> <li>Steigerwald, David. "The Reclamation of Woodrow Wilson?" <i>Diplomatic History</i> 23.1 (1999): 79–99. pro-Wilson <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24913693">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1985" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, J. A. (1985). "Woodrow Wilson and World War I: A Reappraisal". <i>Journal of American Studies</i>. <b>19</b> (3): 325–348. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021875800015310">10.1017/S0021875800015310</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145071620">145071620</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Studies&rft.atitle=Woodrow+Wilson+and+World+War+I%3A+A+Reappraisal&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=325-348&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021875800015310&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145071620%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForeign+policy+of+the+Woodrow+Wilson+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Woodward. David. <i>America and World War I: A Selected Annotated Bibliography</i> of English Language Sources<i> (2nd ed 2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/America-World-War-Bibliography-English-Language/dp/0415978955/">excerpt</a></i></li> <li>Zelikow, Philip, Niall Ferguson, Francis J. Gavin, Anne Karalekas, Daniel Sargent. "Forum 31 on the Importance of the Scholarship of Ernest May" <i>H-DIPLO</i> Dec. 17, 2021 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issforum.org/forums/31">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources_and_year_books">Primary sources and year books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Primary sources and year books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Baker, Ray Stannard ed. <i>The public papers of Woodrow Wilson</i> (8 vol 1927-39). much less complete than Link edition, but more widely available in libraries. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28%27%27The%20public%20papers%20of%20Woodrow%20Wilson%27%27%29">partly online; no charge to borrow</a></li> <li>Link. Arthur C., ed. <i>The Papers of Woodrow Wilson.</i> In 69 volumes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (1966–1994); a complete collection of Wilson's writing plus important letters written to him, plus detailed historical explanation.</li> <li>Robinson, Edgar Eugene, and Victor J. West. <i>The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson, 1913-1917</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foreignpolicywo02westgoog">online</a> useful survey with copies and extracts from 90 primary sources</li> <li>Seymour, Charles, ed. <i>The intimate papers of Colonel House</i> (4 vols., 1928) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28%22Colonel%20House%22%20papers%29">online</a></li> <li>Stark, Matthew J. "Wilson and the United States Entry into the Great War" <i>OAH Magazine of History </i> (2002) 17#1 pp. 40–47 lesson plan and primary sources for school projects <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25163563">online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1913"><i>New International Year Book 1913</i> (1914)</a> Comprehensive coverage of national and world affairs; strong on economics; 867pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1914"><i>New International Year Book 1914</i> (1915)</a>, Comprehensive coverage of national and world affairs, 913pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1915"><i>New International Year Book 1915</i> (1916)</a>, Comprehensive coverage of national and world affairs, 791pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1916"><i>New International Year Book 1916</i> (1917)</a>, Comprehensive coverage of national and world affairs, 938pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1917"><i>New International Year Book 1917</i> (1918)</a>, Comprehensive coverage of national and world affairs, 904 pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1918"><i>New International Year Book 1918</i> (1919)</a>, 904 pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1919"><i>New International Year Book 1919</i> (1920)</a>, 744pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1920"><i>New International Year Book 1920</i> (1921)</a>, 844 pp</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NewInternationalYearBookFor1921"><i>New International Year Book 1921</i> (1922)</a>, 848 pp</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070518030742/http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/roosevelt">Extensive essay on Wilson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edsitement.neh.gov/curricula/woodrow-wilson-and-foreign-policy">"Woodrow Wilson and Foreign Policy"-- Secondary school lesson plans from EDSITEment! program of National Endowment for the Humanities </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/woodrow-wilson-prophet-of-peace-teaching-with-historic-places.htm">"Woodrow Wilson: Prophet of Peace" (Teaching with Historic Places), National Park Service</a> excerpts from Wilson and Senator Lodge</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Woodrow_Wilson" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Template:Woodrow Wilson"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Template talk:Woodrow Wilson"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Woodrow Wilson"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Woodrow_Wilson" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">28th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1913–1921)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_New_Jersey" title="List of governors of New Jersey">34th</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_Jersey" title="Governor of New Jersey">Governor of New Jersey</a> (1911–1913)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">13th <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Princeton_University" title="List of presidents of Princeton University">President of Princeton University</a> (1902–1910)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">Presidency</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidential transition of Woodrow Wilson">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="First inauguration of Woodrow Wilson">1913 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Second inauguration of Woodrow Wilson">1917 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_desk" title="Theodore Roosevelt desk">Roosevelt desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Woodrow_Wilson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Woodrow Wilson">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Woodrow Wilson Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court nominees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Louis Brandeis Supreme Court nomination">Louis Brandeis Supreme Court nomination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson#Administration_and_Cabinet" title="Woodrow Wilson">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates#Laureates" title="List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates">1919 Nobel Peace Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19th Amendment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Sentinels" title="Silent Sentinels">Silent Sentinels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman_Suffrage_Procession" title="Woman Suffrage Procession">Woman Suffrage Procession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1913_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1913 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address 1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1914_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1914 State of the Union Address">1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1915 State of the Union Address">1915</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1916 State of the Union Address">1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1917 State of the Union Address">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1918 State of the Union Address">1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1920 State of the Union Address">1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidential transition of Warren G. Harding">Harding transition</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Foreign policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilsonianism" title="Wilsonianism">Wilsonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryan%E2%80%93Chamorro_Treaty" title="Bryan–Chamorro Treaty">Bryan–Chamorro Treaty</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">Occupation of Haiti</a> (1915–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic_(1916%E2%80%931924)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)">Occupation of the Dominican Republic</a> (1916–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_Appropriations_Act_of_1916" title="Army Appropriations Act of 1916">Army Appropriations Act of 1916</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_National_Defense" title="Council of National Defense">Council of National Defense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)" title="Jones Law (Philippines)">Philippine Autonomy Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li>1917–1918; <a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">entry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I" title="United States campaigns in World War I">campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_I#United_States" title="Home front during World War I">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Public_Information" title="Committee on Public Information">Committee on Public Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Minute_Men" title="Four Minute Men">Four Minute Men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Inquiry" title="The Inquiry">The Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Commission_to_Negotiate_Peace" title="American Commission to Negotiate Peace">American Commission to Negotiate Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice of 11 November 1918</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1917" title="Immigration Act of 1917">Immigration Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917" title="Selective Service Act of 1917">Selective Service Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1918" title="Immigration Act of 1918">Immigration Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migratory_Bird_Treaty_Act_of_1918" title="Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918">Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_War_Labor_Board_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="National War Labor Board (1918–1919)">National War Labor Board</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedition_Act_of_1918" title="Sedition Act of 1918">Sedition Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_Measure_Act_of_1918" title="Wartime Measure Act of 1918">Wartime Measure Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> <ul><li>1919–1920; <a href="/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal" title="Racial Equality Proposal">Racial Equality Proposal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_speech" title="Pueblo speech">Pueblo speech</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> <ul><li>1919; <a href="/wiki/Big_Four_(World_War_I)#Woodrow_Wilson" title="Big Four (World War I)">Big Four</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> <ul><li>1920; <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">charter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilsonian_Armenia" title="Wilsonian Armenia">Wilsonian Armenia</a> (1920)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_New_Freedom" title="The New Freedom">New Freedom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race" title="Woodrow Wilson and race">Federal racial segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Act" title="Federal Reserve Act">Federal Reserve Act</a> <ul><li>1913; <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newlands_Labor_Act" title="Newlands Labor Act">Newlands Labor Act</a> <ul><li>1913; <a href="/wiki/National_Mediation_Board" title="National Mediation Board">Board of Mediation and Conciliation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raker_Act" title="Raker Act">Raker Act</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1913" title="Revenue Act of 1913">Revenue Act of 1913</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Income_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Income tax in the United States">Federal income tax</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivers_and_Harbors_Act" title="Rivers and Harbors Act">Rivers and Harbors Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rivers_and_Harbors_Act_of_1913" title="Rivers and Harbors Act of 1913">1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_and_Harbors_Act_of_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="River and Harbors Act of 1914">1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_and_Harbors_Act_of_1915" title="River and Harbors Act of 1915">1915</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_and_Harbors_Act_of_1916" title="River and Harbors Act of 1916">1916</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabath_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabath Act">Sabath Act</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act_of_1914" title="Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914">Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Futures_Act" title="Cotton Futures Act">Cotton Futures Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutter_Service_Act" title="Cutter Service Act">Cutter Service Act</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_Internal_Revenue_Tax_Act" title="Emergency Internal Revenue Tax Act">Emergency Internal Revenue Tax Act</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act_of_1914" title="Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914">Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_National_Park_(U.S.)" title="Glacier National Park (U.S.)">Glacier National Park Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Legislative Reference Service</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith%E2%80%93Lever_Act_of_1914" title="Smith–Lever Act of 1914">Smith–Lever Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Risk_Insurance_Act" title="War Risk Insurance Act">War Risk Insurance Act</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locomotive_Inspection_Act" title="Locomotive Inspection Act">Locomotive Inspection Act</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics" title="National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics">National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy_Permits_Act" title="Occupancy Permits Act">Occupancy Permits Act</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamson_Act" title="Adamson Act">Adamson Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brush_Disposal_Act_of_1916" title="Brush Disposal Act of 1916">Brush Disposal Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Futures_Act_of_1916" title="Cotton Futures Act of 1916">Cotton Futures Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Aid_Road_Act_of_1916" title="Federal Aid Road Act of 1916">Federal Aid Road Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Employees%27_Compensation_Act" title="Federal Employees' Compensation Act">Federal Employees' Compensation Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Farm_Loan_Act" title="Federal Farm Loan Act">Federal Farm Loan Act</a> <ul><li>1916; <a href="/wiki/Farm_Credit_System" title="Farm Credit System">Farm Credit System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Farm_Board" title="Federal Farm Board">Federal Farm Loan Board</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Day_(United_States)" title="Flag Day (United States)">Flag Day</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraudulent_Advertising_Act_of_1916" title="Fraudulent Advertising Act of 1916">Fraudulent Advertising Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keating%E2%80%93Owen_Act" title="Keating–Owen Act">Keating–Owen Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service_Organic_Act" title="National Park Service Organic Act">National Park Service Organic Act</a> <ul><li>1916; <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1916" title="Revenue Act of 1916">Revenue Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_Post_Roads_Act_of_1916" title="Rural Post Roads Act of 1916">Rural Post Roads Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation_District_Act_of_1916_(Smith_Act)" title="Irrigation District Act of 1916 (Smith Act)">Smith Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock-Raising_Homestead_Act" title="Stock-Raising Homestead Act">Stock-Raising Homestead Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Grain_Standards_Act_of_1916" title="United States Grain Standards Act of 1916">United States Grain Standards Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warehouse_Act_of_1916" title="Warehouse Act of 1916">Warehouse Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_Game_Refuges_Act_of_1916" title="Wildlife Game Refuges Act of 1916">Wildlife Game Refuges Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_Control_Act_of_1917" title="Flood Control Act of 1917">Flood Control Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith%E2%80%93Hughes_Act" title="Smith–Hughes Act">Smith–Hughes Act</a> <ul><li>1917; <a href="/wiki/U.S._Federal_Board_for_Vocational_Education" title="U.S. Federal Board for Vocational Education">U.S. Federal Board for Vocational Education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Railroad_Administration" title="United States Railroad Administration">United States Railroad Administration</a> <ul><li>1917; <a href="/wiki/USRA_standard" title="USRA standard">USRA standard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Revenue_Act_of_1917" title="War Revenue Act of 1917">War Revenue Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1918" title="Revenue Act of 1918">Revenue Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acadia_National_Park" title="Acadia National Park">Acadia National Park Act of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon Park Act of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheat_Price_Guarantee_Act" title="Wheat Price Guarantee Act">Wheat Price Guarantee Act</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esch%E2%80%93Cummins_Act" title="Esch–Cummins Act">Esch–Cummins Act</a> <ul><li>1920; <a href="/wiki/Railroad_Labor_Board" title="Railroad Labor Board">Railroad Labor Board</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Act" title="Federal Power Act">Federal Power Act</a> <ul><li>1920; <a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission" title="Federal Power Commission">Federal Power Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_Marine_Act_of_1920" title="Merchant Marine Act of 1920">Merchant Marine Act of 1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_Leasing_Act_of_1920" title="Mineral Leasing Act of 1920">Mineral Leasing Act of 1920</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Presidential_Library" title="Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library">Birthplace and Presidential Library</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seeley_G._Mudd_Manuscript_Library" title="Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library">papers and manuscripts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Boyhood_Home" title="Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home">Boyhood home in Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Boyhood_Home_(Columbia,_South_Carolina)" title="Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home (Columbia, South Carolina)">Boyhood home in South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Princeton_University#Woodrow_Wilson" title="History of Princeton University">Princeton University president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlakenden" title="Harlakenden">Summer White House (Harlakenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_Lawn_(New_Jersey)" title="Shadow Lawn (New Jersey)">Shadow Lawn)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_House_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Woodrow Wilson House (Washington, D.C.)">Woodrow Wilson House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral#Burials" title="Washington National Cathedral">Gravesite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Congressional Government</i> (1900)</li> <li><i>When a Man Comes to Himself</i> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Freedom" title="The New Freedom"><i>The New Freedom</i> (1913)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_History_of_Woodrow_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral History of Woodrow Wilson">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1910_New_Jersey_gubernatorial_election" title="1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election">1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1912 Democratic National Convention">1912 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912 U.S. presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1916 Democratic National Convention">1916 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election" title="1916 United States presidential election">1916 U.S. presidential election</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy<br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Woodrow_Wilson" title="List of memorials to Woodrow Wilson">memorials</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Bibliography of Woodrow Wilson">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Awards" title="Woodrow Wilson Awards">Woodrow Wilson Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Foundation" title="Woodrow Wilson Foundation">Woodrow Wilson Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars" title="Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars">Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wilson_Quarterly" title="The Wilson Quarterly">The Wilson Quarterly</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_School_of_Public_and_International_Affairs" title="Princeton School of Public and International Affairs">Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_High_School_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Woodrow Wilson High School (disambiguation)">High schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy%E2%80%93King_College" title="Kennedy–King College">Woodrow Wilson Junior College</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial" title="Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial">Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Woodrow_Wilson_(Austin,_Texas)" title="Statue of Woodrow Wilson (Austin, Texas)">Woodrow Wilson</a></i> (Austin statue)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_Square" title="Wilson Square">Wilson Square</a> (Warsaw)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Monument" title="Woodrow Wilson Monument">Woodrow Wilson Monument</a> (Prague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Bridge" title="Woodrow Wilson Bridge">Woodrow Wilson Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_National_Fellowship_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation">Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_one-hundred-thousand-dollar_bill" title="United States one-hundred-thousand-dollar bill">United States one-hundred-thousand-dollar bill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_(1944_film)" title="Wilson (1944 film)"><i>Wilson</i></a> (1944 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profiles_in_Courage_(TV_series)" title="Profiles in Courage (TV series)"><i>Profiles in Courage</i></a> (1965 series)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House" title="Backstairs at the White House">Backstairs at the White House</a></i> (1979 miniseries)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_the_Birth_of_the_American_Century" title="Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century">Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century</a></i> (2002 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_(book)" title="Wilson (book)"><i>Wilson</i></a> (2013 book)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Suffs" title="Suffs">Suffs</a></i> (2022 musical)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Axson_Wilson" title="Ellen Axson Wilson">Ellen Axson Wilson</a> (wife, 1885–1914, death)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Wilson" title="Edith Wilson">Edith Bolling Wilson</a> (wife, 1915–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Margaret Woodrow Wilson">Margaret Wilson</a> (daughter, acting first lady)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Woodrow_Wilson_Sayre" class="mw-redirect" title="Jessie Woodrow Wilson Sayre">Jessie Wilson Sayre</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Wilson_McAdoo" title="Eleanor Wilson McAdoo">Eleanor Wilson McAdoo</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bowes_Sayre_Jr." title="Francis Bowes Sayre Jr.">Francis Sayre Jr.</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ruggles_Wilson" title="Joseph Ruggles Wilson">Joseph Ruggles Wilson</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(journalist)" title="James Wilson (journalist)">James Wilson</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Woodrow_Bones" title="Helen Woodrow Bones">Helen Woodrow Bones</a> (cousin, secretary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gibbs_McAdoo" title="William Gibbs McAdoo">William McAdoo</a> (son-in-law)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Literary_and_Debating_Society" title="Jefferson Literary and Debating Society">Jefferson Literary and Debating Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race" title="Woodrow Wilson and race">Woodrow Wilson and race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">← William Howard Taft</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Category:Woodrow Wilson">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States_foreign_policy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Foreign_policy_of_U.S._presidents" title="Template:Foreign policy of U.S. presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Foreign_policy_of_U.S._presidents" title="Template talk:Foreign policy of U.S. presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Foreign_policy_of_U.S._presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Foreign policy of U.S. presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States_foreign_policy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_foreign_policy" title="History of the United States foreign policy">History of the United States foreign policy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1776%E2%80%931801" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1776–1801">1776–1801</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1801%E2%80%931829" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1801–1829">1801–1829</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1829%E2%80%931861" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1829–1861">1829–1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">1861–1897</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1897%E2%80%931913" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1897–1913">1897–1913</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration">T. Roosevelt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1913%E2%80%931933" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1913–1933">1913–1933</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Foreign policy of Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administration">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_administration" title="Foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Lyndon B. Johnson administration">L. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Richard_Nixon_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Gerald_Ford_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Gerald Ford administration">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Jimmy_Carter_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George H. W. Bush administration">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Bill_Clinton_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Bill Clinton administration">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_first_Donald_Trump_administration" title="Foreign policy of the first Donald Trump administration">Trump</a> (1st)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">List of presidents</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_foreign_policy" title="Category:United States foreign policy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_policy_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_policy" title="Template:United States policy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_policy" title="Template talk:United States policy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_policy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States policy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_policy_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Agricultural policy of the United States">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Arctic policy of the United States">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural policy of the United States">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_drug_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Federal drug policy of the United States">Drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Education policy of the United States">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Fireworks policy of the United States">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Fiscal policy of the United States">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Telecommunications policy of the United States">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Vaccination policy of the United States">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Visa policy of the United States">Visa</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_domestic_policy" title="Category:United States domestic policy">Domestic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Freedom" title="The New Freedom">New Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Deal" title="Fair Deal">Fair Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Frontier" title="New Frontier">New Frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a>/<a href="/wiki/War_on_poverty" title="War on poverty">War on Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump##Energy" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_economic_policy" title="Category:United States economic policy">Economic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Monetary policy of the United States">Monetary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_monetary_policy_in_the_United_States" title="History of monetary policy in the United States">history</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Presidency" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nixonomics" title="Nixonomics">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_Bill_Clinton_administration" title="Economic policy of the Bill Clinton administration">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Economic policy of the George W. Bush administration">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_first_Donald_Trump_administration" title="Economic policy of the first Donald Trump administration">Trump</a> (1st)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Economic policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Hydropower policy of the United States">Hydropower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Nuclear energy policy of the United States">Nuclear energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_radioactive_waste_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Low-level radioactive waste policy of the United States">Low-level radioactive waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Smart grid policy of the United States">Smart grid</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Presidency" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Energy policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump#Energy" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Environmental policy of the United States">Environmental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid_waste_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Solid waste policy of the United States">Solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Climate change policy of the United States">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Climate change policy of the George W. 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Bush</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Presidency" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_first_Donald_Trump_administration" title="Environmental policy of the first Donald Trump administration">Trump</a> (1st)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Environmental policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">Foreign</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_United_States_foreign_policy" title="Criticism of United States foreign policy">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_foreign_policy_in_the_Middle_East" title="United States foreign policy in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_foreign_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Middle Eastern foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Presidency" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration">T. 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Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Richard_Nixon_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Gerald_Ford_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Gerald Ford administration">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Jimmy_Carter_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George H. W. Bush administration">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Bill_Clinton_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Bill Clinton administration">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_first_Donald_Trump_administration" title="Foreign policy of the first Donald Trump administration">Trump</a> (1st)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun control</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_policy_of_the_Bill_Clinton_administration" title="Gun control policy of the Bill Clinton administration">Clinton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Immigration_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Immigration policy of the United States">Immigration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_immigration_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Same-sex immigration policy of the United States">Same-sex immigration</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_Presidency" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_policy_of_Donald_Trump" title="Immigration policy of Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Immigration policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Infrastructure policy of the United States">Infrastructure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_policy_of_Donald_Trump" title="Infrastructure policy of Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrastructure policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Indian_Policy" title="Federal Indian Policy">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_policy_of_the_Ulysses_S._Grant_administration" title="Native American policy of the Ulysses S. Grant administration">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_policy_of_the_Richard_Nixon_administration" title="Native American policy of the Richard Nixon administration">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Native American policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Science policy of the United States">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Genetic policy of the United States">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_laws_and_policy_in_the_United_States" title="Stem cell laws and policy in the United States">Stem cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_policy_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Social policy of the United States">Social</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Social policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_policy_of_Donald_Trump" title="Social policy of Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" title="Social policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">Space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration" title="Space policy of the Barack Obama administration">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_Donald_Trump_administration" title="Space policy of the Donald Trump administration">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_Joe_Biden_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Space policy of the Joe Biden administration">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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