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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Berbers in Al-Andalus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Berbers_in_Al-Andalus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Berbers_in_the_Sahel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Berbers_in_the_Sahel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Berbers in the Sahel</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Berbers_in_the_Sahel-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Berbers in the Sahel subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Berbers_in_the_Sahel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Islamization_Process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Islamization_Process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The Islamization Process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Islamization_Process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ineslemen_(Koran_scholars)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ineslemen_(Koran_scholars)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ineslemen (Koran scholars)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ineslemen_(Koran_scholars)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_Festivals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_Festivals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Religious Festivals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_Festivals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Position_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Position_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Position of women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Position_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" 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mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Berbers and Islam</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Berbers_and_Islam" title="Special:EditPage/Berbers and Islam">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Berbers+and+Islam%22">"Berbers and Islam"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Berbers+and+Islam%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Berbers+and+Islam%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Berbers+and+Islam%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Berbers+and+Islam%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Berbers+and+Islam%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Exonym_and_endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym and endonym">autonym</a>: <i>Imazighen</i>) are an <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous</a> ethnic group of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> region of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a>, most Berber tribes eventually became Muslims. Presently, about one-sixth of the population of Maghreb speaks one of the Berber languages (mostly in Algeria and Morocco), but most of them also speak some form of Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Berbers are the first non-Arab people to have established an Islamic state<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The region of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> practiced many religions including various forms of <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan rituals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. The first Islamic forces encountered fierce opposition by the various city-states resulting from the departure of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>. The weakest of them in the southern and southwestern parts of the Berber territory were the first to fall to the Islamic troops under the Egyptian Caliph in a locally initiated attempt of expansion westward. This first attempt in late 7th century (660 A.D.) resulted in a decisive defeat of the Islamic troops. The Berber queen <a href="/wiki/Dihya" class="mw-redirect" title="Dihya">Dihya</a> (or Kahina) led the indigenous resistance to the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a>. For five years she ruled a free Berber state from the <a href="/wiki/Aur%C3%A8s_Mountains" title="Aurès Mountains">Aurès Mountains</a> to the oasis of <a href="/wiki/Gadames" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadames">Gadames</a> (695–700 CE) but finally was killed in combat near a well that still bears her name, <i>Bir al Kahina</i> in <a href="/wiki/Aures,_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Aures, Algeria">Aures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JulienTourneau1970_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JulienTourneau1970-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 670, the Islamic coalition under the command of <a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Uqba ibn Nafi</a> established its camp on the Tunis peninsula and founded the city of <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>, about 160 kilometers south of present-day <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>. The Muslims used the city as a base for further operations against Numidians in the West and along the highlands of modern Algeria. Successive and repeated attacks on the villages of the lower Numidian agricultural valleys by <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Muhajir_Dinar" title="Abu al-Muhajir Dinar">Abu al-Muhajir Dinar</a>, Uqba's successor, forced the uncoordinated Numidian tribes to eventually work out a <i>modus vivendi</i> through <a href="/wiki/Kusaila" title="Kusaila">Kusaila</a>, a converted Numidian chief on behalf of an extensive confederation of Christian<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Berbers. Kusaila, who had been based in <a href="/wiki/Tlemcen" title="Tlemcen">Tlemcen</a>, converted to Islam and relocated his headquarters to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Takirwan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Takirwan (page does not exist)">Takirwan</a>, near Kairouan.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 750 the caliphs centralized their command in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and a coalition of Islamic forces from <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, Damascus, <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> returned in a second attempt following successive defeats in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>. The Islamic forces in a coalition resumed their conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> from the south, through <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. A more diplomatic second attempt resulted in a successful alliance with the mainly desert-based Mauretanian tribes (Morocco and west of modern Algeria) then <a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a>. The new Muslim northwest African tribes in turn became ambassadors of the Muslim Caliphs, and brokers on their behalf in an attempt to assemble a coalition of forces to engage their common enemy Rome. The new approach was better received by the Numidian tribes of the highlands and were successfully recruited for a joint military venture into Europe and ultimately to Rome and around the Mediterranean Sea. A Moorish chief, <a href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn_Ziyad" title="Tariq ibn Ziyad">Tariq ibn Ziyad</a>, headed these stronger forces under the green flag of Islam and embarked for Europe, taking over most of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>. It is then that <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> west of Egypt was referred to as "al-<a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>" or the "West" by the peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. </p><p>The tolerance of Islamic preachers among the Berbers did not guarantee their support for the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad Dynasty</a>—which held control over most of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Caliphate">Islamic Caliphate</a>. Their ruling proxies alienated the Berbers by taxing them heavily; treating converts as second-class citizens; and enslaving the southern and weaker nomadic tribes. As a result, widespread opposition took the form of open revolt in 739-40 under the banner of <a href="/wiki/Khawarij" class="mw-redirect" title="Khawarij">Kharijite Islam</a>. The Kharijites had been fighting <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> rule in the East, and many Berbers were attracted by the sect's egalitarian precepts. The issue at hand is the same Numidians had fought against with the Romans (State Religion) whereby the control of the faith as an inherited right of those in control of the state. The new sect known as <a href="/wiki/Kharijism" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharijism">Kharijism</a> was born on the premise that any suitable Muslim could be elected caliph without regard to race, station, or descent from the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>. </p><p>After the revolt, Kharijites established a number of tribal kingdoms in the North African highlands. Their safety was purchased with taxation without representation. A set of Islamic representatives and tax collectors were established as <a href="/wiki/Attache" class="mw-redirect" title="Attache">attaches</a>, and known as the <i>Marabouts</i> from the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> word "mourabitoun" or attaches whose role was restricted to that of a relay between local tribal council of elders of the tribes (Aarch) and the central authority in Tunis. They had neither mosques nor authority. Their houses served as their quarters and were commonly constructed with a dome above whose Arabic term is <i>qoba</i> and Berber one <i>ta qobe-tt</i> (little dome). Other regions and tribes, however, like <a href="/wiki/Sijilmasa" title="Sijilmasa">Sijilmasa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tlemcen" title="Tlemcen">Tilimsan</a>—which straddled the principal trade routes—proved more viable and prospered. In 750, the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Dynasty">Abbasids</a>, who succeeded the Umayyads as the rulers of the Caliphate, moved the caliphate capital to Baghdad and reestablished Islamic authority in <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a>, appointing <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Aghlab" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab">Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab</a> as governor of <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>. Although nominally serving at the caliph's pleasure, al-Aghlab and his successors, the <a href="/wiki/Aghlabid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabid">Aghlabids</a>, ruled independently until 909, presiding over a court that became a center for learning and culture. </p><p>To the west of <a href="/wiki/Aghlabid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabid">Aghlabid</a> lands, <a href="/wiki/Rustamid" class="mw-redirect" title="Rustamid">Abd ar-Rahman ibn-Rustam</a> ruled most of the central-west Maghreb from <a href="/wiki/Tahert" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahert">Tahert</a>, southwest of <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>. The rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Rustamid" class="mw-redirect" title="Rustamid">Rustamid</a> imamate, which lasted from 761 to 909, each an <a href="/wiki/Ibadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi">Ibadi</a> <a href="/wiki/Kharijite" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharijite">Kharijite</a> <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">imam</a>, were elected by leading citizens. The imams gained a reputation for honesty, piety, and justice. The court at <a href="/wiki/Tahert" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahert">Tahert</a> was noted for its support of scholarship in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology, as well as theology and law. The <a href="/wiki/Rustamid" class="mw-redirect" title="Rustamid">Rustamid</a> imams, however, failed, by choice or by neglect, to organize a reliable standing army. This major factor, accompanied by the dynasty's eventual collapse into decadence, opened the way for Tahert's demise under the assault of the <a href="/wiki/Fatimids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimids">Fatimids</a>. </p><p>Between the 11th and 12th centuries, the Islamized Berber dynasty of the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravids</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lamtuna" title="Lamtuna">Lempta tribe</a>) spread in western North Africa. They <a href="/wiki/Litham" title="Litham">veiled their faces</a> and were feared as skilled camel riders for their extremely quick robberies. They forced Islam on the people of Western Sahara, who were rooted in traditional religious traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Sommer_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sommer-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other Arab-Islamic <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hilal" title="Banu Hilal">Banū Hilāl</a> (Sons of the Crescent Moon), subsequently migrated with their families and herds into the territories of the Berber tribes that had not yet been Islamized. Resistance to Islamization varied: many tribes avoided violent conflicts and retreated to the sparsely populated areas of the Sahara. </p><p>By the end of the 12th century, Islam had penetrated the entire Western Sahara and brought the Berber tribes under its influence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Berbers_in_Al-Andalus">Berbers in Al-Andalus</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Berbers in Al-Andalus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><i>See also <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a></i></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Book_of_chess,_dice_and_boards,_0022R,_Berbers_playing_chess.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Book_of_chess%2C_dice_and_boards%2C_0022R%2C_Berbers_playing_chess.jpg/220px-Book_of_chess%2C_dice_and_boards%2C_0022R%2C_Berbers_playing_chess.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Book_of_chess%2C_dice_and_boards%2C_0022R%2C_Berbers_playing_chess.jpg/330px-Book_of_chess%2C_dice_and_boards%2C_0022R%2C_Berbers_playing_chess.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Book_of_chess%2C_dice_and_boards%2C_0022R%2C_Berbers_playing_chess.jpg/440px-Book_of_chess%2C_dice_and_boards%2C_0022R%2C_Berbers_playing_chess.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1764" data-file-height="996" /></a><figcaption>1283 A.D. Miniature from <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X_of_Castile" title="Alfonso X of Castile">Alfonso X</a>'s Book of chess, dice and boards. African Muslims playing chess, with musician and serving women. Europeans loosely called the invading Muslims <i>Moors</i>, blending the name for both people of Arab and Berber ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among Europeans its meaning shifted from <i>Berber</i> to <i>Muslim of any race</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among Arab speakers in al-Andalus, the word <i>Moors</i> was not used by <a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">any group to name itself</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <p>Islam invaded Europe in the west "under the suzerainty of the Arab <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a> and his North African Viceroy, <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayr" title="Musa ibn Nusayr">Musa ibn Nusayr</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova80_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova80-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invasion of <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberia</a> was made up of two Islamic armies, crossing the sea from Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova85_86_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova85_86-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first was led by <a href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn_Ziyad" title="Tariq ibn Ziyad">Tariq ibn Ziyad</a> (thought by researchers to be a Berber<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova80_81_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova80_81-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) in 711 A.D.<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova85_86_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova85_86-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second army led by <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayr" title="Musa ibn Nusayr">Musa ibn Nusayr</a> followed in 712 A.D.<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova85_86_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova85_86-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invasion combined approximately 10000 <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</a> and 3000 <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arabs</a> (numbers are approximate and sources without specific numbers say "completely the Berbers with only a few Arabs" or "chiefly of Berbers and slaves, very few only being genuine Arabs."<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova81_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova81-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Berbers would make up as about 20 percent of Al-Andalusia's population, in the mountainous areas in the north and northwest, and in central Iberia, where they made <i>al-ṭawā’if</i> or (<i><a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Taifa</a></i>) kingdoms, including Toledo, Badajoz, Málaga and Granada.<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova84_85_86_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova84_85_86-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They formed "approximately two thirds of the Islamic population in Iberia."<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova83_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova83-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_revolution" title="Abbasid revolution">Abbasid revolution</a> took power away from the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyads</a>, Berbers in Iberia may have helped <a href="/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd ar-Rahman I">Abd ar-Rahman I</a> establish his Umayyad caliphate in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> in 756 A.D., because his mother was a Berber.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the initial <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Umayyad conquest of Iberia</a> in 711-712 A.D., Berbers formed their own military units based on tribal allegiances, with little contact with the Arabs.<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova82_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova82-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Naissa" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn Naissa">Uthman ibn Naissa</a>, a Berber commander stationed in <a href="/wiki/Cerdanya" title="Cerdanya">Cerdanya</a> (eastern Pyrenees), signed an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Odo_the_Great" title="Odo the Great">Odo the Great</a>, duke over Vasconia and Aquitaine, detached himself from central Cordovan rule and shortly established a realm, but was suppressed in 731 by <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Al_Ghafiqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi">Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At this point, Berbers were superficially Islamized and hung onto their traditions with varying degrees of religious assimilation to Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova79-80_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova79-80-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Berbers stationed in Galacia may have converted to Chrisitanity.<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova83_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova83-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These joined in the <a href="/wiki/Berber_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber revolt">Berber revolt</a> in 740-742).<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova83_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova83-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accounts of their siege of Mérida make it clear that they were not Muslims at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Taifa era, the petty kings came from a variety of ethnic groups; some—for instance the <a href="/wiki/Zirid" class="mw-redirect" title="Zirid">Zirid</a> kings of <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>—were of Berber origin.<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova79_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova79-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Taifa period ended when the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravid">Almoravid</a> dynasty (1085-1145 A.D.) took over <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>; they were succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohad</a> dynasty (1147-1238 A.D.) from <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova85_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova85-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The makeup of Al-Andalus at this point consisted of an Arab aristocracy, a <i>Mūlādī</i> population (made of "Muslims of local descent or of mixed Berber, Arab and Iberian origin"), and the Berbers who were situated between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova85_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova85-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"After the fall of the Caliphate, the Taifa kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Badajoz" title="Badajoz">Badajoz</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1laga" title="Málaga">Málaga</a> and Granada had Berber rulers."<sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova85_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova85-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Berbers_in_the_Sahel">Berbers in the Sahel</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Berbers in the Sahel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Tuareg_tijdens_het_verrichten_van_het_islamitisch_gebed_(salat)_TMnr_20010321.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Tuareg_tijdens_het_verrichten_van_het_islamitisch_gebed_%28salat%29_TMnr_20010321.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Tuareg_tijdens_het_verrichten_van_het_islamitisch_gebed_%28salat%29_TMnr_20010321.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Tuareg_tijdens_het_verrichten_van_het_islamitisch_gebed_%28salat%29_TMnr_20010321.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Tuareg_tijdens_het_verrichten_van_het_islamitisch_gebed_%28salat%29_TMnr_20010321.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Tuareg_tijdens_het_verrichten_van_het_islamitisch_gebed_%28salat%29_TMnr_20010321.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Tuareg_tijdens_het_verrichten_van_het_islamitisch_gebed_%28salat%29_TMnr_20010321.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Tuargs performing the <a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salat</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Islamization_Process">The Islamization Process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Islamization Process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ancestors of today's <a href="/wiki/Tuareg" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuareg">Tuareg</a> (from the Arabic word "terek = abandoned by God", if etymologically correct) were open to Arab cultural influences, which was especially true of religion. Although this happened in a rather passive, syncretic way, their own traditional ideas lost more and more importance in this acculturation process . Today they are largely assimilated into the Arab-Islamic culture. The explorer and ethnographer <a href="/wiki/Henri_Lhote" title="Henri Lhote">Henri Lhote</a>, who wrote a respectable standard work on the Tuareg, wrote in a chapter about the <a href="/wiki/Kel_Ahaggar" title="Kel Ahaggar">Kel Ahaggar</a> of Algeria and the religious conditions of the Saharan inhabitants:<sup id="cite_ref-Lhote_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lhote-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>“Even if, like all new converts, they try to conceal old religious customs, it is nevertheless true that such customs can be recognized here and there.”<sup id="cite_ref-Lhote_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lhote-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is possible that the Almovarid Agag Alemin, who was a famous <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Ulama</a> (Koran scholar) and had formed a schoolmaster group around him, was able to give the Tuareg class of the "Islandemen" (sing. "Aneslem", comprising the class of <a href="/wiki/Marabout" title="Marabout">Marabouts</a>) a certain orientation. Nevertheless, the Tuareg remained very passive in the formation of the Islamic faith. </p><p>The advance of the European powers accelerated the Islamization of the Saharan-Sahelian region. The Islamic leaders in particular stood up to the colonial administrations. They organized resistance, which culminated in the declaration of the Holy War in 1916 and resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Kaocen_revolt" title="Kaocen revolt">Kaocen uprising</a> in the east and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Firhun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Firhun (page does not exist)">Firhun</a> (uprising in the west). The Tuareg leaders who took part in this uprising enjoy legendary fame to this day. Due to the lack of unity among the Tuareg tribes, the battles were ultimately lost. In <a href="/wiki/Agadez" title="Agadez">Agadez</a>, the Kaosen uprising in 1917 made it drastically clear that the religious leaders were dangerously influential and that was precisely why they were subjected to a cruel bloodbath.<sup id="cite_ref-Garten_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garten-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> is considered a "holy book" by the Tuareg, it cannot be denied that access to the book was and still is difficult due to a lack of Arabic language skills. The Nigerien population, who are stuck in a nomadic way of life, speak primarily the Tuareg language <a href="/wiki/Tamasheq" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamasheq">Tamasheq</a> and write <a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a>. <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Quran schools</a> were and are reserved for young men. Attendance is irregular, as many Tuareg are still nomadic today. Centuries-old mosques exist in <a href="/wiki/Gao" title="Gao">Gao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agadez" title="Agadez">Agadez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a>, and a few in southern <a href="/wiki/Ahaggar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahaggar">Ahaggar</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFr" class="mw-redirect" title="Aïr">Aïr</a>, but they are not used nearly as much as in other Muslim areas. Most people avoid visiting a mosque. Instead, an area of ground is cleaned and enclosed with a circle of loose stones. This place is then used for religious ceremonies.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these barren conditions, prayers are said facing Mecca. <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Pilgrimages</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, on the other hand, are mostly rejected because they are seen as purely a matter of prestige. <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a> is interpreted generously, often with the argument that the people suffer from hunger too often outside of the fasting month or that the Tuareg, as "travellers" (nomads), are free of such duties. Overall, scientists attest that the Tuareg have a superficial relationship to the religion of Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-Garten_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garten-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ineslemen_(Koran_scholars)"><span id="Ineslemen_.28Koran_scholars.29"></span>Ineslemen (Koran scholars)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ineslemen (Koran scholars)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niqab_on_Tuareg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Niqab_on_Tuareg.jpg/200px-Niqab_on_Tuareg.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Niqab_on_Tuareg.jpg/300px-Niqab_on_Tuareg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Niqab_on_Tuareg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="343" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Tuareg from Timbuktu; hung with amulet bags.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Tuareg community is still strongly hierarchically structured today. A nomenclature is distinguished that ranges from the "nobles" ("Imajeren") to the "Koran scholars" ("Ineslemen"), "vassals" ("Imrad"), "black farmers" ("Izzegarren" - called "<a href="/wiki/Haratin" title="Haratin">Haratin</a>" by the Arabs) and the "slaves" to the "blacksmiths" ("Inaden").<sup id="cite_ref-Sommer_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sommer-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>(Tuareg: <i>Ineslemen</i>, a loan word that means Muslim in Arabic).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "Ineslemen" correspond to <a href="/wiki/Marabout" title="Marabout">Marabouts</a>, and thus represent the religious class of Koran scholars who were able to gain this position through inheritance or through suitable academic degrees. Their status is comparable to that of the aristocracy ("nobles"). They deal with the <a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">exegesis</a> of the Koran and other religious texts. Practical relevance is revealed in setting the date for the departure of camel caravans, at weddings or funerals.<sup id="cite_ref-Garten_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garten-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are considered the "people of God" and uphold duties of generosity and hospitality. The Ineslemen earn their living (traditionally food, today money or monetary assets such as goats) from this activity. They also record their experiences in "slips of paper" and deal with magical formulas; these were often sewn into items of clothing or kept in metal containers that were worn as neck amulets. The records also contain instructions for healing purposes (albaraka = blessing); the ink of the written texts is softened with water and given as a drink to the person in need of healing, who then internalizes the texts in a certain way, or the ink is applied to metals and then smoked. The sick person inhales the vapors and subsequently recovers. What the procedures have in common is that they are subject to a high degree of secrecy. Valuable animals (especially camels) are also protected using amulet envelopes. The aim is to banish the devil and his negative power (iblis).<sup id="cite_ref-Garten_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garten-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_Festivals">Religious Festivals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Religious Festivals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Djingareiber_cour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Djingareiber_cour.jpg/200px-Djingareiber_cour.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Djingareiber_cour.jpg/300px-Djingareiber_cour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Djingareiber_cour.jpg/400px-Djingareiber_cour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Exterior view of the Djinger-ber Mosque (2005) in Timbuktu. The mosque is attributed to the Andalusian architect Abu Eshaq Es-Saheli al-Touwaidjin from Granada , who built the building in 1325.</figcaption></figure> <p>The festivals common in Islam are rarely celebrated by the Tuareg, or they are celebrated in a form that deviates significantly from the traditions. For example, <a href="/wiki/Friday_prayer" title="Friday prayer">Friday prayers</a> on the holy day do not take place in mosques, let alone in a <a href="/wiki/Congregational_mosque" title="Congregational mosque">Masjed-e Jāme'</a>. The fasting month of <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a> is not strictly observed. Events such as <a href="/wiki/Night_of_Power" title="Night of Power">Lailat al-Qadr</a> (Night of Destiny ), the <a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Fitr" title="Eid al-Fitr">Feast of Breaking the Fast</a> ("ʿĪdu l-Fitr"), the <a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Adha" title="Eid al-Adha">Feast of Sacrifice</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Isra%27_and_Mi%27raj" title="Isra' and Mi'raj">Ascension of Mohammed</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Shab-e-Barat" title="Shab-e-Barat">Night of Forgiveness</a> ("Lailatu l-Barā'a"), or the "Jalsa Salana" (Festival of Spiritual Edification) are of little importance. </p><p>However, a festival that is not regularly celebrated by the rest of the Islamic population is of great importance to the Tuareg: the holiday <a href="/wiki/Mawlid" title="Mawlid">Mawlid an-Nabi</a> in honor of Muhammad's birthday. Mawlid an-Nabi is celebrated on the 12th day of the month <a href="/wiki/Rabi%27_al-Awwal" title="Rabi' al-Awwal">Rabi' al-Awwal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic calendar</a>, but is rejected by many Muslims as an unacceptable bidʿa (innovation). At best, gatherings take place to tell or hear stories and legends from the life of the Prophet. The mosques are (brightly) lit up. The Tuareg consider it to be the ultimate festival. They call it "mulud". At midnight, crowds of people from all directions stream to special places of worship that have been prepared and planned for the festival. Everyone wears the finest clothing in their repertoire . There is singing and at dawn, daredevil camel rides are demonstrated.<sup id="cite_ref-Garten_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garten-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important festival is that of male circumcision. The newly circumcised men, around the age of 18, receive their face veils. This paves the way to the male gender role and the cultural values of modesty. Many rituals integrate Islamic and pre-Islamic elements into their symbolism. These include references to the matrilineal line of ancestral women, pre-Islamic spirits, the earth, fertility and menstruation . </p><p>The Tuareg worldview allows that the soul (Iman) is more personal than spirits. The souls of the deceased are free. Dead souls can bring messages; in return, services are provided, such as marriage arrangements. The future can sometimes be predicted by sleeping on the graves of ancestors. Ideas about the afterlife (paradise) correspond to those of official Islam. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Position_of_women">Position of women</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Position of women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The position of women in Tuareg society is particularly shaped by traditional cultural values from pre-Islamic times. The social significance of women differs significantly from the usual Islamic traditions. Women enjoy enormous freedom of behavior in their dealings with men and limit the dominance of the male sex.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women have equal rights and are not accountable for where they go and what they do, as long as they do not neglect caring for the family. Research by Henri Lhote (see literature) is said to have shown that there are no requirements for virginity before marriage . There is not even a word for it in Berber usage.<sup id="cite_ref-Garten_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garten-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matrilocality and its regulations allow for divorce from an unloved husband. Men can also be subject to property rights that discriminate against them.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only the inheritance law is interpreted in a more Koranic manner; the son inherits twice as much as the daughter. But these rules are also circumvented by giving away goods during one's lifetime ("alchabus"). Various goods are not transferable at all and can only be used ("ach iddaren"), which means that they remain in the woman's family, provided that matrilocal rules apply here too. This mostly involved farm animals and their milk. By removing them from the cycle of goods and remaining in the maternal line of inheritance, these animals also become the object of "ach ebowel" (milk of the nest). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerianism">Algerianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_Coast" title="Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Spring" title="Berber Spring">Berber Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berberism" title="Berberism">Berberism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabylism" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabylism">Kabylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Maghrib">"Maghrib | region, North Africa"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Maghrib+%7C+region%2C+North+Africa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FMaghrib&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JulienTourneau1970-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JulienTourneau1970_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_André_JulienRoger_Le_Tourneau1970" class="citation book cs1">Charles André Julien; Roger Le Tourneau (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tYZyAAAAMAAJ"><i>Histoire de L'Afrique du Nord</i></a>. Praeger. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780710066145" title="Special:BookSources/9780710066145"><bdi>9780710066145</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+L%27Afrique+du+Nord&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780710066145&rft.au=Charles+Andr%C3%A9+Julien&rft.au=Roger+Le+Tourneau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtYZyAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarraq2010" class="citation book cs1">Warraq, Ibn (2010-09-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7RQwAQAAQBAJ&dq=Numidian+tribes+and+Kusaila&pg=PT287"><i>Why I Am Not a Muslim</i></a>. Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61592-029-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61592-029-7"><bdi>978-1-61592-029-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+I+Am+Not+a+Muslim&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2010-09-30&rft.isbn=978-1-61592-029-7&rft.aulast=Warraq&rft.aufirst=Ibn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7RQwAQAAQBAJ%26dq%3DNumidian%2Btribes%2Band%2BKusaila%26pg%3DPT287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNabhan2020" class="citation book cs1">Nabhan, Gary Paul (2020-09-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qtABEAAAQBAJ&dq=Kusaila+converted+to+Islam&pg=PA128"><i>Cumin, Camels, and Caravans: A Spice Odyssey</i></a>. Univ of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-37924-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-37924-4"><bdi>978-0-520-37924-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cumin%2C+Camels%2C+and+Caravans%3A+A+Spice+Odyssey&rft.pub=Univ+of+California+Press&rft.date=2020-09-22&rft.isbn=978-0-520-37924-4&rft.aulast=Nabhan&rft.aufirst=Gary+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqtABEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DKusaila%2Bconverted%2Bto%2BIslam%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sommer-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sommer_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sommer_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSommer2006" class="citation book cs1">Sommer, Edgar (2006). <i>Kel Tamashek – Die Tuareg</i>. Schwülper: Cargo Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-938693-05-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-938693-05-3"><bdi>3-938693-05-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kel+Tamashek+%E2%80%93+Die+Tuareg&rft.place=Schw%C3%BClper&rft.pub=Cargo+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=3-938693-05-3&rft.aulast=Sommer&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Randall_Baker1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Baker_(biologist)" title="John Baker (biologist)">John Randall Baker</a> (1974). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/race00bake"><i>Race</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/race00bake/page/226">226</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-212954-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-212954-3"><bdi>978-0-19-212954-3</bdi></a>. <q>In one sense the word 'Moor' means Mohammedan Berbers and Arabs of North-western Africa, with some Syrians, who conquered most of Spain in the 8th century and dominated the country for hundreds of years.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-19-212954-3&rft.au=John+Randall+Baker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frace00bake&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackmore2009" class="citation book cs1">Blackmore, Josiah (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iRNFebS_mUIC"><i>Moorings: Portuguese Expansion and the Writing of Africa</i></a>. University of Minnesota Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iRNFebS_mUIC&pg=PR16">xvi</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iRNFebS_mUIC&pg=PA18">18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-4832-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-4832-0"><bdi>978-0-8166-4832-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moorings%3A+Portuguese+Expansion+and+the+Writing+of+Africa&rft.pages=xvi%2C+18&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8166-4832-0&rft.aulast=Blackmore&rft.aufirst=Josiah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiRNFebS_mUIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamos2011" class="citation thesis cs1">Ramos, Maria Christina (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/12049/1/Ramos_umd_0117E_12042.pdf"><i>LITERARY CARTOGRAPHIES OF SPAIN: MAPPING IDENTITY IN AFRICAN AMERICAN TRAVEL WRITING</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Thesis). College Park, Maryland: Graduate School of the University of Maryland. p. 42. <q>Early in the history of al-Andalus, Moor signified "Berber" as a geographic and ethnic identity. Later writing, however, from twelfth-and thirteenth-century Christian kingdoms, demonstrates the "transformation of Moor from a term signifying Berber into a general term referring primarily to Muslims (regardless of ethnicity) living in recently conquered Christian lands and secondarily to those residing in what was still left of al-Andalus."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=LITERARY+CARTOGRAPHIES+OF+SPAIN%3A+MAPPING+IDENTITY+IN+AFRICAN+AMERICAN+TRAVEL+WRITING&rft.inst=Graduate+School+of+the+University+of+Maryland&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Ramos&rft.aufirst=Maria+Christina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdrum.lib.umd.edu%2Fbitstream%2F1903%2F12049%2F1%2FRamos_umd_0117E_12042.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamos2011" class="citation thesis cs1">Ramos, Maria Christina (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/12049/1/Ramos_umd_0117E_12042.pdf"><i>LITERARY CARTOGRAPHIES OF SPAIN: MAPPING IDENTITY IN AFRICAN AMERICAN TRAVEL WRITING</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Thesis). College Park, Maryland: Graduate School of the University of Maryland. p. 42. <q>Andalusi Arabic sources, as opposed to later <a href="/wiki/Mud%C3%A9jar" title="Mudéjar">Mudéjar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morisco" title="Morisco">Morisco</a> sources in Aljamiado and medieval Spanish texts, neither refer to individuals as Moors nor recognize any such group, community or culture</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=LITERARY+CARTOGRAPHIES+OF+SPAIN%3A+MAPPING+IDENTITY+IN+AFRICAN+AMERICAN+TRAVEL+WRITING&rft.inst=Graduate+School+of+the+University+of+Maryland&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Ramos&rft.aufirst=Maria+Christina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdrum.lib.umd.edu%2Fbitstream%2F1903%2F12049%2F1%2FRamos_umd_0117E_12042.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova80-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova80_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanova, Anastasia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/2410-0145/article/view/35149/23575">"Who Conquered Spain? The Role of the Berbers in the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Written Monuments of the Orient</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17816%2Fwmo35149">10.17816/wmo35149</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Monuments+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Who+Conquered+Spain%3F+The+Role+of+the+Berbers+in+the+Conquest+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=80&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17816%2Fwmo35149&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.eco-vector.com%2F2410-0145%2Farticle%2Fview%2F35149%2F23575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova85_86-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova85_86_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova85_86_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova85_86_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanova, Anastasia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/2410-0145/article/view/35149/23575">"Who Conquered Spain? The Role of the Berbers in the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Written Monuments of the Orient</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 85–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17816%2Fwmo35149">10.17816/wmo35149</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Monuments+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Who+Conquered+Spain%3F+The+Role+of+the+Berbers+in+the+Conquest+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=85-86&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17816%2Fwmo35149&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.eco-vector.com%2F2410-0145%2Farticle%2Fview%2F35149%2F23575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova80_81-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova80_81_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanova, Anastasia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/2410-0145/article/view/35149/23575">"Who Conquered Spain? The Role of the Berbers in the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Written Monuments of the Orient</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 80–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17816%2Fwmo35149">10.17816/wmo35149</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Monuments+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Who+Conquered+Spain%3F+The+Role+of+the+Berbers+in+the+Conquest+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=80-81&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17816%2Fwmo35149&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.eco-vector.com%2F2410-0145%2Farticle%2Fview%2F35149%2F23575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova81-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova81_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanova, Anastasia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/2410-0145/article/view/35149/23575">"Who Conquered Spain? The Role of the Berbers in the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Written Monuments of the Orient</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17816%2Fwmo35149">10.17816/wmo35149</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Monuments+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Who+Conquered+Spain%3F+The+Role+of+the+Berbers+in+the+Conquest+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=81&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17816%2Fwmo35149&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.eco-vector.com%2F2410-0145%2Farticle%2Fview%2F35149%2F23575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova84_85_86-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova84_85_86_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanova, Anastasia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/2410-0145/article/view/35149/23575">"Who Conquered Spain? The Role of the Berbers in the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Written Monuments of the Orient</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 84–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17816%2Fwmo35149">10.17816/wmo35149</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Monuments+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Who+Conquered+Spain%3F+The+Role+of+the+Berbers+in+the+Conquest+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=84-86&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17816%2Fwmo35149&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.eco-vector.com%2F2410-0145%2Farticle%2Fview%2F35149%2F23575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova83-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova83_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova83_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova83_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanova, Anastasia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/2410-0145/article/view/35149/23575">"Who Conquered Spain? The Role of the Berbers in the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Written Monuments of the Orient</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17816%2Fwmo35149">10.17816/wmo35149</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Monuments+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Who+Conquered+Spain%3F+The+Role+of+the+Berbers+in+the+Conquest+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17816%2Fwmo35149&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.eco-vector.com%2F2410-0145%2Farticle%2Fview%2F35149%2F23575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1995" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Roger (1995-02-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mlO-EAAAQBAJ&dq=Berbers+helped+the+Umayyad+caliph+Abd+ar-Rahman+I&pg=PA118"><i>The Arab Conquest of Spain: 710 - 797</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19405-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19405-7"><bdi>978-0-631-19405-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+Conquest+of+Spain%3A+710+-+797&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1995-02-17&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19405-7&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmlO-EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DBerbers%2Bhelped%2Bthe%2BUmayyad%2Bcaliph%2BAbd%2Bar-Rahman%2BI%26pg%3DPA118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova82-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova82_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanova, Anastasia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/2410-0145/article/view/35149/23575">"Who Conquered Spain? The Role of the Berbers in the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Written Monuments of the Orient</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17816%2Fwmo35149">10.17816/wmo35149</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Monuments+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Who+Conquered+Spain%3F+The+Role+of+the+Berbers+in+the+Conquest+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=82&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17816%2Fwmo35149&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.eco-vector.com%2F2410-0145%2Farticle%2Fview%2F35149%2F23575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova79-80-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova79-80_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanova, Anastasia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/2410-0145/article/view/35149/23575">"Who Conquered Spain? The Role of the Berbers in the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Written Monuments of the Orient</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 79–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17816%2Fwmo35149">10.17816/wmo35149</a></span>. <q>...it is worth noting that there was a natural, albeit regrettable, tendency to give a particular region, tribe, people, or settlement a longer and more distinguished Islamic past then it might actually have enjoyed. This is particularly true of the vast mountainous regions of modern Algeria and Morocco, whose actual conquest by the Arabs would be a far longer and slower process than the sources pretend, and in which Islam would be established much less rapidly and with less homogeneity than the piety of the 13th c. and later Muslim historians writing in North Africa would find able to credit...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Monuments+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Who+Conquered+Spain%3F+The+Role+of+the+Berbers+in+the+Conquest+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=79-80&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17816%2Fwmo35149&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.eco-vector.com%2F2410-0145%2Farticle%2Fview%2F35149%2F23575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins,_Roger1983" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Roger (1983). <i>Early Medieval Spain</i>. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-22464-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-22464-8"><bdi>0-312-22464-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+Spain&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-312-22464-8&rft.au=Collins%2C+Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova79-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova79_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanova, Anastasia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/2410-0145/article/view/35149/23575">"Who Conquered Spain? The Role of the Berbers in the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Written Monuments of the Orient</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17816%2Fwmo35149">10.17816/wmo35149</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Monuments+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Who+Conquered+Spain%3F+The+Role+of+the+Berbers+in+the+Conquest+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=79&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17816%2Fwmo35149&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.eco-vector.com%2F2410-0145%2Farticle%2Fview%2F35149%2F23575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova85-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova85_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova85_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova85_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2018" class="citation journal cs1">Stepanova, Anastasia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/2410-0145/article/view/35149/23575">"Who Conquered Spain? The Role of the Berbers in the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>Written Monuments of the Orient</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17816%2Fwmo35149">10.17816/wmo35149</a></span>. <q>After the fall of the Caliphate, the al-ṭawā'if kingdoms of Toledo, Badajoz, Málaga and Granada were governed by Berber rulers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Monuments+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Who+Conquered+Spain%3F+The+Role+of+the+Berbers+in+the+Conquest+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=85&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17816%2Fwmo35149&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.eco-vector.com%2F2410-0145%2Farticle%2Fview%2F35149%2F23575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lhote-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lhote_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lhote_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLhote1955" class="citation book cs1">Lhote, Henri (1955). <i>Les Touaregs du Hoggar</i>. Paris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-200-37070-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-200-37070-1"><bdi>978-2-200-37070-1</bdi></a>. <q>[note: (two-volume new edition 1984 und 1986)]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+Touaregs+du+Hoggar&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=1955&rft.isbn=978-2-200-37070-1&rft.aulast=Lhote&rft.aufirst=Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garten-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Garten_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garten_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garten_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garten_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garten_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garten_23-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHermann_ForklJohannes_KalterThomas_LeistenMargareta_Pavaloi1993" class="citation book cs1">Hermann Forkl; Johannes Kalter; Thomas Leisten; Margareta Pavaloi, eds. (1993). <i>Die Gärten des Islam</i>. Stuttgart: Hansjörg Mayer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+G%C3%A4rten+des+Islam&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=Hansj%C3%B6rg+Mayer&rft.date=1993&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreitag" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Freitag, Anna. <i>ie Tuareg. Ein Wüstenvolk zwischen Gott und Geistern</i> [<i>The Tuareg. A desert people between God and spirits</i>] (in German). GRIN Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ie+Tuareg.+Ein+W%C3%BCstenvolk+zwischen+Gott+und+Geistern&rft.pub=GRIN+Verlag&rft.aulast=Freitag&rft.aufirst=Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrasse1995" class="citation book cs1">Prasse, Karl G. (1995). <i>The Tuaregs: The Blue People</i>. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 17–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7289-313-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-7289-313-6"><bdi>978-87-7289-313-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tuaregs%3A+The+Blue+People&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=Museum+Tusculanum+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-87-7289-313-6&rft.aulast=Prasse&rft.aufirst=Karl+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKöhler,_Verfassung2013" class="citation book cs1">Köhler, Verfassung, Arthur (17 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FtXdmyk7XoMC&dq=islam+der+tuareg&pg=PA26"><i>Soziale Gliederung, Recht und Wirtschaft der Tuareg</i></a>. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86444-750-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86444-750-1"><bdi>978-3-86444-750-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soziale+Gliederung%2C+Recht+und+Wirtschaft+der+Tuareg&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=BoD+%E2%80%93+Books+on+Demand&rft.date=2013-07-17&rft.isbn=978-3-86444-750-1&rft.aulast=K%C3%B6hler%2C+Verfassung&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFtXdmyk7XoMC%26dq%3Dislam%2Bder%2Btuareg%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2011" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Bruce S. (6 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O_0EA2DrmUkC&dq=islam+der+tuareg&pg=PA124"><i>A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600-1960</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49908-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49908-8"><bdi>978-1-139-49908-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Race+in+Muslim+West+Africa%2C+1600-1960&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011-06-06&rft.isbn=978-1-139-49908-8&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Bruce+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO_0EA2DrmUkC%26dq%3Dislam%2Bder%2Btuareg%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABerbers+and+Islam" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&oldid=1256578435">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berbers_and_Islam&oldid=1256578435</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Berber_history" title="Category:Berber history">Berber history</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Maghreb" title="Category:Maghreb">Maghreb</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_North_Africa" title="Category:History of North Africa">History of North Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world_by_ethnicity" title="Category:People of the medieval Islamic world by ethnicity">People of the medieval Islamic world by ethnicity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam_in_Africa" title="Category:Islam in Africa">Islam in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam_in_Algeria" title="Category:Islam in Algeria">Islam in Algeria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam_in_Morocco" title="Category:Islam in Morocco">Islam in Morocco</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam_in_Libya" title="Category:Islam in Libya">Islam in Libya</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam_in_Tunisia" title="Category:Islam in Tunisia">Islam in Tunisia</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_October_2024" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from October 2024">Articles needing additional references from October 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 10 November 2024, at 16:39<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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