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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_defense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Direct defense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_defense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avoidance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avoidance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Avoidance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avoidance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dispersal_and_settlement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dispersal_and_settlement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Dispersal and settlement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dispersal_and_settlement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Larval_sensory_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Larval_sensory_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Larval sensory systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Larval_sensory_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Larval sensory systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Larval_sensory_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sensory_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sensory_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Sensory systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sensory_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Magnetic_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Magnetic fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vision_and_non-visual_light_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vision_and_non-visual_light_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Vision and non-visual light perception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vision_and_non-visual_light_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Sound</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Olfaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Olfaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>Olfaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Olfaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_impacts_on_sensory_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_impacts_on_sensory_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Human impacts on sensory systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_impacts_on_sensory_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ocean_acidification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_acidification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Ocean acidification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_acidification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sedimentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sedimentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Sedimentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sedimentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-recruitment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-recruitment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Self-recruitment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-recruitment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Implications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> 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which many <a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">marine invertebrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishes">fishes</a> have. Marine animals with a larva typically release many larvae into the water column, where the larvae develop before <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphosing</a> into adults. </p><p>Marine larvae can disperse over long distances, although determining the actual distance is challenging, because of their size and the lack of a good tracking method. Knowing dispersal distances is important for managing <a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">fisheries</a>, effectively designing marine reserves, and controlling <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_on_the_evolution_of_a_biphasic_life_history">Theories on the evolution of a biphasic life history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theories on the evolution of a biphasic life history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Larval dispersal is one of the most important topics in <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine ecology">marine ecology</a>, today. Many marine invertebrates and many fishes have a bi-phasic life cycle with a <a href="/wiki/Pelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagic">pelagic</a> larva or pelagic eggs that can be transported over long distances, and a <a href="/wiki/Demersal" class="mw-redirect" title="Demersal">demersal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> adult.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are several theories behind why these organisms have evolved this biphasic life history:<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Larvae use different food sources than adults, which decreases competition between life stages.</li> <li>Pelagic larvae can disperse large distances, colonize new territory, and move away from habitats that has become overcrowded or otherwise unsuitable.</li> <li>A long pelagic larval phase can help a species to break its <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasite</a> cycles.</li> <li>Pelagic larvae avoid benthic predators.</li></ul> <p>Dispersing as pelagic larvae can be risky. For example, while larvae do avoid benthic predators, they are still exposed to pelagic predators in the water column. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Larval_development_strategies">Larval development strategies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Larval development strategies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marine larvae develop via one of three strategies: Direct, lecithotrophic, or planktotrophic. Each strategy has risks of predation and the difficulty of finding a good settlement site. </p><p><b>Direct developing</b><span class="anchor" id="Direct_development"></span> larvae look like the adult. They have typically very low dispersal potential, and are known as "crawl-away larvae", because they crawl away from their egg after hatching. Some species of frogs and snails hatch this way. </p><p><b>Lecithotrophic</b><span class="anchor" id="Lecithotrophy"></span> larvae have greater dispersal potential than direct developers. Many fish species and some benthic invertebrates have lecithotrophic larvae, which have yolk droplets or a yolk sac for nutrition during dispersal. Though some lecithotrophic species can feed in the water column, too. But many, such as <a href="/wiki/Tunicates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunicates">tunicates</a>, cannot, and so must settle before depleting their yolk. Consequently, these species have short pelagic larval durations and do not disperse long distances. </p><p><b>Planktotrophic</b><span class="anchor" id="Planktotrophy"></span> larvae feed while they are in the water column and can be over a long time pelagic and so disperse over long distances. This disperse ability is a key adaptation of benthic marine invertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Planktotrophic larvae feed on <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and small <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>, including other larvae. Planktotrophic development is the most common type of larval development, especially among benthic invertebrates. </p><p>Because planktotrophic larvae are for a long time in the water column and recruit successfully with low probability, early researchers developed the "lottery hypothesis", which states that animals release huge numbers of larvae to increase the chances that at least one will survive, and that larvae cannot influence their probability of success.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This hypothesis views larval survival and successful recruitment as chance events, which numerous studies on larval behavior and ecology have since shown to be false.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though it has been generally disproved, the larval lottery hypothesis represents an important understanding of the difficulties faced by larvae during their time in the water column. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Predator_defense">Predator defense</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Predator defense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptation</a></div> <p>Predation is a major threat to marine larvae, which are an important food source for many organisms. Invertebrate larvae in <a href="/wiki/Estuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuaries">estuaries</a> are particularly at risk because estuaries are nursery grounds for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Planktivorous_fishes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Planktivorous fishes (page does not exist)">planktivorous fishes</a>. Larvae have evolved strategies to cope with this threat, including direct defense and <a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">avoidance</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_defense">Direct defense</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Direct defense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Direct defense can include protective structures and chemical defenses.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">planktivorous</a> fishes are gape-limited predators, meaning their prey is determined by the width of their open mouths, making larger larvae difficult to ingest.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study proved that spines serve a protective function by removing spines from estuarine <a href="/wiki/Crab" title="Crab">crab</a> larvae and monitoring differences in predation rates between de-spined and intact larvae.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study also showed that predator defense is also behavioral, as they can keep spines relaxed but erect them in the presence of predators.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avoidance">Avoidance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Avoidance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Larvae can avoid predators on small and large spatial scales. Some larvae do this by sinking when approached by a predator. A more common avoidance strategy is to become active at night and remain hidden during the day to avoid visual predators. Most larvae and plankton undertake <a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">diel vertical migrations</a> between deeper waters with less light and fewer predators during the day and shallow waters in the <a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">photic zone</a> at night, where <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a> is abundant.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estuarine invertebrate larvae avoid predators by developing in the open ocean, where there are fewer predators. This is done using reverse tidal vertical migrations. Larvae use tidal cycles and estuarine flow regimes to aid their departure to the ocean, a process that is well-studied in many estuarine crab species.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example of reverse tidal migration performed by crab species would begin with larvae being released on a nocturnal <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">spring high tide</a> to limit predation by planktivorous fishes. As the tide begins to ebbs, larvae swim to the surface to be carried away from the spawning site. When the tide begins to <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">flood</a>, larvae swim to the bottom, where water moves more slowly due to the <a href="/wiki/Boundary_layer" title="Boundary layer">boundary layer</a>. When the tide again changes back to ebb, the larvae swim to the surface waters and resume their journey to the ocean. Depending on the length of the estuary and the speed of the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">currents</a>, this process can take anywhere from one tidal cycle to several days.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dispersal_and_settlement">Dispersal and settlement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dispersal and settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most widely accepted theory explaining the evolution of a pelagic larval stage is the need for long-distance dispersal ability.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">Sessile</a> and sedentary organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Barnacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Barnacles">barnacles</a>, tunicates, and mussels require a mechanism to move their young into new territory, since they cannot move long distances as adults. Many species have relatively long pelagic larval durations on the order of weeks or months.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, larvae feed and grow, and many species <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphose</a> through several stages of development. For example, barnacles <a href="/wiki/Ecdysis" title="Ecdysis">molt</a> through six <a href="/wiki/Nauplius_(larva)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauplius (larva)">naupliar</a> stages before becoming a <a href="/wiki/Cyprid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyprid">cyprid</a> and seeking appropriate settlement substrate.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This strategy can be risky. Some larvae have been shown to be able to delay their final <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphosis</a> for a few days or weeks, and most species cannot delay it at all.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If these larvae metamorphose far from a suitable settlement site, they perish. Many invertebrate larvae have evolved complex behaviors and endogenous rhythms to ensure successful and timely settlement. </p><p>Many estuarine species exhibit swimming rhythms of reverse tidal vertical migration to aid in their transport away from their hatching site. Individuals can also exhibit tidal vertical migrations to reenter the estuary when they are competent to settle.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As larvae reach their final pelagic stage, they become much more <a href="/wiki/Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">tactile</a>; clinging to anything larger than themselves. One study observed crab <a href="/wiki/Postlarvae" class="mw-redirect" title="Postlarvae">postlarvae</a> and found that they would swim vigorously until they encountered a floating object, which they would cling to for the remainder of the experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was hypothesized that by clinging to floating debris, crabs can be transported towards shore due to the oceanographic forces of <a href="/wiki/Internal_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal waves">internal waves</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which carry floating debris shoreward regardless of the prevailing currents. </p><p>Once returning to shore, settlers encounter difficulties concerning their actual settlement and recruitment into the population. Space is a limiting factor for sessile invertebrates on <a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">rocky shores</a>. Settlers must be wary of adult <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeders" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter feeders">filter feeders</a>, which cover substrate at settlement sites and eat particles the size of larvae. Settlers must also avoid becoming stranded out of water by waves, and must select a settlement site at the proper tidal height to prevent <a href="/wiki/Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a> and avoid <a href="/wiki/Competition#Competition_in_biology_and_ecology" title="Competition">competition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a>. To overcome many of these difficulties, some species rely on chemical cues to assist them in selecting an appropriate settlement site. These cues are usually emitted by adult <a href="/wiki/Conspecifics" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspecifics">conspecifics</a>, but some species cue on specific bacterial mats or other qualities of the <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">substrate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Larval_sensory_systems">Larval sensory systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Larval sensory systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although with a <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">pelagic</a> larva, many species can increase their dispersal range and decrease the risk of <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbreeding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a larva comes with challenges: Marine larvae risk being washed away without finding a suitable habitat for settlement. Therefore, they have evolved many sensory systems: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sensory_systems">Sensory systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sensory systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Magnetic_fields">Magnetic fields</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Magnetic fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Far from shore, larvae are able to use magnetic fields to orient themselves towards the coast over large spatial scales.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is additional evidence that species can recognize anomalies in the magnetic field to return to the same location multiple times throughout their life.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the mechanisms that these species use is poorly understood, it appears that magnetic fields play an important role in larval orientation offshore, where other cues such as sound and chemicals may be difficult to detect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vision_and_non-visual_light_perception">Vision and non-visual light perception</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Vision and non-visual light perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Phototaxis" title="Phototaxis">Phototaxis</a> (ability to differentiate between light and dark areas) is important to find a suitable habitat. Phototaxis evolved relatively quickly<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and taxa that lack developed eyes, such as <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">schyphozoans</a>, use phototaxis to find shaded areas to settle away from predators.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phototaxis is not the only mechanism that guides larvae by light. The larvae of the <a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">annelid</a> <a href="/wiki/Platynereis_dumerilii" title="Platynereis dumerilii">Platynereis dumerilii</a> do not only show positive<sup id="cite_ref-Jekely2008_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jekely2008-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and negative phototaxis<sup id="cite_ref-Randel2014_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Randel2014-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> over a broad range of the light spectrum,<sup id="cite_ref-Guehmann2015_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guehmann2015-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but swim down to the <a href="/wiki/Center_of_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Center of gravity">center of gravity</a> when they are exposed to non-directional <a href="/wiki/UV" class="mw-redirect" title="UV">UV</a>-light. This behavior is a UV-induced positive <a href="/wiki/Gravitaxis" title="Gravitaxis">gravitaxis</a>. This gravitaxis and negative phototaxis induced by light coming from the water surface form a ratio-metric <a href="/wiki/Depth_gauge" title="Depth gauge">depth-gauge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Veraszto2018_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veraszto2018-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a depth gauge is based on the different <a href="/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuation</a> of light across the different <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> in water.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsson2009_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsson2009-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nilsson2013_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsson2013-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In clear water blue light (470 nm) penetrates the deepest.<sup id="cite_ref-Lythgoe1988_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lythgoe1988-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Guehmann2015_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guehmann2015-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And so the larvae need only to compare the two wavelength ranges UV/violet (< 420 nm) and the other wavelengths to find their preferred depth.<sup id="cite_ref-Veraszto2018_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veraszto2018-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Species that produce more complex larvae, such as fish, can use full vision<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to find a suitable habitat on small spatial scales. Larvae of <a href="/wiki/Damselfish" title="Damselfish">damselfish</a> use vision to find and settle near adults of their species.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sound">Sound</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sound"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marine larvae use sound and vibrations to find a good habitat where they can settle and <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphose</a> into juveniles. This behavior has been seen in fish<sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as in the larvae of <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">scleractinian</a> corals.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many families of coral reef fish are particularly attracted to high-<a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a> sounds produced by invertebrates,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which larvae use as an indicator of food availability and complex habitat where they may be protected from predators. It is thought that larvae avoid low frequency sounds because they may be associated with transient fish or predators<sup id="cite_ref-:2_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is therefore not a reliable indicator of safe habitat. </p><p>The spatial range at which larvae detect and use sound waves is still uncertain, though some evidence suggests that it may only be reliable at very small scales.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is concern that changes in <a href="/wiki/Community_structure" title="Community structure">community structure</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nursery_habitat" title="Nursery habitat">nursery habitats</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrass</a> beds, <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a> forests, and <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a>, could lead to a collapse in larval recruitment<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to a decrease in sound-producing invertebrates. Other researchers argue that larvae may still successfully find a place to settle even if one cue is unreliable.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Olfaction">Olfaction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Olfaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many marine organisms use <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">olfaction</a> (chemical cues in the form of scent) to locate a safe area to metamorphose at the end of their larval stage.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been shown in both <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a><sup id="cite_ref-:3_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research has shown that larvae are able to distinguish between water from the open ocean and water from more suitable nursery habitats such as <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoons</a><sup id="cite_ref-:3_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and seagrass beds.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemical cues can be extremely useful for larvae, but may not have a constant presence, as water input can depend on currents and tidal flow.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_impacts_on_sensory_systems">Human impacts on sensory systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Human impacts on sensory systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recent research in the field of larval sensory biology has begun focusing more on how human impacts and environmental disturbance affect settlement rates and larval interpretation of different habitat cues. <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic climate change">anthropogenic climate change</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">sedimentation</a> have become areas of particular interest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ocean_acidification">Ocean acidification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ocean acidification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although several behaviours of coral reef fish, including larvae, has been found to be detrimentally affected from projected end-of-21st-century ocean acidification in previous experiments, a 2020 replication study found that "end-of-century ocean acidification levels have negligible effects on [three] important behaviours of coral reef fishes" and with "data simulations, [showed] that the large effect sizes and small within-group variances that have been reported in several previous studies are highly improbable".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2021, it emerged that some of the previous studies about coral reef fish behaviour changes have been accused of being fraudulent.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Effect_size" title="Effect size">effect sizes</a> of studies assessing ocean acidification effects on fish behaviour have declined dramatically over a decade of research on this topic, with effects appearing negligible since 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ocean acidification has been shown to alter the way that pelagic larvae are able to process information<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and production of the cues themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acidification can alter larval interpretations of sounds, particularly in fish,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to settlement in suboptimal habitat. Though the mechanism for this process is still not fully understood, some studies indicate that this breakdown may be due to a decrease in size or density of their otoliths.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, sounds produced by invertebrates that larvae rely on as an indicator of habitat quality can also change due to acidification. For example, <a href="/wiki/Alpheidae" title="Alpheidae">snapping shrimp</a> produce different sounds that larvae may not recognize under acidified conditions due to differences in shell <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hearing is not the only sense that may be altered under future ocean chemistry conditions. Evidence also suggests that larval ability to process olfactory cues was also affected when tested under future <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Red color cues that coral larvae use to find crustose <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline algae</a>, with which they have a <a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensal</a> relationship, may also be in danger due to algal bleaching.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sedimentation">Sedimentation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sedimentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sediment runoff, from natural storm events or human development, can also impact larval sensory systems and survival. One study focusing on red soil found that increased turbidity due to runoff negatively influenced the ability of fish larvae to interpret visual cues.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More unexpectedly, they also found that red soil can also impair olfactory capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Self-recruitment">Self-recruitment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Self-recruitment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marine ecologists are often interested in the degree of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-recruitment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Self-recruitment (page does not exist)">self-recruitment</a> in populations. Historically, larvae were considered passive particles that were carried by ocean currents to faraway locations. This led to the belief that all marine populations were demographically open, connected by long distance larval transport. Recent work has shown that many populations are self-recruiting, and that larvae and juveniles are capable of purposefully returning to their natal sites. </p><p>Researchers take a variety of approaches to estimating <a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_connectivity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Population connectivity (page does not exist)">population connectivity</a> and self-recruitment, and several studies have demonstrated their feasibility. Jones et al.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Swearer et al.,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, investigated the proportion of fish larvae returning to their natal reef. Both studies found higher than expected self-recruitment in these populations using mark, release, and recapture sampling. These studies were the first to provide conclusive evidence of self-recruitment in a species with the potential to disperse far from its natal site, and laid the groundwork for numerous future studies.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conservation">Conservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ichthyoplankton" title="Ichthyoplankton">Ichthyoplankton</a> have a high mortality rate as they transition their food source from yolk sac to zooplankton.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is proposed that this mortality rate is related to food supply as well as an inability to move through the water effectively at this stage of development, leading to starvation. <a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a> of water can also impact the organisms' ability to feed even when there is a high density of prey. Reducing hydrodynamic constraints on cultivated populations could lead to higher yields for repopulation efforts and has been proposed as a means of conserving fish populations by acting at the larval level.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A network of <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">marine reserves</a> has been initiated for the conservation of the world's marine larval populations. These areas restrict fishing and therefore increase the number of otherwise fished species. This leads to a healthier ecosystem and affects the number of overall species within the reserve as compared to nearby fished areas; however, the full effect of an increase in larger predator fish on larval populations is not currently known. Also, the potential for utilizing the motility of fish larvae to repopulate the water surrounding the reserve is not fully understood. Marine reserves are a part of a growing conservation effort to combat <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>; however, reserves still only comprise about 1% of the world's oceans. These reserves are also not protected from other human-derived threats, such as chemical pollutants, so they cannot be the only method of conservation without certain levels of protection for the water around them as well.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For effective conservation, it is important to understand the larval dispersal patterns of the species in danger, as well as the dispersal of <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> and predators which could impact their populations. Understanding these patterns is an important factor when creating protocol for governing fishing and creating <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">reserves</a>. A single species may have multiple dispersal patterns. The spacing and size of marine reserves must reflect this variability to maximize their beneficial effect. Species with shorter dispersal patterns are more likely to be affected by local changes and require higher priority for conservation because of the separation of subpopulations.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implications">Implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The principles of marine larval ecology can be applied in other fields, too whether marine or not. Successful <a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">fisheries management</a> relies heavily on understanding population connectivity and dispersal distances, which are driven by larvae. Dispersal and connectivity must also be considered when designing natural reserves. If populations are not self-recruiting, reserves may lose their species assemblages. Many invasive species can disperse over long distances, including the seeds of land plants and larvae of marine invasive species. Understanding the factors influencing their dispersal is key to controlling their spread and managing established populations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crustacean_larvae" class="mw-redirect" title="Crustacean larvae">Crustacean larvae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyoplankton" title="Ichthyoplankton">Ichthyoplankton</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_larval_ecology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grosberg, R.K. and D.R. Levitan. 1992. For adults only? Supply-side ecology and the history of larval biology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 7: 130-133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swearer, S. E., J. S. Shima, M. E. Hellberg, S. R. Thorrold, G. P. Jones, D. R. Robertson, S. G. Morgan, K. A. Selkoe, G. M. Ruiz, and R. R. Warner. 2002. Evidence of self-recruitment in demersal marine populations. Bull. Mar. Sci. 70(1) Suppl.: 251-271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strathmann, R. R., T. P. Hughes, A. M. Kuris, K. C. Lindeman, S. G. Morgan, J. M. Pandolfi, and R. R. Warner. 2002. Evolution of local recruitment and its consequences for marine populations. Bull. Mar. Sci. 70(1) Suppl.: 377-396.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thorson, G. 1950. Reproductive and larval ecology of marine bottom invertebrates. Biol. Rev. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 25: 1-45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roughgarden, J., Y. Iwasa, and C. Blaxter. 1985. Demographic theory for an open population with space-limited recruitment. Ecology 66: 54-67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caley, M.J., M.H. Carr, M.A. Hixon, T.P. Hughes, G.P. Jones, and B. Menge. 1996. Recruitment and the local dynamics of open marine populations. Evolution 35: 1192-1205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kingsford, M. J., J. M. Leis, A. Shanks, K. C. Lindeman, S. G. Morgan, and J. Pineda. 2002. Sensory environments, larval abilities, and local self-recruitment. Bull. Mar. Sci. 70(1) Suppl.: 309-340.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLindquistHay1996" class="citation journal cs1">Lindquist, Niels; Hay, Mark E. 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href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/140px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/210px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/280px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/16px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/24px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/32px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plankton" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plankton" title="Template:Plankton"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plankton" title="Template talk:Plankton"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plankton" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plankton"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Plankton" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">About <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CLAW_hypothesis" title="CLAW hypothesis">CLAW hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:High_lipid_content_microalgae" title="Category:High lipid content microalgae">High lipid content microalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holoplankton" title="Holoplankton">Holoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroplankton" title="Meroplankton">Meroplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplankton" title="Mycoplankton">Mycoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milky_seas_effect" title="Milky seas effect">Milky seas effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktology" title="Planktology">Planktology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_tide" class="mw-redirect" title="Red tide">Red tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_bloom" title="Spring bloom">Spring bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_layers_(oceanography)" title="Thin layers (oceanography)">Thin layers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Planktology" title="Category:Planktology">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/140px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/210px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/280px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="1180" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By size</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_eukaryotic_picoplankton_species" title="List of eukaryotic picoplankton species">Eukaryotic picoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_picoplankton" title="Heterotrophic picoplankton">Heterotrophic picoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microplankton" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microplankton">Marine microplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">Microphyte (microalgae)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanophytoplankton" title="Nanophytoplankton">Nanophytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_picoplankton" title="Photosynthetic picoplankton">Photosynthetic picoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picobiliphyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Picobiliphyte">Picobiliphyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picoeukaryote" title="Picoeukaryote">Picoeukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picoplankton" title="Picoplankton">Picoplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bacterioplankton" title="Bacterioplankton">Bacterioplankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeromonas_salmonicida" title="Aeromonas salmonicida">Aeromonas salmonicida</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobiont" title="Cyanobiont">Cyanobiont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">Cyanotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_redmouth_disease" title="Enteric redmouth disease">Enteric redmouth disease</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Flavobacterium" title="Flavobacterium">Flavobacterium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Flavobacterium_columnare" title="Flavobacterium columnare">Flavobacterium columnare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pelagibacter_ubique" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagibacter ubique">Pelagibacter ubique</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagibacterales" title="Pelagibacterales">SAR11 clade</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Streptococcus_iniae" title="Streptococcus iniae">Streptococcus iniae</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxospore" title="Auxospore">Auxospore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axodine" title="Axodine">Axodine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bacteriastrum" title="Bacteriastrum">Bacteriastrum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chaetoceros" title="Chaetoceros">Chaetoceros</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaetocerotaceae" title="Chaetocerotaceae">Chaetocerotaceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">Coccolithophore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emiliania_huxleyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Emiliania huxleyi">Emiliania huxleyi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustigmatophyte" title="Eustigmatophyte">Eustigmatophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">Frustule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopile</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nannochloropsis" title="Nannochloropsis">Nannochloropsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navicula" title="Navicula">Navicula</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prasinophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Prasinophyceae">Prasinophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphidophyte" title="Raphidophyte">Raphidophyte</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thalassiosira_pseudonana" title="Thalassiosira pseudonana">Thalassiosira pseudonana</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatom orders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coscinodiscophyceae" title="Coscinodiscophyceae">Centrales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennales" title="Pennales">Pennales</a> <ul><li>Classes: <a href="/wiki/Coscinodiscophyceae" title="Coscinodiscophyceae">Coscinodiscophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragilariophyceae" title="Fragilariophyceae">Fragilariophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Bacillariophyceae</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">Flagellates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brevetoxin" title="Brevetoxin">Brevetoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">Flagellum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pfiesteria_piscicida" title="Pfiesteria piscicida">Pfiesteria piscicida</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">Saxitoxin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_(fish_disease)" title="Velvet (fish disease)">Velvet (fish disease)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciguatera" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciguatera">Ciguatera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelatinous_zooplankton" title="Gelatinous zooplankton">Gelatinous zooplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_copepods" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunting copepods">Hunting copepods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyoplankton" title="Ichthyoplankton">Ichthyoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">Jellyfish</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marine larvae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crustacean_larva" title="Crustacean larva">Crustacean larvae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_louse" title="Salmon louse">Salmon louse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_louse" title="Sea louse">Sea louse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">Copepod orders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calanoida" title="Calanoida">Calanoida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopoida" title="Cyclopoida">Cyclopoida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpacticoida" title="Harpacticoida">Harpacticoida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monstrilloida" title="Monstrilloida">Monstrilloida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poecilostomatoida" title="Poecilostomatoida">Poecilostomatoida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siphonostomatoida" title="Siphonostomatoida">Siphonostomatoida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Copepods" title="Category:Copepods">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">Aeroplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algaculture" title="Algaculture">Algaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_mat" title="Algal mat">Algal mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_nutrient_solution" title="Algal nutrient solution">Algal nutrient solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_seawater" title="Artificial seawater">Artificial seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Biological pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylsulfoniopropionate" title="Dimethylsulfoniopropionate">Dimethylsulfoniopropionate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_diseases_and_parasites" title="Fish diseases and parasites">Fish diseases and parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-nutrient,_low-chlorophyll_regions" title="High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll regions">HNLC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">Macroalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manta_trawl" title="Manta trawl">Manta trawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_snot" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea snot">Marine mucilage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoplankton" title="Pseudoplankton">Pseudoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">Stromatolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tychoplankton" title="Tychoplankton">Tychoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoid" title="Zoid">Zoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Microbial_Oceanography:_Research_and_Education" title="Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education">C-MORE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_Plankton_Recorder" title="Continuous Plankton Recorder">CPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Continuous_Plankton_Recorder_Survey" title="Australian Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey">AusCPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOCNESS" title="MOCNESS">MOCNESS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCAR_Southern_Ocean_Continuous_Plankton_Recorder_Survey" title="SCAR Southern Ocean Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey">SCAR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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