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font-bold"><span>Change Tutorial</span><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="text-white w-5 h-5"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 9l4-4 4 4m0 6l-4 4-4-4"></path></svg></button></div><div class="max-w-none p-4 sm:p-6 lg:p-8 flex-1 overflow-y-auto"><h1 class="h6 text-primary">Custom data types: DOMAINS</h1><h2 class="h3 mt-4">Why create a custom data type?</h2><p class="body mt-4">Custom data type will help you mostly for data integrity, ensuring your data stored in the database is as you ever wanted it to be. A common <span class="italic">surprise gift</span> relies also in the maintenance of it.</p><p class="body mt-4">With a simple story in this tutorial, you’ll understand how it can help you benefit from those advantages. This tutorial is divided in two sub-tutorials: </p><ul class="list-disc ml-8 mt-4"><li>this part 1 covers DOMAIN usage</li><li>part 2 covers (your own) TYPE usage</li></ul><h2 class="h3 mt-4">Domain usage</h2><p class="body mt-4">Defining your own <span class="italic">domains</span> will be of great usage to prevent insertion of unwanted formatted data or data not corresponding exactly to what you want.</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">Command: CREATE DOMAIN Description: define a new domain Syntax: CREATE DOMAIN name [ AS ] data_type [ COLLATE collation ] [ DEFAULT expression ] [ constraint [ ... ] ]</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">where constraint is:</p><p class="body mt-4">Related documentation page: <a class="" href="https://www.postgresql.org/docs/14/sql-createdomain.html">https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createdomain.html</a></p><h2 class="h3 mt-4">An example worth millions words</h2><p class="body mt-4">Let’s say you have a table <span class="italic">person</span> in your database defined like:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">test=# \d person Table "public.person" Column | Type | Collation | Nullable | Default ------------+---------+-----------+----------+------------------------------------ id | integer | | not null | nextval('person_id_seq'::regclass) firstname | text | | not null | lastname | text | | not null | birth_date | date | | | email | text | | not null | Indexes: "person_pkey" PRIMARY KEY, btree (id)create table person</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">You notice that the <span class="italic">birth_date </span>can be null, or anything that represents a date, even a date in the 1st century. </p><p class="body mt-4">You notice also that email is a plain text, any text value could fit well here. On production systems, we see that very often, because <span class="italic">CHECKS</span> for data are done inside the application, hoping it does that well for us. A database like PostgreSQL has everything to handle things well, like constraints checking, so why not use this instead? It will allow changing the application from one language to another, first. Second, it will allow usage of the database without going thru the application. In this later case, check constraints are here to prevent any unwanted entry.</p><p class="body mt-4">Let’s say in your application you to insert or update data only of people born after 1920, likely, living persons, and also, you want to be sure that emails stored are likely to be valid.</p><p class="body mt-4"></p><p class="body mt-4">One can easily correct this with some checks in the create table. We could have ALTER-ed the table, but for the clarity of this tutorial, we create a new table instead, as we will do another one after this:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">create table person_using_checks ( id integer generated always as identity primary key , firstname text not null , lastname text not null , birth_date date , email text not null , check (birth_date>'1930-01-01'::date) , check (email ~ '^[A-Za-z0-9._%-]+@[A-Za-z0-9.-]+[.][A-Za-z]+$') );</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">Note that on that example we use the new <code class="">GENERATED { ALWAYS | BY DEFAULT } AS IDENTITY</code> method to create a surrogate key (see <a class="" href="https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/sql-createtable.htm">https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/sql-createtable.htm</a> for more details).</p><p class="body mt-4"></p><p class="body mt-4">Once the table is created, try to insert this data:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">insert into person_using_checks (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email) values ('Jhon','Doe','1970-01-01'::date,'john@doe.org');</code></pre></div><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800"> insert into person_using_checks (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email) values ('Georges','Washington','1732-02-22'::date,'georges@whitehouse.gov.us');</code></pre></div><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">insert into person_using_checks (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email) values ('Starman','Sky','1972-04-28','unknown');</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">On the last 2 examples, PostgreSQL tells you what’s wrong in there…</p><p class="body mt-4"></p><p class="body mt-4">You could let that as it is if you have only that table to manage with this kind of data. But, if you want to apply those checks to other tables, then the best way is to create <span class="italic">domains</span> in PostgreSQL, so you can apply that <span class="italic">domain</span> definition to any table you want where the data has to be the same in your eyes.</p><p class="body mt-4"></p><p class="body mt-4">Let’s create those two domains instead:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">create domain date_of_birth as date check (value > '1930-01-01'::date) ; create domain valid_email as text not null check (value ~* '^[A-Za-z0-9._%-]+@[A-Za-z0-9.-]+[.][A-Za-z]+$') ;</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">Notice that the <span class="italic">date_of_birth</span> domain still allows <span class="italic">null</span> values, but <span class="italic">valid_email</span> doesn’t.</p><p class="body mt-4"></p><p class="body mt-4">You can list your domains in psql with this command:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">\dD</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">Once those domains are created, we’ll create a new table using the domains, without the need for extra checks, since those are now done thru the domains:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">create table person_using_domains ( id integer generated always as identity primary key , firstname text not null , lastname text not null , birth_date date_of_birth , email valid_email );</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">Try to insert the same data as before, in this new table, and look what happens:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">insert into person_using_domains (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email) values ('Jhon','Doe','1970-01-01'::date,'john@doe.org');</code></pre></div><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">insert into person_using_domains (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email) values ('Georges','Washington','1732-02-22'::date,'georges@whitehouse.gov.us');</code></pre></div><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">insert into person_using_domains (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email) values ('Starman','Sky','1972-04-28','unknown');</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">PostgreSQL still doesn’t want that data, but the message changed a bit, it refers now to the <span class="italic">domains’</span> constraints.</p><p class="body mt-4"></p><p class="body mt-4">Let’s say the application has now evolved, and we only want to store persons born after 1980.</p><p class="body mt-4">You’ll have first to drop the constraint of the domain and create a new one, because, at least at the moment, PostgreSQL doesn’t allows to modify the check constraints on the fly of a domain (see <a class="" href="https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-alterdomain.html">https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-alterdomain.html</a> for complete <span class="italic">ALTER DOMAIN </span>command):</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">alter domain date_of_birth drop constraint date_of_birth_check ;</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">If you look at the domain definition in psql, you’ll see there are no more Check listed:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">\dD date_of_birth</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">Let’s recreate it now:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">alter domain date_of_birth add check (value > '1980-01-01'::date);</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">PostgreSQL will refuse, because that <span class="italic">John Doe</span> we inserted was born on epoch 0, i.e. 01/01/1970.. and then, this record doesn’t match <span class="italic">date_of_birth</span> domain requirements.</p><p class="body mt-4"></p><p class="body mt-4">We can enforce this with the “<span class="italic">not valid</span>” in that <span class="italic">alter domain</span>, meaning by PostgreSQL’s documentation : “Do not verify existing stored data for constraint validity”. It’s an enforcement, to let data not satisfying the check of the data live inside our database:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">alter domain date_of_birth add check (value > '1980-01-01'::date) not valid;</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">By doing this, now we can ask PostgreSQL to check if the check of that particular domain is respected or not:</p><div class="relative"><pre class="rounded-lg mt-6 p-2 text-white !bg-gray-800 border-code"><div class="flex justify-end pb-3 mt-1 mx-1 gap-2"><button class="flex items-center gap-1 uppercase bg-gray-600 hover:bg-gray-500 text-white rounded py-1 px-2 text-sm font-sans w-auto"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" stroke-width="2" stroke="currentColor" aria-hidden="true" class="h-4 w-4"><path stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" d="M8 5H6a2 2 0 00-2 2v12a2 2 0 002 2h10a2 2 0 002-2v-1M8 5a2 2 0 002 2h2a2 2 0 002-2M8 5a2 2 0 012-2h2a2 2 0 012 2m0 0h2a2 2 0 012 2v3m2 4H10m0 0l3-3m-3 3l3 3"></path></svg> Copy</button></div><code class="language-pgsql !text-sm !bg-gray-800">alter domain date_of_birth validate constraint date_of_birth_check ;</code></pre></div><p class="body mt-4">It won’t tell which data is violating that “new constraint”. You’ll have to figure it out by yourself, selecting all the data not matching (<span class="italic">where birth_date < ‘1980-01-01’::data …</span>) and then doing what’s necessary to tidy up your database, as an example, creating a person_history table with same columns and moving this data to it, or just deleting it, depending on what you really want to do.</p><p class="body mt-4"></p><p class="body mt-4">Domain should be defined when you’re building your schema. Think well on each column, what kind of domain could it be, what check constraints you want, if it’s null-able or not, if a default value makes sense or not, etc.</p><p class="body mt-4"></p><p class="body mt-4">Too often we see domains are not used, and that’s bad because on any modification of a particular type of data, let’s say <span class="italic">zipcode, </span>one will have to modify any column of the table, one by one, and that’s prone to errors and forgetting that <span class="italic">this particular column </span>in <span class="italic">that particular table</span>, had to be modified too, and one just forgot it… makes it even worse if you have CHECKs in the table’s definition like to validate that a given <span class="italic">zipcode </span>type column is valid: you’ll have to modify each one of those too ! </p><p class="body mt-4"></p><p class="body mt-4">Nowadays, most of tools to create schemas and maintain it will allow you to define your own <span class="italic">domains</span> and manage inside the tool, that will then most likely build a full SQL script for you to create domains, tables, index, etc… Use it ! 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In this later case, check constraints are here to prevent any unwanted entry.","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":" for data are done inside the application, hoping it does that well for us. A database like PostgreSQL has everything to handle things well, like constraints checking, so why not use this instead? It will allow changing the application from one language to another, first. Second, it will allow usage of the database without going thru the application. 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We could have ALTER-ed the table, but for the clarity of this tutorial, we create a new table instead, as we will do another one after this:","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"One can easily correct this with some checks in the create table. We could have ALTER-ed the table, but for the clarity of this tutorial, we create a new table instead, as we will do another one after this:","href":null}],"color":"default"}},{"object":"block","id":"70578a3f-f404-4ecf-9834-f0b394f6e08e","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-11-14T09:41:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"code","code":{"caption":[],"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"create table person_using_checks (\n id integer generated always as identity primary key\n , firstname text not null\n , lastname text not null\n , birth_date date\n , email text not null\n , check (birth_date\u003e'1930-01-01'::date)\n , check (email ~ '^[A-Za-z0-9._%-]+@[A-Za-z0-9.-]+[.][A-Za-z]+$')\n);","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"create table person_using_checks (\n id integer generated always as identity primary key\n , firstname text not null\n , lastname text not null\n , birth_date date\n , email text not null\n , check (birth_date\u003e'1930-01-01'::date)\n , check (email ~ '^[A-Za-z0-9._%-]+@[A-Za-z0-9.-]+[.][A-Za-z]+$')\n);","href":null}],"language":"sql"}},{"object":"block","id":"3d52f356-f854-4739-b10f-e3268f2ee186","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-11-14T09:39:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"paragraph","paragraph":{"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"Note that on that example we use the new ","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"Note that on that example we use the new ","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":"GENERATED { ALWAYS | BY DEFAULT } AS IDENTITY","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":true,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"GENERATED { ALWAYS | BY DEFAULT } AS IDENTITY","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":" method to create a surrogate key (see ","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":" method to create a surrogate key (see ","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":"https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/sql-createtable.htm","link":{"url":"https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/sql-createtable.htm"}},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/sql-createtable.htm","href":"https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/sql-createtable.htm"},{"type":"text","text":{"content":" for more details).","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":" for more details).","href":null}],"color":"default"}},{"object":"block","id":"78a1de36-094e-409a-8f22-34dca21e36ff","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-11-14T09:39:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-11-14T09:39:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"paragraph","paragraph":{"rich_text":[],"color":"default"}},{"object":"block","id":"7fc67b75-61a9-49b8-a5fd-03399126a80b","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-11-14T09:36:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"paragraph","paragraph":{"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"Once the table is created, try to insert this data:","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"Once the table is created, try to insert this data:","href":null}],"color":"default"}},{"object":"block","id":"d329606d-6254-4f30-ae82-761919d2d365","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"code","code":{"caption":[],"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"insert into person_using_checks (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email) \nvalues ('Jhon','Doe','1970-01-01'::date,'john@doe.org');","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"insert into person_using_checks (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email) \nvalues ('Jhon','Doe','1970-01-01'::date,'john@doe.org');","href":null}],"language":"sql"}},{"object":"block","id":"443e408e-7d05-4149-b64b-2e507f0e1b84","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-11-14T09:45:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"code","code":{"caption":[],"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":" insert into person_using_checks (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email)\n values ('Georges','Washington','1732-02-22'::date,'georges@whitehouse.gov.us');","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":" insert into person_using_checks (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email)\n values ('Georges','Washington','1732-02-22'::date,'georges@whitehouse.gov.us');","href":null}],"language":"sql"}},{"object":"block","id":"26215dc8-d2c5-45fd-a8f2-9bc4ac8a2caf","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"code","code":{"caption":[],"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"insert into person_using_checks (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email)\nvalues ('Starman','Sky','1972-04-28','unknown');","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"insert into person_using_checks (firstname,lastname,birth_date,email)\nvalues ('Starman','Sky','1972-04-28','unknown');","href":null}],"language":"sql"}},{"object":"block","id":"74b2462a-0ca2-4f0d-9fed-178be2456f41","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"paragraph","paragraph":{"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"On the last 2 examples, PostgreSQL tells you what’s wrong in there…","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"On the last 2 examples, PostgreSQL tells you what’s wrong in 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could let that as it is if you have only that table to manage with this kind of data. But, if you want to apply those checks to other tables, then the best way is to create ","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"You could let that as it is if you have only that table to manage with this kind of data. But, if you want to apply those checks to other tables, then the best way is to create ","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":"domains","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":true,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"domains","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":" in PostgreSQL, so you can apply that ","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":" in PostgreSQL, so you can apply that ","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":"domain","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":true,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"domain","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":" definition to any table you want where the data has to be the same in your eyes.","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":" definition to any table you want where the data has to be the same in your eyes.","href":null}],"color":"default"}},{"object":"block","id":"05454a88-c05b-4fae-a979-c58793fed6ea","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"paragraph","paragraph":{"rich_text":[],"color":"default"}},{"object":"block","id":"a6dd2135-a320-4ba7-9683-f7ed43b4f545","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"paragraph","paragraph":{"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"Let’s create those two domains instead:","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"Let’s create those two domains instead:","href":null}],"color":"default"}},{"object":"block","id":"8ad0ecb9-49f1-411d-9c47-3db7a1bca2e8","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"code","code":{"caption":[],"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"create domain date_of_birth as date\n\tcheck (value \u003e '1930-01-01'::date)\n;\ncreate domain valid_email as text\n\tnot null\n\tcheck (value ~* '^[A-Za-z0-9._%-]+@[A-Za-z0-9.-]+[.][A-Za-z]+$')\n;","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"create domain date_of_birth as date\n\tcheck (value \u003e '1930-01-01'::date)\n;\ncreate domain valid_email as text\n\tnot null\n\tcheck (value ~* '^[A-Za-z0-9._%-]+@[A-Za-z0-9.-]+[.][A-Za-z]+$')\n;","href":null}],"language":"sql"}},{"object":"block","id":"0332e86b-0220-4097-8a4e-c161b027408b","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"paragraph","paragraph":{"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"Notice that the ","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"Notice that the ","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":"date_of_birth","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":true,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"date_of_birth","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":" domain still allows ","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":" domain still allows ","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":"null","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":true,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"null","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":" values, but ","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":" values, but ","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":"valid_email","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":true,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"valid_email","href":null},{"type":"text","text":{"content":" doesn’t.","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":" doesn’t.","href":null}],"color":"default"}},{"object":"block","id":"81a2696b-49a1-4517-914c-78c6b0351b84","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-11-14T09:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-11-14T09:47:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"paragraph","paragraph":{"rich_text":[],"color":"default"}},{"object":"block","id":"875ebe3e-eb86-4379-93fa-35b94bd31222","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-11-14T09:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-11-14T09:47:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"paragraph","paragraph":{"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"You can list your domains in psql with this command:","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"You can list your domains in psql with this command:","href":null}],"color":"default"}},{"object":"block","id":"076ab555-8b61-49ca-9bd8-55e19f74a9de","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-11-14T09:47:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-11-14T09:48:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"code","code":{"caption":[],"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"\\dD","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"\\dD","href":null}],"language":"sql"}},{"object":"block","id":"40ef07f7-099e-4303-9924-1fc847d0694e","parent":{"type":"page_id","page_id":"c671b0ea-fa73-4ed7-8b41-80da3438e758"},"created_time":"2022-10-17T21:45:00.000Z","last_edited_time":"2022-11-14T09:48:00.000Z","created_by":{"object":"user","id":"9a84d548-ec10-47d5-be3f-d8a1fb285e61"},"last_edited_by":{"object":"user","id":"15a63a21-c195-448c-97b3-4ac219550235"},"has_children":false,"archived":false,"in_trash":false,"type":"paragraph","paragraph":{"rich_text":[{"type":"text","text":{"content":"Once those domains are created, we’ll create a new table using the domains, without the need for extra checks, since those are now done thru the domains:","link":null},"annotations":{"bold":false,"italic":false,"strikethrough":false,"underline":false,"code":false,"color":"default"},"plain_text":"Once those domains are created, we’ll create a new table using the domains, without the need for extra checks, since those are now done thru the 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