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subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_descendants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_influenced_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_influenced_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Other influenced languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_influenced_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Accent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Orthography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonological_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonological_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Phonological processes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonological_processes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonological processes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonological_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ablaut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ablaut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Ablaut </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ablaut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umlaut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umlaut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Umlaut </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umlaut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-U-umlaut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U-umlaut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 U-umlaut </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U-umlaut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breaking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breaking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Breaking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breaking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assimilation_or_elision_of_inflectional_ʀ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assimilation_or_elision_of_inflectional_ʀ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Assimilation or elision of inflectional ʀ </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assimilation_or_elision_of_inflectional_ʀ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonotactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonotactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Phonotactics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonotactics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Blocking_of_ii,_uu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blocking_of_ii,_uu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Blocking of ii, uu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blocking_of_ii,_uu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epenthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epenthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Epenthesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epenthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Gender </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Morphology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Dialects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Dialects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Old_West_Norse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_West_Norse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Old West Norse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_West_Norse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Old_Icelandic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Icelandic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 Old Icelandic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Icelandic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Norwegian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Norwegian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.2 Old Norwegian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Norwegian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greenlandic_Norse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenlandic_Norse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.3 Greenlandic Norse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenlandic_Norse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Text_example" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Text_example"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.4 Text example </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Text_example-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_East_Norse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_East_Norse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Old East Norse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_East_Norse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Old_Danish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Danish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 Old Danish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Danish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Swedish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Swedish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.2 Old Swedish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Swedish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Text_example_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Text_example_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.3 Text example </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Text_example_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Gutnish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Gutnish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Old Gutnish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Gutnish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Text_example_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Text_example_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Text example </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Text_example_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Relationship to other languages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relationship_to_other_languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Relationship to other languages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Relationship to English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_modern_Scandinavian_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_modern_Scandinavian_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Relationship to modern Scandinavian languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_modern_Scandinavian_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle See also subsection </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dialectal_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialectal_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Dialectal information </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialectal_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Citations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Citations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Citations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 General citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cleasby-Vigfússon_citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cleasby-Vigfússon_citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Cleasby-Vigfússon citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cleasby-Vigfússon_citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Sources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 General sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Dictionaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Grammars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Norse_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Norse_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.4 Old Norse texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Norse_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_learning_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_learning_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.5 Language learning resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_learning_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Old Norse</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 75 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-75" aria-hidden="true" > 75 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudnoors" title="Oudnoors – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Oudnoors" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altnordische_Sprache" title="Altnordische Sprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Altnordische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="اللغة النوردية القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة النوردية القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_norr%C3%A9n_antigo" title="Idioma norrén antigo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma norrén antigo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B3rdicu_antiguu" title="Nórdicu antiguu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Nórdicu antiguu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_skandinav_dili" title="Qədim skandinav dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim skandinav dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="প্রাচীন নর্স ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীন নর্স ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Старажытнаскандынаўская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытнаскандынаўская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Стараскандынаўская мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Стараскандынаўская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Староскандинавски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Староскандинавски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oidnordische_Sproch" title="Oidnordische Sproch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Oidnordische Sproch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norseg" title="Norseg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Norseg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norr%C3%A8" title="Norrè – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Norrè" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%C3%A1_sever%C5%A1tina" title="Stará severština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Stará severština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Norseg" title="Hen Norseg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hen Norseg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldnordisk_(sprog)" title="Oldnordisk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oldnordisk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altnordische_Sprache" title="Altnordische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altnordische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanap%C3%B5hja_keel" title="Vanapõhja keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vanapõhja keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Αρχαία σκανδιναβική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία σκανδιναβική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B3rdico_antiguo" title="Nórdico antiguo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nórdico antiguo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnovnordlanda_lingvo" title="Malnovnordlanda lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malnovnordlanda lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_eskandinaviera" title="Antzinako eskandinaviera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako eskandinaviera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زبان نورس باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان نورس باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norr%C3%B8nt_m%C3%A1l" title="Norrønt mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Norrønt mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vieux_norrois" title="Vieux norrois – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vieux norrois" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldnoarsk" title="Aldnoarsk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Aldnoarsk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenn_Loghlynish" title="Shenn Loghlynish – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Shenn Loghlynish" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seann-Lochlannais" title="Seann-Lochlannais – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Seann-Lochlannais" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_n%C3%B3rdica_antiga" title="Lingua nórdica antiga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua nórdica antiga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A4%D9%86%D9%87_%D9%86%D8%A4%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="کؤنه نؤرس – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="کؤنه نؤرس" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EB%85%B8%EB%A5%B4%EB%93%9C%EC%96%B4" title="고대 노르드어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 노르드어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staronordijski_jezik" title="Staronordijski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Staronordijski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Nordik_Kuno" title="Bahasa Nordik Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Nordik Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornnorr%C3%A6na" title="Fornnorræna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornnorræna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_norrena" title="Lingua norrena – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua norrena" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="נורדית עתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נורדית עתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ძველსკანდინავიური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველსკანდინავიური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Важ скандинав кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ скандинав кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Nordica_antiqua" title="Lingua Nordica antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Nordica antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senskandin%C4%81vu_valoda" title="Senskandināvu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senskandināvu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_skandinav%C5%B3_kalba" title="Senovės skandinavų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės skandinavų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nors_antich" title="Nors antich – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Nors antich" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93%C3%A9szaki_nyelv" title="Óészaki nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Óészaki nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Старонордиски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Старонордиски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="کهنه نورس – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="کهنه نورس" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Nor_Kuno" title="Bahasa Nor Kuno – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Nor Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudnoords" title="Oudnoords – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oudnoords" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ooldnoords" title="Ooldnoords – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Ooldnoords" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E3%83%8E%E3%83%AB%E3%83%89%E8%AA%9E" title="古ノルド語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古ノルド語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ualnoorsk" title="Ualnoorsk – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ualnoorsk" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vu%C3%BB_norreis" title="Vuû norreis – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Vuû norreis" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noro%C3%A8c" title="Noroèc – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Noroèc" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordico_bieu" title="Nordico bieu – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Nordico bieu" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_staronordyjski" title="Język staronordyjski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język staronordyjski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_n%C3%B3rdica_antiga" title="Língua nórdica antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua nórdica antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_nordic%C4%83_veche" title="Limba nordică veche – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba nordică veche" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Древнескандинавский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древнескандинавский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auld_Norse" title="Auld Norse – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Auld Norse" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_e_vjet%C3%ABr_nordike" title="Gjuha e vjetër nordike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha e vjetër nordike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norse_language" title="Old Norse language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Old Norse language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starosever%C4%8Dina" title="Staroseverčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Staroseverčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Старонордијски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Старонордијски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staronordijski_jezik" title="Staronordijski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Staronordijski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muinaisnorja" title="Muinaisnorja – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Muinaisnorja" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornnordiska" title="Fornnordiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fornnordiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2" title="ภาษานอร์สเก่า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" 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href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse_language&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Norse language">Old Norse language</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">North Germanic language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Norse_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Norse (disambiguation)">Norse (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Old_North_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Old North (disambiguation)">Old North</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Old Norse</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Old Nordic, Old Scandinavian</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">dǫnsk tunga ('Danish tongue') norrǿnt mál ('Northern speech') </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islands" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and other Norse settlements</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Volga_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga River">Volga</a> and places in-between</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a> and their descendants</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Evolved from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Norse">Proto-Norse</a> in the 8th century, developed into the various <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a> by the 15th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Old Norse</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early form</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Norse">Proto-Norse</a> (attested) </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Runic" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic">Runic</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Norse alphabet">Old Norse alphabet</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=330">non</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/non" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:non">non</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/oldn1244">oldn1244</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:18.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Old_Norse" title="Category:Old Norse">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Norse</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:1.2em;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%C3%96l_Fv1911%3B274B%2C_Resmo.jpg/100px-%C3%96l_Fv1911%3B274B%2C_Resmo.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%C3%96l_Fv1911%3B274B%2C_Resmo.jpg/150px-%C3%96l_Fv1911%3B274B%2C_Resmo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%C3%96l_Fv1911%3B274B%2C_Resmo.jpg/200px-%C3%96l_Fv1911%3B274B%2C_Resmo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Old_West_Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Old West Norse">Old West Norse</a> <div class="hlist" style="line-height:1.15em;"><ul><li>(<a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Old_Icelandic">Old Icelandic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></li></ul></div><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a>)</div> <div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Old_East_Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Old East Norse">Old East Norse</a> <div class="hlist" style="line-height:1.15em;"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Swedish" title="Old Swedish">Old Swedish</a>)</li></ul></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Use</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_orthography" title="Old Norse orthography">Orthography</a></li></ul> <div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runic alphabet</a> <div class="hlist" style="line-height:1.15em;"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_runes" title="Medieval runes">Medieval</a>)</li></ul></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_orthography#Latin_alphabet_orthography" title="Old Norse orthography">Latin alphabet</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Phonology">Phonology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Morphology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_poetry" title="Old Norse poetry">Poetry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse#Old_Norse_poetic_forms" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative verse</a>)</div> <div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">Sagas</a><div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders" title="Sagas of Icelanders">of Icelanders</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Legendary_saga" title="Legendary saga">Legendary</a>)</li></ul></div></div> <div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Edda" title="Edda">Edda</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Poetic Edda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Prose_Edda" title="Prose Edda">Prose Edda</a>)</li></ul></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Grammatical_Treatise" title="First Grammatical Treatise">First Grammatical Treatise</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Ancestors</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Descendants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse (extinct)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish" title="Gutnish">Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn (extinct)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Old_Norse_origin" title="List of English words of Old Norse origin">English words of Old Norse origin</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Norse_history_and_culture" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Norse history and culture">WikiProject Norse history and culture</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Old_Norse_sidebar" title="Template:Old Norse sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Old_Norse_sidebar" title="Template talk:Old Norse sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Old_Norse_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Old Norse sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:16.0em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Norsemen" title="Category:Norsemen">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_norse,_ca_900.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/200px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/300px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/400px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="299" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption">Extent of <a href="/wiki/Norse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse language">Norse language</a> in CE 900: Western Norse in red and Eastern Norse in orange. Yellow and green denote related Germanic languages.</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia" title="History of Scandinavia">History</a></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia" title="History of Scandinavia">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Stone_Age" title="Nordic Stone Age">Nordic Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels" title="Norse–Gaels">Norse–Gaels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_deities" title="List of Germanic deities">Gods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir" title="Æsir">Æsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanir" title="Vanir">Vanir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunn" title="Jötunn">Jötunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigurd" title="Sigurd">Sigurd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund" title="Sigmund">Sigmund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayland_the_Smith" title="Wayland the Smith">Wayland the Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A6ttir" class="mw-redirect" title="Vættir">Vættir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elf" title="Elf">Elf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6kk%C3%A1lfar_and_Lj%C3%B3s%C3%A1lfar" title="Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar">Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_(folklore)" title="Dwarf (folklore)">Dwarf (folklore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einherjar" title="Einherjar">Einherjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenrir" title="Fenrir">Fenrir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hel_(mythological_being)" title="Hel (mythological being)">Hel (mythological being)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%ADs" title="Dís">Dís</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norns" title="Norns">Norns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valkyrie" title="Valkyrie">Valkyrie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rmungandr" title="Jörmungandr">Jörmungandr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ask_and_Embla" title="Ask and Embla">Ask and Embla</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Norse_cosmology" title="Norse cosmology">Cosmology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asgard" title="Asgard">Asgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanaheimr" title="Vanaheimr">Vanaheimr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midgard" title="Midgard">Midgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%ADgr%C3%AD%C3%B0r" title="Vígríðr">Vígríðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bifr%C3%B6st" title="Bifröst">Bifröst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B3lkvangr" title="Fólkvangr">Fólkvangr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginnungagap" title="Ginnungagap">Ginnungagap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hel_(location)" title="Hel (location)">Hel (location)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muspelheim" title="Muspelheim">Muspelheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niflheim" title="Niflheim">Niflheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%ADmisbrunnr" title="Mímisbrunnr">Mímisbrunnr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hvergelmir" title="Hvergelmir">Hvergelmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ur%C3%B0arbrunnr" title="Urðarbrunnr">Urðarbrunnr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yggdrasill" class="mw-redirect" title="Yggdrasill">Yggdrasill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valhalla" title="Valhalla">Valhalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunheimr" title="Jötunheimr">Jötunheimr</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Norse_rituals" title="Norse rituals">Rituals and worship</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bl%C3%B3t" title="Blót">Blót</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">Seiðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walpurgis_Night" title="Walpurgis Night">Walpurgis Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midsummer" title="Midsummer">Midsummer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B6rgr" title="Hörgr">Hörgr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathen_hof" title="Heathen hof">Heathen hof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9_(shrine)" title="Vé (shrine)">Vé (shrine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothi" title="Gothi">Gothi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_calendars" title="Early Germanic calendars">Early Germanic calendars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_magic" title="Runic magic">Runic magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seeress_(Germanic)" title="Seeress (Germanic)">Seeress (Germanic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galdr" title="Galdr">Galdr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_Norse_paganism" title="Death in Norse paganism">Death in Norse paganism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Society</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berserker" title="Berserker">Berserker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl" title="Earl">Earl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergi" title="Ergi">Ergi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erilaz" title="Erilaz">Erilaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lag" title="Félag">Félag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_kingship" title="Germanic kingship">Germanic kingship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hird" title="Hird">Hird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmgang" title="Holmgang">Holmgang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leidang" title="Leidang">Leidang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mead_hall" title="Mead hall">Mead hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_law" title="Medieval Scandinavian law">Medieval Scandinavian law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nithing_pole" title="Nithing pole">Nithing pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%AB%C3%BE" title="Nīþ">Nīþ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_clans" title="Norse clans">Norse clans</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thing_(assembly)" title="Thing (assembly)">Thing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Events</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir_War" title="Æsir–Vanir War">Æsir–Vanir War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbulwinter" title="Fimbulwinter">Fimbulwinter</a> <a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Ragnarök</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Hunt" title="Wild Hunt">Wild Hunt</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Sources</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Poetic Edda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prose_Edda" title="Prose Edda">Prose Edda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrfing_Cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrfing Cycle">Tyrfing Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lsung_Cycle" title="Völsung Cycle">Völsung Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">Saga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestone" title="Runestone">Runestones</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="hlist"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Norse_history_and_culture" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Norse history and culture">WikiProject Norse history and culture</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Norse_people_sidebar" title="Template:Norse people sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Norse_people_sidebar" title="Template talk:Norse people sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Norse_people_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Norse people sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Old Norse, also referred to as Old Nordic,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> or Old Scandinavian, was a stage of development of <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic dialects</a> before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">overseas settlements</a> and chronologically coincides with the <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization of Scandinavia</a>, and the consolidation of Scandinavian kingdoms from about the 8th to the 15th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse language</a> developed into Old Norse by the 8th century, and Old Norse began to develop into the modern <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a> in the mid- to late 14th century, ending the language phase known as Old Norse. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorpVikør1993-3">[3]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Old Norse was divided into three <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a>: <a href="/wiki/Old_West_Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Old West Norse">Old West Norse</a> (Old West Nordic, often referred to as Old Norse),<a href="#cite_note-auto-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_East_Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Old East Norse">Old East Norse</a> (Old East Nordic), and <a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a>. Old West Norse and Old East Norse formed a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>, with no clear geographical boundary between them. Old East Norse traits were found in eastern <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a> is classified as Old West Norse, and Old West Norse traits were found in western <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. In what is present-day <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> and Sweden, most speakers spoke Old East Norse. Though <a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a> is sometimes included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations, it developed its own unique features and shared in changes to both other branches.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Icelandic</a> <a href="/wiki/Gray_Goose_Laws" title="Gray Goose Laws">Gray Goose Laws</a> state that <a href="/wiki/Swedes" title="Swedes">Swedes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegians" title="Norwegians">Norwegians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Icelanders" title="Icelanders">Icelanders</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Danes" title="Danes">Danes</a> spoke the same language, dǫnsk tunga ("Danish tongue"; speakers of Old East Norse would have said dansk tunga). Another term was norrœnt mál ("northern speech"). Today Old Norse has developed into the modern <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a> <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, and other North Germanic varieties of which Norwegian, Danish and Swedish retain <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages#Mutual_intelligibility" title="North Germanic languages">considerable mutual intelligibility</a>. Icelandic remains the most conservative language, such that in present-day Iceland, schoolchildren are able to read the 12th-century Icelandic sagas in the original language (in editions with normalised spelling).<a href="#cite_note-Sanders2021-6">[6]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographical_distribution">Geographical distribution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geographical distribution">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_norse,_ca_900.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/250px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/375px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/500px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="299" /></a><figcaption> The approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in the early 10th century: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Old_West_Norse">Old West Norse dialect</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Old_East_Norse">Old East Norse dialect</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish dialect</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Other <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility</div> </figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Old_Icelandic" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Icelandic">Old Icelandic</a> was very close to <a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a>, and together they formed <a href="/wiki/Old_West_Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Old West Norse">Old West Norse</a>, which was also spoken in <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> <a href="/wiki/Norse_settlements_in_Greenland" title="Norse settlements in Greenland">settlements</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Faroes" class="mw-redirect" title="Faroes">Faroes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, northwest England, and in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JohnsonEcyc-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_East_Norse" class="mw-redirect" title="Old East Norse">Old East Norse</a> was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Nationalencyklopedin-8">[8]</a> eastern England, and <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Danish</a> <a href="/wiki/Human_settlement" title="Human settlement">settlements</a> in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a> and in various settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken <a href="/wiki/European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="European language">European language</a>, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Vinland" title="Vinland">Vinland</a> in the West to the <a href="/wiki/Volga_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga River">Volga River</a> in the East. In <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, it survived the longest in <a href="/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod" title="Veliky Novgorod">Veliky Novgorod</a>, probably lasting into the 13th century there.<a href="#cite_note-Nationalencyklopedin-8">[8]</a> The age of the <a href="/wiki/Swedish-speaking_population_of_Finland" title="Swedish-speaking population of Finland">Swedish-speaking population of Finland</a> is strongly contested, but <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Swedish</a> settlement had spread the <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> into the region by the time of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Swedish_Crusade" title="Second Swedish Crusade">Second Swedish Crusade</a> in the 13th century at the latest.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_descendants">Modern descendants</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Modern descendants">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a></div> The modern descendants of the Old West Norse dialect are the West Scandinavian languages of <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, and the extinct <a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Orkney" title="Orkney">Orkney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shetland" title="Shetland">Shetland</a>, although Norwegian was heavily influenced by the East dialect, and is today more similar to East Scandinavian (Danish and Swedish) than to Icelandic and Faroese. The descendants of the Old East Norse dialect are the East Scandinavian languages of <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>. Among these, the grammar of Icelandic and Faroese have changed the least from Old Norse in the last thousand years, though their pronunciations both have changed considerably from Old Norse. With Danish rule of the Faroe Islands, Faroese has also been influenced by Danish. Both <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">northern English dialects</a> within the area of the <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Lallans" title="Lallans">Lowland Scots</a>) were strongly <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Old_Norse_origin" title="List of English words of Old Norse origin">influenced by Norse</a> and contained many Old Norse <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a>. Consequently, Modern English (including <a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a>), inherited a significant proportion of its vocabulary directly from Norse. The development of <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman French</a> was also influenced by Norse. Through Norman, to a smaller extent, so was modern French. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> writing system. Contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the vowel phonemes, has changed at least as much in Icelandic as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, and <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Gaelic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_AuweraKönig1994"Faroese"_(Barnes_&_Weyhe),_p._217-9">[9]</a> Although Swedish, Danish and Norwegian have diverged the most, they still retain <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages#Mutual_intelligibility" title="North Germanic languages">considerable mutual intelligibility</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMobergGooskensNerbonneVaillette2007-10">[10]</a> Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, particularly if speaking slowly. The languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders. This could be because these languages have been mutually affected by each other, as well as having a similar development influenced by <a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_influenced_languages">Other influenced languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other influenced languages">edit</a>]</div> Various languages unrelated to Old Norse and others not closely related have been heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman language</a>; to a lesser extent, <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</a>. Russian, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a> also have a few Norse loanwords. The words <a href="/wiki/Rus_(name)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus (name)">Rus</a> and Russia, according to one theory, may be named after the <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a>, a Norse tribe, probably from present-day east-central Sweden. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, respectively. A number of loanwords have been introduced into <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>, many associated with fishing and sailing.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> A similar influence is found in <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>, with over one hundred loanwords estimated to be in the language, many of which are related to fishing and sailing.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> Old Norse vowel phonemes mostly come in pairs of long and short. The <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_orthography#Normalized_spelling" title="Old Norse orthography">standardized orthography</a> marks the long vowels with an acute accent. In medieval manuscripts, it is often unmarked but sometimes marked with an accent or through <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">gemination</a>. Old Norse had nasalized versions of all ten vowel places.<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyA-19">[cv 1]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS">obsolete source</a>] These occurred as allophones of the vowels before nasal consonants and in places where a nasal had followed it in an older form of the word, before it was absorbed into a neighboring sound. If the nasal was absorbed by a stressed vowel, it would also lengthen the vowel. This nasalization also occurred in the other Germanic languages, but were not retained long. They were noted in the <a href="/wiki/First_Grammatical_Treatise" title="First Grammatical Treatise">First Grammatical Treatise</a>, and otherwise might have remained unknown. The First Grammarian marked these with a dot above the letter.<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyA-19">[cv 1]</a> This notation did not catch on, and would soon be obsolete. Nasal and oral vowels probably merged around the 11th century in most of Old East Norse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandle2005Ch._XVII_§202_"The_typological_development_of_the_Nordic_languages_I:_Phonology"_(H._Sandøy)_:_''Old_East_Nordic'',_pp._1856,_1859-20">[19]</a> However, the distinction still holds in <a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian dialects">Dalecarlian dialects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandle2005Ch._XVII_§202_"The_typological_development_of_the_Nordic_languages_I:_Phonology"_(H._Sandøy)_:_''Old_West_Nordic'',_p._1859-21">[20]</a> The dots in the following vowel table separate the oral from <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal</a> phonemes. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Generic vowel system <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 9th–12th centuries </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="4" scope="col">Front vowels </th> <th colspan="4" scope="col">Back vowels </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Unrounded </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Rounded </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Unrounded </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Rounded </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Close </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> • ĩ</td> <td>iː • ĩː</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">y</a> • ỹ</td> <td>yː • ỹː</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> • ũ</td> <td>uː • ũː </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Mid </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a> • ẽ</td> <td>eː • ẽː</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front rounded vowel">ø</a> • ø̃</td> <td>øː • ø̃ː</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a> • õ</td> <td>oː • õː </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Open, open-mid </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a> • ɛ̃</td> <td>ɛː • ɛ̃ː</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front rounded vowel">œ</a> • œ̃</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> • ã</td> <td>aː • ãː</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a> • ɔ̃</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔː</a> • ɔ̃ː </td></tr></tbody></table> Note: The open or open-mid vowels may be transcribed differently: <ul><li>/æ/ = /ɛ/</li> <li>/ɒ/ = /ɔ/</li> <li>/ɑ/ = /a/</li></ul> Sometime around the 13th century, /ɔ/ (spelled ⟨ǫ⟩) merged with /ø/ or /o/ in most dialects except <a href="#Old_Danish">Old Danish</a>, and Icelandic where /ɔ/ (ǫ) merged with /ø/. This can be determined by their distinction within the 12th-century <a href="/wiki/First_Grammatical_Treatise" title="First Grammatical Treatise">First Grammatical Treatise</a> but not within the early 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Prose_Edda" title="Prose Edda">Prose Edda</a>. The nasal vowels, also noted in the First Grammatical Treatise, are assumed to have been lost in most dialects by this time (but notably they are retained in <a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a> and other dialects of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ovansiljan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ovansiljan (page does not exist)">Ovansiljan</a>). See <a href="#Old_Icelandic">Old Icelandic</a> for the mergers of /øː/ (spelled ⟨œ⟩) with /ɛː/ (spelled ⟨æ⟩) and /ɛ/ (spelled ⟨ę⟩) with /e/ (spelled ⟨e⟩). <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Generic vowel system <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 13th–14th centuries </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="4" scope="col">Front vowels </th> <th colspan="4" scope="col">Back vowels </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Unrounded </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Rounded </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Unrounded </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Rounded </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">High </th> <td>i</td> <td>iː</td> <td>y</td> <td>yː</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>u</td> <td>uː </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Mid </th> <td>e</td> <td>eː</td> <td>ø</td> <td>øː</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>o</td> <td>oː </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Low/Low-mid </th> <td>ɛ</td> <td>ɛː</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>a</td> <td>aː</td> <td></td> <td>  </td></tr></tbody></table> Old Norse had three <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthong</a> phonemes: /ɛi/, /ɔu/, /øy ~ ɛy/ (spelled ⟨ei⟩, ⟨au⟩, ⟨ey⟩ respectively). In East Norse these would <a href="/wiki/Monophthongization" title="Monophthongization">monophthongize</a> and merge with /eː/ and /øː/, whereas in West Norse and its descendants the diphthongs remained. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>History of Old Norse and Old Icelandic vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Proto-Germanic </th> <th scope="col">Northwest Germanic </th> <th scope="col" width="100px">Primitive Old West Norse </th> <th scope="col">Old Icelandic (1st Grammarian) </th> <th scope="col" width="100px">Later Old Icelandic </th> <th scope="col">Example (Old Norse) </th></tr> <tr> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>a ⟨a⟩</td> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>land "land" < *landą </td></tr> <tr> <td>a</td> <td>a (+i-mut)</td> <td>ɛ ⟨ę⟩</td> <td>e ⟨e⟩</td> <td>e</td> <td>menn "men" < *manniz </td></tr> <tr> <td>a</td> <td>a (+u/w-mut)</td> <td>ɔ ⟨ǫ⟩</td> <td>ɔ</td> <td>ø ⟨ö⟩</td> <td>lǫnd "lands" < *landu < *landō; sǫngr "song" < sǫngr < *sangwaz </td></tr> <tr> <td>a</td> <td>a (+i-mut +w-mut)</td> <td>œ ⟨ø₂⟩</td> <td>ø</td> <td>ø ⟨ö⟩</td> <td>gøra "to make" < *garwijaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>æː ⟨ē⟩</td> <td>aː</td> <td>aː ⟨á⟩</td> <td>aː</td> <td>aː</td> <td>láta "to let" < *lētaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>æː ⟨ē⟩</td> <td>aː (+i-mut)</td> <td>ɛː ⟨æ⟩</td> <td>ɛː</td> <td>ɛː</td> <td>mæla "to speak" < *mālijan < *mēlijaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>æː ⟨ē⟩</td> <td>aː (+u-mut)</td> <td>ɔː ⟨ǫ́⟩</td> <td>ɔː</td> <td>aː ⟨á⟩</td> <td>mǫ́l "meals" < '*mālu < *mēlō </td></tr> <tr> <td>e</td> <td>e</td> <td>e ⟨e⟩</td> <td>e</td> <td>e</td> <td>sex "six" < *seks; bresta "to burst" < *brestaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>e</td> <td>e (+u/w-mut)</td> <td>ø ⟨ø₁⟩</td> <td>ø</td> <td>ø ⟨ö⟩</td> <td>tøgr "ten" < *teguz </td></tr> <tr> <td>e</td> <td>e (broken)</td> <td>ea ⟨ea⟩</td> <td>ja ⟨ja⟩</td> <td>ja</td> <td>gjalda "to repay" < *geldaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>e</td> <td>e (broken +u/w-mut)</td> <td>eo/io ⟨eo⟩/⟨io⟩</td> <td>jo > jɔ ⟨jǫ⟩</td> <td>jø ⟨jö⟩</td> <td>skjǫldr "shield" < *skelduz </td></tr> <tr> <td>eː ⟨ē₂⟩</td> <td>eː</td> <td>eː ⟨é⟩</td> <td>eː</td> <td>eː</td> <td>lét "let (past tense)" < *lē₂t </td></tr> <tr> <td>i</td> <td>i</td> <td>i ⟨i⟩</td> <td>i</td> <td>i</td> <td>mikill "great" < *mikilaz </td></tr> <tr> <td>i</td> <td>i (+w-mut)</td> <td>y ⟨y⟩</td> <td>y</td> <td>y(ː)</td> <td>slyngva "to sling" < *slingwaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>iː</td> <td>iː</td> <td>iː ⟨í⟩</td> <td>iː</td> <td>iː</td> <td>líta "to look" < *lītaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>oː</td> <td>oː</td> <td>oː ⟨ó⟩</td> <td>oː</td> <td>oː</td> <td>fór "went" < *fōr; mót "meeting" < *mōtą </td></tr> <tr> <td>oː</td> <td>oː (+i-mut)</td> <td>øː ⟨œ⟩</td> <td>øː</td> <td>ɛː ⟨æ⟩</td> <td>mœðr "mothers" < *mōdriz </td></tr> <tr> <td>u</td> <td>u</td> <td>u ⟨u⟩</td> <td>u</td> <td>u</td> <td>una "to be content" < *unaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>u</td> <td>u (+i-mut)</td> <td>y ⟨y⟩</td> <td>y</td> <td>y</td> <td>kyn "race" < *kunją </td></tr> <tr> <td>u</td> <td>u (+a-mut)</td> <td>o ⟨o⟩</td> <td>o</td> <td>o</td> <td>fogl/fugl "bird" < *fuglaz; morginn "morning" < *murganaz </td></tr> <tr> <td>uː</td> <td>uː</td> <td>uː ⟨ú⟩</td> <td>uː</td> <td>uː</td> <td>drúpa "to droop" < *drūpaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>uː</td> <td>uː (+i-mut)</td> <td>yː ⟨ý⟩</td> <td>yː</td> <td>yː</td> <td>mýss "mice" < *mūsiz </td></tr> <tr> <td>ai</td> <td>ai</td> <td>ai > ɛi ⟨ei⟩</td> <td>ɛi</td> <td>ɛi</td> <td>bein, <a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Gut.</a> bain "bone" < *bainą </td></tr> <tr> <td>ai</td> <td>ai (+w-mut)</td> <td>øy ⟨ey⟩, ⟨øy⟩</td> <td>øy ⟨ey⟩<a href="#cite_note-FromOldNordic-22">[21]</a></td> <td>ɛy</td> <td>kveykva "to kindle" < *kwaikwaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>au</td> <td>au</td> <td>au > ɔu ⟨au⟩</td> <td>ɔu ⟨au⟩</td> <td>au</td> <td>lauss "loose" < *lausaz </td></tr> <tr> <td>au</td> <td>au (+i-mut)</td> <td>øy ⟨ey⟩, ⟨øy⟩</td> <td>øy ⟨ey⟩</td> <td>ɛy</td> <td>leysa "to loosen" < *lausijaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>eu</td> <td>eu</td> <td>eu ⟨eu⟩</td> <td>juː ⟨jú⟩</td> <td>juː</td> <td>djúpr "deep" < *deupaz </td></tr> <tr> <td>eu</td> <td>eu (+dental)</td> <td>eo ⟨eo⟩</td> <td>joː ⟨jó⟩</td> <td>juː</td> <td>bjóða/bjúða "to offer" < *beudaną </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ṽ</td> <td>Ṽ</td> <td>Ṽ</td> <td>Ṽ</td> <td>V</td> <td>komȧ < *kwemaną "to come, arrive"; <a href="#Old_West_Norse">OWN</a> vėtr/vėttr < vintr < *wintruz "winter" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ṽː</td> <td>Ṽː</td> <td>Ṽː</td> <td>Ṽː</td> <td>Vː</td> <td>hȧ́r "shark" < *hanhaz; ȯ́rar "our" (pl.) < *unseraz; ø̇́rȧ "younger" (acc. neut. wk.<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyA-19">[cv 1]</a>) < *junhizą <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaugen19504–64-23">[22]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> Old Norse has six plosive phonemes, /p/ being rare word-initially and /d/ and /b/ pronounced as voiced fricative <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> between vowels except in compound words (e.g. veðrabati), already in the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic language</a> (e.g. *b *[β] > [v] between vowels). The /ɡ/ phoneme was pronounced as [ɡ] after an /n/ or another /ɡ/ and as [k] before /s/ and /t/. Some accounts have it a voiced velar fricative [ɣ] in all cases, and others have that realisation only in the middle of words and between vowels (with it otherwise being realised [ɡ]).<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sweet-25">[24]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] The Old East Norse /ʀ/ was an <a href="/wiki/Apical_consonant" title="Apical consonant">apical consonant</a>, with its precise position unknown; it is reconstructed as a palatal <a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandle2005Ch._XVII_§202_"The_typological_development_of_the_Nordic_languages_I:_Phonology"_(H._Sandøy)_:_''Common_Nordic'',_p.1855-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> It descended from Proto-Germanic /z/ and eventually developed into /r/, as had already occurred in Old West Norse. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th>Labial </th> <th>Dental </th> <th>Alveolar </th> <th>Palatal </th> <th>Velar </th> <th>Labiovelar </th> <th>Glottal </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Plosive </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental plosive">d</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Nasal </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental nasal">n</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Fricative </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> (<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a> (<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> </td> <td>ʀ<a href="#cite_note-rfromz-28">[a]</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>) </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Trill </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Approximant </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Lateral approximant </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-rfromz-28"><a href="#cite_ref-rfromz_28-0">^</a> Reconstructed as [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative">ɹ̝</a>] when part of the stem of a word with a voiceless allophone [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative">ɹ̝̊</a>] word-finally when not part of the stem.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> </ol></div></div> The consonant digraphs ⟨hl⟩, ⟨hr⟩, and ⟨hn⟩ occurred word-initially. It is unclear whether they were sequences of two consonants (with the first element realised as /h/ or perhaps /x/) or as single voiceless sonorants /l̥/, /r̥/ and /n̥/ respectively. In Old Norwegian, Old Danish and later Old Swedish, the groups ⟨hl⟩, ⟨hr⟩, and ⟨hn⟩ were reduced to plain ⟨l⟩, ⟨r⟩, ⟨n⟩, which suggests that they had most likely already been pronounced as voiceless sonorants by Old Norse times. The pronunciation of ⟨hv⟩ is unclear, but it may have been /xʷ/ (the Proto-Germanic pronunciation), /hʷ/ or the similar phoneme /ʍ/. Unlike the three other digraphs, it was retained much longer in all dialects. Without ever developing into a voiceless sonorant in Icelandic, it instead underwent <a href="/wiki/Fortition" title="Fortition">fortition</a> to a plosive /kv/, which suggests that instead of being a voiceless sonorant, it retained a stronger frication. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accent">Accent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Accent">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/St%C3%B8d" title="Stød">Danish stød</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_phonology#Accent" title="Norwegian phonology">Norwegian tonal stress</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_phonology#Stress_and_pitch" title="Swedish phonology">Swedish tonal stress</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion with: Dating, etc.. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (April 2010)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Primary <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a> in Old Norse falls on the <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">word stem</a>, so that hyrjar would be pronounced /ˈhyr.jar/. In compound words, secondary stress falls on the second stem (e.g. lærisveinn, /ˈlɛːɾ.iˌswɛinː/).<a href="#cite_note-ProseReader-29">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Orthography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_orthography" title="Old Norse orthography">Old Norse orthography</a></div> Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the <a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Runic" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic">runic</a> Old Norse was originally written with the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a>, which had only 16 letters. Because of the limited number of runes, several runes were used for different sounds, and long and short vowels were not distinguished in writing. <a href="/wiki/Medieval_runes" title="Medieval runes">Medieval runes</a> came into use some time later. As for the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, there was no standardized orthography in use in the Middle Ages. A modified version of the letter <a href="/wiki/Wynn" title="Wynn">wynn</a> called <a href="/wiki/Vend_(letter)" title="Vend (letter)">vend</a> was used briefly for the sounds /u/, /v/, and /w/. Long vowels were sometimes marked with acutes but also sometimes left unmarked or geminated. The <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_orthography#Normalized_spelling" title="Old Norse orthography">standardized Old Norse spelling</a> was created in the 19th century and is, for the most part, phonemic. The most notable deviation is that the nonphonemic difference between the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">voiced</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">voiceless dental fricative</a> is marked. The oldest texts and <a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">runic inscriptions</a> use <a href="/wiki/Thorn_(letter)" title="Thorn (letter)">þ</a> exclusively. Long vowels are denoted with <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acutes</a>. Most other letters are written with the same glyph as the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phoneme, except as shown in the table below. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonological_processes">Phonological processes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phonological processes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ablaut">Ablaut</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ablaut">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a> patterns are groups of vowels which are swapped, or ablauted, in the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable nucleus">nucleus</a> of a word. <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology#Strong_verbs" title="Old Norse morphology">Strong verbs</a> ablaut the <a href="/wiki/Lemma_(morphology)" title="Lemma (morphology)">lemma</a>'s nucleus to derive the past forms of the verb. This parallels English conjugation, where, e.g., the nucleus of sing becomes sang in the past tense and sung in the past participle. Some verbs are derived by ablaut, as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology#Present-preterite_verbs" title="Old Norse morphology">present-in-past verbs</a> do by consequence of being derived from the past tense forms of strong verbs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umlaut">Umlaut</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Umlaut">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology#Before_Old_Norse" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse morphophonology</a></div> Umlaut or mutation is an <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilatory</a> process acting on vowels preceding a vowel or semivowel of a different <a href="/wiki/Vowel_backness" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel backness">vowel backness</a>. In the case of i-umlaut and ʀ-umlaut, this entails a fronting of back vowels, with retention of lip rounding. In the case of u-umlaut, this entails <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labialization</a> of unrounded vowels. Umlaut is phonemic and in many situations grammatically significant as a side effect of losing the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language#Morphology" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic morphological suffixes</a> whose vowels created the umlaut <a href="/wiki/Allophones" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophones">allophones</a>. Some /y/, /yː/, /ø/, /øː/, /ɛ/, /ɛː/, /øy/,<a href="#cite_note-FromOldNordic-22">[21]</a> and all /ɛi/ were obtained by <a href="/wiki/I-mutation" title="I-mutation">i-umlaut</a> from /u/, /uː/, /o/, /oː/, /a/, /aː/, /au/, and /ai/ respectively. Others were formed via ʀ-umlaut from /u/, /uː/, /a/, /aː/, and /au/.<a href="#cite_note-JohnsonEcyc-7">[7]</a> Some /y/, /yː/, /ø/, /øː/, and all /ɔ/, /ɔː/ were obtained by u-umlaut from /i/, /iː/, /e/, /eː/, and /a/, /aː/ respectively. See <a href="#Old_Icelandic">Old Icelandic</a> for information on /ɔː/. /œ/ was obtained through a simultaneous u- and i-umlaut of /a/. It appears in words like <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gera" class="extiw" title="wikt:gera">gøra</a> (gjǫra, geyra), from Proto-Germanic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Proto-Germanic/garwijanan" class="extiw" title="wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/garwijanan">*garwijaną</a>, and commonly in verbs with a velar consonant before the suffix like <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C3%B8kkva" class="extiw" title="wikt:søkkva">søkkva</a> < <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Proto-Germanic/sankwijanan" class="extiw" title="wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/sankwijanan">*sankwijaną</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyOE-30">[cv 2]</a> OEN often preserves the original value of the vowel directly preceding runic ʀ while OWN receives ʀ-umlaut. Compare runic OEN glaʀ, haʀi, hrauʀ with OWN gler, heri (later héri), hrøyrr/hreyrr ("glass", "hare", "pile of rocks"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="U-umlaut">U-umlaut</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: U-umlaut">edit</a>]</div> U-umlaut is more common in Old West Norse in both phonemic and allophonic positions, while it only occurs sparsely in post-runic Old East Norse and even in runic Old East Norse. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Comparison demonstrating U-Umlaut in Swedish<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iversen-32">[29]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" rowspan="2">Meaning </th> <th scope="col" rowspan="2">West Old Norse </th> <th scope="col" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Old_Swedish" title="Old Swedish">Old Swedish</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#endnote_id0">[1]</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2">Modern Swedish </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2">Icelandic </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Transcription</th> <th scope="col">IPA </th> <th scope="col">Transcription</th> <th scope="col">IPA </th></tr> <tr> <td>Guardian / Caretaker</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/v%C7%ABr%C3%B0r#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:vǫrðr">vǫrðr</a></td> <td>varþer</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/v%C3%A5rd#Swedish" class="extiw" title="wikt:vård">vård</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Swedish" title="Help:IPA/Swedish">[voːɖ]</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/v%C3%B6r%C3%B0ur#Icelandic" class="extiw" title="wikt:vörður">vörður</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Icelandic" title="Help:IPA/Icelandic">[ˈvœrðʏr]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Eagle</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C7%ABrn#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:ǫrn">ǫrn</a></td> <td>ørn</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%B6rn#Swedish" class="extiw" title="wikt:örn">örn</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Swedish" title="Help:IPA/Swedish">[œːɳ]</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%B6rn#Icelandic" class="extiw" title="wikt:örn">örn</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Icelandic" title="Help:IPA/Icelandic">[œrtn]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Earth</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/j%C7%ABr%C3%B0#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:jǫrð">jǫrð</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ior%C3%BE#Old_Swedish" class="extiw" title="wikt:iorþ">iorþ</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jord#Swedish" class="extiw" title="wikt:jord">jord</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_id1">[2]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Swedish" title="Help:IPA/Swedish">[juːɖ]</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/j%C3%B6r%C3%B0#Icelandic" class="extiw" title="wikt:jörð">jörð</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Icelandic" title="Help:IPA/Icelandic">[jœrð]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Milk</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mj%C7%ABlk#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:mjǫlk">mjǫlk</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/miolk#Old_Swedish" class="extiw" title="wikt:miolk">miolk</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mj%C3%B6lk#Swedish" class="extiw" title="wikt:mjölk">mjölk</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_id1">[2]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Swedish" title="Help:IPA/Swedish">[mjœlk]</a></td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mj%C3%B3lk#Icelandic" class="extiw" title="wikt:mjólk">mjólk</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Icelandic" title="Help:IPA/Icelandic">[mjoul̥k]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_id0none">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Swedish#Orthography" title="Old Swedish">Old Swedish orthography</a> uses ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="Þ">þ</a>⟩ to represent both /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>/ and /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>/. The change from Norse ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C3%90" class="mw-redirect" title="Ð">ð</a>⟩ to Old Swedish ⟨þ⟩ represents only a change in orthography rather than a change in sound. Similarly ⟨i⟩ is used in place of ⟨j⟩. And thus changes from Norse ⟨j⟩ to Old Swedish ⟨i⟩ to Swedish ⟨j⟩ should be viewed as a change in orthography.</dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_id1none">^</a> Represents the u-umlaut found in Swedish.</dd></dl> This is still a major difference between Swedish and Faroese and Icelandic today. Plurals of neuters do not have u-umlaut at all in Swedish, but in Faroese and Icelandic they do, for example the Faroese and Icelandic plurals of the word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/land#Icelandic" class="extiw" title="wikt:land">land</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lond#Faroese" class="extiw" title="wikt:lond">lond</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/l%C3%B6nd#Icelandic" class="extiw" title="wikt:lönd">lönd</a> respectively, in contrast to the Swedish plural <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/land#Swedish" class="extiw" title="wikt:land">land</a> and numerous other examples. That also applies to almost all feminine nouns, for example the largest feminine noun group, the <a href="/wiki/O-stem" class="mw-redirect" title="O-stem">o-stem</a> nouns (except the Swedish noun jord mentioned above), and even <a href="/wiki/Thematic_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Thematic stem">i-stem</a> nouns and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root#Word_formation" title="Proto-Indo-European root">root nouns</a>, such as Old West Norse mǫrk (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/IcelOnline/IcelOnline.TEId-idx?type=entry&eid=MO3RK-1&q1=mörk">mörk</a> in Icelandic) in comparison with Modern and Old Swedish <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mark#Swedish" class="extiw" title="wikt:mark">mark</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Iversen-32">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breaking">Breaking</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Breaking">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vowel_breaking" title="Vowel breaking">Vowel breaking</a></div> Vowel breaking, or fracture, caused a front vowel to be split into a semivowel-vowel sequence before a back vowel in the following syllable.<a href="#cite_note-JohnsonEcyc-7">[7]</a> While West Norse only broke /e/, East Norse also broke /i/. The change was blocked by a /w/, /l/, or /ʀ/ preceding the potentially-broken vowel.<a href="#cite_note-JohnsonEcyc-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandle2005Ch._XVII_§202_"The_typological_development_of_the_Nordic_languages_I:_Phonology"_(H._Sandøy)_:_''Proto-Nordic'',_p.1853-33">[30]</a> Some /ja/ or /jɔ/ and /jaː/ or /jɔː/ result from breaking of /e/ and /eː/ respectively.<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyPhonRules-34">[cv 3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assimilation_or_elision_of_inflectional_ʀ">Assimilation or elision of inflectional ʀ</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Assimilation or elision of inflectional ʀ">edit</a>]</div> When a noun, pronoun, adjective, or verb has a long vowel or diphthong in the accented syllable and its stem ends in a single l, n, or s, the r (or the elder r- or z-variant <a href="/wiki/Yr_rune_(Younger_Futhark)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yr rune (Younger Futhark)">ʀ</a>) in an ending is assimilated.<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyTableN-35">[cv 4]</a> When the accented vowel is short, the ending is dropped. The nominative of the strong masculine declension and some i-stem feminine nouns uses one such -r (ʀ). Óðin-r (Óðin-ʀ) becomes Óðinn instead of *Óðinr (*Óðinʀ). The verb <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bl%C3%A1sa#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:blása">blása</a> ('to blow'), has third person present tense blæss ('[he] blows') rather than <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>*blæsr (*blæsʀ).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOld_Norse_for_Beginners[httpwww3hiis~haukurthnorseolessonslesson5php_Lesson_5]-36">[31]</a> Similarly, the verb <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sk%C3%ADna#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:skína">skína</a> ('to shine') had present tense third person skínn (rather than *skínr, *skínʀ); while <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kala#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:kala">kala</a> ('to cool down') had present tense third person kell (rather than *kelr, *kelʀ). The rule is not absolute, with certain counter-examples such as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vinr#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:vinr">vinr</a> ('friend'), which has the synonym vin, yet retains the unabsorbed version, and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/j%C7%ABtunn#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:jǫtunn">jǫtunn</a> ('<a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunn" title="Jötunn">giant</a>'), where assimilation takes place even though the root vowel, ǫ, is short. The clusters */Clʀ, Csʀ, Cnʀ, Crʀ/ cannot yield */Clː, Csː, Cnː, Crː/ respectively, instead /Cl, Cs, Cn, Cr/.<a href="#cite_note-37">[32]</a> The effect of this shortening can result in the lack of distinction between some forms of the noun. In the case of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vetr#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:vetr">vetr</a> ('winter'), the nominative and accusative singular and plural forms are identical. The nominative singular and nominative and accusative plural would otherwise have been <abbr title="Old West Norse">OWN</abbr> *vetrr, <abbr title="Old East Norse">OEN</abbr> *wintrʀ. These forms are impossible because the cluster */Crʀ/ cannot be realized as /Crː/, nor as */Crʀ/, nor as */Cʀː/. The same shortening as in vetr also occurs in <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lax#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:lax">lax</a> = laks ('salmon') (as opposed to *lakss, *laksʀ), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/botn#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:botn">botn</a> ('bottom') (as opposed to *botnn, *botnʀ), and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jarl#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:jarl">jarl</a> (as opposed to *jarll, *jarlʀ). Furthermore, wherever the cluster */rʀ/ is expected to exist, such as in the male names Ragnarr, Steinarr (supposedly *Ragnarʀ, *Steinarʀ), the result is apparently always /rː/ rather than */rʀ/ or */ʀː/. This is observable in the Runic corpus. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Phonotactics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blocking_of_ii,_uu">Blocking of ii, uu</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Blocking of ii, uu">edit</a>]</div> In Old Norse, i/j adjacent to i, e, their u-umlauts, and æ was not possible, nor u/v adjacent to u, o, their i-umlauts, and ǫ.<a href="#cite_note-JohnsonEcyc-7">[7]</a> At the beginning of words, this manifested as a dropping of the initial /j/ (which was general, independent of the following vowel) or /v/. Compare ON orð, úlfr, ár with English word, wolf, year. In inflections, this manifested as the dropping of the inflectional vowels. Thus, klæði + dat -i remains klæði, and sjáum in Icelandic progressed to sjǫ́um > sjǫ́m > sjám.<a href="#cite_note-38">[33]</a> The *jj and *ww of Proto-Germanic became ggj and ggv respectively in Old Norse, a change known as <a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JohnsonEcyc-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epenthesis">Epenthesis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Epenthesis">edit</a>]</div> An <a href="/wiki/Epenthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epenthetic">epenthetic</a> vowel became popular by 1200 in Old Danish, 1250 in Old Swedish and Old Norwegian, and 1300 in Old Icelandic.<a href="#cite_note-TheNordicLanguages-39">[34]</a> An unstressed vowel was used which varied by dialect. Old Norwegian exhibited all three: /u/ was used in West Norwegian south of <a href="/wiki/Bergen" title="Bergen">Bergen</a>, as in aftur, aftor (older <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aptr" class="extiw" title="wikt:aptr">aptr</a>); North of Bergen, /i/ appeared in aftir, after; and East Norwegian used /a/, after, aftær.<a href="#cite_note-FromOldNordic-22">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> Old Norse was a moderately <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflected</a> language with high levels of nominal and verbal inflection. Most of the fused <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> are retained in modern Icelandic, especially in regard to noun case declensions, whereas modern Norwegian in comparison has moved towards more analytical word structures. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender">Gender</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Gender">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">Grammatical gender</a></div> Old Norse had three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical genders</a> – masculine, feminine, and neuter. Adjectives or pronouns referring to a noun must <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">mirror the gender of that noun</a>, so that one says, "heill maðr!" but, "heilt barn!". As in other languages, the grammatical gender of an impersonal noun is generally unrelated to an expected natural gender of that noun. While indeed karl, "man" is masculine, kona, "woman", is feminine, and hús, "house", is neuter, so also are hrafn and kráka, for "raven" and "crow", masculine and feminine respectively, even in reference to a female raven or a male crow. All neuter words have identical nominative and accusative forms,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOld_Norse_for_Beginners[httpwww3hiis~haukurthnorsegrammarneuternphp_Neuter_nouns]-40">[35]</a> and all feminine words have identical nominative and accusative plurals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOld_Norse_for_Beginners[httpwww3hiis~haukurthnorsegrammarfemininenphp_Feminine_nouns]-41">[36]</a> The gender of some words' plurals does not agree with that of their singulars, such as lim and mund.<a href="#cite_note-42">[cv 5]</a> Some words, such as hungr, have multiple genders, evidenced by their <a href="/wiki/Determiner_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Determiner (linguistics)">determiners</a> being declined in different genders within a given sentence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Menota_handbook''Ch._8_§3.2.1_"Gender"-43">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZoëga1910H:_''hungr''-44">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Morphology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse morphology</a></div> Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns were <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declined</a> in four grammatical cases – <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a> – in singular and plural numbers. Adjectives and pronouns were additionally declined in three grammatical genders. Some pronouns (first and second person) could have <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual number</a> in addition to singular and plural. The genitive was used <a href="/wiki/Partitive_case" title="Partitive case">partitively</a> and in compounds and <a href="/wiki/Kenning" title="Kenning">kennings</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Ur%C3%B0arbrunnr" title="Urðarbrunnr">Urðarbrunnr</a>, the well of Urðr; <a href="/wiki/Lokasenna" title="Lokasenna">Lokasenna</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gibing" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibing">gibing</a> of Loki). There were several classes of nouns within each gender. The following is an example of the "strong" <a href="/wiki/Inflectional_paradigm" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflectional paradigm">inflectional paradigms</a>: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The strong masculine noun <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/armr#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:armr">armr</a> (English "arm") </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>armr </td> <td>armar </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>arm </td> <td rowspan="2">arma </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>arms </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>armi </td> <td>ǫrmum/armum </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The feminine noun <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/h%C7%ABll#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:hǫll">hǫll</a> (OWN), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hall#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:hall">hall</a> (OEN) (English "hall") </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Old West Norse </th> <th>Old East Norse </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Nominative- Accusative </th> <th>Singular </th> <td>hǫll </td> <td>hall </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plural </th> <td>hallir </td> <td>hallar </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Genitive </th> <th>Singular </th> <td colspan="2">hallar </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plural </th> <td colspan="2">halla </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Dative </th> <th>Singular </th> <td>hǫllu </td> <td>hallu </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plural </th> <td>hǫllum </td> <td>hallum </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The neuter noun <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/troll#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:troll">troll</a> (English troll) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative-Accusative </th> <td colspan="2">troll </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>trolls </td> <td>trolla </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>trolli </td> <td>trollum </td></tr></tbody></table> The numerous "weak" noun paradigms had a much higher degree of syncretism between the different cases; i.e. they had fewer forms than the "strong" nouns. A definite article was realised as a suffix that retained an independent declension; e.g., troll (a troll) – trollit (the troll), hǫll (a hall) – hǫllin (the hall), armr (an arm) – armrinn (the arm). This definite article, however, was a separate word and did not become attached to the noun before later stages of the Old Norse period. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Texts">Texts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Texts">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Old_Norse_manuscripts" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Old Norse manuscripts">Old Norse manuscripts</a>.</div></div> </div> The earliest inscriptions in Old Norse are <a href="/wiki/Runic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic alphabet">runic</a>, from the 8th century. Runes continued to be commonly used until the 15th century and have been recorded to be in use in some form as late as the 19th century in some parts of Sweden. With the <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">conversion to Christianity</a> in the 11th century came the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>. The oldest preserved texts in Old Norse in the Latin alphabet date from the middle of the 12th century. Subsequently, Old Norse became the vehicle of a large and varied body of vernacular literature. Most of the surviving literature was written in Iceland. Best known are the <a href="/wiki/Norse_saga" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse saga">Norse sagas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Icelanders%27_sagas" class="mw-redirect" title="Icelanders' sagas">Icelanders' sagas</a> and the mythological literature, but there also survives a large body of religious literature, translations into Old Norse of <a href="/wiki/Courtly_romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Courtly romance">courtly romances</a>, classical mythology, and the Old Testament, as well as instructional material, <a href="/wiki/First_Grammatical_Treatise" title="First Grammatical Treatise">grammatical treatises</a> and a large body of letters and official documents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Donoghue200422–102-45">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Dialects">edit</a>]</div> Most of the innovations that appeared in Old Norse spread evenly through the Old Norse area. As a result, the dialects were very similar and considered to be the same language, a language that they sometimes called the Danish tongue (Dǫnsk tunga), sometimes Norse language (Norrœnt mál), as evidenced in the following two quotes from <a href="/wiki/Heimskringla" title="Heimskringla">Heimskringla</a> by <a href="/wiki/Snorri_Sturluson" title="Snorri Sturluson">Snorri Sturluson</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157697682">.mw-parser-output .verse_translation .translated{padding-left:2em!important}@media only screen and (max-width:43.75em){.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small td{display:block;padding-left:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small .translated{padding-left:0.5em!important}}</style> <table role="presentation" class="verse_translation" style="margin-left:1em !important"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td><div style="font-style:italic;text-align:left" lang="non" class="poem"> Móðir Dyggva var Drótt, dóttir Danps konungs, sonar Rígs er fyrstr var konungr kallaðr á danska tungu. </div> </td> <td class="translated"><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> Dyggvi's mother was Drott, the daughter of king Danp, Ríg's son, who was the first to be called king in the Danish tongue. </div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;font-size:90%"> <td style="padding-left:1.6em;text-align:left">—<a href="/wiki/Heimskringla" title="Heimskringla">Heimskringla</a>, Ynglinga saga § 20. Dauði Dyggva </td> <td style="padding-left:3.6em;text-align:left"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1157697682"> <table role="presentation" class="verse_translation" style="margin-left:1em !important"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td><div style="font-style:italic;text-align:left" lang="non" class="poem"> ...stirt var honum norrœnt mál, ok kylfdi mᴊǫk til orðanna, ok hǫfðu margir menn þat mᴊǫk at spotti. </div> </td> <td class="translated"><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> ...the Norse language was hard for him, and he often fumbled for words, which amused people greatly. </div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;font-size:90%"> <td style="padding-left:1.6em;text-align:left">—<a href="/wiki/Heimskringla" title="Heimskringla">Heimskringla</a>, Saga Sigurðar Jórsalafara, Eysteins ok Ólafs § 35(34). Frá veðjan Haralds ok Magnús </td> <td style="padding-left:3.6em;text-align:left"> </td></tr></tbody></table> However, some changes were geographically limited and so created a dialectal difference between Old West Norse and Old East Norse. As Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse, in the 8th century, the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">umlauts</a> seem to have been very much the same over the whole Old Norse area. But in later dialects of the language a split occurred mainly between west and east as the use of umlauts began to vary. The typical umlauts (for example fylla from fullijan) were better preserved in the West due to later generalizations in the east where many instances of umlaut were removed (many archaic Eastern texts as well as eastern runic inscriptions however portray the same extent of umlauts as in later Western Old Norse). All the while, the changes resulting in <a href="/wiki/Breaking_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Breaking (linguistics)">breaking</a> (for example hiarta from *hertō) were more influential in the East probably once again due to generalizations within the inflectional system. This difference was one of the greatest reasons behind the dialectalization that took place in the 9th and 10th centuries, shaping an Old West Norse dialect in Norway and the Atlantic settlements and an Old East Norse dialect in Denmark and Sweden. Old West Norse and Old Gutnish did not take part in the monophthongization which changed æi (ei) into ē, øy (ey) and au into ø̄, nor did certain peripheral dialects of Swedish, as seen in modern <a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects_in_Ostrobothnia" title="Swedish dialects in Ostrobothnia">Ostrobothnian dialects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[40]</a> Another difference was that Old West Norse lost certain combinations of consonants. The combinations -mp-, -nt-, and -nk- were assimilated into -pp-, -tt- and -kk- in Old West Norse, but this phenomenon was limited in Old East Norse. Here is a comparison between the two dialects as well as Old Gutnish. It is a transcription from one of the <a href="/wiki/Funbo_Runestones" title="Funbo Runestones">Funbo Runestones</a> in Sweden (U 990) from the eleventh century: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">VeðrWeðrWeðr</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">okokok</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ÞegnÞegnÞegn</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">okokok</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">GunnarrGunnarrGunnarr</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">reisturæisturaistu</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">steinstæinstain</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">þennaþennaþenna</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">atatat</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Haursa,Haursa,Haursa,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">fǫðurfaðurfaður</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">sinn.sinn.sinn.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">GuðGuðGuð</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">hjalpihialpihialpi</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ǫndandand</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">hans.hanshans</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(Old West Norse)(Old East Norse)(Old Gutnish)</div>Veðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr reistu stein þenna at Haursa, fǫður sinn. Guð hjalpi ǫnd hans.Weðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr ræistu stæin þenna at Haursa, faður sinn. Guð hialpi and hansWeðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr raistu stain þenna at Haursa, faður sinn. Guð hialpi and hanstranslation: 'Veðr and Thegn and Gunnar raised this stone after Haursi, their father. God help his spirit'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> The OEN original text above is transliterated according to traditional scholarly methods, wherein u-umlaut is not regarded in runic Old East Norse. Modern studies[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] have shown that the positions where it applies are the same as for runic Old West Norse. An alternative and probably more accurate transliteration would therefore render the text in OEN as such: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent">Weðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr ræistu stæin þenna at Haursa, fǫður sinn. Guð hialpi ǫnd hans (OEN)</div> Some <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participles</a> and other words underwent i-umlaut in Old West Norse but not in Old East Norse dialects. Examples of that are Icelandic slegið/sleginn and tekið/tekinn, which in Swedish are <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/slagit" class="extiw" title="wikt:slagit">slagit</a>/<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/slagen" class="extiw" title="wikt:slagen">slagen</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tagit" class="extiw" title="wikt:tagit">tagit</a>/<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tagen" class="extiw" title="wikt:tagen">tagen</a>. This can also be seen in the Icelandic and Norwegian words <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sterkur" class="extiw" title="wikt:sterkur">sterkur</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sterk" class="extiw" title="wikt:sterk">sterk</a> ("strong"), which in Swedish is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stark" class="extiw" title="wikt:stark">stark</a> as in Old Swedish.<a href="#cite_note-47">[41]</a> These differences can also be seen in comparison between Norwegian and Swedish. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_West_Norse">Old West Norse</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Old West Norse">edit</a>]</div> Old West Norse is by far the best attested variety of Old Norse.<a href="#cite_note-48">[42]</a> The term Old Norse is often used to refer to Old West Norse specifically, in which case the broader subject receives another name, such as Old Scandinavian.<a href="#cite_note-auto-4">[4]</a> Another designation is Old West Nordic. The combinations -mp-, -nt-, and -nk- mostly merged to -pp-, -tt- and -kk- in Old West Norse around the 7th century, marking the first distinction between the Eastern and Western dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandle2005Ch._XVII_§202_"The_typological_development_of_the_Nordic_languages_I:_Phonology"_(H._Sandøy)_:_''Old_East_Nordic'',_pp.&nbsp;1856,_1859-49">[43]</a> The following table illustrates this: <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th>English</th> <th>Old West Norse</th> <th>Old East Norse</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>mushroom</td> <td>s(v)ǫppr</td> <td>swampʀ</td> <td>*swampuz </td></tr> <tr> <td>steep</td> <td>brattr</td> <td>brantʀ</td> <td>*brantaz </td></tr> <tr> <td>widow</td> <td>ekkja</td> <td>ænkija</td> <td>*ain(a)kjōn </td></tr> <tr> <td>to shrink</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kreppa" class="extiw" title="wikt:kreppa">kreppa</a></td> <td>krimpa</td> <td>*krimpan </td></tr> <tr> <td>to sprint</td> <td>spretta</td> <td>sprinta</td> <td>*sprintan </td></tr> <tr> <td>to sink</td> <td>søkkva</td> <td>sænkwa</td> <td>*sankwijan </td></tr></tbody></table> An early difference between Old West Norse and the other dialects was that Old West Norse had the forms bú, "dwelling", kú, "cow" (accusative) and trú, "faith", whereas Old East Norse bó, kó and tró. Old West Norse was also characterized by the preservation of u-umlaut, which meant that, for example, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a> *tanþu, "tooth", became tǫnn and not tann as in post-runic Old East Norse; OWN gǫ́s and runic OEN gǫ́s, while post-runic OEN gás "goose". The earliest body of text appears in <a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">runic inscriptions</a> and in poems composed <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 900 by <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Ej%C3%B3%C3%B0%C3%B3lfr_of_Hvinir" title="Þjóðólfr of Hvinir">Þjóðólfr of Hvinir</a> (although the poems are not preserved in contemporary sources, but only in much later manuscripts). The earliest manuscripts are from the period 1150–1200 and concern legal, religious and historical matters. During the 12th and 13th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndelag" title="Trøndelag">Trøndelag</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Norway" title="Western Norway">Western Norway</a> were the most important areas of the Norwegian kingdom and they shaped Old West Norse as an archaic language with a rich set of declensions. In the body of text that has survived into the modern day from until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1300, Old West Norse had little dialect variation, and <a href="/wiki/Old_Icelandic" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Icelandic">Old Icelandic</a> does not diverge much more than the <a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a> dialects do from each other.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Old Norwegian differentiated early from Old Icelandic by the loss of the consonant h in initial position before l, n and r; thus whereas Old Icelandic manuscripts might use the form hnefi, "fist", Old Norwegian manuscripts might use nefi. From the late 13th century, Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian started to diverge more. After <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1350, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> and following social upheavals seem to have accelerated language changes in Norway. From the late 14th century, the language used in Norway is generally referred to as <a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian#Middle_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Old West Norse underwent a lengthening of initial vowels at some point, especially in Norwegian, so that OWN eta became éta, ONW akr > ákr, OIC ek > ék.<a href="#cite_note-50">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Old_Icelandic">Old Icelandic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Old Icelandic">edit</a>]</div> In Iceland, initial /w/ before /ɾ/ was lost:<a href="#cite_note-51">[cv 6]</a> compare Icelandic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rangur#Icelandic" class="extiw" title="wikt:rangur">rangur</a> with Danish vrang, OEN wrangʀ. The change is shared with Old Gutnish.<a href="#cite_note-TheNordicLanguages-39">[34]</a> A specifically Icelandic sound, the long, u-umlauted A, spelled ⟨Ǫ́ ⟩ and pronounced /ɔː/, developed around the early 11th century.<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyA-19">[cv 1]</a> It was short-lived, being marked in the <a href="/wiki/First_Grammatical_Treatise" title="First Grammatical Treatise">Grammatical Treatises</a> and remaining until the end of the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyA-19">[cv 1]</a> It then merged back into /aː/; as a result, long A is not affected by u-umlaut in Modern Icelandic. /w/ merged with /v/ during the 12th century,<a href="#cite_note-JohnsonEcyc-7">[7]</a> which caused /v/ to become an independent phoneme from /f/ and the written distinction of ⟨v⟩ for /v/ from medial and final ⟨f⟩ to become merely etymological. Around the 13th century, Œ/Ǿ (/øː/, which had probably already lowered to /œː/) merged to Æ (/ɛː/).<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyAE-52">[cv 7]</a> Thus, pre-13th-century grœnn (with ⟨œ⟩) 'green' became spelled as in modern Icelandic grænn (with ⟨æ⟩). The 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Gray_Goose_Laws" title="Gray Goose Laws">Gray Goose Laws</a> manuscripts distinguish the vowels, and so does the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Regius" title="Codex Regius">Codex Regius</a> copy.<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyAE-52">[cv 7]</a> However, the 13th-century Codex Regius copy of the <a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Poetic Edda</a> probably relied on newer or poorer quality sources, or both. Demonstrating either difficulty with or total lack of natural distinction, the manuscripts show separation of the two phonemes in some places, but they frequently confuse the letters chosen to distinguish them in others.<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyAE-52">[cv 7]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[45]</a> Towards the end of the 13th century, Ę (/ɛ/) merged to E (/e/).<a href="#cite_note-CleasbyE-54">[cv 8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Old_Norwegian">Old Norwegian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Old Norwegian">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></div> Around the 11th century, Old Norwegian ⟨hl⟩, ⟨hn⟩, and ⟨hr⟩ became ⟨l⟩, ⟨n⟩ and ⟨r⟩.<a href="#cite_note-55">[46]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] It is debatable whether the ⟨hC⟩ sequences represented a consonant cluster (/hC/) or devoicing (/C̥/). Orthographic evidence suggests that in a confined dialect of Old Norwegian, /ɔ/ may have been unrounded before /u/ and that u-umlaut was reversed unless the u had been eliminated: ǫll, ǫllum > ǫll, allum.<a href="#cite_note-56">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greenlandic_Norse">Greenlandic Norse</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Greenlandic Norse">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></div> This dialect of Old West Norse was spoken by Icelandic colonies in Greenland. When the colonies died out around the 15th century, the dialect went with it. The phoneme /θ/ and some instances of /ð/ merged to /t/ and so Old Icelandic Þórðr became Tortr. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Text_example">Text example</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Text example">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_orthography" title="Old Norse orthography">Old Norse orthography</a></div> The following text is from Alexanders saga, an <a href="/wiki/Alexander_romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander romance">Alexander romance</a>. The manuscript, <a href="/w/index.php?title=AM_519_a_4to&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AM 519 a 4to (page does not exist)">AM 519 a 4to</a>, is dated <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1280. The facsimile demonstrates the <a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">sigla</a> used by scribes to write Old Norse. Many of them were borrowed from Latin. Without familiarity with these abbreviations, the facsimile will be unreadable to many. In addition, reading the manuscript itself requires familiarity with the letterforms of the native script. The abbreviations are expanded in a version with normalized spelling like that of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_orthography" title="Old Norse orthography">standard normalization</a> system. Compared to the spelling of the same text in Modern Icelandic, pronunciation has changed greatly, but spelling has changed little since <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_orthography" title="Icelandic orthography">Icelandic orthography</a> was intentionally modelled after Old Norse in the 19th century. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Digital facsimile of the manuscript text<a href="#cite_note-MeNoTa14-57">[48]</a> </th> <th scope="col">The same text with normalized spelling<a href="#cite_note-MeNoTa14-57">[48]</a> </th> <th scope="col">The same text with Modern <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> spelling </th></tr> <tr> <td> [...] ſem oꝩın͛ h̅ſ brıgzloðo h̅o̅ epꞇ͛ þͥ ſe̅ ſıðaʀ mon ſagꞇ verða. Þeſſı ſveın̅ aͬ.* ꝩar ıſcola ſeꞇꞇr ſem ſıðꝩenıa e͛ ꞇıl rıkra man̅a vꞇan-lanꝺz aꞇ laꞇa g͛a vıð boꝛn̅ ſíıƞ́ Meıſꞇarı ꝩar h̅o̅ ꝼengın̅ ſa e͛ arıſꞇoꞇıleſ heꞇ. h̅ ꝩar harðla goðꝛ clercr ⁊ <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology#Hit" title="Old Norse morphology">en̅</a> meſꞇı ſpekıngr aꞇ ꝩıꞇı. ⁊ er h̅ ꝩͬ.xíí. veꞇᷓ gamall aꞇ allꝺrı nalıga alroſcın̅ aꞇ ꝩıꞇı. en ſꞇoꝛhvgaðꝛ u̅ ꝼᷓm alla ſına ıaꝼnallꝺꝛa. </td> <td> [...] sem óvinir hans brigzluðu honum eftir því, sem síðarr man sagt verða. þessi sveinn Alexander var í skóla settr, sem siðvenja er til ríkra manna útanlands at láta gera við bǫrn sín. meistari var honum fenginn sá, er Aristoteles hét. hann var harðla góðr klerkr ok inn mesti spekingr at viti. ok er hann var tólv vetra gamall at aldri, náliga alroskinn at viti, en stórhugaðr umfram alla sína jafnaldra, [...] </td> <td> [...] sem óvinir hans brigsluðu honum eftir því, sem síðar mun sagt verða. Þessi sveinn Alexander var í skóla settur, sem siðvenja er til ríkra manna utanlands að láta gera við börn sín. Meistari var honum fenginn sá, er Aristóteles hét. Hann var harla góður klerkur og hinn mesti spekingur að viti og er hann var tólf vetra gamall að aldri, nálega alroskinn að viti, en stórhugaður umfram alla sína jafnaldra, [...] </td></tr></tbody></table> * a printed in <a href="/wiki/Uncial_script" title="Uncial script">uncial</a>. Uncials not encoded separately in Unicode as of this section's writing. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_East_Norse">Old East Norse</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Old East Norse">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:R%C3%B6kstenen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/R%C3%B6kstenen.jpg/240px-R%C3%B6kstenen.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="421" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/R%C3%B6kstenen.jpg/360px-R%C3%B6kstenen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/R%C3%B6kstenen.jpg/480px-R%C3%B6kstenen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="904" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6k_runestone" title="Rök runestone">Rök runestone</a> in <a href="/wiki/%C3%96sterg%C3%B6tland" title="Östergötland">Östergötland</a>, Sweden, is the longest surviving source of early Old East Norse. It is inscribed on both sides.</figcaption></figure> Old East Norse or Old East Nordic between 800 and 1100 is called Runic Swedish in Sweden and Runic Danish in Denmark, but for geographical rather than linguistic reasons. Any differences between the two were minute at best during the more ancient stages of this dialect group. Changes had a tendency to occur earlier in the Danish region. Even today many Old Danish changes have still not taken place in modern Swedish. Swedish is therefore the more <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic conservatism">conservative</a> of the two in both the ancient and the modern languages, sometimes by a profound margin. The language is called "runic" because the body of text appears in <a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">runes</a>. Runic Old East Norse is characteristically conservative in form, especially Swedish (which is still true for modern Swedish compared to Danish). In essence it matches or surpasses the conservatism of post-runic Old West Norse, which in turn is generally more conservative than post-runic Old East Norse. While typically "Eastern" in structure, many later post-runic changes and trademarks of OEN had yet to happen. The phoneme ʀ, which evolved during the Proto-Norse period from z, was still clearly separated from r in most positions, even when being geminated, while in OWN it had already merged with r. The <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> phoneme /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ was preserved in initial sounds in Old East Norse (w-), unlike in West Norse where it developed into /v/. It survived in rural <a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a> in the provinces of Westro- and North Bothnia, <a href="/wiki/Sk%C3%A5ne" class="mw-redirect" title="Skåne">Skåne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blekinge" title="Blekinge">Blekinge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sm%C3%A5land" title="Småland">Småland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halland" title="Halland">Halland</a>, <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4sterg%C3%B6tland" title="Västergötland">Västergötland</a> and south of <a href="/wiki/Bohusl%C3%A4n" title="Bohuslän">Bohuslän</a> into the 18th, 19th and 20th century. It is still preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian dialects</a> in the province of <a href="/wiki/Dalarna" title="Dalarna">Dalarna</a>, Sweden, and in <a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic dialects</a> in Denmark. The /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/-phoneme did also occur after consonants (kw-, tw-, sw- etc.) in Old East Norse and did so into modern times in said Swedish dialects and in a number of others. Generally, the initial w-sound developed into [v] in dialects earlier than after consonants where it survived much longer. In summation, the /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/-sound survived in the East Nordic tongues almost a millennium longer than in the West Norse counterparts, and does still subsist at the present. Monophthongization of æi > ē and øy, au > ø̄ started in mid-10th-century Denmark.<a href="#cite_note-FromOldNordic-22">[21]</a> Compare runic OEN: fæigʀ, gæiʀʀ, haugʀ, møydōmʀ, diūʀ; with Post-runic OEN: fēgher, gēr, hø̄gher, mø̄dōmber, diūr; OWN: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/feigr" class="extiw" title="wikt:feigr">feigr</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/geirr" class="extiw" title="wikt:geirr">geirr</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/howe" class="extiw" title="wikt:howe">haugr</a>, meydómr, dýr; from PN *faigijaz, *gaizaz, *haugaz, *mawi- + dōmaz 'maidendom; virginity', *diuza '(wild) animal'. Feminine o-stems often preserve the plural ending -aʀ, while in OWN they more often merge with the feminine i-stems: (runic OEN) *sōlaʀ, *hafnaʀ, *hamnaʀ, *wāgaʀ versus OWN sólir, hafnir and vágir (modern Swedish solar, hamnar, vågar ("suns, havens, scales"); Danish has mainly lost the distinction between the two stems, with both endings now being rendered as -er or -e alternatively for the o-stems). Vice versa, masculine i-stems with the root ending in either g or k tended to shift the plural ending to that of the ja-stems while OEN kept the original: drængiaʀ, *ælgiaʀ and *bænkiaʀ versus OWN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drengr#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:drengr">drengir</a>, elgir ("elks") and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bekkr#Etymology_1" class="extiw" title="wikt:bekkr">bekkir</a> (modern Danish <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dreng" class="extiw" title="wikt:dreng">drenge</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/elg" class="extiw" title="wikt:elg">elge</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/b%C3%A6nk" class="extiw" title="wikt:bænk">bænke</a>, modern Swedish <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dr%C3%A4ng" class="extiw" title="wikt:dräng">drängar</a>, älgar, bänkar). The plural ending of ja-stems were mostly preserved while those of OWN often acquired that of the i-stems: *bæðiaʀ, *bækkiaʀ, *wæfiaʀ versus OWN beðir ("beds"), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bekkr#Etymology_2" class="extiw" title="wikt:bekkr">bekkir</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vefr#Old_Norse" class="extiw" title="wikt:vefr">vefir</a> (modern Swedish bäddar, bäckar, vävar). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Old_Danish">Old Danish</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Old Danish">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">History of Danish</a></div> Until the early 12th century, Old East Norse was very much a uniform dialect. It was in Denmark that the first innovations appeared that would differentiate Old Danish from Old Swedish (<a href="#CITEREFBandle2005">Bandle 2005</a>, Old East Nordic, pp. 1856, 1859) as these innovations spread north unevenly (unlike the earlier changes that spread more evenly over the East Norse area), creating a series of <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isoglosses</a> going from <a href="/wiki/Zealand" title="Zealand">Zealand</a> to <a href="/wiki/Svealand" title="Svealand">Svealand</a>. In Old Danish, /hɾ/ merged with /ɾ/ during the 9th century.<a href="#cite_note-58">[49]</a> From the 11th to 14th centuries, the unstressed vowels -a, -o and -e (<a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_orthography#Normalized_spelling" title="Old Norse orthography">standard normalization</a> -a, -u and -i) started to merge into -ə, represented with the letter ⟨e⟩. This vowel came to be <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthetic</a>, particularly before -ʀ endings.<a href="#cite_note-TheNordicLanguages-39">[34]</a> At the same time, the voiceless <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonants</a> p, t and k became voiced plosives and even <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricative consonants</a>. Resulting from these innovations, Danish has kage (cake), tunger (tongues) and gæster (guests) whereas (Standard) Swedish has retained older forms, kaka, tungor and gäster (OEN kaka, tungur, gæstir). Moreover, the Danish <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a> shared with Norwegian and Swedish changed into <a href="/wiki/St%C3%B8d" title="Stød">stød</a> around this time.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Old_Swedish">Old Swedish</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Old Swedish">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Old_Swedish" title="Old Swedish">Old Swedish</a></div> At the end of the 10th and early 11th century initial h- before l, n and r was still preserved in the middle and northern parts of Sweden, and is sporadically still preserved in some northern dialects as g-, e.g. gly (lukewarm), from hlýʀ. The <a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian dialects">Dalecarlian dialects</a> developed independently from Old Swedish<a href="#cite_note-Kroonen-59">[50]</a> and as such can be considered separate languages from Swedish. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Text_example_2">Text example</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Text example">edit</a>]</div> This is an extract from <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4stg%C3%B6talagen" title="Västgötalagen">Västgötalagen</a>, the Westrogothic law. It is the oldest text written as a manuscript found in Sweden and from the 13th century. It is contemporaneous with most of the Icelandic literature. The text marks the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Old_Swedish" title="Old Swedish">Old Swedish</a> as a distinct dialect. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1157697682"> <table role="presentation" class="verse_translation" style="margin-left:1em !important"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td><div style="font-style:italic;text-align:left" lang="non" class="poem"> Dræpær maþar svænskan man eller smalenskæn, innan konongsrikis man, eigh væstgøskan, bøte firi atta ørtogher ok þrettan markær ok ænga ætar bot. [...] Dræpar maþær danskan man allæ noræn man, bøte niv markum. Dræpær maþær vtlænskan man, eigh ma frid flyia or landi sinu oc j æth hans. Dræpær maþær vtlænskæn prest, bøte sva mykit firi sum hærlænskan man. Præstær skal i bondalaghum væræ. Varþær suþærman dræpin ællær ænskær maþær, ta skal bøta firi marchum fiurum þem sakinæ søkir, ok tvar marchar konongi. </div> </td> <td class="translated"><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> If someone slays a Swede or a Smålander, a man from the kingdom, but not a West Geat, he will pay eight örtugar and thirteen marks, but no weregild. [...] If someone slays a Dane or a Norwegian, he will pay nine marks. If someone slays a foreigner, he shall not be banished and have to flee to his clan. If someone slays a foreign priest, he will pay as much as for a fellow countryman. A priest counts as a freeman. If a Southerner is slain or an Englishman, he shall pay four marks to the plaintiff and two marks to the king. </div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;font-size:90%"> <td style="padding-left:1.6em;text-align:left">—<a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4stg%C3%B6talagen" title="Västgötalagen">Västgötalagen</a> </td> <td style="padding-left:3.6em;text-align:left"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Gutnish">Old Gutnish</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Old Gutnish">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></div> Due to <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a>'s early isolation from the mainland, many features of Old Norse did not spread from or to the island, and Old Gutnish developed as an entirely separate branch from Old East and West Norse. For example, the diphthong ai in aigu, þair and waita was not subject to <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology)" title="Assimilation (phonology)">anticipatory assimilation</a> to ei as in e.g. Old Icelandic eigu, þeir and veita. Gutnish also shows dropping of /w/ in initial /wɾ/, which it shares with the Old West Norse dialects (except Old East Norwegian<a href="#cite_note-60">[51]</a>), but which is otherwise abnormal. Breaking was also particularly active in Old Gutnish, leading to e.g. biera versus mainland bera.<a href="#cite_note-TheNordicLanguages-39">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Text_example_3">Text example</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Text example">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Gutalagen" title="Gutalagen">Guta lag</a> 'law of the Gutes' is the longest text surviving from <a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a>. Appended to it is a short texting dealing with the history of the Gotlanders. This part relates to the agreement that the Gotlanders had with the Swedish king sometime before the 9th century: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1157697682"> <table role="presentation" class="verse_translation" style="margin-left:1em !important"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td><div style="font-style:italic;text-align:left" lang="non" class="poem"> So gingu gutar sielfs wiliandi vndir suia kunung þy at þair mattin frir Oc frelsir sykia suiariki j huerium staþ. vtan tull oc allar utgiftir. So aigu oc suiar sykia gutland firir vtan cornband ellar annur forbuþ. hegnan oc hielp sculdi kunungur gutum at waita. En þair wiþr þorftin. oc kallaþin. sendimen al oc kunungr oc ierl samulaiþ a gutnal þing senda. Oc latta þar taka scatt sinn. þair sendibuþar aighu friþ lysa gutum alla steþi til sykia yfir haf sum upsala kunungi til hoyrir. Oc so þair sum þan wegin aigu hinget sykia. </div> </td> <td class="translated"><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> So, by their own will, the Gotlanders became the subjects of the Swedish king, so that they could travel freely and without risk to any location in the Swedish kingdom without toll and other fees. Likewise, the Swedes had the right to go to Gotland without corn restrictions or other prohibitions. The king was to provide protection and help, when they needed it and asked for it. The king and the jarl shall in return send emissaries to the Gutnish All-thing to receive the taxes. These emissaries shall declare free passage for the Gotlanders to all ports across the sea which belong to the king at Uppsala and likewise for everyone who want to travel to Gotland. </div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;font-size:90%"> <td style="padding-left:1.6em;text-align:left">—<a href="#CITEREFGutasaga">Gutasaga</a>, § Inträdet i Sverige </td> <td style="padding-left:3.6em;text-align:left"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_other_languages">Relationship to other languages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Relationship to other languages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_to_English">Relationship to English</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Relationship to English">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_English#Scandinavian_influence" title="History of English">History of English § Scandinavian influence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Old_Norse_origin" title="List of English words of Old Norse origin">List of English words of Old Norse origin</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> and Old Norse were related languages. It is therefore not surprising that many words in Old Norse look familiar to English speakers; e.g., armr (arm), fótr (foot), land (land), fullr (full), hanga (to hang), standa (to stand). This is because both <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and Old Norse stem from a <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> mother language. In addition, numerous common, everyday Old Norse words were adopted into the Old English language during the <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a>. A few examples of Old Norse <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> in modern English are (English/Viking Age Old East Norse), in some cases even displacing their Old English cognates:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li>Nouns – anger (angr), bag (baggi), bait (bæit, bæita, bæiti), band (band), bark (bǫrkʀ, stem bark-), birth (byrðr), dirt (drit), dregs (dræggiaʀ), egg (ægg, related to OE. cognate æg which became Middle English eye/eai), fellow (félagi), gap (gap), husband (húsbóndi), cake (kaka), keel (kiǫlʀ, stem also kial-, kil-), kid (kið), knife (knífʀ), law (lǫg, stem lag-), leg (læggʀ), link (hlænkʀ), loan (lán, related to OE. cognate læn, cf. lend), race (rǫs, stem rás-), root (rót, related to OE. cognate wyrt, cf. <a href="/wiki/List_of_wort_plants" title="List of wort plants">wort</a>), sale (sala), scrap (skrap), seat (sæti), sister (systir, related to OE. cognate sweostor), skill (skial/skil), skin (skinn), skirt (skyrta vs. the native English shirt of the same root), sky (ský), slaughter (slátr), snare (snara), steak (stæik), thrift (þrift), tidings (tíðindi), trust (traust), window (vindauga), wing (væ(i)ngʀ)</li> <li>Verbs – are (er, displacing OE sind), blend (blanda), call (kalla), cast (kasta), clip (klippa), crawl (krafla), cut (possibly from ON kuta), die (døyia), gasp (gæispa), get (geta), give (gifa/gefa, related to OE. cognate giefan), glitter (glitra), hit (hitta), lift (lyfta), raise (ræisa), ransack (rannsaka), rid (ryðia), run (rinna, stem rinn-/rann-/runn-, related to OE. cognate rinnan), scare (skirra), scrape (skrapa), seem (søma), sprint (sprinta), take (taka), thrive (þrífa(s)), thrust (þrysta), want (vanta)</li> <li>Adjectives – flat (flatr), happy (happ), ill (illr), likely (líklígʀ), loose (lauss), low (lágʀ), meek (miúkʀ), odd (odda), rotten (rotinn/rutinn), scant (skamt), sly (sløgʀ), weak (væikʀ), wrong (vrangʀ)</li> <li>Adverbs – thwart/athwart (þvert)</li> <li>Prepositions – till (til), fro (frá)</li> <li>Conjunction – though/tho (þó)</li> <li>Interjection – hail (hæill), wassail (ves hæill)</li> <li>Personal pronoun – they (þæiʀ), their (þæiʀa), them (þæim) (for which the Anglo-Saxons said híe,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Donoghue2004190–201-61">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELass1993187–188-62">[53]</a> hiera, him)</li> <li>Prenominal adjectives – same (sam)</li></ul> In a simple sentence like "They are both weak", the extent of the Old Norse loanwords becomes quite clear (Old East Norse with archaic pronunciation: Þæiʀ eʀu báðiʀ wæikiʀ while Old English híe syndon bégen (þá) wáce). The words "they" and "weak" are both borrowed from Old Norse, and the word "both" might also be a borrowing, though this is disputed (cf. German beide).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] While the number of loanwords adopted from the Norse was not as numerous as that of <a href="/wiki/Norman_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman French">Norman French</a> or <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, their depth and everyday nature make them a substantial and very important part of everyday English speech as they are part of the very core of the modern English vocabulary.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Tracing the origins of words like "bull" and "Thursday" is more difficult.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] "Bull" may derive from either Old English bula or Old Norse buli,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] while "Thursday" may be a borrowing or simply derive from the Old English Þunresdæg, which could have been influenced by the Old Norse cognate.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The word "are" is from Old English earun/aron, which stems back to Proto-Germanic as well as the Old Norse cognates.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_to_modern_Scandinavian_languages">Relationship to modern Scandinavian languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Relationship to modern Scandinavian languages">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Development of Old Norse vowels to the modern Scandinavian languages </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Old Norse</th> <th>Modern Icelandic</th> <th>Modern Faroese</th> <th>Modern Swedish<a href="#cite_note-helfenstein-63">[54]</a></th> <th>Modern Danish<a href="#cite_note-helfenstein-63">[54]</a></th> <th>Examples<a href="#cite_note-64">[n 1]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>a ⟨a⟩ </th> <td>a(ː)<a href="#cite_note-vowel-length-65">[n 2]</a></td> <td>a/ɛaː;<a href="#cite_note-vowel-length-65">[n 2]</a> ɛ ⟨a⟩ (+ng,nk)</td> <td>a/ɑː<a href="#cite_note-vowel-length-65">[n 2]</a> ⟨a⟩; ɔ/oː ⟨å⟩ (+ld,rd,ng)</td> <td>⟨a⟩; ɔ/ɔː ⟨å⟩ (+rd)</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/land" class="extiw" title="wikt:land">land</a> "land": Ic/Fa/Sw/Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/land" class="extiw" title="wikt:land">land</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dagr" class="extiw" title="wikt:dagr">dagr</a> "day": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dagur" class="extiw" title="wikt:dagur">dagur</a>, Sw/Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dag" class="extiw" title="wikt:dag">dag</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/har%C3%B0r" class="extiw" title="wikt:harðr">harðr</a> "hard": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/har%C3%B0ur" class="extiw" title="wikt:harður">harður</a>, Sw/Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/h%C3%A5rd" class="extiw" title="wikt:hård">hård</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hard" class="extiw" title="wikt:hard">hard</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/langr" class="extiw" title="wikt:langr">langr</a> "long": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/langur" class="extiw" title="wikt:langur">langur</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/l%C3%A5ng" class="extiw" title="wikt:lång">lång</a>, Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lang" class="extiw" title="wikt:lang">lang</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ja ⟨ja⟩ </th> <td>ja(ː)</td> <td>ja/jɛaː</td> <td>(j)ɛ(ː) ⟨(j)ä⟩</td> <td>jɛ: ⟨jæ⟩; jæ: ⟨je⟩ (+r)</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hjalpa" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjalpa">hjalpa</a> "to help": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hj%C3%A1lpa" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjálpa">hjálpa</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hj%C3%A4lpa" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjälpa">hjälpa</a>, Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hj%C3%A6lpe" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjælpe">hjælpe</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hjelpe" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjelpe">hjelpe</a>, NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hjelpa" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjelpa">hjelpa</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hjarta" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjarta">hjarta</a> "heart": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hjarta" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjarta">hjarta</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hj%C3%A4rta" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjärta">hjärta</a>, Da/NB <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hjerte" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjerte">hjerte</a>, NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hjarta" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjarta">hjarta</a>/<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hjarte" class="extiw" title="wikt:hjarte">hjarte</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>aː ⟨á⟩ </th> <td>au(ː)</td> <td>ɔ/ɔaː</td> <td>ɔ/oː ⟨å⟩</td> <td>ɔ/ɒ: ⟨å⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/l%C3%A1ta" class="extiw" title="wikt:láta">láta</a> "to let": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/l%C3%A1ta" class="extiw" title="wikt:láta">láta</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/l%C3%A5ta" class="extiw" title="wikt:låta">låta</a>, Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lade" class="extiw" title="wikt:lade">lade</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/la" class="extiw" title="wikt:la">la</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ɛː ⟨æ⟩ </th> <td>ai(ː)</td> <td>a/ɛaː</td> <td rowspan="3">ɛ(ː) ⟨ä⟩</td> <td></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A6la" class="extiw" title="wikt:mæla">mæla</a> "to speak": Ic/Fa/NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A6la" class="extiw" title="wikt:mæla">mæla</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A4la" class="extiw" title="wikt:mäla">mäla</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A6le" class="extiw" title="wikt:mæle">mæle</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C3%A6ll" class="extiw" title="wikt:sæll">sæll</a> "happy": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C3%A6ll" class="extiw" title="wikt:sæll">sæll</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C3%A6lur" class="extiw" title="wikt:sælur">sælur</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C3%A4ll" class="extiw" title="wikt:säll">säll</a>, Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C3%A6l" class="extiw" title="wikt:sæl">sæl</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>e ⟨e⟩ </th> <td>ɛ(ː)</td> <td>ɛ/eː</td> <td></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/menn" class="extiw" title="wikt:menn">menn</a> "men": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/menn" class="extiw" title="wikt:menn">menn</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A4n" class="extiw" title="wikt:män">män</a>, Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A6nd" class="extiw" title="wikt:mænd">mænd</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/menn" class="extiw" title="wikt:menn">menn</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bera" class="extiw" title="wikt:bera">bera</a> "to bear": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bera" class="extiw" title="wikt:bera">bera</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/b%C3%A4ra" class="extiw" title="wikt:bära">bära</a>, Da/NB <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/b%C3%A6re" class="extiw" title="wikt:bære">bære</a>, NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bera" class="extiw" title="wikt:bera">bera</a>/<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bere" class="extiw" title="wikt:bere">bere</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vegr" class="extiw" title="wikt:vegr">vegr</a> "way": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vegur" class="extiw" title="wikt:vegur">vegur</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/v%C3%A4g" class="extiw" title="wikt:väg">väg</a>, Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vej" class="extiw" title="wikt:vej">vej</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/veg/vei" class="extiw" title="wikt:veg/vei">veg/vei</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>eː ⟨é⟩ </th> <td>jɛ(ː)</td> <td>a/ɛaː ⟨æ⟩</td> <td></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kn%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:kné">kné</a> "knee": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hn%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:hné">hné</a>, Fa/Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kn%C3%A6" class="extiw" title="wikt:knæ">knæ</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kn%C3%A4" class="extiw" title="wikt:knä">knä</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kne" class="extiw" title="wikt:kne">kne</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>i ⟨i⟩ </th> <td>ɪ(ː)</td> <td>ɪ/iː</td> <td rowspan="2">ɪ/iː ⟨i⟩</td> <td>e ⟨i⟩/ eː ⟨e⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kinn" class="extiw" title="wikt:kinn">kinn</a> "cheek": Ic/Fa/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kinn" class="extiw" title="wikt:kinn">kinn</a>, Sw/Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kind" class="extiw" title="wikt:kind">kind</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>iː ⟨í⟩ </th> <td>i(ː)</td> <td>ʊɪ(ː) ʊt͡ʃː ⟨íggj⟩<a href="#cite_note-no-consonant-66">[n 3]</a></td> <td>⟨i⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%C3%AD%C3%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:tíð">tíð</a> "time": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%C3%AD%C3%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:tíð">tíð</a>, Sw/Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tid" class="extiw" title="wikt:tid">tid</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ɔ ⟨ǫ⟩ </th> <td>ø > œ(ː) ⟨ö⟩</td> <td>œ/øː ⟨ø⟩ ɔ/oː ⟨o⟩ <a href="#cite_note-nasal_consonant-67">[n 4]</a></td> <td>⟨a⟩; ⟨o⟩;<a href="#cite_note-swedish-hook-o-68">[n 5]</a> ⟨ø⟩ (+r);<a href="#cite_note-swedish-hook-o-68">[n 5]</a> ⟨å⟩ (+ld,rd,ng)</td> <td></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/h%C7%ABnd" class="extiw" title="wikt:hǫnd">hǫnd</a> "hand": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/h%C3%B6nd" class="extiw" title="wikt:hönd">hönd</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hond" class="extiw" title="wikt:hond">hond</a>, Sw/NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hand" class="extiw" title="wikt:hand">hand</a>, Da/NB <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/h%C3%A5nd" class="extiw" title="wikt:hånd">hånd</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%C7%ABs" class="extiw" title="wikt:nǫs">nǫs</a> "nose": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%C3%B6s" class="extiw" title="wikt:nös">nös</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%C3%B8s" class="extiw" title="wikt:nøs">nøs</a>, Sw/NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nos" class="extiw" title="wikt:nos">nos</a>, Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%C3%A6se" class="extiw" title="wikt:næse">næse</a>, NB <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nese" class="extiw" title="wikt:nese">nese</a>, NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nase" class="extiw" title="wikt:nase">nase</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C7%ABrn" class="extiw" title="wikt:ǫrn">ǫrn</a> "eagle": Ic/Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%B6rn" class="extiw" title="wikt:örn">örn</a>, Fa/Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%B8rn" class="extiw" title="wikt:ørn">ørn</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C7%ABngr" class="extiw" title="wikt:sǫngr">sǫngr</a> "song": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C3%B6ngur" class="extiw" title="wikt:söngur">söngur</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/songur" class="extiw" title="wikt:songur">songur</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C3%A5ng" class="extiw" title="wikt:sång">sång</a>, Da/NB <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sang" class="extiw" title="wikt:sang">sang</a>, NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/song" class="extiw" title="wikt:song">song</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>jɔ ⟨jǫ⟩ </th> <td>jø > jœ(ː) ⟨jö⟩</td> <td>jœ/jøː ⟨jø⟩</td> <td>(j)œ/(j)øː ⟨(j)ö⟩</td> <td></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skj%C7%ABldr" class="extiw" title="wikt:skjǫldr">skjǫldr</a> "shield": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skj%C3%B6ldur" class="extiw" title="wikt:skjöldur">skjöldur</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skj%C3%B8ldur" class="extiw" title="wikt:skjøldur">skjøldur</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sk%C3%B6ld" class="extiw" title="wikt:sköld">sköld</a>, Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skjold" class="extiw" title="wikt:skjold">skjold</a>; ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bj%C7%ABrn" class="extiw" title="wikt:bjǫrn">bjǫrn</a> "bear": Ic/Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bj%C3%B6rn" class="extiw" title="wikt:björn">björn</a>, Fa/Da/NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bj%C3%B8rn" class="extiw" title="wikt:bjørn">bjørn</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ɔː ⟨ǫ́⟩ </th> <td>aː > au(ː) ⟨á⟩</td> <td>ɔ/ɔaː ⟨á⟩, œ/ɔuː ⟨ó⟩</td> <td>ɔ/oː ⟨å⟩</td> <td>⟨å⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%C3%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:tá">tá</a> (*<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%C7%AB%CC%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:tǫ́">tǫ́</a>) "toe": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%C3%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:tá">tá</a>, Sw/Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/t%C3%A5" class="extiw" title="wikt:tå">tå</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>o ⟨o⟩ </th> <td>ɔ(ː)</td> <td>ɔ/oː</td> <td>ɔ/oː ⟨o⟩</td> <td></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/morginn" class="extiw" title="wikt:morginn">morginn</a>/<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/morgunn" class="extiw" title="wikt:morgunn">morgunn</a> "morning": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/morgunn" class="extiw" title="wikt:morgunn">morgunn</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/morgun" class="extiw" title="wikt:morgun">morgun</a>, Sw/NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/morgon" class="extiw" title="wikt:morgon">morgon</a>, Da/NB <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/morgen" class="extiw" title="wikt:morgen">morgen</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>oː ⟨ó⟩ </th> <td>ou(ː)</td> <td>œ/ɔuː ɛkv ⟨ógv⟩<a href="#cite_note-no-consonant-66">[n 3]</a></td> <td>ʊ/uː ⟨o⟩</td> <td>⟨o⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/b%C3%B3k" class="extiw" title="wikt:bók">bók</a> "book": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/b%C3%B3k" class="extiw" title="wikt:bók">bók</a>, Sw/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bok" class="extiw" title="wikt:bok">bok</a>, Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bog" class="extiw" title="wikt:bog">bog</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>u ⟨u⟩ </th> <td>ʏ(ː)</td> <td>ʊ/uː</td> <td rowspan="2">ɵ/ʉː ⟨u⟩</td> <td></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fullr" class="extiw" title="wikt:fullr">fullr</a> "full": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fullur" class="extiw" title="wikt:fullur">fullur</a>, Sw/Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/full" class="extiw" title="wikt:full">full</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>uː ⟨ú⟩ </th> <td>u(ː)</td> <td>ʏ/ʉuː ɪkv ⟨úgv⟩<a href="#cite_note-no-consonant-66">[n 3]</a></td> <td>⟨u⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/h%C3%BAs" class="extiw" title="wikt:hús">hús</a> "house": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/h%C3%BAs" class="extiw" title="wikt:hús">hús</a>, Sw/Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hus" class="extiw" title="wikt:hus">hus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>joː ⟨jó⟩ </th> <td>jou(ː)</td> <td>jœ/jɔuː (j)ɛkv ⟨(j)ógv⟩<a href="#cite_note-no-consonant-66">[n 3]</a></td> <td rowspan="2">jɵ/jʉː ⟨ju⟩</td> <td rowspan="2">⟨y⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bj%C3%B3%C3%B0a" class="extiw" title="wikt:bjóða">bjóða</a> "to offer, command": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bj%C3%B3%C3%B0a" class="extiw" title="wikt:bjóða">bjóða</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bjuda" class="extiw" title="wikt:bjuda">bjuda</a>, Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/byde" class="extiw" title="wikt:byde">byde</a>, NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/byda" class="extiw" title="wikt:byda">byda</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/by" class="extiw" title="wikt:by">by</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>juː ⟨jú⟩ </th> <td>ju(ː)</td> <td>jʏ/jʉuː (j)ɪkv ⟨(j)úgv⟩<a href="#cite_note-no-consonant-66">[n 3]</a></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dj%C3%BApr" class="extiw" title="wikt:djúpr">djúpr</a> "deep": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dj%C3%BApur" class="extiw" title="wikt:djúpur">djúpur</a>, Sw/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/djup" class="extiw" title="wikt:djup">djup</a>, Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dyb" class="extiw" title="wikt:dyb">dyb</a>, NB <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dyp" class="extiw" title="wikt:dyp">dyp</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ø ⟨ø⟩ </th> <td>ø > œ(ː) ⟨ö⟩</td> <td rowspan="2">œ/øː ⟨ø⟩</td> <td rowspan="2">œ/øː ⟨ö⟩</td> <td></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/g%C3%B8ra" class="extiw" title="wikt:gøra">gøra</a> "to prepare": Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/g%C3%B6ra" class="extiw" title="wikt:göra">göra</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>øː ⟨œ⟩ </th> <td>ɛː > ai(ː) ⟨æ⟩</td> <td>⟨ø⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gr%C5%93nn" class="extiw" title="wikt:grœnn">grœnn</a> "green": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gr%C3%A6nn" class="extiw" title="wikt:grænn">grænn</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gr%C3%B8nur" class="extiw" title="wikt:grønur">grønur</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gr%C3%B6n" class="extiw" title="wikt:grön">grön</a>, Da/NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gr%C3%B8n" class="extiw" title="wikt:grøn">grøn</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gr%C3%B8nn" class="extiw" title="wikt:grønn">grønn</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>y ⟨y⟩ </th> <td>ɪ(ː)</td> <td>ɪ/iː</td> <td>⟨ö⟩; ⟨y⟩<a href="#cite_note-69">[n 6]</a></td> <td></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dyrr" class="extiw" title="wikt:dyrr">dyrr</a> "door": Ic/Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dyr" class="extiw" title="wikt:dyr">dyr</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/d%C3%B6rr" class="extiw" title="wikt:dörr">dörr</a>, Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/d%C3%B8r" class="extiw" title="wikt:dør">dør</a> ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fylla" class="extiw" title="wikt:fylla">fylla</a> "to fill": Ic/Fa/NN/Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fylla" class="extiw" title="wikt:fylla">fylla</a>, Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fylde" class="extiw" title="wikt:fylde">fylde</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fylle" class="extiw" title="wikt:fylle">fylle</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>yː ⟨ý⟩ </th> <td>i(ː)</td> <td>ʊɪ(ː) ʊt͡ʃː ⟨ýggj⟩<a href="#cite_note-no-consonant-66">[n 3]</a></td> <td>ʏ/yː ⟨y⟩</td> <td>⟨y⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/d%C3%BDrr" class="extiw" title="wikt:dýrr">dýrr</a> "dear": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/d%C3%BDr" class="extiw" title="wikt:dýr">dýr</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/d%C3%BDrur" class="extiw" title="wikt:dýrur">dýrur</a>, Sw/Da/No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dyr" class="extiw" title="wikt:dyr">dyr</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ɛi ⟨ei⟩ </th> <td>ei(ː)</td> <td>aɪ(ː) at͡ʃː ⟨eiggj⟩<a href="#cite_note-no-consonant-66">[n 3]</a></td> <td>e(ː) ⟨e⟩</td> <td>⟨e⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/steinn" class="extiw" title="wikt:steinn">steinn</a> "stone": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/steinn" class="extiw" title="wikt:steinn">steinn</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/steinur" class="extiw" title="wikt:steinur">steinur</a>, Sw/Da/NB <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sten" class="extiw" title="wikt:sten">sten</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stein" class="extiw" title="wikt:stein">stein</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>œy<a href="#cite_note-FromOldNordic-22">[21]</a> ⟨ey⟩ </th> <td>ei(ː)</td> <td>ɔɪ(ː) ⟨oy⟩ ɔt͡ʃː ⟨oyggj⟩<a href="#cite_note-no-consonant-66">[n 3]</a></td> <td rowspan="2">œ/øː ⟨ö⟩</td> <td rowspan="2">⟨ø⟩</td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ey" class="extiw" title="wikt:ey">ey</a> "island": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ey" class="extiw" title="wikt:ey">ey</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/oyggj" class="extiw" title="wikt:oyggj">oyggj</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:ö">ö</a>, Da <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:ø">ø</a>, No <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%B8y" class="extiw" title="wikt:øy">øy</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ɔu ⟨au⟩ </th> <td>øy(ː)</td> <td>ɛ/ɛɪː ⟨ey⟩ ɛt͡ʃː ⟨eyggj⟩<a href="#cite_note-no-consonant-66">[n 3]</a></td> <td>ON <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/draumr" class="extiw" title="wikt:draumr">draumr</a> "dream": Ic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/draumur" class="extiw" title="wikt:draumur">draumur</a>, Fa <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dreymur" class="extiw" title="wikt:dreymur">dreymur</a>, Sw <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dr%C3%B6m" class="extiw" title="wikt:dröm">dröm</a>, Da/NB <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dr%C3%B8m" class="extiw" title="wikt:drøm">drøm</a>, NN <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/draum" class="extiw" title="wikt:draum">draum</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> Norwegian – Norwegianization of written Danish; <a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> Norwegian – Standardised written Norwegian based on Norwegian dialects; No = same in both forms of Norwegian. </li> <li id="cite_note-vowel-length-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vowel-length_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vowel-length_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vowel-length_65-2">c</a> Vowel length in the modern Scandinavian languages does not stem from Old Norse vowel length. In all of the modern languages, Old Norse vowel length was lost, and vowel length became allophonically determined by syllable structure, with long vowels occurring when followed by zero or one consonants (and some clusters, e.g. in Icelandic, most clusters of obstruent to <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruent</a> + [r], [j] or [v], such as [pr], [tj], [kv] etc.); short vowels occurred when followed by most consonant clusters, including <a href="/wiki/Double_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Double letter">double consonants</a>. Often, pairs of short and long vowels became differentiated in quality before the loss of vowel length and thus did not end up merging; e.g. Old Norse /a aː i iː/ became Icelandic /a au ɪ i/, all of which can occur allophonically short or long. In the mainland Scandinavian languages, double consonants were reduced to single consonants, making the new vowel length phonemic. </li> <li id="cite_note-no-consonant-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-no-consonant_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-no-consonant_66-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-no-consonant_66-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-no-consonant_66-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-no-consonant_66-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-no-consonant_66-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-no-consonant_66-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-no-consonant_66-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-no-consonant_66-8">i</a> When not followed by a consonant. </li> <li id="cite_note-nasal_consonant-67"><a href="#cite_ref-nasal_consonant_67-0">^</a> When followed by a nasal consonant. </li> <li id="cite_note-swedish-hook-o-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-swedish-hook-o_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-swedish-hook-o_68-1">b</a> ⟨o⟩ or (before /r/) ⟨ø⟩ in some isolated words, but the tendency was to restore ⟨a⟩. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> When un-umlauted */u/ is still present elsewhere in the paradigm. </li> </ol></div></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Pronunciation of vowels in various Scandinavian languages </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Spelling</th> <th>Old Norse</th> <th>Modern Icelandic</th> <th>Modern Faroese</th> <th>Modern Swedish</th> <th>Modern Norwegian </th></tr> <tr> <th>⟨a⟩ </th> <td>a</td> <td>a(ː)</td> <td>a/ɛaː</td> <td>a/ɑː</td> <td>ɑ(ː) </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨á⟩ </th> <td>aː</td> <td>au(ː)</td> <td>ɔ/ɔaː</td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ä⟩ </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2">–</td> <td>ɛ/ɛː</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨å⟩ </th> <td colspan="2">ɔ/oː </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨æ⟩ </th> <td>ɛː</td> <td>ai(ː)</td> <td>a/ɛaː</td> <td>–</td> <td>æ(ː), ɛ/eː </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨e⟩ </th> <td>e</td> <td>ɛ(ː)</td> <td>ɛ/eː</td> <td>e/eː</td> <td>ɛ/eː, ə, æ(ː) </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨é⟩ </th> <td>eː</td> <td>jɛ(ː)</td> <td colspan="3">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨i⟩ </th> <td>i</td> <td>ɪ(ː)</td> <td colspan="3">ɪ/iː </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨í⟩ </th> <td>iː</td> <td>i(ː)</td> <td>ʊɪ(ː)</td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨o⟩ </th> <td>o</td> <td>ɔ(ː)</td> <td>ɔ/oː</td> <td>ʊ/uː, ɔ/oː</td> <td>uː, ɔ/oː </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ó⟩ </th> <td>oː</td> <td>ou(ː)</td> <td>œ/ɔuː</td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ǫ⟩ </th> <td>ɔ</td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ǫ́⟩ </th> <td>ɔː </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ö⟩ </th> <td>–</td> <td>ø > œ(ː)</td> <td>–</td> <td>œ/øː</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ø⟩ </th> <td>ø</td> <td>–</td> <td>œ/øː</td> <td>–</td> <td>œ/øː </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨œ⟩ </th> <td>øː</td> <td colspan="4">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨u⟩ </th> <td>u</td> <td>ʏ(ː)</td> <td>ʊ/uː</td> <td>ɵ/ʉː</td> <td>ʉ(ː) </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ú⟩ </th> <td>uː</td> <td>u(ː)</td> <td>ʏ/ʉuː</td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨y⟩ </th> <td>y</td> <td>ɪ(ː)</td> <td>ɪ/iː</td> <td colspan="2">ʏ/yː </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ý⟩ </th> <td>yː</td> <td>i(ː)</td> <td>ʊɪ(ː)</td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ei⟩ </th> <td>ɛi</td> <td>ei(ː)</td> <td>aɪ(ː)</td> <td>–</td> <td>æɪ </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ey⟩ </th> <td>œy<a href="#cite_note-FromOldNordic-22">[21]</a></td> <td>ei(ː)</td> <td>ɛ/ɛɪː</td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨oy⟩ </th> <td colspan="2">–</td> <td>ɔɪ(ː)</td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨øy⟩ </th> <td colspan="4">–</td> <td>œʏ </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨au⟩ </th> <td>ɔu</td> <td>øy(ː)</td> <td colspan="2">–</td> <td>æʉ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_Old_Norse" title="An Introduction to Old Norse">An Introduction to Old Norse</a> – A common textbook on the language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Old_Norse_origin" title="List of English words of Old Norse origin">List of English words of Old Norse origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Old_Norse_exonyms" title="List of Old Norse exonyms">List of Old Norse exonyms</a> – Names that speakers of Old Norse assigned to foreign places and peoples.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse morphology</a> – The grammar of the language.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_orthography" title="Old Norse orthography">Old Norse orthography</a> – The spelling of the language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_poetry" title="Old Norse poetry">Old Norse poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse language</a> – The Scandinavian dialect of Proto-Germanic that developed into Old Norse</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialectal_information">Dialectal information</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Dialectal information">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">History of Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic" title="History of Icelandic">History of Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Swedish" title="Old Swedish">Old Swedish</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_citations">General citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: General citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJosephsonSöhrman2008" class="citation book cs1">Josephson, Folke; Söhrman, Ingmar (29 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XZc5AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA185">Interdependence of Diachronic and Synchronic Analyses</a>. John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027290359" title="Special:BookSources/9789027290359"><bdi>9789027290359</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230417094033/https://books.google.com/books?id=XZc5AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA185">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2023. 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Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germaniclanguage00koni/page/n54">38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415280792" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415280792"><bdi>978-0415280792</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Germanic+Languages&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0415280792&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermaniclanguage00koni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Old-Norse-language">"Old Norse language"</a>. 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University of Chicago Press. pp. 63–64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75975-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75975-3"><bdi>978-0-226-75975-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+Scandinavia%3A+Seven+Sisters+of+the+North&rft.pages=63-64&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-226-75975-3&rft.aulast=Sanders&rft.aufirst=Ruth+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEL4lEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JohnsonEcyc-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JohnsonEcyc_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JohnsonEcyc_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JohnsonEcyc_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JohnsonEcyc_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JohnsonEcyc_7-4">e</a> <a 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G.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/altnordischegra00unkngoog">Abriss Der Altnordischen (Altisländischen) Grammatik</a> (in German), p. 12</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abriss+Der+Altnordischen+%28Altisl%C3%A4ndischen%29+Grammatik&rft.pages=12&rft.aulast=Noreen&rft.aufirst=A.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faltnordischegra00unkngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TheNordicLanguages-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TheNordicLanguages_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TheNordicLanguages_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TheNordicLanguages_39-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TheNordicLanguages_39-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBandle2005">Bandle 2005</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOld_Norse_for_Beginners[httpwww3hiis~haukurthnorsegrammarneuternphp_Neuter_nouns]-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOld_Norse_for_Beginners[httpwww3hiis~haukurthnorsegrammarneuternphp_Neuter_nouns]_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOld_Norse_for_Beginners">Old Norse for Beginners</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.hi.is/~haukurth/norse/grammar/neutern.php">Neuter nouns</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOld_Norse_for_Beginners[httpwww3hiis~haukurthnorsegrammarfemininenphp_Feminine_nouns]-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOld_Norse_for_Beginners[httpwww3hiis~haukurthnorsegrammarfemininenphp_Feminine_nouns]_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOld_Norse_for_Beginners">Old Norse for Beginners</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.hi.is/~haukurth/norse/grammar/femininen.php">Feminine nouns</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Menota_handbook''Ch._8_§3.2.1_"Gender"-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_Menota_handbook''Ch._8_§3.2.1_"Gender"_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThe_Menota_handbook">The Menota handbook</a>, Ch. 8 §3.2.1 "Gender". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZoëga1910H:_''hungr''-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZoëga1910H:_''hungr''_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZoëga1910">Zoëga 1910</a>, H: hungr. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Donoghue200422–102-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Donoghue200422–102_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Donoghue2004">O'Donoghue 2004</a>, p. 22–102. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110707195311/http://aveneca.com/westeast.html">"The Old Norse dialect areas"</a>, aveneca.com, 2009, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aveneca.com/westeast.html">the original</a> on 7 July 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=aveneca.com&rft.atitle=The+Old+Norse+dialect+areas&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faveneca.com%2Fwesteast.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHellquist1922" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Elof_Hellquist" title="Elof Hellquist">Hellquist, Elof</a>, ed. (1922), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runeberg.org/svetym/0950.html">"stark"</a>, Svensk etymologisk ordbok [Swedish etymological dictionary] (in Swedish), p. 862, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120308171445/http://runeberg.org/svetym/0950.html">archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2012, retrieved 1 March 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Svensk+etymologisk+ordbok+%5BSwedish+etymological+dictionary%5D&rft.atitle=stark&rft.pages=862&rft.date=1922&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fruneberg.org%2Fsvetym%2F0950.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKönigvan_der_Auwera2002" class="citation book cs1">König, Ekkehard; van der Auwera, Johan, eds. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germaniclanguage00koni">The Germanic Languages</a>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germaniclanguage00koni/page/n54">38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415280792" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415280792"><bdi>978-0415280792</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Germanic+Languages&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0415280792&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermaniclanguage00koni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> "Old Norse is by far the best attested variety of Old Scandinavian." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandle2005Ch._XVII_§202_"The_typological_development_of_the_Nordic_languages_I:_Phonology"_(H._Sandøy)_:_''Old_East_Nordic'',_pp.&nbsp;1856,_1859-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBandle2005Ch._XVII_§202_"The_typological_development_of_the_Nordic_languages_I:_Phonology"_(H._Sandøy)_:_''Old_East_Nordic'',_pp.&nbsp;1856,_1859_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBandle2005">Bandle 2005</a>, Ch. XVII §202 "The typological development of the Nordic languages I: Phonology" (H. Sandøy) : Old East Nordic, pp. 1856, 1859. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturtevant1953" class="citation cs2">Sturtevant, Albert Morey (1953), "Further Old Norse Secondary Formations", Language, 29 (4): 457–462, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F409955">10.2307/409955</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/409955">409955</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Further+Old+Norse+Secondary+Formations&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=457-462&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F409955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F409955%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sturtevant&rft.aufirst=Albert+Morey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Codex_Regius" title="Codex Regius">Codex Regius</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linguistics.byu.edu/classes/Ling450ch/reports/norwegian.html">"Introduction – History of Norwegian up to 1349"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230131064838/https://linguistics.byu.edu/classes/Ling450ch/reports/norwegian.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2023. Retrieved 21 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+%E2%80%93+History+of+Norwegian+up+to+1349&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.byu.edu%2Fclasses%2FLing450ch%2Freports%2Fnorwegian.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHock1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Henrich_Hock" title="Hans Henrich Hock">Hock, Hans Henrich</a> (1986), Principles of Historical Linguistics, p. 149</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Historical+Linguistics&rft.pages=149&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Hock&rft.aufirst=Hans+Henrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MeNoTa14-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MeNoTa14_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MeNoTa14_57-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Weenen" class="citation cs2">van Weenen, Andrea de Leeuw (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://clarino.uib.no/menota/document-element?&cpos=558653">"(Manuscript AM 519 a 4to) "Alexanders saga""</a>, Medieval Nordic Text Archive www.menota.org, fol. 1v, lines 10–14, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180905022912/http://clarino.uib.no/menota/document-element?&cpos=558653">archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2018, retrieved 4 September 2018</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medieval+Nordic+Text+Archive+www.menota.org&rft.atitle=%28Manuscript+AM+519+a+4to%29+%22Alexanders+saga%22&rft.pages=fol.+1v%2C+lines+10-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclarino.uib.no%2Fmenota%2Fdocument-element%3F%26cpos%3D558653&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWills2006" class="citation cs2">Wills, Tarrin (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180904230041/https://sro.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/10765/54631">The Anonymous Verse in the Third Grammatical Treatise</a>, The Centre for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Durham University, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sro.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/10765/54631">the original</a> on 4 September 2018, retrieved 4 September 2018</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anonymous+Verse+in+the+Third+Grammatical+Treatise&rft.pub=The+Centre+for+Medieval+and+Renaissance+Studies%2C+Durham+University&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Wills&rft.aufirst=Tarrin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsro.library.usyd.edu.au%2Fhandle%2F10765%2F54631&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kroonen-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Kroonen_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroonen" class="citation cs2">Kroonen, Guus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://inss.ku.dk/ansatte/?pure=files/35220983/elfdalian.pdf">"On the origins of the Elfdalian nasal vowels from the perspective of diachronic dialectology and Germanic etymology"</a> (PDF), inss.ku.dk (Presentation), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160206012822/http://inss.ku.dk/ansatte/?pure=files/35220983/elfdalian.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2016, retrieved 27 January 2016, <q>(Slide 26) §7.2 quote: "In many aspects, Elfdalian, takes up a middle position between East and West Nordic. However, it shares some innovations with West Nordic, but none with East Nordic. This invalidates the claim that Elfdalian split off from Old Swedish."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=inss.ku.dk&rft.atitle=On+the+origins+of+the+Elfdalian+nasal+vowels+from+the+perspective+of+diachronic+dialectology+and+Germanic+etymology&rft.aulast=Kroonen&rft.aufirst=Guus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finss.ku.dk%2Fansatte%2F%3Fpure%3Dfiles%2F35220983%2Felfdalian.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoreen" class="citation book cs1">Noreen, Adolf. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170602093518/http://www.arnastofnun.is/solofile/1016380">Altnordische Grammatik I: Altisländische und altnorwegische Grammatik</a>. p. 211 (§ 288, note 1). 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Retrieved 17 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altnordische+Grammatik+I%3A+Altisl%C3%A4ndische+und+altnorwegische+Grammatik&rft.pages=211+%28%C2%A7+288%2C+note+1%29&rft.aulast=Noreen&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arnastofnun.is%2Fsolofile%2F1016380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Donoghue2004190–201-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Donoghue2004190–201_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Donoghue2004">O'Donoghue 2004</a>, pp. 190–201. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELass1993187–188-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELass1993187–188_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLass1993">Lass 1993</a>, pp. 187–188. </li> <li id="cite_note-helfenstein-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-helfenstein_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-helfenstein_63-1">b</a> Helfenstein, James (1870). A Comparative Grammar of the Teutonic Languages: Being at the Same Time a Historical Grammar of the English Language. London: MacMillan and Co. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cleasby-Vigfússon_citations">Cleasby-Vigfússon citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Cleasby-Vigfússon citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CleasbyA-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyA_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyA_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyA_19-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyA_19-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyA_19-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p.1, "A" </li> <li id="cite_note-CleasbyOE-30"><a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyOE_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, pp. 761–762 (Introduction to Letter Ö (Ø)) </li> <li id="cite_note-CleasbyPhonRules-34"><a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyPhonRules_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, pp. xxix–xxx "Formation of Words" : Vowel Changes </li> <li id="cite_note-CleasbyTableN-35"><a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyTableN_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. xvi "Strong Nouns" – Masculine – Remarks on the 1st Strong Masculine Declension, 3.a </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. 389 col.1, "LIM"; p. 437, col.1 "MUND" </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. 481 "R" </li> <li id="cite_note-CleasbyAE-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyAE_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyAE_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyAE_52-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, p. 757 "Æ" </li> <li id="cite_note-CleasbyE-54"><a href="#cite_ref-CleasbyE_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874">Cleasby & Vigfússon 1874</a>, pp. 113–114 "E" </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_sources">General sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: General sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarbert2007" class="citation cs2">Harbert, Wayne (2007), "The Germanic Languages", Cambridge Language Surveys, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Language+Surveys&rft.atitle=The+Germanic+Languages&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Harbert&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaugan1998" class="citation cs2">Haugan, Jens (1998), "Right Dislocated 'Subjects' in Old Norse", Working Papers in Scandinavian Syntax, no. 62, pp. 37–60</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Working+Papers+in+Scandinavian+Syntax&rft.atitle=Right+Dislocated+%27Subjects%27+in+Old+Norse&rft.issue=62&rft.pages=37-60&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Haugan&rft.aufirst=Jens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaugen1950" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Einar_Haugen" title="Einar Haugen">Haugen, Einar</a> (1950), "First Grammatical Treatise. The Earliest Germanic Phonology", Language, 26 (4): 4–64, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F522272">10.2307/522272</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/522272">522272</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=First+Grammatical+Treatise.+The+Earliest+Germanic+Phonology&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=4-64&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F522272&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F522272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Haugen&rft.aufirst=Einar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Menota_handbook" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Odd_Einar_Haugen" title="Odd Einar Haugen">Haugen, Odd Einar</a>, ed. (2008) [2004], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.menota.org/HB2_index.xml">The Menota handbook: Guidelines for the electronic encoding of Medieval Nordic primary sources</a> (Version 2.0 ed.), Bergen: Medieval Nordic Text Archive, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-82-8088-400-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-82-8088-400-8"><bdi>978-82-8088-400-8</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200524141221/https://www.menota.org/HB2_index.xml">archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2020, retrieved 4 September 2018</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Menota+handbook%3A+Guidelines+for+the+electronic+encoding+of+Medieval+Nordic+primary+sources&rft.edition=Version+2.0&rft.pub=Bergen%3A+Medieval+Nordic+Text+Archive&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-82-8088-400-8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.menota.org%2FHB2_index.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> , "The Menota handbook 2.0"</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLass1993" class="citation cs2">Lass, Roger (1993), Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+English%3A+A+Historical+Linguistic+Companion&rft.pub=Cambridge%3A+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Lass&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1899" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kendall_Adams" title="Charles Kendall Adams">Adams, Charles Kendall</a>, ed. (1899) [1876], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnsonsuniversa07adam">Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia: A New Edition</a>, vol. 7 (Raleigh-Tananarivo), D. Appleton, A. J. Johnson</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Johnson%27s+Universal+Cyclopedia%3A+A+New+Edition&rft.pub=D.+Appleton%2C+A.+J.+Johnson&rft.date=1899&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnsonsuniversa07adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_AuweraKönig1994" class="citation cs2">van der Auwera, J.; König, E., eds. (1994), The Germanic Languages</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Germanic+Languages&rft.date=1994&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMobergGooskensNerbonneVaillette2007" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Moberg, J.; Gooskens, C.; Nerbonne, J.; Vaillette, N. (2007), "4. Conditional Entropy Measures Intelligibility among Related Languages", Proceedings of the 17th Meeting of Computational Linguistics in the Netherlands, vol. 7 (LOT Occasional series), pp. 51–66, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F296747">1874/296747</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4.+Conditional+Entropy+Measures+Intelligibility+among+Related+Languages&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+17th+Meeting+of+Computational+Linguistics+in+the+Netherlands&rft.pages=51-66&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1874%2F296747&rft.aulast=Moberg&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Gooskens%2C+C.&rft.au=Nerbonne%2C+J.&rft.au=Vaillette%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBandleBraunmüllerJahrKarker2002" class="citation cs2">Bandle, Oskar; Braunmüller, Kurt; Jahr, Ernst Hakon; Karker, Allan; Naumann, Hans-Peter; Teleman, Ulf; Elmevik, Lennart; Widmark, Gun, eds. (2002), The Nordic Languages, An International Handbook on the History of the North Germanic Languages, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nordic+Languages%2C+An+International+Handbook+on+the+History+of+the+North+Germanic+Languages&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter%2C+Berlin&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBandle2005" class="citation cs2">Volume 2, 2005</cite></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Donoghue2004" class="citation cs2">O'Donoghue, Heather (2004), Old Norse-Icelandic Literature: A Short Introduction, Blackwell Introductions to Literature, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Norse-Icelandic+Literature%3A+A+Short+Introduction&rft.series=Blackwell+Introductions+to+Literature&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing+Ltd.&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=O%27Donoghue&rft.aufirst=Heather&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorpVikør1993" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Arne_Torp" title="Arne Torp">Torp, Arne</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lars_Vik%C3%B8r" title="Lars Vikør">Vikør, Lars S</a> (2014) [1993], Hovuddrag i norsk språkhistorie [The main features of Norwegian language history] (in Norwegian) (4th ed.), Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8205464025" title="Special:BookSources/978-8205464025"><bdi>978-8205464025</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hovuddrag+i+norsk+spr%C3%A5khistorie&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Gyldendal+Norsk+Forlag&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-8205464025&rft.aulast=Torp&rft.aufirst=Arne&rft.au=Vik%C3%B8r%2C+Lars+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionaries">Dictionaries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Dictionaries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleasbyVigfússon1874" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cleasby" title="Richard Cleasby">Cleasby, Richard</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%B0brandur_Vigf%C3%BAsson" title="Guðbrandur Vigfússon">Vigfússon, Guðbrandur</a> (1874), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_RnEJAAAAQAAJ">An Icelandic-English Dictionary</a>, Oxford: Clarendon Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Icelandic-English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford%3A+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1874&rft.aulast=Cleasby&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Vigf%C3%BAsson%2C+Gu%C3%B0brandur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_RnEJAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.germanic-lexicon-project.org/texts/oi_cleasbyvigfusson_about.html">e-text</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210720131325/http://www.germanic-lexicon-project.org/texts/oi_cleasbyvigfusson_about.html">Archived</a> 20 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> via the Germanic Lexicon Project (germanic-lexicon-project.org)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://old-norse.net">e-text</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230417094040/https://old-norse.net/search.php">Archived</a> 17 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> adapted from the Germanic Lexicon Project version to work better with mobile devices and with an improved search (old-norse.net)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZoëga1896" class="citation cs2">Zoëga, G. T. (1896), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enskslenzkorabk00zogoog">Íslenzk-Ensk orðabók</a>, S. Kristjánsson</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%8Dslenzk-Ensk+or%C3%B0ab%C3%B3k&rft.pub=S.+Kristj%C3%A1nsson&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Zo%C3%ABga&rft.aufirst=G.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenskslenzkorabk00zogoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slenzkenskorab00zouoft">Íslenzk-Ensk orðabók</a>, Reykjavík, Kostnaarmaur: Sigurdur Kristjánsson, 1922</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%8Dslenzk-Ensk+or%C3%B0ab%C3%B3k&rft.pub=Reykjav%C3%ADk%2C+Kostnaarmaur%3A+Sigurdur+Kristj%C3%A1nsson&rft.date=1922&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fslenzkenskorab00zouoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZoëga1910" class="citation cs2">Zoëga, G. T. (1910), A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Dictionary+of+Old+Icelandic&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Zo%C3%ABga&rft.aufirst=G.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/texts/oi_zoega_about.html">scanned document</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210211155218/http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/texts/oi_zoega_about.html">Archived</a> 11 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> via "Germanic Lexicon Project" (lexicon.ff.cuni.cz)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://norroen.info/dct/zoega/">e-text</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220101154914/http://norroen.info/dct/zoega/">Archived</a> 1 January 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> via norroen.info</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onp.ku.dk/onp/onp.php">ONP: Dictionary of Old Norse Prose</a> (in Danish and English), University of Copenhagen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191218105653/https://onp.ku.dk/onp/onp.php">archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2019, retrieved 6 August 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ONP%3A+Dictionary+of+Old+Norse+Prose&rft.pub=University+of+Copenhagen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonp.ku.dk%2Fonp%2Fonp.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Vries1977" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jan_de_Vries_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan de Vries (linguist)">de Vries, Jan</a> (1977) [1961], Altnordisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altnordisches+Etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=de+Vries&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgilsson1854" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Sveinbj%C3%B6rn_Egilsson" title="Sveinbjörn Egilsson">Egilsson, Sveinbjorn</a>, ed. (1854), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lexiconpoticuma00copegoog">Lexicon poeticum antiquæ linguæ septentrionalis</a> (in Danish and Latin), Hafniæ, typis J. D. Qvist & comp</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lexicon+poeticum+antiqu%C3%A6+lingu%C3%A6+septentrionalis&rft.pub=Hafni%C3%A6%2C+typis+J.+D.+Qvist+%26+comp&rft.date=1854&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flexiconpoticuma00copegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgilssonJónsson1931" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Sveinbj%C3%B6rn_Egilsson" title="Sveinbjörn Egilsson">Egilsson, Sveinbjorn</a>; <a href="/wiki/Finnur_J%C3%B3nsson" title="Finnur Jónsson">Jónsson, Finnur</a>, eds. (1931) [1913–1916], Lexicon poeticum antiquæ linguæ septentrionalis (2nd ed.)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lexicon+poeticum+antiqu%C3%A6+lingu%C3%A6+septentrionalis&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1931&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.septentrionalia.net/etexts/">First and Second editions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419093224/http://www.septentrionalia.net/etexts/">Archived</a> 19 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> via www.septentrionalia.net</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammars">Grammars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Grammars">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayldon1870" class="citation cs2">Bayldon, George (1870), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementarygramma00bayluoft">An Elementary Grammar of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language</a>, London: Williams and Norgate</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Elementary+Grammar+of+the+Old+Norse+or+Icelandic+Language&rft.pub=London%3A+Williams+and+Norgate&rft.date=1870&rft.aulast=Bayldon&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementarygramma00bayluoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVigfússonPowell1879" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%B0brandur_Vigf%C3%BAsson" title="Guðbrandur Vigfússon">Vigfússon, Gudbrand</a>; <a href="/wiki/Frederick_York_Powell" title="Frederick York Powell">Powell, F. York</a> (1879), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/icelandicprosere00guuoft">An Icelandic Prose Reader: with Notes, Grammar, and Glossary</a>, Oxford Clarendon Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Icelandic+Prose+Reader%3A+with+Notes%2C+Grammar%2C+and+Glossary&rft.pub=Oxford+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Vigf%C3%BAsson&rft.aufirst=Gudbrand&rft.au=Powell%2C+F.+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ficelandicprosere00guuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoreen1923" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Noreen" title="Adolf Noreen">Noreen, Adolf</a> (1923), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital-humanities.uni-tuebingen.de/altn-gram/noreen1923.html">Altnordische grammatik I. Altisländische und altnorwegische grammatik (laut- und flexionslehre)</a> (4th ed.), Halle (Saale): Max Niemeyer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211024173130/https://digital-humanities.uni-tuebingen.de/altn-gram/noreen1923.html">archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2021, retrieved 9 June 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altnordische+grammatik+I.+Altisl%C3%A4ndische+und+altnorwegische+grammatik+%28laut-+und+flexionslehre%29&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Halle+%28Saale%29%3A+Max+Niemeyer&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Noreen&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital-humanities.uni-tuebingen.de%2Faltn-gram%2Fnoreen1923.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> (Old West Norse)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoreen1904" class="citation cs2">Noreen, Adolf (1904), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/altschwedischegr00noreuoft/page/n11/mode/2up">Altnordische grammatik II. Altschwedische grammatik mit einschluss des altgutnischen</a>, Halle: Max Niemeyer</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altnordische+grammatik+II.+Altschwedische+grammatik+mit+einschluss+des+altgutnischen&rft.pub=Halle%3A+Max+Niemeyer&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Noreen&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faltschwedischegr00noreuoft%2Fpage%2Fn11%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> (Old Swedish and Old Gutnish)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrøndum-Nielsen1928–1974" class="citation cs2">Brøndum-Nielsen, Johannes (1928–1974), Gammeldansk Grammatik i sproghistorisk Fremstilling (8 volumes), København: J. H. Schultz</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gammeldansk+Grammatik+i+sproghistorisk+Fremstilling+%288+volumes%29&rft.pub=K%C3%B8benhavn%3A+J.+H.+Schultz&rft.date=1928%2F1974&rft.aulast=Br%C3%B8ndum-Nielsen&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> (Old Danish)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIversen1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ragnvald_Iversen" title="Ragnvald Iversen">Iversen, Ragnvald</a> (1972). Norrøn grammatikk (7th ed.). Oslo: Aschehoug.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Norr%C3%B8n+grammatikk&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Oslo%3A+Aschehoug&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Iversen&rft.aufirst=Ragnvald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> (Old West Norse)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaarlund2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Terje_Faarlund" title="Jan Terje Faarlund">Faarlund, Jan Terje</a> (2004), The Syntax of Old Norse, New York: Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syntax+of+Old+Norse&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Faarlund&rft.aufirst=Jan+Terje&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> (Old Norse in the narrow sense, i.e. Old West Norse)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaugen2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Odd_Einar_Haugen" title="Odd Einar Haugen">Haugen, Odd Einar</a> (2006), Grunnbok i norrønt språk (3rd, revised printing of the 4th ed.), Gyldendal Akademisk</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grunnbok+i+norr%C3%B8nt+spr%C3%A5k&rft.edition=3rd%2C+revised+printing+of+the+4th&rft.pub=Gyldendal+Akademisk&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Haugen&rft.aufirst=Odd+Einar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> (Old West Norse)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaugen2015" class="citation cs2">Haugen, Odd Einar (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital-humanities.uni-tuebingen.de/altn-gram/haugen2015.html">Norröne Grammatik im Überblick</a> (2nd ed.), Universität Bergen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211024173130/https://digital-humanities.uni-tuebingen.de/altn-gram/haugen2015.html">archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2021, retrieved 10 June 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Norr%C3%B6ne+Grammatik+im+%C3%9Cberblick&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Universit%C3%A4t+Bergen&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Haugen&rft.aufirst=Odd+Einar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital-humanities.uni-tuebingen.de%2Faltn-gram%2Fhaugen2015.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> (Old West Norse)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Norse_texts">Old Norse texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Old Norse texts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutasaga" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2"><a href="/wiki/Lars_Aronsson" title="Lars Aronsson">Aronsson, Lars</a>, ed. (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runeberg.org/gutasaga/">"Gutasagan"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Runeberg" title="Project Runeberg">Project Runeberg</a> (in Old Norse), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112085657/http://runeberg.org/gutasaga/">archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2020, retrieved 16 May 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Project+Runeberg&rft.atitle=Gutasagan&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fruneberg.org%2Fgutasaga%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTunstall" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2">Tunstall, Peter (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.germanicmythology.com/works/Gutasagan.html">Gutarnas Krönika eller Gutasagan [The History of the Gotlanders]</a> (in Old Norse and English), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111110120521/http://www.germanicmythology.com/works/Gutasagan.html">archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2011, retrieved 17 July 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gutarnas+Kr%C3%B6nika+eller+Gutasagan+%5BThe+History+of+the+Gotlanders%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.germanicmythology.com%2Fworks%2FGutasagan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> , facing translation</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_learning_resources">Language learning resources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Language learning resources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Barnes, Michael; Faulkes, Anthony (2007–2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/">A New Introduction to Old Norse</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/NION-1.pdf">Part I - Grammar</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/NION%20II-2011.pdf">Part II - Reader</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/Glossary%202011.pdf">Part III - Glossary</a>. Viking Society for Northern Research. University College London. Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/">the Viking Society for Northern Research homepage</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByock2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Byock" title="Jesse Byock">Byock, Jesse</a> (2013), Viking Language: Learn Old Norse, Runes, and Icelandic Sagas, Jules William Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4802-1644-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4802-1644-0"><bdi>978-1-4802-1644-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viking+Language%3A+Learn+Old+Norse%2C+Runes%2C+and+Icelandic+Sagas&rft.pub=Jules+William+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4802-1644-0&rft.aulast=Byock&rft.aufirst=Jesse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordonTaylor1981" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/E._V._Gordon" title="E. V. Gordon">Gordon, Eric V.</a>; Taylor, A. R. (1981), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontool00gord">An Introduction to Old Norse</a>, Oxford: Clarendon Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-811184-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-811184-9"><bdi>978-0-19-811184-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Old+Norse&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-19-811184-9&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Eric+V.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+A.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontool00gord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweet1895" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sweet" title="Henry Sweet">Sweet, Henry</a> (1895), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/icelandicprimerw00swee">An Icelandic Primer, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary</a> (2nd ed.), Univerzita Karlova</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Icelandic+Primer%2C+with+Grammar%2C+Notes%2C+and+Glossary&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Univerzita+Karlova&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Sweet&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ficelandicprimerw00swee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/texts/oi_sweet_about.html">alt source</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224043854/http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/texts/oi_sweet_about.html">Archived</a> 24 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> via Germanic Lexicon Project (lexicon.ff.cuni.cz)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5424">e-ext</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211026213656/https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5424">Archived</a> 26 October 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> via <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOld_Norse_for_Beginners" class="citation cs2">Þorgeirsson, Haukur; Guðlaugsson, Óskar, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170123013137/https://notendur.hi.is/~haukurth/norse/">Old Norse for Beginners</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://notendur.hi.is/~haukurth/norse/">the original</a> on 23 January 2017, retrieved 4 September 2018</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Norse+for+Beginners&rft.aulast=%C3%9Eorgeirsson&rft.aufirst=Haukur&rft.au=Gu%C3%B0laugsson%2C+%C3%93skar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnotendur.hi.is%2F~haukurth%2Fnorse%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Norse" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <ul><li>Valfells, Sigrid; Caithey, James E. (1982), Old Icelandic: An Introductory Course. Oxford University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Norse&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/non" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/non">Old Norse test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Norr%C5%93nt" class="extiw" title="oldwikisource:Category:Norrœnt"> Old Norse repository</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>, the free library</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Old Norse, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Old_Norse_language" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Old Norse language">Old Norse language category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heimskringla.no/wiki/Main_Page">Heimskringla.no</a>, an online collection of Old Norse source material</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/norol">Old Norse Online</a> by Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc">Linguistics Research Center</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Wz-srPR-Do&t=4s">Video: Old Norse text read with a reconstructed pronunciation and a Modern Icelandic pronunciation, for comparison. With subtitles</a></li> <li>Old Norse sound samples for <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FAdc0duf8hA">early Old Norse</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-dkZO1S1qc">13th century Norwegian Old Norse</a> by <a href="/wiki/Arne_Torp" title="Arne Torp">Arne Torp</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090318013455/http://www3.hi.is/~haukurth/norse/sounds/ragn1_2b.mp3">Old Norse sound sample</a> by Haukur Þorgeirsson (archived from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.hi.is/~haukurth/norse/sounds/ragn1_2b.mp3">original</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://germanic-studies.org/Scandinavian-loanwords-in-Old-and-Middle-English-and-their-legacy-in-the-dialects-of-England-and-modern-standard-English.htm">Old Norse loans in Old and Middle English, and their legacy in the dialects of England and modern standard English</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\ier\grm&limit=-1">Old Norse basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Vikings" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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href="/wiki/D%C3%ADs" title="Dís">Dís</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Eddas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einherjar" title="Einherjar">Einherjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futhark" class="mw-redirect" title="Futhark">Futhark</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_deities" title="List of Germanic deities">Germanic deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothi" title="Gothi">Gothi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hnefatafl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hnefatafl">Hnefatafl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmgang" title="Holmgang">Holmgang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leysingi" title="Leysingi">Leysingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mj%C3%B6lnir" title="Mjölnir">Mjölnir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse funeral</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">ship burial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_rituals" title="Norse rituals">Norse rituals</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_banner" title="Raven banner">Raven banner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">Sagas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skald" title="Skald">Skald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seeress_(Germanic)" title="Seeress (Germanic)">Seeress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sk%C3%AD%C3%B0bla%C3%B0nir" title="Skíðblaðnir">Skíðblaðnir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrfing" title="Tyrfing">Tyrfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valhalla" title="Valhalla">Valhalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valkyrie" title="Valkyrie">Valkyrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_art" title="Viking art">Viking art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_runestones" title="Viking runestones">Viking runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_during_the_Viking_Age" title="Trade during the Viking Age">Viking Age trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wergeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Wergeld">Wergeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yggdrasil" title="Yggdrasil">Yggdrasil</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Vikingshipmini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Vikingshipmini.jpg/130px-Vikingshipmini.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Vikingshipmini.jpg/195px-Vikingshipmini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Vikingshipmini.jpg/260px-Vikingshipmini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="131" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ships and navigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knarr" title="Knarr">Knarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ships" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking ships">Viking ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking ship replica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visby_lenses" title="Visby lenses">Visby lenses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Homelands and colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_Iceland" title="Settlement of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greenland" title="History of Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earldom_of_Orkney" title="Earldom of Orkney">Orkney Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shetland#Viking_expansion" title="History of Shetland">Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_settlement_in_the_Faroe_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse settlement in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">North America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinland" title="Vinland">Vinland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomsborg" title="Jomsborg">Jomsborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Expansion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">Viking expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_activity_in_the_British_Isles" title="Viking activity in the British Isles">British Isles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_East_Anglia" title="Kingdom of East Anglia">Anglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_York" title="Scandinavian York">York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Scotland" title="Scandinavian Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vikings_in_Brittany" title="Vikings in Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raids_in_the_Rhineland" title="Viking raids in the Rhineland">Rhineland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomerania_during_the_Early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Pomerania during the Early Middle Ages">Pomerania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age_in_Estonia" title="Viking Age in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikings_in_Iberia" title="Vikings in Iberia">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Scandinavian_Dublin" title="Early Scandinavian Dublin">Dublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Italy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics" title="Viking raid warfare and tactics">Tactics and warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aclea" title="Battle of Aclea">Battle of Aclea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Alton" title="First Battle of Alton">First Battle of Alton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anglesey_Sound" title="Battle of Anglesey Sound">Battle of Anglesey Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ashdown" title="Battle of Ashdown">Battle of Ashdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Assandun" title="Battle of Assandun">Battle of Assandun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Basing" title="Battle of Basing">Battle of Basing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barry" title="Battle of Barry">Battle of Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bauds" title="Battle of Bauds">Battle of Bauds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Benfleet" title="Battle of Benfleet">Battle of Benfleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Br%C3%A1vellir" title="Battle of Brávellir">Battle of Brávellir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brentford_(1016)" title="Battle of Brentford (1016)">Battle of Brentford (1016)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brissarthe" title="Battle of Brissarthe">Battle of Brissarthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brunanburh" title="Battle of Brunanburh">Battle of Brunanburh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buttington" title="Battle of Buttington">Battle of Buttington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cathair_Cuan" title="Battle of Cathair Cuan">Battle of Cathair Cuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chippenham" title="Battle of Chippenham">Battle of Chippenham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Clontarf" title="Battle of Clontarf">Battle of Clontarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Confey" title="Battle of Confey">Battle of Confey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corbridge" title="Battle of Corbridge">Battle of Corbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynwit" title="Battle of Cynwit">Battle of Cynwit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Derby" title="Battle of Derby">Battle of Derby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dollar" title="Battle of Dollar">Battle of Dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edington" title="Battle of Edington">Battle of Edington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Englefield" title="Battle of Englefield">Battle of Englefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Epiphany" title="Battle of Epiphany">Battle of Epiphany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fitjar" title="Battle of Fitjar">Battle of Fitjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Florv%C3%A5g" title="Battle of Florvåg">Battle of Florvåg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fulford" title="Battle of Fulford">Battle of Fulford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_F%C3%BDrisvellir" title="Battle of Fýrisvellir">Battle of Fýrisvellir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Glenmama" title="Battle of Glenmama">Battle of Glenmama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hafrsfjord" title="Battle of Hafrsfjord">Battle of Hafrsfjord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Helge%C3%A5" title="Battle of Helgeå">Battle of Helgeå</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hingston_Down" title="Battle of Hingston Down">Battle of Hingston Down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Holme" title="Battle of the Holme">Battle of the Holme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hj%C3%B6rungav%C3%A1gr" title="Battle of Hjörungavágr">Battle of Hjörungavágr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Islandbridge" title="Battle of Islandbridge">Battle of Islandbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Largs" title="Battle of Largs">Battle of Largs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuven_(891)" title="Battle of Leuven (891)">Battle of Leuven (891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_London" title="Anglo-Saxon London">Battle of London Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_L%C3%BCneburg_Heath" title="Battle of Lüneburg Heath">Battle of Lüneburg Heath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lyrskov_Heath" title="Battle of Lyrskov Heath">Battle of Lyrskov Heath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mag_Femen" title="Battle of Mag Femen">Battle of Mag Femen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maldon" title="Battle of Maldon">Battle of Maldon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Meretun" title="Battle of Meretun">Battle of Meretun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nesjar" title="Battle of Nesjar">Battle of Nesjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nis%C3%A5" title="Battle of Niså">Battle of Niså</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Norditi" title="Battle of Norditi">Battle of Norditi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pinhoe" title="Battle of Pinhoe">Battle of Pinhoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rastarkalv" title="Battle of Rastarkalv">Battle of Rastarkalv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Reading_(871)" title="Battle of Reading (871)">Battle of Reading (871)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Renfrew" title="Battle of Renfrew">Battle of Renfrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Remich" title="Battle of Remich">Battle of Remich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ringmere" title="Battle of Ringmere">Battle of Ringmere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rochester" title="Battle of Rochester">Battle of Rochester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sasireti" title="Battle of Sasireti">Battle of Sasireti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saucourt-en-Vimeu" title="Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu">Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Skyhill" title="Battle of Skyhill">Battle of Skyhill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stainmore" title="Battle of Stainmore">Battle of Stainmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_(894)" title="Battle of Stamford (894)">Battle of Stamford (894)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_(918)" title="Battle of Stamford (918)">Battle of Stamford (918)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge" title="Battle of Stamford Bridge">Battle of Stamford Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stiklestad" title="Battle of Stiklestad">Battle of Stiklestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Strangford_Lough" title="Battle of Strangford Lough">Battle of Strangford Lough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Svolder" title="Battle of Svolder">Battle of Svolder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sulcoit" title="Battle of Sulcoit">Battle of Sulcoit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tara_(Ireland)" title="Battle of Tara (Ireland)">Battle of Tara (Ireland)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarbat_Ness" title="Tarbat Ness">Battle of Tarbat Ness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tempsford" title="Battle of Tempsford">Battle of Tempsford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tettenhall" title="Battle of Tettenhall">Battle of Tettenhall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thetford" title="Battle of Thetford">Battle of Thetford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thimeon" title="Battle of Thimeon">Battle of Thimeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trans-la-For%C3%AAt" title="Battle of Trans-la-Forêt">Battle of Trans-la-Forêt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_York_(867)" title="Battle of York (867)">Battle of York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_of_Luimneach" title="Burning of Luimneach">Burning of Luimneach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_on_Galicia_and_Asturias" title="Viking raid on Galicia and Asturias">Viking raid on Galicia and Asturias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raids_in_the_Rhineland" title="Viking raids in the Rhineland">Raids in the Rhineland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_on_Seville" title="Viking raid on Seville">Raid on Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Santiago_de_Compostela" title="Sack of Santiago de Compostela">Sack of Santiago de Compostela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Asselt" title="Siege of Asselt">Siege of Asselt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Chartres_(911)" title="Siege of Chartres (911)">Siege of Chartres (911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(860)" title="Siege of Constantinople (860)">Siege of Constantinople (860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(845)" title="Siege of Paris (845)">Sack of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(885%E2%80%93886)" title="Siege of Paris (885–886)">Siege of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnut_the_Great%27s_invasion_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnut the Great's invasion of England">Cnut the Great's invasion of England</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age_arms_and_armour" title="Viking Age arms and armour">Arms, armour</a> and fortifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berserker" title="Berserker">Berserker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army" title="Great Heathen Army">Great Heathen Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hersir" title="Hersir">Hersir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hird" title="Hird">Hird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age_arms_and_armour" title="Viking Age arms and armour">Viking Age arms and armour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_halberd" title="Viking halberd">Halberd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atgeir" title="Atgeir">Atgeir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bearded_axe" title="Bearded axe">Skeggöx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dane_axe" title="Dane axe">Dane axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gjermundbu_helmet" title="Gjermundbu helmet">Gjermundbu helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarm_helmet" title="Yarm helmet">Yarm helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_sword" title="Viking sword">Sword</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulfberht_swords" title="Ulfberht swords">Ulfberht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingelrii" title="Ingelrii">Ingelrii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ring_fortress" title="Viking ring fortress">Ring Fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics" title="Viking raid warfare and tactics">Raid Warfare and Tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield-maiden" title="Shield-maiden">Shield-maiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svinfylking" title="Svinfylking">Svinfylking Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airdeconut" title="Airdeconut">Airdeconut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb_Cenncairech" title="Amlaíb Cenncairech">Amlaíb Cenncairech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb_Cuar%C3%A1n" title="Amlaíb Cuarán">Amlaíb Cuarán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb_Conung" title="Amlaíb Conung">Amlaíb Conung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aud_the_Deep-Minded_(Ketilsd%C3%B3ttir)" title="Aud the Deep-Minded (Ketilsdóttir)">Aud the Deep-Minded (Ketilsdóttir)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auisle" title="Auisle">Auisle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagsecg" title="Bagsecg">Bagsecg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berle-Kari" title="Berle-Kari">Berle-Kari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birka_female_Viking_warrior" class="mw-redirect" title="Birka female Viking warrior">Birka female Viking warrior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B8rn_(floruit_856%E2%80%9358)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjørn (floruit 856–58)">Bjørn (floruit 856–58)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjorn_Asbrandsson" title="Bjorn Asbrandsson">Bjorn Asbrandsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjarni_Herj%C3%B3lfsson" title="Bjarni Herjólfsson">Bjarni Herjólfsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Ironside" title="Björn Ironside">Björn Ironside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjorn_the_Easterner" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjorn the Easterner">Bjorn the Easterner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egill_Skallagr%C3%ADmsson" title="Egill Skallagrímsson">Egill Skallagrímsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eohric_of_East_Anglia" title="Eohric of East Anglia">Eohric of East Anglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Bloodaxe" title="Eric Bloodaxe">Eric Bloodaxe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_the_Red" title="Erik the Red">Erik the Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_I_of_Denmark" title="Eric I of Denmark">Eric I of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eir%C3%ADkr_H%C3%A1konarson" title="Eiríkr Hákonarson">Eiríkr Hákonarson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freyd%C3%ADs_Eir%C3%ADksd%C3%B3ttir" title="Freydís Eiríksdóttir">Freydís Eiríksdóttir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freygeirr" title="Freygeirr">Freygeirr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%B0ar_Svavarsson" title="Garðar Svavarsson">Garðar Svavarsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrid_Haraldsson" title="Godfrid Haraldsson">Godfrid Haraldsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrid,_Duke_of_Frisia" title="Godfrid, Duke of Frisia">Godfrid, Duke of Frisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmur_Kamban" title="Grímur Kamban">Grímur Kamban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudrid_Thorbjarnard%C3%B3ttir" title="Gudrid Thorbjarnardóttir">Gudrid Thorbjarnardóttir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_H%C3%A1mundarson" title="Gunnar Hámundarson">Gunnar Hámundarson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guthred" title="Guthred">Guthred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guthrum" title="Guthrum">Guthrum</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hakon_Rognvaldsson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hakon Rognvaldsson (page does not exist)">Hakon Rognvaldsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haakon_the_Good" title="Haakon the Good">Haakon the Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haakon_Sigurdsson" title="Haakon Sigurdsson">Haakon Sigurdsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfdan_Long-Leg" title="Halfdan Long-Leg">Halfdan Long-Leg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfdan_Ragnarsson" title="Halfdan Ragnarsson">Halfdan Ragnarsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagrold" title="Hagrold">Hagrold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Bluetooth" title="Harald Bluetooth">Harald Bluetooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Fairhair" title="Harald Fairhair">Harald Fairhair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Hardrada" title="Harald Hardrada">Harald Hardrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Wartooth" title="Harald Wartooth">Harald Wartooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastein" title="Hastein">Hastein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemming_Halfdansson" title="Hemming Halfdansson">Hemming Halfdansson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hervor" title="Hervor">Hervor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrafna-Fl%C3%B3ki_Vilger%C3%B0arson" title="Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson">Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hvitserk" title="Hvitserk">Hvitserk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvar_the_Far-Travelled" title="Ingvar the Far-Travelled">Ingvar the Far-Travelled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ing%C3%B3lfr_Arnarson" title="Ingólfr Arnarson">Ingólfr Arnarson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivar_the_Boneless" title="Ivar the Boneless">Ivar the Boneless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomsvikings" title="Jomsvikings">Jomsvikings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aud_the_Deep-Minded_(Ketilsd%C3%B3ttir)" title="Aud the Deep-Minded (Ketilsdóttir)">Ketilsdóttir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketill_Flatnose" title="Ketill Flatnose">Ketill Flatnose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketil_Trout_(Iceland)" title="Ketil Trout (Iceland)">Ketil Trout (Iceland)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagertha" title="Lagertha">Lagertha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leif_Erikson" title="Leif Erikson">Leif Erikson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Barefoot" title="Magnus Barefoot">Magnus Barefoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naddodd" title="Naddodd">Naddodd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A1ttfari" title="Náttfari">Náttfari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaf_Tryggvason" title="Olaf Tryggvason">Olaf Tryggvason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaf_II_of_Norway" title="Olaf II of Norway">Olav Haraldsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaf_the_White" title="Olaf the White">Olaf the White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olof_Sk%C3%B6tkonung" title="Olof Skötkonung">Olof Skötkonung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orm_Storolfsson" title="Orm Storolfsson">Orm Storolfsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohthere_of_H%C3%A5logaland" title="Ohthere of Hålogaland">Ohthere of Hålogaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottir" title="Ottir">Ottir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palnatoke" title="Palnatoke">Palnatoke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Lodbrok" title="Ragnar Lodbrok">Ragnar Lodbrok</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ragnar_Ragnarsson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ragnar Ragnarsson (page does not exist)">Ragnar Ragnarsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnhild_Eriksdotter" title="Ragnhild Eriksdotter">Ragnhild Eriksdotter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnall_ua_Imair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ragnall ua Imair">Ragnall ua Imair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raud_the_Strong" title="Raud the Strong">Raud the Strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginheri" title="Reginheri">Reginheri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rognvald_Eysteinsson" title="Rognvald Eysteinsson">Rognvald Eysteinsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rorik_of_Dorestad" title="Rorik of Dorestad">Rorik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusla" title="Rusla">Rusla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sn%C3%A6frithr_Sv%C3%A1sadottir" title="Snæfrithr Svásadottir">Snæfrithr Svásadottir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigvaldi_Strut-Haraldsson" title="Sigvaldi Strut-Haraldsson">Sigvaldi Strut-Haraldsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigurd_Ring" title="Sigurd Ring">Sigurd Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigurd_Snake-in-the-Eye" title="Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye">Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigurd_the_Stout" title="Sigurd the Stout">Sigurd the Stout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitric_Caech" class="mw-redirect" title="Sitric Caech">Sitric Caech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skalla-Gr%C3%ADmr" title="Skalla-Grímr">Skalla-Grímr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorri_Sturluson" title="Snorri Sturluson">Snorri Sturluson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steinunn_Refsd%C3%B3ttir" title="Steinunn Refsdóttir">Steinunn Refsdóttir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Styrbj%C3%B6rn_the_Strong" title="Styrbjörn the Strong">Styrbjörn the Strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Asleifsson" title="Sweyn Asleifsson">Sweyn Asleifsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn Forkbeard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eorbj%C3%B6rg_L%C3%ADtilv%C3%B6lva" title="Þorbjörg Lítilvölva">Þorbjörg Lítilvölva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorfinn_the_Mighty" title="Thorfinn the Mighty">Thorfinn the Mighty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorfinn_Torf-Einarsson" title="Thorfinn Torf-Einarsson">Thorfinn Torf-Einarsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorkell_the_Tall" title="Thorkell the Tall">Thorkell the Tall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorir_Hund" title="Thorir Hund">Thorir Hund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorolf_Kveldulfsson" title="Thorolf Kveldulfsson">Thorolf Kveldulfsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_the_Red" title="Thorstein the Red">Thorstein the Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tryggvi_the_Pretender" title="Tryggvi the Pretender">Tryggvi the Pretender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgesius" title="Turgesius">Turgesius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valtoke_Gormsson" title="Valtoke Gormsson">Valtoke Gormsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagn_%C3%85kesson" title="Vagn Åkesson">Vagn Åkesson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veborg" title="Veborg">Veborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubba" title="Ubba">Ubba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair" title="Uí Ímair">Uí Ímair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aud_the_Deep-Minded_(Ketilsd%C3%B3ttir)" title="Aud the Deep-Minded (Ketilsdóttir)">Unn the Deep-Minded</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Runestones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballstorp_Runestone" title="Ballstorp Runestone">Ballstorp Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_area_runestones" title="Baltic area runestones">Baltic area runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Runic_Inscription_66" title="Danish Runic Inscription 66">Danish Runic Inscription 66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Runic_Inscription_154" title="Danish Runic Inscription 154">Danish Runic Inscription 154</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Runic_Inscription_380" title="Danish Runic Inscription 380">Danish Runic Inscription 380</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egtved_Runestone" title="Egtved Runestone">Egtved Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_runestones" title="England runestones">England runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_runestones" title="Greece runestones">Greece runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar%27s_bridge_runestones" title="Gunnar's bridge runestones">Gunnar's bridge runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagby_Runestones" title="Hagby Runestones">Hagby Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakon_Jarl_runestones" title="Hakon Jarl runestones">Hakon Jarl runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A4llestad_Runestones" title="Hällestad Runestones">Hällestad Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvar_runestones" title="Ingvar runestones">Ingvar runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy_runestones" title="Italy runestones">Italy runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karlevi_Runestone" title="Karlevi Runestone">Karlevi Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingsberg_Runestones" title="Lingsberg Runestones">Lingsberg Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norra_H%C3%A4rene_Runestone" title="Norra Härene Runestone">Norra Härene Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orkesta_Runestones" title="Orkesta Runestones">Orkesta Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestones_at_Aspa" title="Runestones at Aspa">Runestones at Aspa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestones_of_H%C3%B6gby" title="Runestones of Högby">Runestones of Högby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A6dinge_Runestone" title="Sædinge Runestone">Sædinge Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigtrygg_Runestones" title="Sigtrygg Runestones">Sigtrygg Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simris_Runestones" title="Simris Runestones">Simris Runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sj%C3%B6rup_Runestone" title="Sjörup Runestone">Sjörup Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%C3%A5land_Runic_Inscription_48" title="Småland Runic Inscription 48">Småland Runic Inscription 48</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6dermanland_Runic_Inscription_174" title="Södermanland Runic Inscription 174">Södermanland Runic Inscription 174</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6dermanland_Runic_Inscription_333" title="Södermanland Runic Inscription 333">Södermanland Runic Inscription 333</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparl%C3%B6sa_Runestone" title="Sparlösa Runestone">Sparlösa Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stangeland_stone" title="Stangeland stone">Stangeland stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_of_Eric" title="Stone of Eric">Stone of Eric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestone_U_582" title="Runestone U 582">Runestone U 582</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppland_Runic_Inscription_158" title="Uppland Runic Inscription 158">Uppland Runic Inscription 158</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varangian_runestones" title="Varangian runestones">Varangian runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4sterg%C3%B6tland_Runic_Inscription_40" title="Västergötland Runic Inscription 40">Västergötland Runic Inscription 40</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4stra_N%C3%B6bbel%C3%B6v_Runestone" title="Västra Nöbbelöv Runestone">Västra Nöbbelöv Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_runestones" title="Viking runestones">Viking runestones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_revival" title="Viking revival">Viking revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nordic_countries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nordic_countries" title="Template:Nordic countries"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nordic_countries" title="Template talk:Nordic countries"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nordic_countries" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nordic countries"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nordic_countries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /> <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /> <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/21px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/42px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="900" /> <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /> <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries"><img alt="Map of the Nordic countries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Nordic_countries_orthographic.svg/120px-Nordic_countries_orthographic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Nordic_countries_orthographic.svg/180px-Nordic_countries_orthographic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Nordic_countries_orthographic.svg/240px-Nordic_countries_orthographic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="553" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division" title="Autonomous administrative division">Autonomous countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Flag_of_%C3%85land.svg/23px-Flag_of_%C3%85land.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Flag_of_%C3%85land.svg/35px-Flag_of_%C3%85land.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Flag_of_%C3%85land.svg/46px-Flag_of_%C3%85land.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="340" /> <a href="/wiki/%C3%85land" title="Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg/41px-Flag_of_the_Faroe_Islands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islands" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_Greenland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greenland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_Greenland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greenland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_Greenland.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greenland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unincorporated_area" title="Unincorporated area">Special status</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cultural_area" title="Cultural area">cultural area</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /> <a href="/wiki/Svalbard" title="Svalbard">Svalbard</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Sami_flag.svg/20px-Sami_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Sami_flag.svg/31px-Sami_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Sami_flag.svg/41px-Sami_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="808" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1pmi" title="Sápmi">Sápmi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_the_Nordic_countries" title="Climate of the Nordic countries">Climate of the Nordic countries</a></li> <li>Comparison of the Nordic countries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Cross_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic Cross flag">Nordic Cross flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Nordic_countries" title="Subdivisions of the Nordic countries">Subdivisions of the Nordic countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_in_the_Nordic_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT in the Nordic countries">LGBT in the Nordic countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Nordic_countries" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Nordic countries">Nordic diplomatic missions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_identity_in_Estonia" title="Nordic identity in Estonia">Nordic identity in Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nordic_countries" title="Category:Nordic countries">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_languages" title="Template talk:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>According to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">philology</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="West" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Irish Middle English <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Weser <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li>Southern</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Norse</a> <ul><li>Old West Norse</li> <li>Old East Norse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Old_Icelandic">Old Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link 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