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id="toc-From_Taney_to_Taft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_Taney_to_Taft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 From Taney to Taft </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_Taney_to_Taft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Deal_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Deal_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 New Deal era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Deal_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burger,_Rehnquist,_and_Roberts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burger,_Rehnquist,_and_Roberts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Burger, Rehnquist, and Roberts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burger,_Rehnquist,_and_Roberts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Composition </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Composition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Composition subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nomination,_confirmation,_and_appointment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nomination,_confirmation,_and_appointment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Nomination, confirmation, and appointment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nomination,_confirmation,_and_appointment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recess_appointments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recess_appointments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Recess appointments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recess_appointments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tenure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tenure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Tenure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tenure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Size_of_the_court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size_of_the_court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Size of the court </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size_of_the_court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Membership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Membership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Membership </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Membership-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Membership subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Membership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Current_justices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_justices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Current justices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_justices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Court_demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Court_demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Court demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Court_demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_leanings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_leanings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Judicial leanings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_leanings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Retired_justices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Retired_justices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Retired justices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Retired_justices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Salary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seniority_and_seating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seniority_and_seating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Seniority and seating </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seniority_and_seating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Facilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Facilities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Facilities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Facilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jurisdiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurisdiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Jurisdiction </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Jurisdiction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Jurisdiction subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Jurisdiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Original_jurisdiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Original_jurisdiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Original jurisdiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Original_jurisdiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appellate_jurisdiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appellate_jurisdiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Appellate jurisdiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appellate_jurisdiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Justices_as_circuit_justices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justices_as_circuit_justices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Justices as circuit justices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justices_as_circuit_justices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Process </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Process-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Process subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Case_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Case selection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Written_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Written_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Written evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Written_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oral_argument" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oral_argument"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Oral argument </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oral_argument-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Decision </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Published_opinions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Published_opinions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Published opinions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Published_opinions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations_to_published_opinions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations_to_published_opinions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.1 Citations to published opinions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations_to_published_opinions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supreme_Court_bar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supreme_Court_bar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Supreme Court bar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supreme_Court_bar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Term </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutional_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutional_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Institutional powers </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Institutional_powers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Institutional powers subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Institutional_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constraints" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constraints"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Constraints </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constraints-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_clerks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_clerks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Law clerks </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Law_clerks-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Law clerks subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Law_clerks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Politicization_of_the_court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politicization_of_the_court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Politicization of the court </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politicization_of_the_court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_and_controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_and_controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Criticism and controversies </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism_and_controversies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criticism and controversies subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism_and_controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Approval_ratings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approval_ratings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Approval ratings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Approval_ratings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition_and_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition_and_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Composition and selection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition_and_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Code_of_Conduct" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Code_of_Conduct"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Code of Conduct </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Code_of_Conduct-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Democratic_backsliding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democratic_backsliding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.2 Democratic backsliding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Democratic_backsliding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Individual_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Individual rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_activism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_activism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Judicial activism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_activism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outdated_and_an_outlier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outdated_and_an_outlier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Outdated and an outlier </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outdated_and_an_outlier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7 Power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Federalism_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federalism_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7.1 Federalism debate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federalism_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ruling_on_political_questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ruling_on_political_questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.8 Ruling on political questions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ruling_on_political_questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secretive_proceedings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secretive_proceedings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.9 Secretive proceedings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secretive_proceedings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Too_few_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Too_few_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.10 Too few cases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Too_few_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Too_slow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Too_slow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.11 Too slow </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Too_slow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leaks_and_inadvertent_publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leaks_and_inadvertent_publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.12 Leaks and inadvertent publications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leaks_and_inadvertent_publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle See also subsection </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selected_landmark_Supreme_Court_decisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_landmark_Supreme_Court_decisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Selected landmark Supreme Court decisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_landmark_Supreme_Court_decisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Supreme Court of the United States</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" > 74 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ealdord%C5%8Dm%C3%A6rn_%C3%BE%C4%81ra_Ge%C4%81ndena_R%C4%ABca_American" title="Ealdordōmærn þāra Geāndena Rīca American – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Ealdordōmærn þāra Geāndena Rīca American" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="المحكمة العليا للولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المحكمة العليا للولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corte_Suprema_de_los_Estaos_Xun%C3%ADos" title="Corte Suprema de los Estaos Xuníos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Corte Suprema de los Estaos Xuníos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/AB%C5%9E_Ali_M%C9%99hk%C9%99m%C9%99si" title="ABŞ Ali Məhkəməsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="ABŞ Ali Məhkəməsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F" title="মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের সুপ্রিমকোর্ট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের সুপ্রিমকোর্ট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%AD-kok_%C3%AA_Ch%C3%B2e-ko_Hoat-%C4%AB%E2%81%BF" title="Bí-kok ê Chòe-ko Hoat-īⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bí-kok ê Chòe-ko Hoat-īⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Вярхоўны Суд ЗША – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вярхоўны Суд ЗША" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%B4_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%A9" title="Върховен съд на САЩ – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Върховен съд на САЩ" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrhovni_sud_Sjedinjenih_Ameri%C4%8Dkih_Dr%C5%BEava" title="Vrhovni sud Sjedinjenih Američkih Država – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vrhovni sud Sjedinjenih Američkih Država" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lez-veur_SUA" title="Lez-veur SUA – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Lez-veur SUA" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribunal_Suprem_dels_Estats_Units" title="Tribunal Suprem dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tribunal Suprem dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nejvy%C5%A1%C5%A1%C3%AD_soud_Spojen%C3%BDch_st%C3%A1t%C5%AF_americk%C3%BDch" title="Nejvyšší soud Spojených států amerických – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nejvyšší soud Spojených států amerických" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goruchaf_Lys_yr_Unol_Daleithiau" title="Goruchaf Lys yr Unol Daleithiau – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Goruchaf Lys yr Unol Daleithiau" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B8jesteret_(USA)" title="Højesteret (USA) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Højesteret (USA)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberster_Gerichtshof_der_Vereinigten_Staaten" title="Oberster Gerichtshof der Vereinigten Staaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Oberster Gerichtshof der Vereinigten Staaten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameerika_%C3%9Chendriikide_%C3%9Clemkohus" title="Ameerika Ühendriikide Ülemkohus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ameerika Ühendriikide Ülemkohus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%8E%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF_%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%97%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Ανώτατο Δικαστήριο των Ηνωμένων Πολιτειών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανώτατο Δικαστήριο των Ηνωμένων Πολιτειών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corte_Suprema_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supera_Kortumo_de_Usono" title="Supera Kortumo de Usono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Supera Kortumo de Usono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameriketako_Estatu_Batuetako_Gorte_Gorena" title="Ameriketako Estatu Batuetako Gorte Gorena – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ameriketako Estatu Batuetako Gorte Gorena" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="دیوان عالی ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیوان عالی ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cour_supr%C3%AAme_des_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Cour suprême des États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cour suprême des États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heechgerjochtsh%C3%B4f_fan_de_Feriene_Steaten" title="Heechgerjochtshôf fan de Feriene Steaten – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Heechgerjochtshôf fan de Feriene Steaten" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%BAirt_Uachtarach_na_St%C3%A1t_Aontaithe" title="Cúirt Uachtarach na Stát Aontaithe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cúirt Uachtarach na Stát Aontaithe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribunal_Supremo_dos_Estados_Unidos_de_Am%C3%A9rica" title="Tribunal Supremo dos Estados Unidos de América – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tribunal Supremo dos Estados Unidos de América" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%AE-koet_Chui-k%C3%B4_Fap-yen" title="Mî-koet Chui-kô Fap-yen – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Mî-koet Chui-kô Fap-yen" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EC%97%B0%EB%B0%A9_%EB%8C%80%EB%B2%95%EC%9B%90" title="미국 연방 대법원 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국 연방 대법원" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babban_kotun_Koli_na_Amurka" title="Babban kotun Koli na Amurka – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Babban kotun Koli na Amurka" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF" title="संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका का उच्चतम न्यायालय – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका का उच्चतम न्यायालय" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrhovni_sud_Sjedinjenih_Ameri%C4%8Dkih_Dr%C5%BEava" title="Vrhovni sud Sjedinjenih Američkih Država – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vrhovni sud Sjedinjenih Američkih Država" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supra_Korto_Judiciala_di_Usa" title="Supra Korto Judiciala di Usa – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Supra Korto Judiciala di Usa" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahkamah_Agung_Amerika_Serikat" title="Mahkamah Agung Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mahkamah Agung Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A6stir%C3%A9ttur_Bandar%C3%ADkjanna" title="Hæstiréttur Bandaríkjanna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hæstiréttur Bandaríkjanna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corte_suprema_degli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="Corte suprema degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Corte suprema degli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="בית המשפט העליון של ארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בית המשפט העליון של ארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A8-%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A3%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D" title="აშშ-ის უზენაესი სასამართლო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აშშ-ის უზენაესი სასამართლო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%9A%D0%A8_%D0%96%D0%BE%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%93%D1%8B_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%8B" title="АҚШ Жоғарғы Соты – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="АҚШ Жоғарғы Соты" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudicium_Maximum_Civitatum_Foederatarum" title="Iudicium Maximum Civitatum Foederatarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iudicium Maximum Civitatum Foederatarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASV_Augst%C4%81k%C4%81_tiesa" title="ASV Augstākā tiesa – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="ASV Augstākā tiesa" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Supreme Court of the United States" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungtini%C5%B3_Valstij%C5%B3_Auk%C5%A1%C4%8Diausiasis_Teismas" title="Jungtinių Valstijų Aukščiausiasis Teismas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jungtinių Valstijų Aukščiausiasis Teismas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cort_Suprema_di_Stat_Unii" title="Cort Suprema di Stat Unii – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Cort Suprema di Stat Unii" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az_Amerikai_Egyes%C3%BClt_%C3%81llamok_Legfels%C5%91bb_B%C3%ADr%C3%B3s%C3%A1ga" title="Az Amerikai Egyesült Államok Legfelsőbb Bírósága – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Az Amerikai Egyesült Államok Legfelsőbb Bírósága" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF" title="अमेरिकेचे सर्वोच्च न्यायालय – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अमेरिकेचे सर्वोच्च न्यायालय" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="محكمة امريكا العليا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="محكمة امريكا العليا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahkamah_Agung_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Mahkamah Agung Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mahkamah Agung Amerika Syarikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooggerechtshof_van_de_Verenigde_Staten" title="Hooggerechtshof van de Verenigde Staten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hooggerechtshof van de Verenigde Staten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4%E6%89%80" title="合衆国最高裁判所 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="合衆国最高裁判所" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAs_h%C3%B8yesterett" title="USAs høyesterett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="USAs høyesterett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B8gsteretten_i_USA" title="Høgsteretten i USA – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Høgsteretten i USA" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika_Qo%CA%BBshma_Shtatlari_Oliy_sudi" title="Amerika Qoʻshma Shtatlari Oliy sudi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Amerika Qoʻshma Shtatlari Oliy sudi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%85d_Najwy%C5%BCszy_Stan%C3%B3w_Zjednoczonych" title="Sąd Najwyższy Stanów Zjednoczonych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sąd Najwyższy Stanów Zjednoczonych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suprema_Corte_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Suprema Corte dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Suprema Corte dos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtea_Suprem%C4%83_de_Justi%C8%9Bie_a_Statelor_Unite_ale_Americii" title="Curtea Supremă de Justiție a Statelor Unite ale Americii – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Curtea Supremă de Justiție a Statelor Unite ale Americii" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Верховный суд США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Верховный суд США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Supreme Court of the United States" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Najvy%C5%A1%C5%A1%C3%AD_s%C3%BAd_Spojen%C3%BDch_%C5%A1t%C3%A1tov" title="Najvyšší súd Spojených štátov – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Najvyšší súd Spojených štátov" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrhovno_sodi%C5%A1%C4%8De_Zdru%C5%BEenih_dr%C5%BEav_Amerike" title="Vrhovno sodišče Združenih držav Amerike – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vrhovno sodišče Združenih držav Amerike" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF%DA%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%B5%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%95_%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%88%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="دادگای باڵای ویلایەتە یەکگرتووەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دادگای باڵای ویلایەتە یەکگرتووەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%9A%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Врховни суд Сједињених Америчких Држава – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Врховни суд Сједињених Америчких Држава" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrhovni_sud_SAD" title="Vrhovni sud SAD – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vrhovni sud SAD" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yhdysvaltain_korkein_oikeus" title="Yhdysvaltain korkein oikeus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Yhdysvaltain korkein oikeus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA:s_h%C3%B6gsta_domstol" title="USA:s högsta domstol – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="USA:s högsta domstol" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kataas-taasang_Hukuman_ng_Estados_Unidos" title="Kataas-taasang Hukuman ng Estados Unidos – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kataas-taasang Hukuman ng Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்க உச்ச நீதிமன்றம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்க உச்ச நீதிமன்றம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90" title="ศาลสูงสุดสหรัฐ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ศาลสูงสุดสหรัฐ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika_Birle%C5%9Fik_Devletleri_Y%C3%BCce_Mahkemesi" title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Yüce Mahkemesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Yüce Mahkemesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Верховний суд США – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Верховний суд США" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corte_suprema_dei_Stati_Unii_d%27Am%C3%A8rica" title="Corte suprema dei Stati Unii d'Amèrica – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Corte suprema dei Stati Unii d'Amèrica" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B2a_%C3%A1n_T%E1%BB%91i_cao_Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3" title="Tòa án Tối cao Hoa Kỳ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tòa án Tối cao Hoa Kỳ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" title="美国最高法院 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="美国最高法院" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%9B%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A2_%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%93%D7%99_%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%92%D7%98%D7%A2_%D7%A9%D7%98%D7%90%D7%98%D7%9F" title="העכסטע געריכט פון די פאראייניגטע שטאטן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="העכסטע געריכט פון די פאראייניגטע שטאטן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" title="美國最高法院 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="美國最高法院" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" 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.geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&params=38_53_26_N_77_00_16_W_type:landmark">38°53′26″N 77°00′16″W / 38.89056°N 77.00444°W / 38.89056; -77.00444</a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Supreme_Court&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Highest court of jurisdiction in the US</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #Ededed;">Supreme Court of the United States</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="padding-bottom:0.4em; border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/225px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/300px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="padding-bottom:0.4em; border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container center" style="width: 250px; height: 200px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="250" data-height="200" data-zoom="13" data-lat="38.890555555556" data-lon="-77.004444444444" data-overlays="["_6ea2bc2743a1062100d1592d873ccc26b1854b58"]" href="/wiki/Special:Map/13/38.890555555556/-77.004444444444/en"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,13,38.890555555556,-77.004444444444,250x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&revid=1258247692&groups=_6ea2bc2743a1062100d1592d873ccc26b1854b58" width="250" height="200" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,13,38.890555555556,-77.004444444444,250x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&revid=1258247692&groups=_6ea2bc2743a1062100d1592d873ccc26b1854b58 2x" alt="Map" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&params=38_53_26_N_77_00_16_W_type:landmark">38°53′26″N 77°00′16″W / 38.89056°N 77.00444°W / 38.89056; -77.00444</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Established</th><td class="infobox-data">March 4, 1789; 235 years ago (1789-03-04)<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data">1 First Street, <a href="/wiki/Northeast_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Northeast (Washington, D.C.)">NE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&params=38_53_26_N_77_00_16_W_">38°53′26″N 77°00′16″W / 38.89056°N 77.00444°W / 38.89056; -77.00444</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Composition method</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidential</a> nomination with <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <a href="/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">confirmation</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Authorised by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">U.S. Constitution</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Judge term length</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Tenure">Life tenure</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Number of positions</th><td class="infobox-data">9, <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1869" title="Judiciary Act of 1869">by statute</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supremecourt.gov">supremecourt.gov</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #Ededed;"><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currently</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Since</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts_Supreme_Court_nominations" title="John Roberts Supreme Court nominations">September 29, 2005</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) is the <a href="/wiki/Highest_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Highest court">highest court</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal judiciary of the United States</a>. It has ultimate <a href="/wiki/Appellate_jurisdiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Appellate jurisdiction">appellate jurisdiction</a> over all <a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">U.S. federal court</a> cases, and over <a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">state court</a> cases that turn on questions of <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">U.S. constitutional</a> or <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">federal law</a>. It also has <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">original jurisdiction</a> over a narrow range of cases, specifically "all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party."<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> In 1803, the Court asserted itself the power of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">judicial review</a>, the ability to invalidate a <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a> for violating a provision of the Constitution via the landmark case <a href="/wiki/Marbury_v_Madison" class="mw-redirect" title="Marbury v Madison">Marbury v Madison</a>. It is also able to strike down <a href="/wiki/Presidential_directive" title="Presidential directive">presidential directives</a> for violating either the Constitution or <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">statutory law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-3">[3]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article Three of the United States Constitution</a>, the composition and procedures of the Supreme Court were originally established by the <a href="/wiki/1st_United_States_Congress" title="1st United States Congress">1st Congress</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a>. As it has since 1869, the court consists of nine justices – the <a href="/wiki/Chief_justice_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief justice of the United States">chief justice of the United States</a> and eight <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">associate justices</a> – who meet at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">Supreme Court Building</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> Justices have <a href="/wiki/Lifetime_tenure" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifetime tenure">lifetime tenure</a>, meaning they remain on the court until they die, retire, resign, or are <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">impeached</a> and removed from office.<a href="#cite_note-:0-3">[3]</a> When a vacancy occurs, the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Nomination_and_confirmation_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Nomination and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States">advice and consent</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>, appoints a new justice. Each justice has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before the court. When in the majority, the chief justice decides who writes the <a href="/wiki/Opinion_of_the_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Opinion of the court">opinion of the court</a>; otherwise, the most senior justice in the majority assigns the task of writing the opinion.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> On average, the Supreme Court receives about 7,000 petitions for <a href="/wiki/Writs_of_certiorari" class="mw-redirect" title="Writs of certiorari">writs of certiorari</a> each year, but only grants about 80.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="History of the Supreme Court of the United States">History of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The-Old-Royal-Exchange-building.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/The-Old-Royal-Exchange-building.jpg/200px-The-Old-Royal-Exchange-building.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/The-Old-Royal-Exchange-building.jpg/300px-The-Old-Royal-Exchange-building.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/The-Old-Royal-Exchange-building.jpg/400px-The-Old-Royal-Exchange-building.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>The Royal Exchange, New York City, the first meeting place of the Supreme Court</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_City_Hall-Supreme_Court_Front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Image of two-story brick building." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Old_City_Hall-Supreme_Court_Front.jpg/200px-Old_City_Hall-Supreme_Court_Front.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Old_City_Hall-Supreme_Court_Front.jpg/300px-Old_City_Hall-Supreme_Court_Front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Old_City_Hall-Supreme_Court_Front.jpg/400px-Old_City_Hall-Supreme_Court_Front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>The court lacked its own building until 1935. From 1791 to 1801, it met in Philadelphia's <a href="/wiki/Old_City_Hall_(Philadelphia)" title="Old City Hall (Philadelphia)">City Hall</a>, before moving to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">Capitol Building</a> in Washington, D.C.</figcaption></figure> It was while debating the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> between the legislative and executive departments that delegates to the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">1787 Constitutional Convention</a> established the parameters for the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial branch">national judiciary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Creating a "third branch" of government was a novel idea[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]; in the English tradition, judicial matters had been treated as an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">royal (executive) authority.</a> Early on, the delegates who were opposed to having a <a href="/wiki/Federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal government">strong central government</a> argued that national laws could be enforced by state courts, while others, including <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, advocated for a national judicial authority consisting of tribunals chosen by the national legislature. It was proposed that the judiciary should have a role in checking the executive's power to <a href="/wiki/Veto" title="Veto">veto</a> or revise laws.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Eventually, the <a href="/wiki/Framers_of_the_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers of the Constitution">framers</a> compromised by sketching only a general outline of the judiciary in <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article Three of the United States Constitution</a>, vesting federal judicial power in "one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish."<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> They delineated neither the exact powers and prerogatives of the Supreme Court nor the organization of the judicial branch as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The 1st United States Congress provided the detailed organization of a federal <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a>. The Supreme Court, the country's highest judicial tribunal, was to sit in the <a href="/wiki/Capital_city" title="Capital city">nation's capital</a> and would initially be composed of a chief justice and five associate justices. The act also divided the country into judicial districts, which were in turn organized into circuits. Justices were required to "ride circuit" and hold <a href="/wiki/Circuit_court" title="Circuit court">circuit court</a> twice a year in their assigned judicial district.<a href="#cite_note-SCinstitution-9">[9]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Immediately after signing the act into law, President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> nominated the following people to serve on the court: <a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a> for chief justice and <a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Cushing" title="William Cushing">William Cushing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Harrison" title="Robert H. Harrison">Robert H. Harrison</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair Jr.</a> as associate justices. All six were confirmed by the Senate on September 26, 1789; however, Harrison declined to serve, and Washington later nominated <a href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">James Iredell</a> in his place.<a href="#cite_note-SCnoms-10">[10]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] The Supreme Court held its inaugural session from February 2 through February 10, 1790, at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Exchange_(New_York_City)" title="Royal Exchange (New York City)">Royal Exchange</a> in New York City, then the U.S. capital.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> A second session was held there in August 1790.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The earliest sessions of the court were devoted to organizational proceedings, as the first cases did not reach it until 1791.<a href="#cite_note-SCinstitution-9">[9]</a> When the nation's capital was moved to <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> in 1790, the Supreme Court did so as well. After initially meeting at <a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a>, the court established its <a href="/wiki/Barrister%27s_chambers" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrister's chambers">chambers</a> at City Hall.<a href="#cite_note-SCbuilding-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_beginnings">Early beginnings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early beginnings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jay_Court" title="Jay Court">Jay Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rutledge_Court" title="Rutledge Court">Rutledge Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Court" title="Ellsworth Court">Ellsworth Court</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg/220px-Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg/330px-Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg/440px-Chief_Justice_John_Marshall.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3432" data-file-height="5076" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a>, chief justice from 1801 to 1835</figcaption></figure> Under chief justices Jay, Rutledge, and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Ellsworth</a> (1789–1801), the court heard few cases; its first decision was <a href="/wiki/West_v._Barnes" title="West v. Barnes">West v. Barnes</a> (1791), a case involving procedure.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> As the court initially had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was also made by two-thirds (voting four to two).<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> However, Congress has always allowed less than the court's full membership to make decisions, starting with a <a href="/wiki/Quorum" title="Quorum">quorum</a> of four justices in 1789.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The court lacked a home of its own and had little prestige,<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct01-17">[17]</a> a situation not helped by the era's highest-profile case, <a href="/wiki/Chisholm_v._Georgia" title="Chisholm v. Georgia">Chisholm v. Georgia</a> (1793), which was reversed within two years by the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The court's power and prestige grew substantially during the <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">Marshall</a> Court (1801–1835).<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct02-19">[19]</a> Under Marshall, the court established the power of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">judicial review</a> over acts of Congress,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> including specifying itself as the supreme expositor of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a>)<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct05-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct09-22">[22]</a> and making several important constitutional rulings that gave shape and substance to the <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">balance of power</a> between the federal government and states, notably <a href="/wiki/Martin_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Martin v. Hunter's Lessee">Martin v. Hunter's Lessee</a>, <a href="/wiki/McCulloch_v._Maryland" title="McCulloch v. Maryland">McCulloch v. Maryland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gibbons_v._Ogden" title="Gibbons v. Ogden">Gibbons v. Ogden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct03-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct08-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct04-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct06-26">[26]</a> The Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion <a href="/wiki/Seriatim" title="Seriatim">seriatim</a>,<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct11-27">[27]</a> a remnant of British tradition,<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct10-28">[28]</a> and instead issuing a single majority opinion.<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct11-27">[27]</a> Also during Marshall's tenure, although beyond the court's control, the impeachment and <a href="/wiki/Acquittal" title="Acquittal">acquittal</a> of Justice <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</a> from 1804 to 1805 helped cement the principle of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_independence" title="Judicial independence">judicial independence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct12-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct13-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_Taney_to_Taft">From Taney to Taft</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: From Taney to Taft">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">Taney Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">Chase Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">Waite Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">Fuller Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_Court_(judges)" class="mw-redirect" title="White Court (judges)">White Court</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">Taft Court</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Taney</a> Court (1836–1864) made several important rulings, such as <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_v._Sill" title="Sheldon v. Sill">Sheldon v. Sill</a>, which held that while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, it may limit the jurisdiction of the lower federal courts to prevent them from hearing cases dealing with certain subjects.<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct16-31">[31]</a> Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a>,<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct21-32">[32]</a> which helped precipitate the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tws4494-33">[33]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morrison_Waite" title="Morrison Waite">Waite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Melville_Fuller" title="Melville Fuller">Fuller</a> Courts (1864–1910) interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct06-26">[26]</a> and developed the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Substantive_due_process" title="Substantive due process">substantive due process</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a>;<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct24-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adair_v._United_States" title="Adair v. United States">Adair v. United States</a>).<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct100-35">[35]</a> The size of the court was last changed in 1869, when it was set at nine. Under the <a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">White</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft</a> Courts (1910–1930), the court held that the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> had <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(Bill_of_Rights)" class="mw-redirect" title="Incorporation (Bill of Rights)">incorporated</a> some guarantees of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> against the states (<a href="/wiki/Gitlow_v._New_York" title="Gitlow v. New York">Gitlow v. New York</a>),<a href="#cite_note-twsff4frj-36">[36]</a> grappled with the new <a href="/wiki/Antitrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust">antitrust</a> statutes (<a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil_Co._of_New_Jersey_v._United_States" title="Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States">Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States</a>), upheld the constitutionality of <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States" title="Conscription in the United States">military conscription</a> (<a href="/wiki/Selective_Draft_Law_Cases" title="Selective Draft Law Cases">Selective Draft Law Cases</a>),<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> and brought the substantive due process doctrine to its first apogee (<a href="/wiki/Adkins_v._Children%27s_Hospital" title="Adkins v. Children's Hospital">Adkins v. Children's Hospital</a>).<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct101-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Deal_era">New Deal era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: New Deal era">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">Hughes Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stone_Court_(judges)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone Court (judges)">Stone Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">Vinson Court</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panorama_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Building_at_Dusk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Panorama_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Building_at_Dusk.jpg/220px-Panorama_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Building_at_Dusk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Panorama_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Building_at_Dusk.jpg/330px-Panorama_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Building_at_Dusk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Panorama_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Building_at_Dusk.jpg/440px-Panorama_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Building_at_Dusk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3788" data-file-height="1952" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">U.S. Supreme Court Building</a>, current home of the Supreme Court, which opened in 1935</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erich_Salomon_-_The_Supreme_Court,_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The Court seated" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Erich_Salomon_-_The_Supreme_Court%2C_1937.jpg/220px-Erich_Salomon_-_The_Supreme_Court%2C_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Erich_Salomon_-_The_Supreme_Court%2C_1937.jpg/330px-Erich_Salomon_-_The_Supreme_Court%2C_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Erich_Salomon_-_The_Supreme_Court%2C_1937.jpg/440px-Erich_Salomon_-_The_Supreme_Court%2C_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="835" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">Hughes Court</a> in 1937, photographed by <a href="/wiki/Erich_Salomon" title="Erich Salomon">Erich Salomon</a>. Members include Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> (center), <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Benjamin N. Cardozo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harlan_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan Stone">Harlan Stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">Owen Roberts</a>, and the "<a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_(Supreme_Court)" title="Four Horsemen (Supreme Court)">Four Horsemen</a>" <a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(justice)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierce Butler (justice)">Pierce Butler</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Clark_McReynolds" title="James Clark McReynolds">James Clark McReynolds</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">George Sutherland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Willis_Van_Devanter" title="Willis Van Devanter">Willis Van Devanter</a>, who opposed New Deal policies.</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harlan_Fiske_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan Fiske Stone">Stone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Vinson</a> courts (1930–1953), the court gained its own accommodation in 1935<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct-39">[39]</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_switch_in_time_that_saved_nine" title="The switch in time that saved nine">changed its interpretation of the Constitution</a>, giving a broader reading to the powers of the federal government to facilitate President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> (most prominently <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wickard_v._Filburn" title="Wickard v. Filburn">Wickard v. Filburn</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Darby" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. Darby">United States v. Darby</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Butler" title="United States v. Butler">United States v. Butler</a>).<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct103-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct107-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct109-42">[42]</a> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the court continued to favor government power, upholding the <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">internment of Japanese Americans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a>) and the mandatory <a href="/wiki/Pledge_of_Allegiance" title="Pledge of Allegiance">Pledge of Allegiance</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minersville_School_District_v._Gobitis" title="Minersville School District v. Gobitis">Minersville School District v. Gobitis</a>). Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated (<a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Steel Seizure Case</a> restricted the pro-government trend. The Warren Court (1953–1969) dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct110-43">[43]</a> It held that <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">segregation in public schools</a> violates the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Bd.</a>)<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct113-44">[44]</a> and that <a href="/wiki/Legislative_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative district">legislative districts</a> must be roughly equal in population (<a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a>). It recognized a general <a href="/wiki/Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">right to privacy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a>),<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct114-45">[45]</a> limited the role of religion in public school, most prominently <a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abington_School_District_v._Schempp" title="Abington School District v. Schempp">Abington School District v. Schempp</a>,<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct120-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct121-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporated</a> most guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the states, prominently <a href="/wiki/Mapp_v._Ohio" title="Mapp v. Ohio">Mapp v. Ohio</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_rule" title="Exclusionary rule">exclusionary rule</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a> (<a href="/wiki/Public_defender" title="Public defender">right to appointed counsel</a>),<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct131-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct203-49">[49]</a> and required that criminal suspects be apprised of all these rights by <a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">police</a> (<a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a>).<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct132-50">[50]</a> At the same time, the court limited <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">defamation</a> suits by public figures (<a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a>) and supplied the government with an unbroken run of antitrust victories.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burger,_Rehnquist,_and_Roberts">Burger, Rehnquist, and Roberts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Burger, Rehnquist, and Roberts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">Burger Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">Rehnquist Court</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">Roberts Court</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_October_2005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Supreme_Court_October_2005.jpg/220px-Supreme_Court_October_2005.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Supreme_Court_October_2005.jpg/330px-Supreme_Court_October_2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Supreme_Court_October_2005.jpg/440px-Supreme_Court_October_2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="343" /></a><figcaption>Justices of the Supreme Court with President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (center-right) in October 2005. The justices (left to right) are: <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Burger Court (1969–1986) saw a conservative shift.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> It also expanded Griswold's right to privacy to strike down <a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">abortion laws</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a>)<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct204-53">[53]</a> but divided deeply on <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a> (<a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Regents of the University of California v. Bakke</a>)<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct205-54">[54]</a> and campaign finance regulation (<a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</a>).<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct207-55">[55]</a> It also wavered on the <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty in the United States">death penalty</a>, ruling first that most applications were defective (<a href="/wiki/Furman_v._Georgia" title="Furman v. Georgia">Furman v. Georgia</a>),<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct208-56">[56]</a> but later that the death penalty itself was not unconstitutional (<a href="/wiki/Gregg_v._Georgia" title="Gregg v. Georgia">Gregg v. Georgia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct208-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-history1-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct2122-58">[58]</a> The Rehnquist Court (1986–2005) was known for its revival of judicial enforcement of <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct2brn2b-59">[59]</a> emphasizing the limits of the Constitution's affirmative grants of power (<a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lopez" title="United States v. Lopez">United States v. Lopez</a>) and the force of its restrictions on those powers (<a href="/wiki/Seminole_Tribe_v._Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminole Tribe v. Florida">Seminole Tribe v. Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/City_of_Boerne_v._Flores" title="City of Boerne v. Flores">City of Boerne v. Flores</a>).<a href="#cite_note-tws31octrtr45-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct309-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct310-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct4004-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct555-64">[64]</a> It struck down single-sex state schools as a violation of equal protection (<a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Virginia" title="United States v. Virginia">United States v. Virginia</a>), laws against <a href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">sodomy</a> as violations of substantive due process (<a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a>)<a href="#cite_note-tws31oct34654-65">[65]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Line-item_veto" title="Line-item veto">line-item veto</a> (<a href="/wiki/Clinton_v._New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinton v. New York">Clinton v. New York</a>) but upheld <a href="/wiki/School_vouchers" class="mw-redirect" title="School vouchers">school vouchers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zelman_v._Simmons-Harris" title="Zelman v. Simmons-Harris">Zelman v. Simmons-Harris</a>) and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/reaffirm#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:reaffirm">reaffirmed</a> Roe's restrictions on abortion laws (<a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a>).<a href="#cite_note-tws31octffsfs-66">[66]</a> The court's decision in <a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a>, which ended the electoral recount during the <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000 United States presidential election</a>, remains especially controversial with debate ongoing over the rightful winner and whether or not the ruling should set a precedent.<a href="#cite_note-rds21nov12-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws31oct44454-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The Roberts Court (2005–present) is regarded as more conservative and <a href="#Criticism_and_controversies">controversial</a> than the Rehnquist Court.<a href="#cite_note-tws1nov01-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws1nov02-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-nyt-liptak01-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-caplan-amerpros-74">[74]</a> Some of its major rulings have concerned <a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">federal preemption</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wyeth_v._Levine" title="Wyeth v. Levine">Wyeth v. Levine</a>), <a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure_in_the_United_States" title="Civil procedure in the United States">civil procedure</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bell_Atlantic_Corp._v._Twombly" title="Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly">Twombly</a>–<a href="/wiki/Ashcroft_v._Iqbal" title="Ashcroft v. Iqbal">Iqbal</a>), voting rights and federal preclearance (<a href="/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder" title="Shelby County v. Holder">Shelby County</a>), abortion (<a href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._Carhart" title="Gonzales v. Carhart">Gonzales v. Carhart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a>),<a href="#cite_note-tws1nov04-75">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> (<a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_v._Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency">Massachusetts v. EPA</a>), <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in the United States">same-sex marriage</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Windsor" title="United States v. Windsor">United States v. Windsor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a>), and the Bill of Rights, such as in <a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission">Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>),<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">Heller</a>–<a href="/wiki/McDonald_v._Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="McDonald v. Chicago">McDonald</a>–<a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Rifle_%26_Pistol_Association,_Inc._v._Bruen" title="New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen">Bruen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment</a>),<a href="#cite_note-tws1nov13-77">[77]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baze_v._Rees" title="Baze v. Rees">Baze v. Rees</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighth Amendment</a>).<a href="#cite_note-tws1nov21-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws1nov22-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composition">Composition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Composition">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nomination,_confirmation,_and_appointment">Nomination, confirmation, and appointment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nomination, confirmation, and appointment">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nomination_and_confirmation_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Nomination and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States">Nomination and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg/230px-John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg/345px-John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg/460px-John_Roberts_Confirmation_Hearings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> giving testimony before the Senate Judiciary Committee during the <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts_Supreme_Court_nomination#Confirmation_hearings" class="mw-redirect" title="John Roberts Supreme Court nomination">2005 hearings on his nomination</a> to be chief justice</figcaption></figure> Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments Clause</a>, empowers the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president</a> to nominate and, with the confirmation (<a href="/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">advice and consent</a>) of the United States Senate, to appoint public <a href="/wiki/Official" title="Official">officials</a>, including justices of the Supreme Court. This clause is one example of the system of checks and balances inherent in the Constitution. The president has the <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> to nominate, while the Senate possesses the plenary power to reject or confirm the nominee. The Constitution sets no qualifications for service as a justice, such as age, citizenship, residence or prior judicial experience, thus a president may nominate anyone to serve, and the Senate may not set any qualifications or otherwise limit who the president can choose.<a href="#cite_note-JOM222HGC-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from the press and advocacy groups, which <a href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">lobby</a> senators to confirm or to reject a nominee depending on whether their track record aligns with the group's views. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> conducts hearings and votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report. The committee's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent. The first nominee to appear before the committee was <a href="/wiki/Harlan_Fiske_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan Fiske Stone">Harlan Fiske Stone</a> in 1925, who sought to quell concerns about his links to <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a>, and the modern practice of questioning began with <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</a> in 1955.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Once the committee reports out the nomination, the full Senate considers it. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected <a href="/wiki/List_of_failed_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of failed nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">twelve</a> Supreme Court nominees, most recently <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a>, nominated by President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> in 1987. Although Senate rules do not necessarily allow a negative or tied vote in committee to block a nomination, prior to 2017 a nomination could be blocked by <a href="/wiki/Filibuster" title="Filibuster">filibuster</a> once debate had begun in the full Senate. President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>'s nomination of sitting associate justice <a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Abe Fortas</a> to succeed <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas's ethics. President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>'s nomination of <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a> to the seat left vacant by <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a>'s death was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, only Democratic senators voted against <a href="/wiki/Cloture#United_States" title="Cloture">cloture</a> on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority's prior refusal to take up President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Merrick_Garland_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Merrick Garland Supreme Court nomination">nomination of Merrick Garland</a> to fill the vacancy.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_at_her_confirmation_hearing_(a).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_at_her_confirmation_hearing_%28a%29.jpg/230px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_at_her_confirmation_hearing_%28a%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_at_her_confirmation_hearing_%28a%29.jpg/345px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_at_her_confirmation_hearing_%28a%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_at_her_confirmation_hearing_%28a%29.jpg/460px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_at_her_confirmation_hearing_%28a%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="947" data-file-height="646" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a> giving testimony before the Senate Judiciary Committee during the 1993 hearings on her nomination to be an associate justice</figcaption></figure> Not every Supreme Court <a href="/wiki/Nominee#Noun" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominee">nominee</a> has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred with President George W. Bush's nomination of <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Miers" title="Harriet Miers">Harriet Miers</a> in 2005. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwight Eisenhower">Dwight Eisenhower</a>'s first nomination of <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</a> in November 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, the Senate failed to act on the March 2016 nomination of Merrick Garland, as the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was filled by Neil Gorsuch, an <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/appointee" class="extiw" title="wikt:appointee">appointee</a> of President Trump.<a href="#cite_note-SCnoms-10">[10]</a> Once the Senate confirms a nomination, the president must prepare and sign a commission, to which the Seal of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a> must be affixed, before the appointee can take office.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The seniority of an associate justice is based on the commissioning date, not the confirmation or swearing-in date.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> After receiving their commission, the appointee must then take the two prescribed oaths before assuming their official duties.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The importance of the oath taking is underscored by the case of <a href="/wiki/Edwin_M._Stanton" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin M. Stanton">Edwin M. Stanton</a>. Although confirmed by the Senate on December 20, 1869, and duly commissioned as an associate justice by President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, Stanton died on December 24, prior to taking the prescribed oaths. He is not, therefore, considered to have been a member of the court.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Before 1981, the approval process of justices was usually rapid. From the <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Truman</a> through <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> administrations, justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, the process has taken much longer and some believe this is because Congress sees justices as playing a more political role than in the past.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a>, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (2.3 months).<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recess_appointments">Recess appointments</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Recess appointments">edit</a>]</div> When the Senate is in <a href="/wiki/Recess_(motion)" title="Recess (motion)">recess</a>, a president may make temporary appointments to fill vacancies. <a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointees</a> hold office only until the end of the next Senate session (less than two years). The Senate must confirm the nominee for them to continue serving; of the two chief justices and eleven associate justices who have received recess appointments, only Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> was not subsequently confirmed.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> No U.S. president since <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> has made a recess appointment to the court, and the practice has become rare and controversial even in lower federal courts.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In 1960, after Eisenhower had made three such appointments, the Senate passed a "sense of the Senate" resolution that recess appointments to the court should only be made in "unusual circumstances";<a href="#cite_note-recessapp-96">[96]</a> such resolutions are not legally binding but are an expression of Congress's views in the hope of guiding executive action.<a href="#cite_note-recessapp-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The Supreme Court's 2014 decision in <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board_v._Noel_Canning" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning">National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning</a> limited the ability of the president to make recess appointments (including appointments to the Supreme Court); the court ruled that the Senate decides when the Senate is in session or in recess. Writing for the court, Justice Breyer stated, "We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business."<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> This ruling allows the Senate to prevent recess appointments through the use of <a href="/wiki/Pro_forma#United_States" title="Pro forma">pro-forma sessions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tenure">Tenure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tenure">edit</a>]</div> Lifetime tenure of justices can only be found for US federal judges and the State of Rhode Island's Supreme Court justices, with all other democratic nations and all other US states having set term limits or mandatory retirement ages.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Larry_Sabato" title="Larry Sabato">Larry Sabato</a> wrote: "The insularity of lifetime tenure, combined with the appointments of relatively young attorneys who give long service on the bench, produces senior judges representing the views of past generations better than views of the current day."<a href="#cite_note-tws23oct16-101">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sanford_Levinson" title="Sanford Levinson">Sanford Levinson</a> has been critical of justices who stayed in office despite medical deterioration based on longevity.<a href="#cite_note-tws10oct12-102">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_MacGregor_Burns" title="James MacGregor Burns">James MacGregor Burns</a> stated lifelong tenure has "produced a critical time lag, with the Supreme Court institutionally almost always behind the times."<a href="#cite_note-tws27oct304-103">[103]</a> Proposals to solve these problems include <a href="/wiki/Term_limit" title="Term limit">term limits</a> for justices, as proposed by Levinson<a href="#cite_note-tws10octxx-104">[104]</a> and Sabato<a href="#cite_note-tws23oct16-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> and a mandatory retirement age proposed by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Allen_Epstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Allen Epstein">Richard Epstein</a>,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> among others.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Federalist_78" class="mw-redirect" title="Federalist 78">Federalist 78</a> argued that one benefit of lifetime tenure was that, "nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office."<a href="#cite_note-tws28oct707-108">[108]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>]<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The interior of the United States Supreme Court" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg/230px-Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg/345px-Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg/460px-Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4200" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>The interior of the United States Supreme Court</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Good_Behavior_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Good Behavior Clause">Article Three, Section 1</a> of the Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior", which is understood to mean that they may serve for the remainder of their lives, until death; furthermore, the phrase is generally interpreted to mean that the only way justices can be removed from office is by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">impeachment process</a>. The Framers of the Constitution chose good behavior tenure to limit the power to remove justices and to ensure <a href="/wiki/Judicial_independence" title="Judicial independence">judicial independence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> No constitutional mechanism exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, but unable (or unwilling) to resign.<a href="#cite_note-hufpost-112">[112]</a> The only justice ever to be impeached was <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</a>, in 1804. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> adopted eight articles of impeachment against him; however, he was acquitted by the Senate, and remained in office until his death in 1811.<a href="#cite_note-SCchase-113">[113]</a> Two justices, <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Abe Fortas</a> were subjected to hearings from the Judiciary Committee, with Douglas being the subject of hearings twice, in 1953 and again in 1970 and Fortas resigned while hearings were being organized in 1969. On July 10, 2024, Representative <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Alexandria Ocasia-Cortez</a> filed Articles of Impeachment against justices <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a>, citing their "widely documented financial and personal entanglements."<a href="#cite_note-Impeach-114">[114]</a> Because justices have indefinite tenure, timing of vacancies can be unpredictable. Sometimes they arise in quick succession, as in September 1971, when <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</a> left within days of each other, the shortest period of time between vacancies in the court's history.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Sometimes a great length of time passes between vacancies, such as the 11-year span, from 1994 to 2005, from the retirement of <a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackmun" title="Harry Blackmun">Harry Blackmun</a> to the death of <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a>, which was the second longest timespan between vacancies in the court's history.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> On average a new justice joins the court about every two years.<a href="#cite_note-SCinstitution-9">[9]</a> Despite the variability, all but four presidents have been able to appoint at least one justice. <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> died a month after taking office, although his successor (<a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a>) made an appointment during that presidential term. Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> died 16 months after taking office, but his successor (<a href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a>) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Andrew Johnson, who became president after the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a>, was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by a reduction in the <a href="#Size_of_the_court">size of the court</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> is the only person elected president to have left office after at least one full term without having the opportunity to appoint a justice. Presidents <a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a>, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and George W. Bush each served a full term without an opportunity to appoint a justice, but made appointments during their subsequent terms in office. No president who has served more than one full term has gone without at least one opportunity to make an appointment. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Size_of_the_court">Size of the court</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Size of the court">edit</a>]</div> One of the smallest supreme courts in the world, the U.S. Supreme Court consists of nine members: one chief justice and eight associate justices. The U.S. Constitution does not specify the size of the Supreme Court, nor does it specify any specific positions for the court's members. The Constitution assumes the existence of the office of the chief justice, because it mentions in <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_6:_Trial_of_Impeachment" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I, Section 3, Clause 6</a> that "the Chief Justice" must preside over impeachment trials of the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>. The power to define the Supreme Court's size and membership has been assumed to belong to Congress, which initially established a six-member Supreme Court composed of a chief justice and five associate justices through the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a>. The size of the court was first altered by the <a href="/wiki/Midnight_Judges_Act" title="Midnight Judges Act">Midnight Judges Act</a> of 1801 which would have reduced the size of the court to five members upon its next vacancy (as federal judges have <a href="/wiki/Life_tenure" title="Life tenure">life tenure</a>), but the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1802" title="Judiciary Act of 1802">Judiciary Act of 1802</a> promptly negated the 1801 act, restoring the court's size to six members before any such vacancy occurred. As the nation's boundaries grew across the continent and as Supreme Court justices in those days had to <a href="/wiki/Circuit_riding" title="Circuit riding">ride the circuit</a>, an arduous process requiring long travel on horseback or carriage over harsh terrain that resulted in months-long extended stays away from home, Congress added justices to correspond with the growth such that the number of seats for associate justices plus the chief justice became <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Circuit_Act_of_1807" title="Seventh Circuit Act of 1807">seven in 1807</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eighth_and_Ninth_Circuits_Act_of_1837" title="Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837">nine in 1837</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Circuit_Act_of_1863" title="Tenth Circuit Act of 1863">ten in 1863</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> At the behest of Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chase</a>, and in an attempt by the Republican Congress to limit the power of Democrat <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Circuits_Act" title="Judicial Circuits Act">Judicial Circuits Act</a> of 1866, providing that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced, which would thin the bench to seven justices by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. Soon after Johnson left office, the new president <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>,<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> a Republican, signed into law the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1869" title="Judiciary Act of 1869">Judiciary Act of 1869</a>. This returned the number of justices to nine<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> (where it has since remained), and allowed Grant to immediately appoint two more judges. President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> attempted to expand the court in 1937. His proposal envisioned the appointment of one additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement, up to a maximum bench of 15 justices. The proposal was ostensibly to ease the burden of the <a href="/wiki/Docket_(court)" title="Docket (court)">docket</a> on elderly judges, but the actual purpose was widely understood as an effort to "pack" the court with justices who would support Roosevelt's New Deal.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The plan, usually called the "<a href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">court-packing plan</a>", failed in Congress after members of Roosevelt's own <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> believed it to be unconstitutional. It was defeated 70–20 in the Senate, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> reported that it was "essential to the continuance of our constitutional democracy" that the proposal "be so emphatically rejected that its parallel will never again be presented to the free representatives of the free people of America."<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> The expansion of a 5–4 conservative majority to a 6–3 supermajority during the <a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">first presidency of Donald Trump</a> led to analysts calling the court the most conservative since the 1930s as well as calls for an expansion in the court's size to fix what some saw as an imbalance, with <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(US)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican Party (US)">Republicans</a> having appointed 14 of the 18 justices immediately preceding <a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> In April 2021, during the <a href="/wiki/117th_United_States_Congress" title="117th United States Congress">117th Congress</a>, some Democrats in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> introduced the Judiciary Act of 2021, a bill to expand the Supreme Court from nine to 13 seats. It met divided views within the party, and Speaker of the House <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Pelosi" title="Nancy Pelosi">Nancy Pelosi</a> did not bring it to the floor for a vote.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Shortly after taking office in January 2021, President <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> established a <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Commission_on_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Presidential Commission on the Supreme Court of the United States">presidential commission</a> to study possible reforms to the Supreme Court. The commission's December 2021 final report discussed but took no position on expanding the size of the court.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> At nine members, the U.S. Supreme Court is one of the smallest supreme courts in the world. David Litt argues the court is too small to represent the perspectives of a country the United States' size.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Lawyer and legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Turley" title="Jonathan Turley">Jonathan Turley</a> has advocated for 19 justices, but with the court being gradually expanded by no more than two new members per subsequent president, bringing the U.S. Supreme Court to a similar size as its counterparts in other developed countries. He says that a bigger court would reduce the power of the <a href="/wiki/Swing_vote" title="Swing vote">swing justice</a>, ensure the court has "a greater diversity of views", and make confirmation of new justices less politically contentious.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Membership">Membership</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Membership">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_justices">Current justices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Current justices">edit</a>]</div> There are currently nine justices on the Supreme Court: Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> and eight associate justices. Among the current members of the court, Clarence Thomas is the longest-serving justice, with a tenure of 12,088 days (33 years, 34 days) as of November 26, 2024; the most recent justice to join the court is Ketanji Brown Jackson, whose tenure began on June 30, 2022, after being confirmed by the Senate on April 7.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Current justices of the Supreme Court<a href="#cite_note-SCOTUScurrent-135">[135]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="min-width: 150px">Justice / birthdate and place </th> <th rowspan="2">Appointed by (party) </th> <th rowspan="2"><abbr title="U.S. Senate confirmation vote"><a href="/wiki/Nomination_and_confirmation_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#Confirmation" title="Nomination and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States">SCV</a></abbr> </th> <th colspan="2">Age at </th> <th rowspan="2">Start date / length of service </th> <th rowspan="2">Ideology<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">Succeeded </th></tr> <tr> <th>Start</th> <th>Present </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg/100px-File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg/150px-File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg/200px-File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1722" /></a> </td> <td>(Chief Justice) <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> (1955-01-27) January 27, 1955 (age 69) <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts_Supreme_Court_nominations" title="John Roberts Supreme Court nominations">78–22</a> </td> <td>50 </td> <td>69 </td> <td style="white-space:nowrap">September 29, 2005 19 years, 58 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservative</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Clarence_Thomas_official_SCOTUS_portrait_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Clarence_Thomas_official_SCOTUS_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/100px-Clarence_Thomas_official_SCOTUS_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Clarence_Thomas_official_SCOTUS_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Clarence_Thomas_official_SCOTUS_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Clarence_Thomas_official_SCOTUS_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/200px-Clarence_Thomas_official_SCOTUS_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="926" data-file-height="1261" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> (1948-06-23) June 23, 1948 (age 76) <a href="/wiki/Pin_Point,_Georgia" title="Pin Point, Georgia">Pin Point, Georgia</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination">52–48</a> </td> <td>43 </td> <td>76 </td> <td>October 23, 1991 33 years, 34 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservative</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Marshall</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Alito_official_photo_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Samuel_Alito_official_photo_%28cropped%29.jpg/100px-Samuel_Alito_official_photo_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Samuel_Alito_official_photo_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Samuel_Alito_official_photo_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Samuel_Alito_official_photo_%28cropped%29.jpg/200px-Samuel_Alito_official_photo_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="1300" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a> (1950-04-01) April 1, 1950 (age 74) <a href="/wiki/Trenton,_New_Jersey" title="Trenton, New Jersey">Trenton, New Jersey</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Samuel Alito Supreme Court nomination">58–42</a> </td> <td>55 </td> <td>74 </td> <td>January 31, 2006 18 years, 300 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservative</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">O'Connor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg/100px-Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg/150px-Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg/200px-Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="1410" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</a> (1954-06-25) June 25, 1954 (age 70) <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City, New York</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama"> Obama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">D</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Sonia Sotomayor Supreme Court nomination">68–31</a> </td> <td>55 </td> <td>70 </td> <td>August 8, 2009 15 years, 110 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">Souter</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg/100px-Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg/150px-Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg/200px-Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1938" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</a> (1960-04-28) April 28, 1960 (age 64) <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City, New York</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama"> Obama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">D</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Elena Kagan Supreme Court nomination">63–37</a> </td> <td>50 </td> <td>64 </td> <td>August 7, 2010 14 years, 111 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">Stevens</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_(cropped_2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/100px-Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/150px-Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/200px-Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="867" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a> (1967-08-29) August 29, 1967 (age 57) <a href="/wiki/Denver" title="Denver">Denver, Colorado</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump"> Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Neil Gorsuch Supreme Court nomination">54–45</a> </td> <td>49 </td> <td>57 </td> <td>April 10, 2017 7 years, 230 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservative</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Associate_Justice_Brett_Kavanaugh_Official_Portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Associate_Justice_Brett_Kavanaugh_Official_Portrait.jpg/100px-Associate_Justice_Brett_Kavanaugh_Official_Portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Associate_Justice_Brett_Kavanaugh_Official_Portrait.jpg/150px-Associate_Justice_Brett_Kavanaugh_Official_Portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Associate_Justice_Brett_Kavanaugh_Official_Portrait.jpg/200px-Associate_Justice_Brett_Kavanaugh_Official_Portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2934" data-file-height="3667" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Brett Kavanaugh</a> (1965-02-12) February 12, 1965 (age 59) <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump"> Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Brett Kavanaugh Supreme Court nomination">50–48</a> </td> <td>53 </td> <td>59 </td> <td>October 6, 2018 6 years, 51 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservative</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Amy_Coney_Barrett_official_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Amy_Coney_Barrett_official_portrait.jpg/100px-Amy_Coney_Barrett_official_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Amy_Coney_Barrett_official_portrait.jpg/150px-Amy_Coney_Barrett_official_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Amy_Coney_Barrett_official_portrait.jpg/200px-Amy_Coney_Barrett_official_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1070" data-file-height="1290" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a> (1972-01-28) January 28, 1972 (age 52) <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump"> Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Amy Coney Barrett Supreme Court nomination">52–48</a> </td> <td>48 </td> <td>52 </td> <td>October 27, 2020 4 years, 30 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservative</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ginsburg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:KBJackson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KBJackson.jpg/100px-KBJackson.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KBJackson.jpg/150px-KBJackson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KBJackson.jpg/200px-KBJackson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3000" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a> (1970-09-14) September 14, 1970 (age 54) <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">D</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson Supreme Court nomination">53–47</a> </td> <td>51 </td> <td>54 </td> <td>June 30, 2022 2 years, 149 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Breyer</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> This graphical timeline depicts the length of each current Supreme Court justice's tenure (not seniority, as the chief justice has seniority over all associate justices regardless of tenure) on the court: <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_0h41k9bi8jmpl1xv8fpxov51olxv8vx"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" coords="730,143,908,167" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson" alt="Ketanji Brown Jackson" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" coords="730,125,881,149" title="Amy Coney Barrett" alt="Amy Coney Barrett" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" coords="730,107,868,131" title="Brett Kavanaugh" alt="Brett Kavanaugh" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" coords="730,89,848,113" title="Neil Gorsuch" alt="Neil Gorsuch" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" coords="730,71,841,95" title="Elena Kagan" alt="Elena Kagan" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" coords="730,54,868,78" title="Sonia Sotomayor" alt="Sonia Sotomayor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" coords="730,36,848,60" title="Samuel Alito" alt="Samuel Alito" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/John_Roberts" coords="730,18,848,42" title="John Roberts" alt="John Roberts" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" coords="730,0,868,24" title="Clarence Thomas" alt="Clarence Thomas" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_0h41k9bi8jmpl1xv8fpxov51olxv8vx" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/0h41k9bi8jmpl1xv8fpxov51olxv8vx.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Court_demographics">Court demographics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Court demographics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States">Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></div> The court currently has five male and four female justices. Among the nine justices, there are two <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African American</a> justices (Justices <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Jackson</a>) and one <a href="/wiki/Hispanic" title="Hispanic">Hispanic</a> justice (Justice <a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a>). One of the justices was born to at least one <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigrant</a> parent: <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Justice Alito</a>'s father was born in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> At least six justices are <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholics</a>, one is <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</a>, and one is <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a>. It is unclear whether <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a> considers himself a Catholic or an <a href="/wiki/Episcopalian" class="mw-redirect" title="Episcopalian">Episcopalian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gorsuchreligion-139">[139]</a> Historically, most justices have been Protestants, including 36 Episcopalians, 19 <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterians</a>, 10 <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarians</a>, 5 <a href="/wiki/Methodist" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist">Methodists</a>, and 3 <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> The first Catholic justice was <a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger Taney</a> in 1836,<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> and 1916 saw the appointment of the first Jewish justice, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-143">[143]</a> In recent years the historical situation has reversed, as most recent justices have been either Catholic or Jewish. Three justices are from the state of New York, two are from Washington, D.C., and one each is from New Jersey, Georgia, Colorado, and Louisiana.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Eight of the current justices received their <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">Juris Doctor</a> from an <a href="/wiki/Ivy_League" title="Ivy League">Ivy League</a> <a href="/wiki/Law_school_in_the_United_States" title="Law school in the United States">law school</a>: Neil Gorsuch, Ketanji Brown Jackson, <a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard</a>; plus Samuel Alito, <a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Brett Kavanaugh</a>, Sonia Sotomayor and Clarence Thomas from <a href="/wiki/Yale_Law_School" title="Yale Law School">Yale</a>. Only <a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a> did not; she received her Juris Doctor at <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_Law_School" title="Notre Dame Law School">Notre Dame</a>. Previous positions or offices, judicial or federal government, prior to joining the court (by order of seniority following the Chief Justice) include: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Justice </th> <th>Position or office </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> </td> <td>Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> (2003–2005) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> </td> <td>Chair of the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a> (1982–1990) Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> (1990–1991) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_for_the_District_of_New_Jersey" title="United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey">United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey</a> (1987–1990) Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit</a> (1990–2006) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</a> </td> <td>Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Southern_District_of_New_York" title="United States District Court for the Southern District of New York">United States District Court for the Southern District of New York</a> (1992–1998) Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit</a> (1998–2009) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" title="Solicitor General of the United States">Solicitor General of the United States</a> (2009–2010) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a> </td> <td>Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Tenth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit</a> (2006–2017) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Brett Kavanaugh</a> </td> <td>Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> (2006–2018) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a> </td> <td>Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Seventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit</a> (2017–2020) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a> </td> <td>Vice Chair of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Sentencing_Commission" title="United States Sentencing Commission">United States Sentencing Commission</a> (2010–2014) Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia">United States District Court for the District of Columbia</a> (2013–2021) Judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a> (2021–2022) </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:O%27Connor,_Sotomayor,_Ginsburg,_and_Kagan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/O%27Connor%2C_Sotomayor%2C_Ginsburg%2C_and_Kagan.jpg/220px-O%27Connor%2C_Sotomayor%2C_Ginsburg%2C_and_Kagan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/O%27Connor%2C_Sotomayor%2C_Ginsburg%2C_and_Kagan.jpg/330px-O%27Connor%2C_Sotomayor%2C_Ginsburg%2C_and_Kagan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/O%27Connor%2C_Sotomayor%2C_Ginsburg%2C_and_Kagan.jpg/440px-O%27Connor%2C_Sotomayor%2C_Ginsburg%2C_and_Kagan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>The first four female justices: O'Connor, Sotomayor, Ginsburg, and Kagan</figcaption></figure> For much of the court's history, every justice was a man of <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Europe" title="Northwestern Europe">Northwestern European</a> descent, and almost always <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a>. Diversity concerns focused on geography, to represent all <a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(politics)" title="Regionalism (politics)">regions</a> of the country, rather than religious, ethnic, or gender diversity.<a href="#cite_note-obrien46-147">[147]</a> Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity in the court increased in the late 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> became the first <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a> justice in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-143">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</a> became the first female justice in 1981.<a href="#cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-143">[143]</a> In 1986, <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a> became the first <a href="/wiki/Italian-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian-American">Italian-American</a> justice. Marshall was succeeded by African-American Clarence Thomas in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> O'Connor was joined by Ruth Bader Ginsburg, the first Jewish woman on the Court, in 1993.<a href="#cite_note-Four_Justices-149">[149]</a> After O'Connor's retirement <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ginsburg</a> was joined in 2009 by <a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Hispanic" title="Hispanic">Hispanic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinas">Latina</a> justice,<a href="#cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-143">[143]</a> and in 2010 by Elena Kagan.<a href="#cite_note-Four_Justices-149">[149]</a> After Ginsburg's death on September 18, 2020, Amy Coney Barrett was confirmed as the fifth woman in the court's history on October 26, 2020. Ketanji Brown Jackson is the sixth woman and first African-American woman on the court. There have been six foreign-born justices in the court's history: James Wilson (1789–1798), born in <a href="/wiki/Ceres,_Fife" title="Ceres, Fife">Caskardy</a>, Scotland; <a href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">James Iredell</a> (1790–1799), born in <a href="/wiki/Lewes" title="Lewes">Lewes</a>, England; <a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a> (1793–1806), born in <a href="/wiki/County_Antrim" title="County Antrim">County Antrim</a>, Ireland; <a href="/wiki/David_Josiah_Brewer" class="mw-redirect" title="David Josiah Brewer">David Brewer</a> (1889–1910), born to American missionaries in <a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> (now <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">İzmir</a>, Turkey); <a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">George Sutherland</a> (1922–1939), born in <a href="/wiki/Buckinghamshire" title="Buckinghamshire">Buckinghamshire</a>, England; and <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a> (1939–1962), born in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> (now in Austria).<a href="#cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-143">[143]</a> Since 1789, about one-third of the justices have been <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">U.S. military</a> veterans. Samuel Alito is the only veteran currently serving on the court.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Retired justices Stephen Breyer and Anthony Kennedy also served in the U.S. military.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_leanings">Judicial leanings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Judicial leanings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ideological_leanings_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_justices" title="Ideological leanings of United States Supreme Court justices">Ideological leanings of United States Supreme Court justices</a></div> Justices are nominated by the president in power, and receive confirmation by the Senate, historically holding many of the views of the nominating president's political party. While justices do not represent or receive official endorsements from political parties, as is accepted practice in the legislative and executive branches, organizations such as the Federalist Society do officially filter and endorse judges that have a sufficiently conservative view of the law. Jurists are often informally categorized in the media as being conservatives or liberal. Attempts to quantify the ideologies of jurists include the <a href="/wiki/Segal%E2%80%93Cover_score" title="Segal–Cover score">Segal–Cover score</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin-Quinn_score" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin-Quinn score">Martin-Quinn score</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Common_Space" title="Judicial Common Space">Judicial Common Space</a> score.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Devins and Baum argue that before 2010, the Court never had clear ideological blocs that fell perfectly along party lines. In choosing their appointments, Presidents often focused more on friendship and political connections than on ideology. Republican presidents sometimes appointed liberals and Democratic presidents sometimes appointed conservatives. As a result, "... between 1790 and early 2010 there were only two decisions that the Guide to the U.S. Supreme Court designated as important and that had at least two dissenting votes in which the Justices divided along party lines, about one-half of one percent."<a href="#cite_note-DevinsBaum-154">[154]</a>: 316 <a href="#cite_note-DevinsBaumBook-155">[155]</a> Even in the turbulent 1960s and 1970s, Democratic and Republican elites tended to agree on some major issues, especially concerning civil rights and civil liberties—and so did the justices. But since 1991, they argue, ideology has been much more important in choosing justices—all Republican appointees have been committed conservatives and all Democratic appointees have been liberals.<a href="#cite_note-DevinsBaum-154">[154]</a>: 331–344  As the more moderate Republican justices retired, the court has become more partisan. The Court became more divided sharply along partisan lines with justices appointed by Republican presidents taking increasingly conservative positions and those appointed by Democrats taking moderate liberal positions.<a href="#cite_note-DevinsBaum-154">[154]</a>: 357  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Supreme_Court_by_the_Party_of_the_nominating_President.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/U.S._Supreme_Court_by_the_Party_of_the_nominating_President.png/220px-U.S._Supreme_Court_by_the_Party_of_the_nominating_President.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/U.S._Supreme_Court_by_the_Party_of_the_nominating_President.png/330px-U.S._Supreme_Court_by_the_Party_of_the_nominating_President.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/U.S._Supreme_Court_by_the_Party_of_the_nominating_President.png/440px-U.S._Supreme_Court_by_the_Party_of_the_nominating_President.png 2x" data-file-width="2023" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption>Balance of the US Supreme Court since 2020, shaded by party of the nominating president: Blue represents a <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> president and red a <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> president</figcaption></figure> Following the confirmation of <a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a> in 2020 after the death of <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a>, the court is composed of six justices appointed by Republican presidents and three appointed by Democratic presidents. It is popularly accepted that Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">Roberts</a> and associate justices <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a>, and Barrett, appointed by Republican presidents, compose the court's conservative wing, and that Justices <a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Jackson</a>, appointed by Democratic presidents, compose the court's liberal wing.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Prior to Justice Ginsburg's death in 2020, the conservative Chief Justice Roberts was sometimes described as the court's 'median justice' (with four justices more liberal and four more conservative than he is).<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Darragh Roche argues that Kavanaugh as 2021's median justice exemplifies the rightward shift in the court.<a href="#cite_note-median-159">[159]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] <a href="/wiki/FiveThirtyEight" title="FiveThirtyEight">FiveThirtyEight</a> found the number of unanimous decisions dropped from the 20-year average of nearly 50% to nearly 30% in 2021 while party-line rulings increased from a 60-year average just above zero to a record high 21%.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> That year Ryan Williams pointed to the party-line votes for confirmations of justices as evidence that the court is of partisan importance to the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> In 2022, Simon Lazarus of Brookings critiqued the U.S. Supreme Court as an increasingly partisan institution.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> A 2024 AP-NORC poll showed 7 in 10 respondents believed the court decides cases to "fit their own ideologies" as opposed to "acting as an independent check on other branches of government by being fair and impartial."<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Retired_justices">Retired justices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Retired justices">edit</a>]</div> There are currently three living retired justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: Anthony Kennedy, David Souter, and Stephen Breyer. As retired justices, they no longer participate in the work of the Supreme Court, but may be designated for temporary assignments to sit on lower federal courts, usually the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Courts_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Courts of Appeals">United States Courts of Appeals</a>. Such assignments are formally made by the chief justice, on request of the <a href="/wiki/Chief_judge_(United_States)" title="Chief judge (United States)">chief judge</a> of the lower court and with the consent of the retired justice. In recent years, Justice Souter has frequently sat on the <a href="/wiki/First_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="First Circuit">First Circuit</a>, the court of which he was briefly a member before joining the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> The status of a retired justice is analogous to that of a circuit or district court judge who has taken <a href="/wiki/Senior_status" title="Senior status">senior status</a>, and eligibility of a Supreme Court justice to assume retired status (rather than simply resign from the bench) is governed by the same age and service criteria. In recent times, justices tend to strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench with personal, institutional, ideological, partisan, and political factors playing a role.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the court's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the court is in recess and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, especially in recent decades, many justices have timed their departure to coincide with a philosophically compatible president holding office, to ensure that a like-minded successor would be appointed.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Retired justices of the Supreme Court<a href="#cite_note-SCOTUScurrent-135">[135]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Justice Birthdate and place </th> <th rowspan="2">Appointed by </th> <th colspan="2">Age at </th> <th colspan="3">Tenure (active service) </th></tr> <tr> <th>Retirement</th> <th>Present</th> <th>Start date</th> <th>End date</th> <th>Length </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/100px-Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/150px-Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/200px-Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1396" data-file-height="1745" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a> July 23, 1936 <a href="/wiki/Sacramento,_California" title="Sacramento, California">Sacramento, California</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan"> Reagan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</a>) </td> <td>82 </td> <td>88 </td> <td>February 18, 1988 </td> <td>July 31, 2018 </td> <td>30 years, 163 days </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:DavidSouter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/DavidSouter.jpg/100px-DavidSouter.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/DavidSouter.jpg/150px-DavidSouter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/DavidSouter.jpg/200px-DavidSouter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="383" data-file-height="496" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</a> September 17, 1939 <a href="/wiki/Melrose,_Massachusetts" title="Melrose, Massachusetts">Melrose, Massachusetts</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</a>) </td> <td>69 </td> <td>85 </td> <td>October 9, 1990 </td> <td>June 29, 2009 </td> <td>18 years, 263 days </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/100px-Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/150px-Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/200px-Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1008" data-file-height="1260" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a> August 15, 1938 <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco, California</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton"> Clinton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">D</a>) </td> <td>83 </td> <td>86 </td> <td>August 3, 1994 </td> <td>June 30, 2022 </td> <td>27 years, 331 days </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salary">Salary</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Salary">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Federal_judge_salaries_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal judge salaries in the United States">Federal judge salaries in the United States</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Ethics">Supreme Court of the United States § Ethics</a></div> As of 2024, associate justices receive a yearly salary of $298,500 and the chief justice is paid $312,200 per year.<a href="#cite_note-salary-169">[169]</a> Once a justice meets <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_judge#Retirement" title="United States federal judge">age and service requirements</a>, the justice may retire with a pension based on the same formula used for federal employees. As with other federal courts judges, their pension can never be less than their salary at the time of retirement according to the <a href="/wiki/Compensation_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Compensation Clause">Compensation Clause</a> of <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article III of the Constitution</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seniority_and_seating">Seniority and seating</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Seniority and seating">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Supreme Court of the United States">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States%22">"Supreme Court of the United States"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (January 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2022.jpg/240px-Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2022.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2022.jpg/360px-Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2022.jpg/480px-Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The Roberts Court (since June 2022): Front row (left to right): <a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a>, Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</a>. Back row (left to right): <a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Brett Kavanaugh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a>.</figcaption></figure> For the most part, the day-to-day activities of the justices are governed by rules of protocol based upon the <a href="/wiki/Seniority" title="Seniority">seniority</a> of justices. The chief justice always ranks first in the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_precedence" title="Order of precedence">order of precedence</a>—regardless of the length of their service.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> The associate justices are then ranked by the length of their service. The chief justice sits in the center on the bench, or at the head of the table during conferences. The other justices are seated in order of seniority. The senior-most associate justice sits immediately to the chief justice's right; the second most senior sits immediately to their left. The seats alternate right to left in order of seniority, with the most junior justice occupying the last seat.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Therefore, since the October 2022 term, the court sits as follows from left to right, from the perspective of those facing the court: Barrett, Gorsuch, Sotomayor, Thomas (most senior associate justice), Roberts (chief justice), Alito, Kagan, Kavanaugh, and Jackson. Likewise, when the members of the court gather for official group photographs, justices are arranged in order of seniority, with the five most senior members seated in the front row in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (currently, from left to right, Sotomayor, Thomas, Roberts, Alito, and Kagan), and the four most junior justices standing behind them, again in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (Barrett, Gorsuch, Kavanaugh, and Jackson). In the justices' private conferences, current practice is for them to speak and vote in order of seniority, beginning with the chief justice first and ending with the most junior associate justice. By custom, the most junior associate justice in these conferences is charged with any menial tasks the justices may require as they convene alone, such as answering the door of their conference room, serving beverages and transmitting orders of the court to the clerk.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Facilities">Facilities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Facilities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">United States Supreme Court Building</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg/220px-SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg/330px-SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg/440px-SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption>From the 1860s until the 1930s, the court sat in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Senate_Chamber" title="Old Senate Chamber">Old Senate Chamber</a> of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Capitol" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Capitol">U.S. Capitol</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Supreme Court first met on February 1, 1790, at the Merchants' Exchange Building in New York City. When Philadelphia became the capital, the court met briefly in Independence Hall before settling in <a href="/wiki/Old_City_Hall_(Philadelphia)" title="Old City Hall (Philadelphia)">Old City Hall</a> from 1791 until 1800. After the government moved to Washington, D.C., the court occupied various spaces in the Capitol building until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose-built home. The four-story building was designed by <a href="/wiki/Cass_Gilbert" title="Cass Gilbert">Cass Gilbert</a> in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the Capitol and <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>, and is clad in marble. The building includes the courtroom, justices' chambers, an extensive <a href="/wiki/Law_library" title="Law library">law library</a>, various meeting spaces, and auxiliary services including a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the <a href="/wiki/Architect_of_the_Capitol" title="Architect of the Capitol">Architect of the Capitol</a>, but maintains its own <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Police" title="Supreme Court Police">Supreme Court Police</a>, separate from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tws24oct204-173">[173]</a> Located across First Street from the United States Capitol at One First Street NE and Maryland Avenue,<a href="#cite_note-tws24oct201-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws24oct211-175">[175]</a> the building is open to the public from 9 am to 4:30 pm weekdays but closed on weekends and <a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">holidays</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tws24oct201-174">[174]</a> Visitors may not tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. There is a cafeteria, a gift shop, exhibits, and a half-hour informational film.<a href="#cite_note-tws24oct204-173">[173]</a> When the court is not in session, lectures about the courtroom are held hourly from 9:30 am to 3:30 pm and reservations are not necessary.<a href="#cite_note-tws24oct204-173">[173]</a> When the court is in session the public may attend oral arguments, which are held twice each morning (and sometimes afternoons) on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays in two-week intervals from October through late April, with breaks during December and February. Visitors are seated on a first-come first-served basis. One estimate is there are about 250 seats available.<a href="#cite_note-tws24oct209-176">[176]</a> The number of open seats varies from case to case; for important cases, some visitors arrive the day before and wait through the night. The court releases opinions beginning at 10 am on scheduled "non-argument days" (also called opinion days)<a href="#cite_note-cal-177">[177]</a> These sessions, which typically last 15 to 30-minute, are also open to the public.<a href="#cite_note-cal-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws24oct204-173">[173]</a> From mid-May until the end of June, at least one opinion day is scheduled each week.<a href="#cite_note-tws24oct204-173">[173]</a> Supreme Court Police are available to answer questions.<a href="#cite_note-tws24oct201-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Jurisdiction">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/100px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/150px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/200px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Overview</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Principles</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_right#United_States" title="Constitutional right">Individual rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law#United_States" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_review" title="Standard of review">Tiers of scrutiny</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Government structure</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Executive branch</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judicial branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local government</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Individual rights</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of religion in the United States">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Right to petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association#United_States_Constitution" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">Right to keep and bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juries_in_the_United_States" title="Juries in the United States">Right to trial by jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">Right to privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Freedom from slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_nationality_law" title="United States nationality law">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballot_access" title="Ballot access">Right to candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness_doctrine" title="Vagueness doctrine">Comprehensible rules</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Living_Constitution" title="Living Constitution">Living Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_due_process" title="Substantive due process">Substantive due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_process_theory_(law)" title="Political process theory (law)">Political process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">Judicial restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purposive_approach" title="Purposive approach">Purposivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_constructionism" title="Strict constructionism">Strict constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_constitutionalism" title="Common good constitutionalism">Common good constitutionalism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Template:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Template talk:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Congress is authorized by Article III of the federal Constitution to regulate the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Original_jurisdiction">Original jurisdiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Original jurisdiction">edit</a>]</div> The Supreme Court has <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">original and exclusive jurisdiction</a> over cases between two or more states<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> but may decline to hear such cases.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> It also possesses original but not exclusive jurisdiction to hear "all actions or proceedings to which ambassadors, other public ministers, consuls, or vice consuls of foreign states are parties; all controversies between the United States and a State; and all actions or proceedings by a State against the citizens of another State or against aliens."<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> In 1906, the court asserted its original jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_court" title="Contempt of court">contempt of court</a> in <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Shipp" title="United States v. Shipp">United States v. Shipp</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> The resulting proceeding remains the only contempt proceeding and only criminal trial in the court's history.<a href="#cite_note-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-Humanities-183">[183]</a> The contempt proceeding arose from the <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson" title="Lynching of Ed Johnson">Ed Johnson</a> in Chattanooga, Tennessee the evening after Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan" title="John Marshall Harlan">John Marshall Harlan</a> granted Johnson a stay of execution to allow his lawyers to file an appeal. Johnson was removed from his jail cell by a lynch mob, aided by the local sheriff who left the prison virtually unguarded, and hanged from a bridge, after which a deputy sheriff pinned a note on Johnson's body reading: "To Justice Harlan. Come get your nigger now."<a href="#cite_note-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp-182">[182]</a> The local sheriff, John Shipp, cited the Supreme Court's intervention as the rationale for the lynching. The court appointed its deputy clerk as <a href="/wiki/Special_master" title="Special master">special master</a> to preside over the trial in Chattanooga with closing arguments made in Washington before the Supreme Court justices, who found nine individuals guilty of contempt, sentencing three to 90 days in jail and the rest to 60 days in jail.<a href="#cite_note-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-Humanities-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> In all other cases, the court has only appellate jurisdiction, including the ability to issue <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_mandamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Writ of mandamus">writs of mandamus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_prohibition" title="Writ of prohibition">writs of prohibition</a> to lower courts. It considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the court are disputes between two or more states.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appellate_jurisdiction">Appellate jurisdiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Appellate jurisdiction">edit</a>]</div> The court's appellate jurisdiction consists of appeals from <a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">federal courts of appeal</a> (through <a href="/wiki/Certiorari#United_States" title="Certiorari">certiorari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Certiorari_before_judgment" title="Certiorari before judgment">certiorari before judgment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Certified_question#Certification_of_questions_to_the_United_States_Supreme_Court" title="Certified question">certified questions</a>),<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Armed_Forces" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces">United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces</a> (through certiorari),<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Supreme Court of Puerto Rico">Supreme Court of Puerto Rico</a> (through certiorari),<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands">Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands</a> (through certiorari),<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Court_of_Appeals" title="District of Columbia Court of Appeals">District of Columbia Court of Appeals</a> (through certiorari),<a href="#cite_note-USC|28|1257-190">[190]</a> and "final judgments or decrees rendered by the highest court of a State in which a decision could be had" (through certiorari).<a href="#cite_note-USC|28|1257-190">[190]</a> In the last case, an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court from a lower state court if the state's highest court declined to hear an appeal or lacks jurisdiction to hear an appeal. For example, a decision rendered by one of the <a href="/wiki/Florida_District_Courts_of_Appeal" title="Florida District Courts of Appeal">Florida District Courts of Appeal</a> can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court if (a) the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Florida" title="Supreme Court of Florida">Supreme Court of Florida</a> declined to grant certiorari, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Florida_Star_v._B._J._F." title="Florida Star v. B. J. F.">Florida Star v. B. J. F.</a>, or (b) the district court of appeal issued a <a href="/wiki/Per_curiam_decision" title="Per curiam decision">per curiam decision</a> simply affirming the lower court's decision without discussing the merits of the case, since the Supreme Court of Florida lacks jurisdiction to hear appeals of such decisions.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 and upheld early in the court's history, by its rulings in <a href="/wiki/Martin_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Martin v. Hunter's Lessee">Martin v. Hunter's Lessee</a> (1816) and <a href="/wiki/Cohens_v._Virginia" title="Cohens v. Virginia">Cohens v. Virginia</a> (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are several devices that permit so-called "collateral review" of state cases. This "collateral review" often only applies to individuals on death row and not through the regular judicial system.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Since Article Three of the United States Constitution stipulates that federal courts may only entertain "cases" or "controversies", the Supreme Court cannot decide cases that are moot and it does not render <a href="/wiki/Advisory_opinion" title="Advisory opinion">advisory opinions</a>, as the supreme courts of some states may do. For example, in <a href="/wiki/DeFunis_v._Odegaard" title="DeFunis v. Odegaard">DeFunis v. Odegaard</a> (1974), the court dismissed a lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of a law school affirmative action policy because the plaintiff student had graduated since he began the lawsuit, and a decision from the court on his claim would not be able to redress any injury he had suffered. However, the court recognizes some circumstances where it is appropriate to hear a case that is seemingly moot. If an issue is "capable of repetition yet evading review", the court would address it even though the party before the court would not themselves be made whole by a favorable result. In Roe v. Wade (1973), and other abortion cases, the court addresses the merits of claims pressed by pregnant women seeking abortions even if they are no longer pregnant because it takes longer than the typical human gestation period to appeal a case through the lower courts to the Supreme Court. Another mootness exception is voluntary cessation of unlawful conduct, in which the court considers the probability of recurrence and plaintiff's need for relief.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Justices_as_circuit_justices">Justices as circuit justices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Justices as circuit justices">edit</a>]</div> The United States is divided into thirteen <a href="/wiki/United_States_court_of_appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States court of appeals">circuit courts of appeals</a>, each of which is assigned a "circuit justice" from the Supreme Court. Although this concept has been in continuous existence throughout the history of the republic, its meaning has changed through time. Under the Judiciary Act of 1789, each justice was required to "ride circuit", or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice encountered opposition from many justices, who cited the difficulty of travel. Moreover, there was a potential for a conflict of interest on the court if a justice had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding ended in 1901, when the Circuit Court of Appeals Act was passed, and circuit riding was officially abolished by Congress in 1911.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> The circuit justice for each circuit is responsible for dealing with certain types of applications that, by law and the rules of the court, may be addressed by a single justice. Ordinarily, a justice will resolve such an application by simply endorsing it "granted" or "denied" or entering a standard form of order; however, the justice may elect to write an opinion, referred to as an <a href="/wiki/In-chambers_opinion" title="In-chambers opinion">in-chambers opinion</a>. Congress has specifically authorized one justice to issue a <a href="/wiki/Stay_of_execution" title="Stay of execution">stay</a> pending <a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</a> in <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/2101#f">§ 2101(f)</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:LINKSTOAVOID" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:LINKSTOAVOID">inappropriate external link?</a>]. Each justice also decides routine procedural requests, such as for extensions of time. Before 1990, the rules of the Supreme Court also stated that "a writ of injunction may be granted by any Justice in a case where it might be granted by the Court."<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> However, this part of the rule (and all other specific mention of injunctions) was removed in the Supreme Court's rules revision of December 1989.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gonen-197">[197]</a> Nevertheless, requests for injunctions under the <a href="/wiki/All_Writs_Act" title="All Writs Act">All Writs Act</a> are sometimes directed to the circuit justice. In the past,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] circuit justices also sometimes granted motions for <a href="/wiki/Bail" title="Bail">bail</a> in criminal cases, writs of <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a>, and applications for <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Writ of error">writs of error</a> granting permission to appeal.<a href="#cite_note-Gonen-197">[197]</a> A circuit justice may sit as a judge on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Court of Appeals">Court of Appeals</a> of that circuit, but over the past hundred years, this has rarely occurred. A circuit justice sitting with the Court of Appeals has seniority over the chief judge of the circuit.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Circuit">Federal Circuit</a>. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits. As of September 28, 2022, the allotment of the justices among the circuits is as follows:<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Circuit</th> <th>Justice </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">District of Columbia Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">Chief Justice Roberts</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_First_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit">First Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Justice Jackson</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">Second Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Justice Sotomayor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">Third Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Justice Alito</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fourth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit">Fourth Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">Chief Justice Roberts</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit">Fifth Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Justice Alito</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Sixth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit">Sixth Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Justice Kavanaugh</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Seventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit">Seventh Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Justice Barrett</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit">Eighth Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Justice Kavanaugh</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit">Ninth Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Justice Kagan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Tenth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit">Tenth Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Justice Gorsuch</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eleventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit">Eleventh Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Justice Thomas</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Federal_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit">Federal Circuit</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">Chief Justice Roberts</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> Five of the current justices are assigned to circuits on which they previously sat as circuit judges: Chief Justice Roberts (D.C. Circuit), Justice Sotomayor (Second Circuit), Justice Alito (Third Circuit), Justice Barrett (Seventh Circuit), and Justice Gorsuch (Tenth Circuit). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process">Process</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Process">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Procedures_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States">Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_selection">Case selection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Case selection">edit</a>]</div> Nearly all cases come before the court by way of petitions for writs of <a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</a>, commonly referred to as cert, upon which the court grants a writ of certiorari. The court may review via this process any civil or criminal case in the federal courts of appeals.<a href="#cite_note-usc|28|1254-200">[200]</a> It may also review by certiorari a final judgment of the highest court of a state if the judgment involves a question of federal statutory or constitutional law.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> A case may alternatively come before the court as a direct appeal from a three-judge federal district court.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> The party that petitions the court for review is the <a href="/wiki/Petitioner" title="Petitioner">petitioner</a> and the non-mover is the respondent. Case names before the court are styled petitioner v. respondent, regardless of which party initiated the lawsuit in the trial court. For example, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the state and against an individual, as in State of Arizona v. Ernesto Miranda. If the defendant is convicted, and his conviction then is affirmed on appeal in the <a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">state supreme court</a>, when he petitions for cert the name of the case becomes Miranda v. Arizona. The court also hears questions submitted to it by appeals courts themselves via a process known as certification.<a href="#cite_note-usc|28|1254-200">[200]</a> The Supreme Court relies on the record assembled by lower courts for <a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">the facts of a case</a> and deals solely with <a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">the question of how the law applies to the facts presented</a>. There are however <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">situations where the court has original jurisdiction</a>, such as when two states have a dispute against each other, or when there is a dispute between the United States and a state. In such instances, a case is filed with the Supreme Court directly. Examples of such cases include United States v. Texas, a case to determine whether a parcel of land belonged to the United States or to Texas, and <a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._Tennessee" title="Virginia v. Tennessee">Virginia v. Tennessee</a>, a case turning on whether an incorrectly drawn boundary between two states can be changed by a state court, and whether the setting of the correct boundary requires Congressional approval. Although it has not happened since 1794 in the case of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Brailsford_(1794)" title="Georgia v. Brailsford (1794)">Georgia v. Brailsford</a>,<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> parties in an action at law in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction may request that a <a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">jury</a> determine issues of fact.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Georgia v. Brailsford remains the only case in which the court has <a href="/wiki/Judicial_panel" title="Judicial panel">empaneled</a> a jury, in this case a <a href="/wiki/Special_jury" title="Special jury">special jury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-yalejournal-205">[205]</a> Two other original jurisdiction cases involve colonial era borders and rights under navigable waters in <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_v._Delaware" title="New Jersey v. Delaware">New Jersey v. Delaware</a>, and water rights between <a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights#General_Principle" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a> states upstream of navigable waters in <a href="/wiki/Kansas_v._Colorado" title="Kansas v. Colorado">Kansas v. Colorado</a>. A cert petition is voted on at a session of the court called conference. A conference is a private meeting of the nine justices by themselves; the public and the justices' clerks are excluded. The <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_four" title="Rule of four">rule of four</a> permits four of the nine justices to grant a writ of certiorari. If it is granted, the case proceeds to the briefing stage; otherwise, the case ends. Except in <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a> cases and other cases in which the court orders briefing from the respondent, the respondent may, but is not required to, file a response to the cert petition. The court grants a petition for cert only for "compelling reasons", spelled out in the court's Rule 10. Such reasons include: <ul><li>Resolving a conflict between circuit courts in the interpretation of a federal law or a provision of the federal Constitution</li> <li>Correcting an egregious departure from the accepted and usual course of judicial proceedings</li> <li>Resolving an important question of federal law, or to expressly review a decision of a lower court that conflicts directly with a previous decision of the court.</li></ul> When a conflict of interpretations arises from differing interpretations of the same law or constitutional provision issued by different federal circuit courts of appeals, lawyers call this situation a "<a href="/wiki/Circuit_split" title="Circuit split">circuit split</a>"; if the court votes to deny a cert petition, as it does in the vast majority of such petitions that come before it, it does so typically without comment. A denial of a cert petition is not a judgment on the merits of a case, and the decision of the lower court stands as the case's final ruling. To manage the high volume of cert petitions received by the court each year (of the more than 7,000 petitions the court receives each year, it will usually request briefing and hear oral argument in 100 or fewer), the court employs an internal case management tool known as the "<a href="/wiki/Cert_pool" title="Cert pool">cert pool</a>"; currently, all justices except for Justices Alito and Gorsuch participate in the cert pool.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Written_evidence">Written evidence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Written evidence">edit</a>]</div> The Court also relies on and cites <a href="/wiki/Amicus_briefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Amicus briefs">amicus briefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law_review" title="Law review">law review</a> articles, and other written works for their decisions. While law review article use has increased slightly with one article cited per decision on average,<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> the use of amicus briefs has increased significantly.<a href="#cite_note-:4-211">[211]</a> The use of amicus briefs has received criticism, including the ability of authors to discuss topics outside their expertise (unlike in lower courts),<a href="#cite_note-:4-211">[211]</a> with documented examples of falsehoods in written opinions, often supplied to the justices by amicus briefs from groups advocating a particular outcome.<a href="#cite_note-:5-212">[212]</a> The lack of funding transparency and the lack of a requirement to submit them earlier in the process also make it more difficult to <a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">fact-check</a> and understand the credibility of amicus briefs.<a href="#cite_note-:4-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oral_argument">Oral argument</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Oral argument">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waxman_during_Hyatt_III_sketch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man speaking at a lectern before two supreme court justices." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Waxman_during_Hyatt_III_sketch.jpg/260px-Waxman_during_Hyatt_III_sketch.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Waxman_during_Hyatt_III_sketch.jpg/390px-Waxman_during_Hyatt_III_sketch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Waxman_during_Hyatt_III_sketch.jpg/520px-Waxman_during_Hyatt_III_sketch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1601" data-file-height="1201" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Seth_P._Waxman" title="Seth P. Waxman">Seth P. Waxman</a> at oral argument presents his case and answers questions from the justices.</figcaption></figure> When the court grants a cert petition, the case is set for oral argument. Both parties will file briefs on the merits of the case, as distinct from the reasons they may have argued for granting or denying the cert petition. With the consent of the parties or approval of the court, <a href="/wiki/Amicus_curiae" title="Amicus curiae">amici curiae</a>, or "friends of the court", may also file briefs. The court holds two-week oral argument sessions each month from October through April. Each side has thirty minutes to present its argument (the court may choose to give more time, although this is rare),<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> and during that time, the justices may interrupt the advocate and ask questions. In 2019, the court adopted a rule generally allowing advocates to speak uninterrupted for the first two minutes of their argument.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> The petitioner gives the first presentation, and may reserve some time to <a href="/wiki/Rebuttal" title="Rebuttal">rebut</a> the respondent's arguments after the respondent has concluded. Amici curiae may also present oral argument on behalf of one party if that party agrees. The court advises counsel to assume that the justices are familiar with and have read the briefs filed in a case. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decision">Decision</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Decision">edit</a>]</div> At the conclusion of oral argument, the case is submitted for decision. Cases are decided by majority vote of the justices. After the oral argument is concluded, usually in the same week as the case was submitted, the justices retire to another conference at which the preliminary votes are tallied and the court sees which side has prevailed. One of the justices in the majority is then assigned to write the court's opinion, also known as the "majority opinion", an assignment made by the most senior justice in the majority, with the chief justice always being considered the most senior. Drafts of the court's opinion circulate among the justices until the court is prepared to announce the judgment in a particular case.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> Justices are free to change their votes on a case up until the decision is finalized and published. In any given case, a justice is free to choose whether or not to author an opinion or else simply join the majority or another justice's opinion. There are several primary types of opinions: <ul><li>Opinion of the court: this is the binding decision of the Supreme Court. An opinion that more than half of the justices join (usually at least five justices, since there are nine justices in total; but in cases where some justices do not participate it could be fewer) is known as "majority opinion" and creates binding precedent in American law. Whereas an opinion that fewer than half of the justices join is known as a "plurality opinion" and is only partially binding precedent.</li> <li>Concurring: a justice agrees with and joins the majority opinion but authors a separate concurrence to give additional explanations, rationales, or commentary. Concurrences do not create binding precedent.</li> <li>Concurring in the judgment: a justice agrees with the outcome the court reached but disagrees with its reasons for doing so. A justice in this situation does not join the majority opinion. Like regular concurrences, these do not create binding precedent.</li> <li>Dissent: a justice disagrees with the outcome the court reached and its reasoning. Justices who dissent from a decision may author their own dissenting opinions or, if there are multiple dissenting justices in a decision, may join another justice's dissent. Dissents do not create binding precedent. A justice may also join only part(s) of a particular decision, and may even agree with some parts of the outcome and disagree with others.</li></ul> It is the court's practice to issue decisions in all cases argued in a particular term by the end of that term. Within that term, the court is under no obligation to release a decision within any set time after oral argument. Since recording devices are banned inside the courtroom of the Supreme Court Building, the delivery of the decision to the media has historically been done via paper copies in what was known as the "<a href="/wiki/Running_of_the_Interns" class="mw-redirect" title="Running of the Interns">Running of the Interns</a>".<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> However, this practice has become passé as the Court now posts electronic copies of the opinions on its website as they are being announced.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> It is possible that through recusals or vacancies the court divides evenly on a case. If that occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but does not establish binding precedent. In effect, it results in a return to the <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a> ante. For a case to be heard, there must be a quorum of at least six justices.<a href="#cite_note-28_USC_1-218">[218]</a> If a quorum is not available to hear a case and a majority of qualified justices believes that the case cannot be heard and determined in the next term, then the judgment of the court below is affirmed as if the court had been evenly divided. For cases brought to the Supreme Court by direct appeal from a United States District Court, the chief justice may order the case <a href="/wiki/Remand_(court_procedure)" title="Remand (court procedure)">remanded</a> to the appropriate U.S. Court of Appeals for a final decision there.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> This has only occurred once in U.S. history, in the case of <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Alcoa" title="United States v. Alcoa">United States v. Alcoa</a> (1945).<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Published_opinions">Published opinions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Published opinions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2021)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The court's opinions are published in three stages. First, a <a href="/wiki/Slip_opinion" class="mw-redirect" title="Slip opinion">slip opinion</a> is made available on the court's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">United States Reports</a>, the official series of books in which the final version of the court's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of U.S. Reports is issued by the <a href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">Reporter of Decisions</a>. The individual volumes of U.S. Reports are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports (or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations) to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily. As of January 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit">[update]</a>, there are: <ul><li>Final bound volumes of U.S. Reports: 569 volumes, covering cases through June 13, 2013 (part of the October 2012 term).<a href="#cite_note-USRBV-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-USRv569-222">[222]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slip_opinion" class="mw-redirect" title="Slip opinion">Slip opinions</a>: 21 volumes (565–585 for 2011–2017 terms, three two-part volumes each), plus part 1 of volume 586 (2018 term).<a href="#cite_note-sliplists-223">[223]</a></li></ul> As of March 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit">[update]</a>, the U.S. Reports have published a total of 30,161 Supreme Court opinions, covering the decisions handed down from February 1790 to March 2012.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This figure does not reflect the number of cases the court has taken up, as several cases can be addressed by a single opinion (see, for example, <a href="/wiki/Parents_Involved_in_Community_Schools_v._Seattle_School_District_No._1" title="Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1">Parents v. Seattle</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Meredith_v._Jefferson_County_Board_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education">Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education</a> was also decided in the same opinion; by a similar logic, <a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a> actually decided not only Miranda but also three other cases: Vignera v. New York, Westover v. United States, and California v. Stewart). A more unusual example is <a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a>, which are a single set of interlinked opinions that take up the entire 126th volume of the U.S. Reports. Opinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Reporter" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court Reporter">Supreme Court Reporter</a>, published by <a href="/wiki/West_(publisher)" title="West (publisher)">West</a> (now a part of <a href="/wiki/Thomson_Reuters" title="Thomson Reuters">Thomson Reuters</a>), and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Reports,_Lawyers%27_Edition" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition">United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition</a> (simply known as Lawyers' Edition), published by <a href="/wiki/LexisNexis" title="LexisNexis">LexisNexis</a>. In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission is presented as Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n, 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with "S. Ct." representing the Supreme Court Reporter, and "L. Ed." representing the Lawyers' Edition.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Citations_to_published_opinions">Citations to published opinions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Citations to published opinions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Case_citation#Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Case citation">Case citation § Supreme Court of the United States</a></div> Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form "<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1003227249">.mw-parser-output .var-serif{font-family:"Nimbus Roman No9 L","Times New Roman",Times,serif;font-size:118%;line-height:1}</style><var class="var-serif">vol</var> U.S. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003227249"><var class="var-serif">page</var>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003227249"><var class="var-serif">pin</var> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003227249"><var class="var-serif">year</var>)", where <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003227249"><var class="var-serif">vol</var> is the volume number, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003227249"><var class="var-serif">page</var> is the page number on which the opinion begins, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003227249"><var class="var-serif">year</var> is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1003227249"><var class="var-serif">pin</var> is used to "pinpoint" to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for Roe v. Wade is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of U.S. Reports. For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with ___ <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supreme_Court_bar">Supreme Court bar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Supreme Court bar">edit</a>]</div> In order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The rest join for a one-time fee of $200, with the court collecting about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the chief justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Term">Term</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Term">edit</a>]</div> A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as "sittings" and "recesses"; justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings, and discuss cases and write opinions during recesses.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutional_powers">Institutional powers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Institutional powers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marbury_v_Madison_John_Marshall_by_Swatjester_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Marbury_v_Madison_John_Marshall_by_Swatjester_crop.jpg/220px-Marbury_v_Madison_John_Marshall_by_Swatjester_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Marbury_v_Madison_John_Marshall_by_Swatjester_crop.jpg/330px-Marbury_v_Madison_John_Marshall_by_Swatjester_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Marbury_v_Madison_John_Marshall_by_Swatjester_crop.jpg/440px-Marbury_v_Madison_John_Marshall_by_Swatjester_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>Inscription on the wall of the Supreme Court Building from <a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a>, in which Chief Justice John Marshall outlined the concept of judicial review</figcaption></figure> The federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>, in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way.<a href="#cite_note-google118-230">[230]</a> Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well-established precedent. Many of the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a> accepted the notion of judicial review; in <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._78" title="Federalist No. 78">Federalist No. 78</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> wrote: "A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, and the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute." The Supreme Court established its own power to declare laws unconstitutional in <a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a> (1803), consummating the American system of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers#Checks_and_balances" title="Separation of powers">checks and balances</a>. In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. His contention was not that the court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution.<a href="#cite_note-google118-230">[230]</a> This decision was criticized by then-President <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> who said, "the Constitution, on this hypothesis, is a mere thing of wax in the hands of the judiciary, which they may twist and shape into any form they please."<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> Since the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_ideals" title="Democratic ideals">democratic ideals</a> of <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">egalitarianism</a>, self-government, self-determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the federal judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being "the most separated and least checked of all branches of government."<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure "during good behavior", and their pay may "not be diminished" while they hold their position (<a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_1:_Federal_courts" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Section 1 of Article Three</a>). Although subject to the process of impeachment, only one justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government.<a href="#cite_note-google118-230">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constraints">Constraints</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Constraints">edit</a>]</div> The Supreme Court cannot directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of <a href="/wiki/Nonacquiescence" title="Nonacquiescence">nonacquiescence</a> came in 1832, when the state of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> ignored the Supreme Court's decision in <a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a>. President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, "<a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> has made his decision; now let him enforce it!"<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> Some state governments in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a> also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment Brown v. Board of Education. More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the court's order in <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon" title="United States v. Nixon">United States v. Nixon</a> (1974) to surrender the <a href="/wiki/Watergate_tapes" class="mw-redirect" title="Watergate tapes">Watergate tapes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> Nixon ultimately complied with the Supreme Court's ruling.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> Supreme Court decisions can be purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, something that has happened on six occasions:<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chisholm_v._Georgia" title="Chisholm v. Georgia">Chisholm v. Georgia</a> (1793) – overturned by the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a> (1857) – overturned by the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a> (1865) and the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollock_v._Farmers%27_Loan_%26_Trust_Co." title="Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.">Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.</a> (1895) – overturned by the <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixteenth Amendment</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_v._Happersett" title="Minor v. Happersett">Minor v. Happersett</a> (1875) – overturned by the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breedlove_v._Suttles" title="Breedlove v. Suttles">Breedlove v. Suttles</a> (1937) – overturned by the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_v._Mitchell" title="Oregon v. Mitchell">Oregon v. Mitchell</a> (1970) – overturned by the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-sixth Amendment</a> (1971)</li></ul> When the court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Lilly_Ledbetter_Fair_Pay_Act_of_2009" title="Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009">Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009</a>, superseding the limitations given in <a href="/wiki/Ledbetter_v._Goodyear_Tire_%26_Rubber_Co." title="Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.">Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.</a> in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> In addition, the other two branches can restrain the court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the president power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt's court-packing plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction_stripping" title="Jurisdiction stripping">restricts the jurisdiction</a> of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in <a href="/wiki/Article_3_(U.S._Constitution)#Section_2:_Federal_jurisdiction_and_trial_by_jury" class="mw-redirect" title="Article 3 (U.S. Constitution)">Section 2</a> of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted "with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make." The court sanctioned such congressional action in the Reconstruction Era case <a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_McCardle" title="Ex parte McCardle">ex parte McCardle</a> (1869), although it rejected Congress' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Klein" title="United States v. Klein">United States v. Klein</a> (1871).<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> On the other hand,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">tone</a>] through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Curtiss-Wright_Export_Corp." title="United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.">United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.</a> (1936), <a href="/wiki/Dames_%26_Moore_v._Regan" title="Dames & Moore v. Regan">Dames & Moore v. Regan</a> (1981), and notably in <a href="/wiki/Goldwater_v._Carter" title="Goldwater v. Carter">Goldwater v. Carter</a> (1979), which effectively gave the presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress. The court's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in <a href="/wiki/Humphrey%27s_Executor_v._United_States" title="Humphrey's Executor v. United States">Humphrey's Executor v. United States</a> (1935), the <a href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Steel Seizure Case</a> (1952), and <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon" title="United States v. Nixon">United States v. Nixon</a> (1974).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Law_clerks">Law clerks</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Law clerks">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Lists of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States">Lists of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></div> Each Supreme Court justice hires several <a href="/wiki/Law_clerk#Federal_clerkships" title="Law clerk">law clerks</a> to review petitions for writ of <a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_research" title="Legal research">research</a> them, prepare <a href="/wiki/Bench_memorandum" title="Bench memorandum">bench memorandums</a>, and draft opinions. Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four.<a href="#cite_note-Peppers2006-239">[239]</a> Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years. The first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/Horace_Gray" title="Horace Gray">Horace Gray</a> in 1882.<a href="#cite_note-Peppers2006-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weiden2006-240">[240]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a> were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent <a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">law school</a> graduates as clerks, rather than hiring "a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stenographer#Noun" class="extiw" title="wikt:stenographer">stenographer</a>-secretary."<a href="#cite_note-Chace2007-241">[241]</a> Most law clerks are recent law school graduates. The first female clerk was <a href="/wiki/Lucile_Lomen" title="Lucile Lomen">Lucile Lomen</a>, hired in 1944 by Justice <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Peppers2006-239">[239]</a> The first African-American, <a href="/wiki/William_T._Coleman_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William T. Coleman Jr.">William T. Coleman Jr.</a>, was hired in 1948 by Justice <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Peppers2006-239">[239]</a> A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62% of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School.<a href="#cite_note-Peppers2006-239">[239]</a> Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the <a href="/wiki/Law_review" title="Law review">law review</a> or a member of the <a href="/wiki/Moot_court" title="Moot court">moot court</a> board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Courts_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Courts of Appeals">federal court of appeals</a> had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice. Ten Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: <a href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">Byron White</a> for <a href="/wiki/Frederick_M._Vinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick M. Vinson">Frederick M. Vinson</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge" title="Wiley Rutledge">Wiley Rutledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> for <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a>, Stephen Breyer for <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Arthur Goldberg</a>, John Roberts for William Rehnquist, Elena Kagan for <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, Neil Gorsuch for both Byron White and <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a>, Brett Kavanaugh also for Kennedy, Amy Coney Barrett for <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a>, and Ketanji Brown Jackson for Stephen Breyer. Justices Gorsuch and Kavanaugh served under Kennedy during the same term. Gorsuch is the first justice to clerk for and subsequently serve alongside the same justice, serving alongside Kennedy from April 2017 through Kennedy's retirement in 2018. With the confirmation of Justice Kavanaugh, for the first time a majority of the Supreme Court was composed of former Supreme Court law clerks (Roberts, Breyer, Kagan, Gorsuch and Kavanaugh, now joined by Barrett and Jackson, who replaced Breyer). Several current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: John Roberts for Judge <a href="/wiki/Henry_Friendly" title="Henry Friendly">Henry Friendly</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit</a>, Justice <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a> for Judge <a href="/wiki/Leonard_I._Garth" title="Leonard I. Garth">Leonard I. Garth</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit</a>, Elena Kagan for Judge <a href="/wiki/Abner_J._Mikva" class="mw-redirect" title="Abner J. Mikva">Abner J. Mikva</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a> for Judge <a href="/wiki/David_B._Sentelle" title="David B. Sentelle">David B. Sentelle</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia</a>, Brett Kavanaugh for Judge <a href="/wiki/Walter_King_Stapleton" title="Walter King Stapleton">Walter Stapleton</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit</a> and Judge <a href="/wiki/Alex_Kozinski" title="Alex Kozinski">Alex Kozinski</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit</a>, and Amy Coney Barrett for Judge <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Silberman" title="Laurence Silberman">Laurence Silberman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Court_of_Appeals_for_the_D.C._Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit">U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politicization_of_the_court">Politicization of the court</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Politicization of the court">edit</a>]</div> Clerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. "Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s," according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of <a href="/wiki/Vanderbilt_University_Law_School" title="Vanderbilt University Law School">Vanderbilt University Law School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nyt090710-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> "As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts," former federal court of appeals judge <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Luttig" title="J. Michael Luttig">J. Michael Luttig</a> said.<a href="#cite_note-nyt090710-242">[242]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_J._Garrow" class="mw-redirect" title="David J. Garrow">David J. Garrow</a>, professor of history at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, stated that the court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. "We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives," Professor Garrow said. "Each side is putting forward only ideological purists."<a href="#cite_note-nyt090710-242">[242]</a> According to the Vanderbilt Law Review study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is "a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law."<a href="#cite_note-nyt090710-242">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_and_controversies">Criticism and controversies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Criticism and controversies">edit</a>]</div> The following are some of the criticisms and controversies about the Court that are not discussed in previous sections. Unlike in most high courts, the United States Supreme Court has <a href="/wiki/Life_tenure" title="Life tenure">lifetime tenure</a>, an unusual amount of power over elected branches of government, and a difficult constitution to amend.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> These, among other factors, have been attributed by some critics to the Court's diminished stature abroad<a href="#cite_note-Liptak-2008-245">[245]</a> and lower approval ratings at home, which have dropped from the mid-60s in the late 1980s to around 40% in the early 2020s. Additional factors cited by critics include the polarization of national politics, ethics scandals, and specific controversial partisan rulings, including the relaxation of <a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Campaign finance in the United States">campaign finance</a> rules,<a href="#cite_note-Stone-246">[246]</a> increased gerrymandering,<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> weakened voting rights,<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-249">[249]</a> The continued consolidation of power by the court and, as a result of its rulings, the Republican Party, has sparked debate over when <a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding" title="Democratic backsliding">democratic backsliding</a> becomes entrenched <a href="/wiki/Single-party_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-party rule">single-party rule</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-249">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Approval_ratings">Approval ratings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Approval ratings">edit</a>]</div> Public trust in the court peaked in the late 1980s. Since the 2022 <a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs</a> ruling that overturned Roe v. Wade and permitted states to restrict abortion rights, Democrats and independents have increasingly lost trust in the court, seen the court as political, and expressed support for reforming the institution.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> Historically, the court had relatively more trust than other government institutions.<a href="#cite_note-The_Christian_Science_Monitor_2024_a314-251">[251]</a> After recording recent high approval ratings in the late 1980s around 66% approval,<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> the court's ratings have declined to an average of around 40% between mid-2021 and February 2024.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition_and_selection">Composition and selection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Composition and selection">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate#Criticism" title="United States Senate">United States Senate § Criticism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College#Impacts_and_reception" title="United States Electoral College">United States Electoral College § Impacts and reception</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">electoral college</a> (which elects the President who nominates the justices) and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senate</a> which confirms the justices, have selection biases that favor rural states that tend to vote Republican, resulting in a conservative Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-Litt-2020-254">[254]</a> Ziblatt and Levitsky estimate that 3 or 4 of the seats held by conservative justices on the court would be held by justices appointed by a Democratic president if the Presidency and Senate were selected directly by the popular vote.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> The three Trump appointees to the court were all nominated by a president who finished second in the popular vote and confirmed by Senators representing a minority of Americans.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> In addition, Clarence Thomas' confirmation in 1991 and Merrick Garland's blocked confirmation in 2016 were both decided by senators representing a minority of Americans.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> Greg Price also critiqued the Court as <a href="/wiki/Minoritarianism" title="Minoritarianism">minority rule</a>.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> Moreover, the <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Society" title="Federalist Society">Federalist Society</a> acted as a filter for judicial nominations during the Trump administration,<a href="#cite_note-Federalistsociety-259">[259]</a> ensuring the latest conservative justices lean even further to the right.<a href="#cite_note-Litt-2020-254">[254]</a> 86% of judges Trump appointed to circuit courts and the Supreme Court were Federalist Society members.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> David Litt critiques it as "an attempt to impose rigid ideological dogma on a profession once known for intellectual freedom."<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> Kate Aronoff criticizes the donations from special interests like fossil fuel companies and other dark money groups to the Federalist Society and related organizations seeking to influence lawyers and Supreme Court Justices.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> The 2016 stonewalling of Merrick Garland's confirmation and subsequent filling with Neil Gorsuch has been critiqued as a 'stolen seat' citing precedent from the 20th century of confirmations during election years,<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> while proponents cited three blocked nominations between 1844 and 1866.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> In recent years, Democrats have accused Republican leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Mitch_McConnell" title="Mitch McConnell">Mitch McConnell</a> of hypocrisy, as they were instrumental in blocking the nomination of Merrick, but then rushing through the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a>, even though both vacancies occurred close to an election.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Ethics">edit</a>]</div> SCOTUS justices have come under greater scrutiny since 2022,<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> following public disclosures that began with the founder of <a href="/wiki/Faith_and_Action" title="Faith and Action">Faith and Action</a> admissions regarding the organization's long-term influence-peddling scheme, dubbed "Operation Higher Court", designed for wealthy donors among the religious right to gain access to the justices through events held by The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Historical_Society#Controversy" title="Supreme Court Historical Society">Supreme Court Historical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:12-268">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marimow-269">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> Ethical controversies have grown during the 2020s, with reports of justices (and their close family members) accepting expensive gifts, travel, business deals, and speaking fees without oversight or <a href="/wiki/Recusal" title="Recusal">recusals</a> from cases that present conflicts of interest.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT226-277">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> Spousal income and connections to cases has been redacted from the Justices' ethical disclosure forms<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> while justices, such as <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas#Nondisclosure_of_finances" title="Clarence Thomas">failed to disclose many large financial gifts</a> including free vacations valued at as much as $500,000.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> In 2024, Justices Alito and Thomas refused calls to recuse themselves from <a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6th</a> cases where their spouses have taken public stances or been involved in efforts to overturn the election.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-202405293-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-285">[285]</a> In 2017, Neil Gorsuch sold a property he co-owned for $1.8 million to the CEO of <a href="/wiki/Greenberg_Traurig" title="Greenberg Traurig">a prominent law firm</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:02-286">[286]</a> who was not listed on his ethics form when reporting a profit of between $250,000 and $500,000.<a href="#cite_note-:02-286">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> The criticism intensified after the 2024 <a href="/wiki/Trump_v._United_States_(2024)" title="Trump v. United States (2024)">Trump v. United States</a> decision granted broad immunity to presidents, with Representative <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez</a> saying she would introduce impeachment articles when Congress is back in session.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> On July 10, 2024, she filed Articles of Impeachment against Thomas and Alito, citing their "widely documented financial and personal entanglements."<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-Impeach-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> As of late July, 2024, nearly 1.4 million people had signed a <a href="/wiki/Moveon.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Moveon.org">moveon.org</a> petition asking Congress to remove Justice Thomas.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> President Biden proposed term limits for justices, an enforceable ethics code, and elimination of "immunity for crimes a former president committed while in office".<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> Yale professor of constitutional law <a href="/wiki/Akhil_Reed_Amar" title="Akhil Reed Amar">Akhil Reed Amar</a> wrote an op-ed for <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a> titled Something Has Gone Deeply Wrong at the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> Other criticisms of the Court include weakening <a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">corruption</a> laws impacting branches beyond the judiciary<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> and citing falsehoods in written opinions, often supplied to the justices by amicus briefs from groups advocating a particular outcome.<a href="#cite_note-:5-212">[212]</a> Allison Orr Larsen, Associate Dean at <a href="/wiki/William_%26_Mary_Law_School" title="William & Mary Law School">William & Mary Law School</a>, wrote in <a href="/wiki/Politico" title="Politico">Politico</a> that the court should address this by requiring disclosure of all funders of amicus briefs and the studies they cite, only admit briefs that stay within the expertise of the authors (as is required in lower courts), and require the briefs to be submitted much earlier in the process so the history and facts have time to be challenged and uncovered.<a href="#cite_note-:4-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Code of Conduct">edit</a>]</div> On November 13, 2023, the court issued its first-ever <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Conduct_for_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Code of Conduct for Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">Code of Conduct for Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States</a> to set "ethics rules and principles that guide the conduct of the Members of the Court."<a href="#cite_note-Sherman-301">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> The Code has been received by some as a significant first step<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> but does not address the ethics concerns of many notable critics who found the Code was a significantly weakened version of the rules for other federal judges, let alone the legislature and the executive branch, while also lacking an enforcement mechanism.<a href="#cite_note-Sherman-301">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> The Code's commentary denied past wrongdoing by saying that the Justices have largely abided by these principles and are simply publishing them now.<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barnes_Marimow_2023_b419-308">[308]</a> This has prompted some criticism that the court hopes to legitimize past and future scandals through this Code.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> The ethics rules guiding the justices are set and enforced by the justices themselves, meaning the members of the court have no external checks on their behavior other than the impeachment of a justice by Congress.<a href="#cite_note-brennancenter.org-2019-311">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marimow-269">[269]</a> Chief Justice Roberts refused to testify before the Senate Judiciary Committee in April 2023, reasserting his desire for the Supreme Court to continue to monitor itself despite mounting <a href="#Ethics">ethics scandals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> Lower courts, by contrast, <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_judge#Discipline" title="United States federal judge">discipline</a> according to the 1973 Code of Conduct for U.S. judges which is enforced by the Judicial Conduct and Disability Act of 1980.<a href="#cite_note-brennancenter.org-2019-311">[311]</a> Article III, Section I of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a> (1776) establishes that the justices hold their office during good behavior. Thus far only one justice (Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</a> in 1804) has ever been impeached, and none has ever been removed from office.<a href="#cite_note-SCchase-113">[113]</a> The lack of external enforcement of ethics or other conduct violations makes the Supreme Court an outlier in modern organizational best-practices.<a href="#cite_note-brennancenter.org-2019-311">[311]</a> 2024 reform legislation has been blocked by congressional Republicans.<a href="#cite_note-:1-285">[285]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Democratic_backsliding">Democratic backsliding</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Democratic backsliding">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding_in_the_United_States" title="Democratic backsliding in the United States">Democratic backsliding in the United States</a></div> Thomas Keck argues that because the Court has historically not served as a strong bulwark for democracy, the Roberts Court has the opportunity to go down in history as a defender of democracy. However, he believes that if the court shields Trump from criminal prosecution (after ensuring his access to the ballot), then the risks that come with an anti-democratic status-quo of the current court will outweigh the dangers that come from court reform (including court packing).<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aziz_Z._Huq" class="mw-redirect" title="Aziz Z. Huq">Aziz Z. Huq</a> points to the blocking progress of democratizing institutions, <a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">increasing the disparity</a> in wealth and power, and empowering an <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> <a href="/wiki/White_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="White nationalist">white nationalist</a> movement as evidence that the Supreme Court has created a "permanent minority" incapable of being defeated democratically.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</a> published an op-ed on July 3, 2024, by <a href="/wiki/Dahlia_Lithwick" title="Dahlia Lithwick">Dahlia Lithwick</a> and Mark Joseph Stern criticizing several recent decisions, stating:<blockquote>The Supreme Court's conservative supermajority has, in recent weeks, restructured American democracy in the Republican Party's preferred image, fundamentally altering the balance of power between the branches and the citizens themselves.... In the course of its most recent term that conservative supermajority has created a monarchical presidency, awarding the chief executive near-insurmountable immunity from accountability for any and all crimes committed during a term in office. It has seized power from Congress, strictly limiting lawmakers' ability to write broad laws that tackle the major crises of the moment. And it has hobbled federal agencies' authority to apply existing statutes to problems on the ground, substituting the expert opinions of civil servants with the (often partisan) preferences of unelected judges. All the while, the court has placed itself at the apex of the state, agreeing to share power only with a strongman president who seeks to govern in line with the conservative justices' vision.<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Individual_rights">Individual rights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Individual rights">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Example_farm plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may contain <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lists#List_size" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lists">excessive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">irrelevant</a> examples. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit">improve the article</a> by adding descriptive text and removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Example_cruft" title="Wikipedia:Example cruft">less pertinent examples</a>. (March 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Some of the most notable historical decisions that were criticized for failing to protect individual rights include the <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott</a> (1857) decision that said people of African descent could not be U.S. citizens or enjoy constitutionally protected rights and privileges,<a href="#cite_note-tws22oct16-316">[316]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896) that upheld <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">segregation</a> under the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-tws23oct04-317">[317]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a> (1883) and <a href="/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases" title="Slaughter-House Cases">Slaughter-House Cases</a> (1873) that all but undermined civil rights legislation enacted during the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> However, others argue that the court is too protective of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Warren_Burger" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren Burger">Warren Burger</a> criticized the <a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_rule" title="Exclusionary rule">exclusionary rule</a>, and Justice <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a> criticized <a href="/wiki/Boumediene_v._Bush" title="Boumediene v. Bush">Boumediene v. Bush</a> for being too protective of the rights of <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Detention_Camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp">Guantanamo</a> detainees, arguing <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a> should be limited to sovereign territory.<a href="#cite_note-tws30oct05-319">[319]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Defend_Roe_v_Wade_0022_(52061702833).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Defend_Roe_v_Wade_0022_%2852061702833%29.jpg/220px-Defend_Roe_v_Wade_0022_%2852061702833%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Defend_Roe_v_Wade_0022_%2852061702833%29.jpg/330px-Defend_Roe_v_Wade_0022_%2852061702833%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Defend_Roe_v_Wade_0022_%2852061702833%29.jpg/440px-Defend_Roe_v_Wade_0022_%2852061702833%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3122" data-file-height="2343" /></a><figcaption>Protestors in support of keeping <a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></figcaption></figure> After <a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a> overturned nearly 50 years of precedent set by <a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a>, some experts expressed concern that this may be the beginning of a rollback of individual rights that had been previously established under the <a href="/wiki/Substantive_due_process" title="Substantive due process">substantive due process</a> principle, in part because Justice <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> wrote in his concurring opinion in Dobbs that the decision should prompt the court to reconsider all of the court's past substantive due process decisions.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_NewsHour-2022-320">[320]</a> Due process rights claimed to be at risk are:<a href="#cite_note-PBS_NewsHour-2022-320">[320]</a> <ul><li>The right to privacy, including a right to contraceptives. Established in <a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a> (1965).</li> <li>The right to privacy with regard to private sexual acts. Established in <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a> (2003).</li> <li>The right to marry an individual of the same sex. Established in <a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a> (2015).</li></ul> Some experts such as <a href="/wiki/Melissa_Murray_(academic)" title="Melissa Murray (academic)">Melissa Murray</a>, law professor at <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_School_of_Law" title="New York University School of Law">N.Y.U. School of Law</a>, have claimed that protections for interracial marriage, established in <a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a> (1967), may also be at risk.<a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> Other experts such as <a href="/wiki/Josh_Blackman" title="Josh Blackman">Josh Blackman</a>, law professor at <a href="/wiki/South_Texas_College_of_Law_Houston" title="South Texas College of Law Houston">South Texas College of Law Houston</a>, argued that Loving actually relied more heavily upon <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> grounds than substantive due process.<a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a> Substantive due process has also been the primary vehicle used by the Supreme Court to <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporate the Bill of Rights</a> against state and local governments.<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> referred to it as '<a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">legal fiction</a>,'<a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a> preferring the <a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities Clause</a> for incorporating the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> However, outside of <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a>'s commentary in <a href="/wiki/Timbs_v._Indiana" title="Timbs v. Indiana">Timbs v. Indiana</a>, Thomas has received little support for this viewpoint.<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_activism">Judicial activism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Judicial activism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Example_farm plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may contain <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lists#List_size" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lists">excessive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">irrelevant</a> examples. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit">improve the article</a> by adding descriptive text and removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Example_cruft" title="Wikipedia:Example cruft">less pertinent examples</a>. (March 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Supreme Court has been criticized for engaging in <a href="/wiki/Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">judicial activism</a>. This criticism is leveled by those who believe the court should not interpret the law in any way besides through the lens of past precedent or <a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a>. However, those on both sides of the political aisle often level this accusation at the court. The debate around judicial activism typically involves accusing the other side of activism, whilst denying that your own side engages in it.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a><a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> Conservatives often cite the decision in <a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a> (1973) as an example of liberal judicial activism. In its decision, the court legalized abortion on the basis of a "right to privacy" that they found inherent in the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-judicialactivismOxford-329">[329]</a> Roe v. Wade was overturned nearly fifty years later by <a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson" class="mw-redirect" title="Dobbs v. Jackson">Dobbs v. Jackson</a> (2022), ending the recognition of abortion access as a constitutional right and returning the issue of abortion back to the states. <a href="/wiki/David_Litt" title="David Litt">David Litt</a> criticized the decision in Dobbs as activism on the part of the court's conservative majority because the court failed to respect past precedent, eschewing the principle of <a href="/wiki/Stare_decisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stare decisis">Stare decisis</a> that usually guides the court's decisions.<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> The decision in <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>, which banned racial segregation in public schools was also criticized as activist by conservatives <a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Pat Buchanan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-tws23oct71-331">[331]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tws22oct33-333">[333]</a> More recently, <a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission">Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission</a> was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in <a href="/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti" title="First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti">First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti</a> (1978) that the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> applies to corporations.<a href="#cite_note-Stone-246">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outdated_and_an_outlier">Outdated and an outlier</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Outdated and an outlier">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Policy" title="Foreign Policy">Foreign Policy</a> writer Colm Quinn says that a criticism leveled at the court, as well as other American institutions, is that after two centuries they are beginning to look their age. He cites four features of the United States Supreme Court that make it different from high courts in other countries, and help explain why polarization is an issue in the United States court:<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a> <ul><li>It is high-profile: the high court in the United States is one of the few courts in the world that can unilaterally strike down legislation passed by other politically accountable branches.</li> <li>The United States Constitution <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States#Difficult_to_amend" title="Constitution of the United States">is very difficult to amend</a>: other countries allow for constitutional changes via referendum or with a supermajority in the legislature.</li> <li>The United States Supreme Court has a politicized nominating process.</li> <li>The United States Supreme Court lacks term limits or mandatory retirements.</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Liptak" title="Adam Liptak">Adam Liptak</a> wrote in 2008 that the court has declined in relevance in other constitutional courts. He cites factors like <a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a>, the relatively few updates to the constitution or the courts, the rightward shift of the court and the diminished stature of the United States abroad.<a href="#cite_note-Liptak-2008-245">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power">Power</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Power">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Waldman" title="Michael Waldman">Michael Waldman</a> argued that no other country gives its Supreme Court as much power.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> Warren E. Burger, before becoming Chief Justice, argued that since the Supreme Court has such "unreviewable power", it is likely to "self-indulge itself", and unlikely to "engage in dispassionate analysis."<a href="#cite_note-twsvsfs32-336">[336]</a> <a href="/wiki/Larry_Sabato" title="Larry Sabato">Larry Sabato</a> wrote that the federal courts, and especially the Supreme Court, have excessive power.<a href="#cite_note-tws23oct16-101">[101]</a> Suja A. Thomas argues the Supreme Court has taken most of the constitutionally-defined power from <a href="/wiki/Juries_in_the_United_States" title="Juries in the United States">juries in the United States</a> for itself<a href="#cite_note-:022-337">[337]</a> thanks in part to the influence of legal elites and companies that prefer judges over juries<a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> as well as the inability of the jury to defend its power.<a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a> Some members of Congress considered the results from the 2021–2022 term a shift of government power into the Supreme Court, and a "judicial coup".<a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a> The 2021–2022 term of the court was the first full term following the appointment of three judges by Republican president <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> — <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Brett Kavanaugh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a> — which created a six-strong conservative majority on the court. Subsequently, at the end of the term, the court issued a number of decisions that favored this conservative majority while significantly changing the landscape with respect to rights. These included <a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a> which overturned <a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a> in recognizing abortion is not a constitutional right, <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Rifle_%26_Pistol_Association,_Inc._v._Bruen" title="New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen">New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen</a> which made public possession of guns a protected right under the Second Amendment, <a href="/wiki/Carson_v._Makin" title="Carson v. Makin">Carson v. Makin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_v._Bremerton_School_District" title="Kennedy v. Bremerton School District">Kennedy v. Bremerton School District</a> which both weakened the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a> separating church and state, and <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_v._EPA" title="West Virginia v. EPA">West Virginia v. EPA</a> which weakened the power of executive branch agencies to interpret their congressional mandate.<a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a><a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Federalism_debate">Federalism debate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Federalism debate">edit</a>]</div> There has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a><a href="#cite_note-tws24oct22-344">[344]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a><a href="#cite_note-tws24oct47-345">[345]</a> argued in <a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a> that their then-proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments,<a href="#cite_note-tws27oct501-346">[346]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws27oct502-347">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws27oct503-348">[348]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws27oct504-349">[349]</a> others argue that expansive <a href="/wiki/Federal_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal power">federal power</a> is good and consistent with the Framers' wishes.<a href="#cite_note-tws24oct10-350">[350]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> explicitly states that "powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." The court has been criticized for giving the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Government_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Government of the United States">federal government</a> too much power to interfere with state authority.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-tws30oct08-351">[351]</a> Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> asserted Congress's power over interstate commerce was "complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution."<a href="#cite_note-tws27oct505-352">[352]</a> Justice Alito said congressional authority under the Commerce Clause is "quite broad";<a href="#cite_note-tws30oct09-353">[353]</a> modern-day theorist <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Reich" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert B. Reich">Robert B. Reich</a> suggests debate over the Commerce Clause continues today.<a href="#cite_note-tws27oct505-352">[352]</a> Advocates of <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a>, such as constitutional scholar <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Gutzman" title="Kevin Gutzman">Kevin Gutzman</a>, have also criticized the court, saying it has misused the Fourteenth Amendment to undermine state authority. Justice <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a>, in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be <a href="/wiki/Laboratories_of_democracy" title="Laboratories of democracy">laboratories of democracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tws30oct03-354">[354]</a> One critic wrote "the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law."<a href="#cite_note-tws23oct15-355">[355]</a> Others see the Fourteenth Amendment as a positive force that extends "protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level."<a href="#cite_note-tws30oct02-356">[356]</a> More recently, in <a href="/wiki/Gamble_v._United_States" title="Gamble v. United States">Gamble v. United States</a>, the Court examined the doctrine of "<a href="/wiki/Separate_sovereigns" class="mw-redirect" title="Separate sovereigns">separate sovereigns</a>", whereby a criminal defendant can be prosecuted in state court as well as federal court on separate charges for the same offense.<a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a><a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ruling_on_political_questions">Ruling on political questions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Ruling on political questions">edit</a>]</div> Some Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the elected branches of government. The Bush v. Gore decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election, awarding <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> the presidency over <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a>, received scrutiny as political based on the controversial justifications used by the five conservative justices to elevate a fellow conservative to the presidency.<a href="#cite_note-tws23oct12-359">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws23oct04-317">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws22oct40-360">[360]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws23oct01-361">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws23oct08-362">[362]</a> The ruling was also controversial in applying logic only for that race, as opposed to drawing on or creating consistent precedent.<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secretive_proceedings">Secretive proceedings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Secretive proceedings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Shadow_docket" title="Shadow docket">Shadow docket</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_leaks" title="List of United States Supreme Court leaks">List of United States Supreme Court leaks</a></div> The court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view.<a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a><a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a> For example, the increasing use of a '<a href="/wiki/Shadow_docket" title="Shadow docket">shadow docket</a>' facilitates the court making decisions in secret without knowing how each Justice came to their decision.<a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a><a href="#cite_note-367">[367]</a> In 2024, after comparing the analysis of shadow-docket decisions to <a href="/wiki/Kremlinology" title="Kremlinology">Kremlinology</a>, Matt Ford called this trend of secrecy "increasingly troubling", arguing the court's power comes entirely from persuasion and explanation.<a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a> A 2007 review of <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Toobin" title="Jeffrey Toobin">Jeffrey Toobin</a>'s book compared the Court to a cartel where its inner-workings are mostly unknown, arguing this lack of transparency reduces scrutiny which hurts ordinary Americans who know little about the nine extremely consequential Justices.<a href="#cite_note-tws23oct12-359">[359]</a> A 2010 poll found that 61% of American voters agreed that <a href="/wiki/Cameras_in_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Cameras in the Supreme Court of the United States">televising Court hearings</a> would "be good for democracy", and 50% of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised.<a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a><a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Too_few_cases">Too few cases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Too few cases">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ian_Millhiser" title="Ian Millhiser">Ian Millhiser</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vox_Media" title="Vox Media">Vox</a> speculates that the decades-long decline in cases heard could be due to the increasing political makeup of judges, that he says might be more interested in settling political disputes than legal ones.<a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Too_slow">Too slow</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Too slow">edit</a>]</div> British constitutional scholar <a href="/wiki/Adam_Tomkins" title="Adam Tomkins">Adam Tomkins</a> sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened.<a href="#cite_note-tws23oct77-372">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws2nov02-373">[373]</a> In contrast, various other countries have a dedicated <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_court" title="Constitutional court">constitutional court</a> that has original jurisdiction on constitutional claims brought by persons or political institutions; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Constitutional_Court_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Constitutional Court of Germany">Federal Constitutional Court of Germany</a>, which can declare a law unconstitutional when challenged. Critics have accused the Court of "slow-walking" important cases relating to former President Donald Trump in order to benefit his election chances in the face of the <a href="/wiki/2024_United_States_presidential_election" title="2024 United States presidential election">2024 United States presidential election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-374">[374]</a> The Court is considering a <a href="/wiki/Federal_prosecution_of_Donald_Trump_(election_obstruction_case)#Immunity_dispute" title="Federal prosecution of Donald Trump (election obstruction case)">Presidential immunity claim</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_prosecution_of_Donald_Trump_(election_obstruction_case)" title="Federal prosecution of Donald Trump (election obstruction case)">Federal prosecution of Donald Trump (election obstruction case)</a>. Critics argue that the Court has acted slowly in order to delay this case until after the election. They point out that the Court can move quickly when it wants to, as it did when it disregarded typical procedures in <a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a>, granting the petition on a Saturday, receiving briefs on Sunday, holding oral arguments on Monday, and issuing the final opinion on Tuesday.<a href="#cite_note-:2-374">[374]</a> Author Sonja West, of <a href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</a>, argues that the <a href="/wiki/Federal_prosecution_of_Donald_Trump_(election_obstruction_case)" title="Federal prosecution of Donald Trump (election obstruction case)">Federal prosecution of Donald Trump (election obstruction case)</a> is of similar importance to <a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a> and should therefore be treated as expeditiously, but the Court seems to be taking the opposite approach.<a href="#cite_note-:2-374">[374]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leaks_and_inadvertent_publications">Leaks and inadvertent publications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Leaks and inadvertent publications">edit</a>]</div> Sometimes draft opinions are deliberately <a href="/wiki/News_leak" title="News leak">leaked</a> or inadvertently released before they are published. Such <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_leaks" title="List of United States Supreme Court leaks">releases</a> are often purported to harm the court's reputation.<a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a> Chief Justice Roberts has previously described leaks as an "egregious breach of trust" that "undermine the integrity of our operations" in reference to the leaked draft opinion for <a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a> In addition to leaks, the Court has sometimes mistakenly released opinions before they are ready to be published. On June 26, 2024, the Court inadvertently posted an opinion for <a href="/wiki/Moyle_v._United_States" title="Moyle v. United States">Moyle v. United States</a> to its website that seemed to indicate that the court will temporarily allow abortions in medical emergencies in Idaho.<a href="#cite_note-377">[377]</a> The official opinion was posted the next day, which returned the case to the lower courts without a ruling on the merits. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_appointment_history_for_United_States_federal_courts" title="Judicial appointment history for United States federal courts">Judicial appointment history for United States federal courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_courts_which_publish_audio_or_video_of_arguments" title="List of courts which publish audio or video of arguments">List of courts which publish audio or video of arguments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pending_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" title="List of pending United States Supreme Court cases">List of pending United States Supreme Court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_by_judicial_appointments" title="List of presidents of the United States by judicial appointments">List of presidents of the United States by judicial appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supreme_courts_by_country" title="List of supreme courts by country">List of supreme courts by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" title="Lists of United States Supreme Court cases">Lists of United States Supreme Court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_judicial_decision_making" title="Models of judicial decision making">Models of judicial decision making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selected_landmark_Supreme_Court_decisions">Selected landmark Supreme Court decisions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Selected landmark Supreme Court decisions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States" title="List of landmark court decisions in the United States">List of landmark court decisions in the United States</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a> (1803, judicial review)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCulloch_v._Maryland" title="McCulloch v. Maryland">McCulloch v. Maryland</a> (1819, implied powers)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbons_v._Ogden" title="Gibbons v. Ogden">Gibbons v. Ogden</a> (1824, interstate commerce)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a> (1857, slavery)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a> (1883, civil rights law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896, separate but equal treatment of races)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a> (1905, labor law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" title="Buck v. Bell">Buck v. Bell</a> (1927, upheld <a href="/wiki/Forced_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced sterilization">forced sterilization</a> laws)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wickard_v._Filburn" title="Wickard v. Filburn">Wickard v. Filburn</a> (1942, federal regulation of economic activity)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Korematsu v. U.S.">Korematsu v. U.S.</a> (1942, <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">Japanese internment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> (1954, school segregation of races)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a> (1962, state-sponsored prayers in <a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">public schools</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abington_School_District_v._Schempp" title="Abington School District v. Schempp">Abington School District v. Schempp</a> (1963, <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> readings and recitation of the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a> in U.S. public schools)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a> (1963, right to an attorney)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a> (1965, contraception)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a> (1966, rights of those detained by police)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a> (1967, interracial marriage)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemon_v._Kurtzman" title="Lemon v. Kurtzman">Lemon v. Kurtzman</a> (1971, religious activities in public schools)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_States" title="New York Times Co. v. United States">New York Times Co. v. United States</a> (1971, freedom of the press)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenstadt_v._Baird" title="Eisenstadt v. Baird">Eisenstadt v. Baird</a> (1972, contraception)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a> (1973, <a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">abortion</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miller_v._California" title="Miller v. California">Miller v. California</a> (1973, obscenity)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon" title="United States v. Nixon">United States v. Nixon</a> (1974, executive privilege)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</a> (1976, campaign finance)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevron_U.S.A.,_Inc._v._Natural_Resources_Defense_Council,_Inc." title="Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.">Chevron v. N.R.D.C.</a> (1984, most cited administrative law case, overturned in 2024 by <a href="/wiki/Loper_Bright_Enterprises_v._Raimondo" title="Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo">Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo</a>)<a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a> (2000, presidential election)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a> (2003, sodomy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a> (2008, gun rights)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</a> (2010, campaign finance)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Windsor" title="United States v. Windsor">United States v. Windsor</a> (2013, same-sex marriage)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder" title="Shelby County v. Holder">Shelby County v. Holder</a> (2013, voting rights)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a> (2015, same-sex marriage)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bostock_v._Clayton_County" title="Bostock v. Clayton County">Bostock v. Clayton County</a> (2020, discrimination on <a href="/wiki/LGBT_employment_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="LGBT employment discrimination in the United States">LGBT workers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a> (2020, <a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">tribal reservation rights</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a> (2022, abortion)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Rifle_and_Pistol_Association_v._Bruen" class="mw-redirect" title="New York State Rifle and Pistol Association v. Bruen">New York State Rifle and Pistol Association v. Bruen</a> (2022, firearms)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._Harvard" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard">Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard</a> (2023, <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loper_Bright_Enterprises_v._Raimondo" title="Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo">Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo</a> (2024, overruled <a href="/wiki/Chevron_deference" class="mw-redirect" title="Chevron deference">Chevron deference</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._United_States_(2024)" title="Trump v. United States (2024)">Trump v. United States (2024)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidential_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential immunity">Presidential immunity</a>)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLawsonSeidman2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_S._Lawson" title="Gary S. 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This was narrowed by the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</a> to exclude suits against states that are brought by persons who are not citizens of that state. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurley" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Turley" title="Jonathan Turley">Turley, Jonathan</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/3/essays/104/good-behavior-clause">"Essays on Article III: Good Behavior Clause"</a>. Heritage Guide to the Constitution. 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New York: Attorney Street Editions. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-61599-283-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-61599-283-9"><bdi>978-0-61599-283-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+York%27s+Legal+Landmarks%3A+A+Guide+to+Legal+Edifices%2C+Institutions%2C+Lore%2C+History%2C+and+Curiosities+on+the+City%27s+Streets&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Attorney+Street+Editions&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-61599-283-9&rft.aulast=Pigott&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SCbuilding-13"><a href="#cite_ref-SCbuilding_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/buildinghistory.aspx">"Building History"</a>. Washington, D.C.: Supreme Court of the United States. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201205095102/https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/buildinghistory.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on December 5, 2020. Retrieved September 3, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Building+History&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fabout%2Fbuildinghistory.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshmore2006" class="citation web cs1">Ashmore, Anne (August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/datesofdecisions.pdf">"Dates of Supreme Court decisions and arguments, United States Reports volumes 2–107 (1791–82)"</a> (PDF). Library, Supreme Court of the United States. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723204125/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/datesofdecisions.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on July 23, 2011. Retrieved April 26, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dates+of+Supreme+Court+decisions+and+arguments%2C+United+States+Reports+volumes+2%E2%80%93107+%281791%E2%80%9382%29&rft.pub=Library%2C+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.date=2006-08&rft.aulast=Ashmore&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2Fdatesofdecisions.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShugerman" class="citation journal cs1">Shugerman, Jed. "A Six-Three Rule: Reviving Consensus and Deference on the Supreme Court". <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Law_Review" title="Georgia Law Review">Georgia Law Review</a>. 37: 893.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Georgia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=A+Six-Three+Rule%3A+Reviving+Consensus+and+Deference+on+the+Supreme+Court&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=893&rft.aulast=Shugerman&rft.aufirst=Jed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Irons, Peter. A People's History of the Supreme Court, p. 101 (Penguin 2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct01-17"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct01_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerber1998" class="citation news cs1">Gerber, Scott Douglas, ed. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0tEkU5LiYsQC&pg=PA1">"Seriatim: The Supreme Court Before John Marshall"</a>. New York University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-3114-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-3114-7"><bdi>0-8147-3114-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511112038/http://books.google.com/books?id=0tEkU5LiYsQC&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Finally many scholars cite the absence of a separate Supreme Court building as evidence that the early Court lacked prestige.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Seriatim%3A+The+Supreme+Court+Before+John+Marshall&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8147-3114-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0tEkU5LiYsQC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_F._Manning" title="John F. Manning">Manning, John F.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/ylj/vol113/iss8/1">"The Eleventh Amendment and the Reading of Precise Constitutional Texts"</a>. Yale Law Journal. 113 (8): 1663–1750. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4135780">10.2307/4135780</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-0094">0044-0094</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4135780">4135780</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190716011024/https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/ylj/vol113/iss8/1/">Archived</a> from the original on July 16, 2019. Retrieved July 16, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Eleventh+Amendment+and+the+Reading+of+Precise+Constitutional+Texts&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1663-1750&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0044-0094&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4135780%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4135780&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.law.yale.edu%2Fylj%2Fvol113%2Fiss8%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct02-19"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct02_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEpps2004" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Epps" title="Garrett Epps">Epps, Garrett</a> (October 24, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A56446-2004Oct23.html">"Don't Do It, Justices"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201126212512/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A56446-2004Oct23.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The court's prestige has been hard-won. In the early 1800s, Chief Justice John Marshall made the court respected</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Don%27t+Do+It%2C+Justices&rft.date=2004-10-24&rft.aulast=Epps&rft.aufirst=Garrett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Farticles%2FA56446-2004Oct23.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> The Supreme Court had first used the power of judicial review in the case <a href="/wiki/Ware_v._Hylton" title="Ware v. Hylton">Ware v. Hylton</a>, (1796), wherein it overturned a state law that conflicted with a treaty between the United States and Great Britain. </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct05-21"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct05_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen2009" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Rosen_(legal_academic)" title="Jeffrey Rosen (legal academic)">Rosen, Jeffrey</a> (July 5, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/02/AR2009070202033.html">"Black Robe Politics"</a> (book review of Packing the Court by James MacGregor Burns). The Washington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200814121507/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/02/AR2009070202033.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 14, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>From the beginning, Burns continues, the Court has established its "supremacy" over the president and Congress because of Chief Justice John Marshall's "brilliant political coup" in Marbury v. Madison (1803): asserting a power to strike down unconstitutional laws.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Black+Robe+Politics&rft.date=2009-07-05&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F07%2F02%2FAR2009070202033.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct09-22"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct09_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030920031130/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page19.htm">"The People's Vote: 100 Documents that Shaped America – Marbury v. Madison (1803)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report" title="U.S. News & World Report">U.S. News & World Report</a>. 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page19.htm">the original</a> on September 20, 2003. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>With his decision in Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall established the principle of judicial review, an important addition to the system of 'checks and balances' created to prevent any one branch of the Federal Government from becoming too powerful...A Law repugnant to the Constitution is void.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=The+People%27s+Vote%3A+100+Documents+that+Shaped+America+%E2%80%93+Marbury+v.+Madison+%281803%29&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fusnews%2Fdocuments%2Fdocpages%2Fdocument_page19.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct03-23"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct03_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSloanMcKean2009" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cliff_Sloan" title="Cliff Sloan">Sloan, Cliff</a>; McKean, David (February 21, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/id/185803">"Why Marbury V. Madison Still Matters"</a>. Newsweek. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090802063642/http://www.newsweek.com/id/185803">Archived</a> from the original on August 2, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>More than 200 years after the high court ruled, the decision in that landmark case continues to resonate.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Why+Marbury+V.+Madison+Still+Matters&rft.date=2009-02-21&rft.aulast=Sloan&rft.aufirst=Cliff&rft.au=McKean%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Fid%2F185803&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct08-24"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct08_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1893/02/27/106861891.pdf">"The Constitution in Law: Its Phases Construed by the Federal Supreme Court"</a> (PDF). The New York Times. February 27, 1893. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201217003220/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1893/02/27/106861891.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on December 17, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The decision … in Martin vs. Hunter's Lessee is the authority on which lawyers and Judges have rested the doctrine that where there is in question, in the highest court of a State, and decided adversely to the validity of a State statute... such claim is reviewable by the Supreme Court ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Constitution+in+Law%3A+Its+Phases+Construed+by+the+Federal+Supreme+Court&rft.date=1893-02-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1893%2F02%2F27%2F106861891.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct04-25"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct04_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGinsburgStevensSouterBreyer2000" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ginsburg, Ruth Bader</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">Stevens, John P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">Souter, David</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Breyer, Stephen</a> (December 13, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100525001613/https://www.usatoday.com/news/vote2000/pres246.htm">"Dissenting opinions in Bush v. Gore"</a>. <a href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/vote2000/pres246.htm">the original</a> on May 25, 2010. Retrieved December 8, 2019. <q>Rarely has this Court rejected outright an interpretation of state law by a state high court … The Virginia court refused to obey this Court's Fairfax's Devisee mandate to enter judgment for the British subject's successor in interest. That refusal led to the Court's pathmarking decision in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 1 Wheat. 304 (1816).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Dissenting+opinions+in+Bush+v.+Gore&rft.date=2000-12-13&rft.aulast=Ginsburg&rft.aufirst=Ruth+Bader&rft.au=Stevens%2C+John+P.&rft.au=Souter%2C+David&rft.au=Breyer%2C+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fnews%2Fvote2000%2Fpres246.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct06-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct06_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct06_26-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/02/03/105757962.pdf">"Decisions of the Supreme Court – Historic Decrees Issued in One Hundred and Eleven Years"</a> (PDF). The New York Times. February 3, 1901. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201205132522/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/02/03/105757962.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on December 5, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Very important also was the decision in Martin vs. Hunter's lessee, in which the court asserted its authority to overrule, within certain limits, the decisions of the highest State courts.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Decisions+of+the+Supreme+Court+%E2%80%93+Historic+Decrees+Issued+in+One+Hundred+and+Eleven+Years&rft.date=1901-02-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1901%2F02%2F03%2F105757962.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct11-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct11_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct11_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429054303/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A58066-2000Oct2&notFound=true">"The Supreme Quiz"</a>. The Washington Post. October 2, 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A58066-2000Oct2&notFound=true">the original</a> on April 29, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>According to the Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, Marshall's most important innovation was to persuade the other justices to stop seriatim opinions—each issuing one—so that the court could speak in a single voice. Since the mid-1940s, however, there's been a significant increase in individual 'concurring' and 'dissenting' opinions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Quiz&rft.date=2000-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fac2%2Fwp-dyn%3Fpagename%3Darticle%26contentId%3DA58066-2000Oct2%26notFound%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct10-28"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct10_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlater2008" class="citation news cs1">Slater, Dan (April 18, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.wsj.com/law/2008/04/18/justice-stevens-on-the-death-penalty-a-promise-of-fairness-unfulfilled/">"Justice Stevens on the Death Penalty: A Promise of Fairness Unfulfilled"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200814121458/https://blogs.wsj.com/law/2008/04/18/justice-stevens-on-the-death-penalty-a-promise-of-fairness-unfulfilled/">Archived</a> from the original on August 14, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The first Chief Justice, John Marshall set out to do away with seriatim opinions–a practice originating in England in which each appellate judge writes an opinion in ruling on a single case. (You may have read old tort cases in law school with such opinions). Marshall sought to do away with this practice to help build the Court into a coequal branch.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Justice+Stevens+on+the+Death+Penalty%3A+A+Promise+of+Fairness+Unfulfilled&rft.date=2008-04-18&rft.aulast=Slater&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.wsj.com%2Flaw%2F2008%2F04%2F18%2Fjustice-stevens-on-the-death-penalty-a-promise-of-fairness-unfulfilled%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct12-29"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct12_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuddath2008" class="citation magazine cs1">Suddath, Claire (December 19, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081219174136/http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1867783,00.html">"A Brief History of Impeachment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1867783,00.html">the original</a> on December 19, 2008. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Congress tried the process again in 1804, when it voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase on charges of bad conduct. As a judge, Chase was overzealous and notoriously unfair … But Chase never committed a crime—he was just incredibly bad at his job. The Senate acquitted him on every count.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Impeachment&rft.date=2008-12-19&rft.aulast=Suddath&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fpolitics%2Farticle%2F0%2C8599%2C1867783%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct13-30"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct13_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse1996" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Greenhouse" title="Linda Greenhouse">Greenhouse, Linda</a> (April 10, 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/10/us/rehnquist-joins-fray-on-rulings-defending-judicial-independence.html">"Rehnquist Joins Fray on Rulings, Defending Judicial Independence"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111352/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/10/us/rehnquist-joins-fray-on-rulings-defending-judicial-independence.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>the 1805 Senate trial of Justice Samuel Chase, who had been impeached by the House of Representatives … This decision by the Senate was enormously important in securing the kind of judicial independence contemplated by Article III" of the Constitution, Chief Justice Rehnquist said</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Rehnquist+Joins+Fray+on+Rulings%2C+Defending+Judicial+Independence&rft.date=1996-04-10&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1996%2F04%2F10%2Fus%2Frehnquist-joins-fray-on-rulings-defending-judicial-independence.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct16-31"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct16_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynesMiller1989" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Keynes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Keynes (page does not exist)">Keynes, Edward</a>; Miller, Randall K. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Ebb2wsxkF4C&pg=PA115">"The Court vs. Congress: Prayer, Busing, and Abortion"</a>. Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-0968-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-0968-8"><bdi>0-8223-0968-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511112043/http://books.google.com/books?id=_Ebb2wsxkF4C&pg=PA115">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>(page 115)... Grier maintained that Congress has plenary power to limit the federal courts' jurisdiction.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Court+vs.+Congress%3A+Prayer%2C+Busing%2C+and+Abortion&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-8223-0968-8&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Miller%2C+Randall+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_Ebb2wsxkF4C%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct21-32"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct21_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIfill2009" class="citation news cs1">Ifill, Sherrilyn A. (May 27, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/articles/opinion/2009/05/27/sotomayors-great-legal-mind-long-ago-defeated-race-gender-nonsense.html">"Sotomayor's Great Legal Mind Long Ago Defeated Race, Gender Nonsense"</a>. U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>But his decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford doomed thousands of black slaves and freedmen to a stateless existence within the United States until the passage of the 14th Amendment. Justice Taney's coldly self-fulfilling statement in Dred Scott, that blacks had "no rights which the white man [was] bound to respect," has ensured his place in history—not as a brilliant jurist, but as among the most insensitive</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=Sotomayor%27s+Great+Legal+Mind+Long+Ago+Defeated+Race%2C+Gender+Nonsense&rft.date=2009-05-27&rft.aulast=Ifill&rft.aufirst=Sherrilyn+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Farticles%2Fopinion%2F2009%2F05%2F27%2Fsotomayors-great-legal-mind-long-ago-defeated-race-gender-nonsense.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws4494-33"><a href="#cite_ref-tws4494_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrons2006" class="citation book cs1">Irons, Peter (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof00iron_0/page/176">A People's History of the Supreme Court: The Men and Women Whose Cases and Decisions Have Shaped Our Constitution</a>. United States: Penguin Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof00iron_0/page/176">176–177</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303738-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303738-5"><bdi>978-0-14-303738-5</bdi></a>. <q>The rhetorical battle that followed the Dred Scott decision, as we know, later erupted into the gunfire and bloodshed of the Civil War (p. 176)... his opinion (Taney's) touched off an explosive reaction on both sides of the slavery issue... (p. 177)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+History+of+the+Supreme+Court%3A+The+Men+and+Women+Whose+Cases+and+Decisions+Have+Shaped+Our+Constitution&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=176-177&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-14-303738-5&rft.aulast=Irons&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeopleshistoryof00iron_0%2Fpage%2F176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct24-34"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct24_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091122031228/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/libertyofk.htm">"Liberty of Contract?"</a>. Exploring Constitutional Conflicts. October 31, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/libertyofk.htm">the original</a> on November 22, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The term 'substantive due process' is often used to describe the approach first used in Lochner—the finding of liberties not explicitly protected by the text of the Constitution to be impliedly protected by the liberty clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the 1960s, long after the Court repudiated its Lochner line of cases, substantive due process became the basis for protecting personal rights such as the right of privacy, the right to maintain intimate family relationships.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Liberty+of+Contract%3F&rft.date=2009-10-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.umkc.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fprojects%2Fftrials%2Fconlaw%2Flibertyofk.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct100-35"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct100_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/208/161">"Adair v. United States 208 U.S. 161"</a>. Cornell University Law School. 1908. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120424064132/http://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/208/161">Archived</a> from the original on April 24, 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>No. 293 Argued: October 29, 30, 1907 – Decided: January 27, 1908</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Adair+v.+United+States+208+U.S.+161&rft.date=1908&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fsupremecourt%2Ftext%2F208%2F161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-twsff4frj-36"><a href="#cite_ref-twsff4frj_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodenhamerEly1993" class="citation book cs1">Bodenhamer, David J.; Ely, James W. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L-_9mFCeBSIC&pg=PA245">The Bill of Rights in modern America</a>. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35159-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35159-3"><bdi>978-0-253-35159-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201118001054/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-_9mFCeBSIC&pg=PA245">Archived</a> from the original on November 18, 2020. Retrieved October 29, 2020. <q>… of what eventually became the 'incorporation doctrine,' by which various federal Bill of Rights guarantees were held to be implicit in the Fourteenth Amendment due process or equal protection.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bill+of+Rights+in+modern+America&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-253-35159-3&rft.aulast=Bodenhamer&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rft.au=Ely%2C+James+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL-_9mFCeBSIC%26pg%3DPA245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">White, Edward Douglass</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=245&invol=366">"Opinion for the Court, Arver v. U.S. 245 U.S. 366"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501075034/http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=245&invol=366">Archived</a> from the original on May 1, 2011. Retrieved March 30, 2011. <q>Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation, as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people, can be said to be the imposition of involuntary servitude in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Opinion+for+the+Court%2C+Arver+v.+U.S.+245+U.S.+366&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Edward+Douglass&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.lp.findlaw.com%2Fscripts%2Fgetcase.pl%3Fcourt%3Dus%26vol%3D245%26invol%3D366&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct101-38"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct101_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegan1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Siegan" title="Bernard Siegan">Siegan, Bernard H.</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XABdIe1foccC&pg=PA146">The Supreme Court's Constitution</a>. Transaction Publishers. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88738-671-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88738-671-8"><bdi>978-0-88738-671-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161141/https://books.google.com/books?id=XABdIe1foccC&pg=PA146">Archived</a> from the original on February 20, 2021. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>In the 1923 case of Adkins v. Children's Hospital, the court invalidated a classification based on gender as inconsistent with the substantive due process requirements of the fifth amendment. At issue was congressional legislation providing for the fixing of minimum wages for women and minors in the District of Columbia. (p. 146)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Court%27s+Constitution&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-88738-671-8&rft.aulast=Siegan&rft.aufirst=Bernard+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXABdIe1foccC%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct-39"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiskupic2005" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Biskupic, Joan</a> (March 29, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2005-03-28-high-court-makeover_x.htm">"Supreme Court gets makeover"</a>. <a href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090605082031/http://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2005-03-28-high-court-makeover_x.htm">Archived</a> from the original on June 5, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The building is getting its first renovation since its completion in 1935.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+gets+makeover&rft.date=2005-03-29&rft.aulast=Biskupic&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Ftravel%2Fdestinations%2F2005-03-28-high-court-makeover_x.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct103-40"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct103_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustice_Roberts2005" class="citation news cs1">Justice Roberts, John (September 21, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/documents/roberts/biden_responses.pdf">"Responses of Judge John G. Roberts, Jr. to the Written Questions of Senator Joseph R. Biden"</a> (PDF). The Washington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150930002412/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/documents/roberts/biden_responses.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on September 30, 2015. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>I agree that West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish correctly overruled Adkins. <a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Lochner era</a> cases—Adkins in particular—evince an expansive view of the judicial role inconsistent with what I believe to be the appropriately more limited vision of the Framers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Responses+of+Judge+John+G.+Roberts%2C+Jr.+to+the+Written+Questions+of+Senator+Joseph+R.+Biden&rft.date=2005-09-21&rft.aulast=Justice+Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-srv%2Fnation%2Fdocuments%2Froberts%2Fbiden_responses.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct107-41"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct107_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipsky2009" class="citation news cs1">Lipsky, Seth (October 22, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB20001424052748704597704574486242417039358">"All the News That's Fit to Subsidize"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131219035657/http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB20001424052748704597704574486242417039358">Archived</a> from the original on December 19, 2013. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>He was a farmer in Ohio ... during the 1930s, when subsidies were brought in for farmers. With subsidies came restrictions on how much wheat one could grow—even, Filburn learned in a landmark Supreme Court case, Wickard v. Filburn (1942), wheat grown on his modest farm.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=All+the+News+That%27s+Fit+to+Subsidize&rft.date=2009-10-22&rft.aulast=Lipsky&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2FSB20001424052748704597704574486242417039358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct109-42"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct109_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2004" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Cohen_(journalist)" title="Adam Cohen (journalist)">Cohen, Adam</a> (December 14, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/14/opinion/14tue4.html">"What's New in the Legal World? A Growing Campaign to Undo the New Deal"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130307222715/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/14/opinion/14tue4.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 7, 2013. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Some prominent states' rights conservatives were asking the court to overturn Wickard v. Filburn, a landmark ruling that laid out an expansive view of Congress's power to legislate in the public interest. Supporters of states' rights have always blamed Wickard ... for paving the way for strong federal action...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=What%27s+New+in+the+Legal+World%3F+A+Growing+Campaign+to+Undo+the+New+Deal&rft.date=2004-12-14&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F12%2F14%2Fopinion%2F14tue4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct110-43"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct110_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0227.html">"Justice Black Dies at 85; Served on Court 34 Years"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/United_Press_International" title="United Press International">United Press International</a> (UPI). September 25, 1971. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091015050655/http://nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0227.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 15, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Justice Black developed his controversial theory, first stated in a lengthy, scholarly dissent in 1947, that the due process clause applied the first eight amendments of the Bill of Rights to the states.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Justice+Black+Dies+at+85%3B+Served+on+Court+34+Years&rft.date=1971-09-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flearning%2Fgeneral%2Fonthisday%2Fbday%2F0227.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct113-44"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct113_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091106035101/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page87.htm">"100 Documents that Shaped America Brown v. Board of Education (1954)"</a>. U.S. News & World Report. May 17, 1954. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page87.htm">the original</a> on November 6, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>On May 17, 1954, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling in the landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. State-sanctioned segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. This historic decision marked the end of the "separate but equal" … and served as a catalyst for the expanding civil rights movement...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=100+Documents+that+Shaped+America+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education+%281954%29&rft.date=1954-05-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fusnews%2Fdocuments%2Fdocpages%2Fdocument_page87.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct114-45"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct114_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091013120125/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,836012-3,00.html">"Essay: In defense of privacy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. July 15, 1966. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,836012-3,00.html">the original</a> on October 13, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The biggest legal milestone in this field was last year's Supreme Court decision in Griswold v. Connecticut, which overthrew the state's law against the use of contraceptives as an invasion of marital privacy, and for the first time declared the "right of privacy" to be derived from the Constitution itself.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Essay%3A+In+defense+of+privacy&rft.date=1966-07-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C836012-3%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct120-46"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct120_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbs1991" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Gibbs" title="Nancy Gibbs">Gibbs, Nancy</a> (December 9, 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071102070141/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,974430,00.html">"America's Holy War"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,974430,00.html">the original</a> on November 2, 2007. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>In the landmark 1962 case Engel v. Vitale, the high court threw out a brief nondenominational prayer composed by state officials that was recommended for use in New York State schools. 'It is no part of the business of government,' ruled the court, 'to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=America%27s+Holy+War&rft.date=1991-12-09&rft.aulast=Gibbs&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C974430%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct121-47"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct121_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattoxTrinko2009" class="citation news cs1">Mattox, William R. Jr; Trinko, Katrina (August 17, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090820030545/http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/08/column-teach-the-bible-of-course-.html">"Teach the Bible? Of course"</a>. USA Today. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/08/column-teach-the-bible-of-course-.html">the original</a> on August 20, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Public schools need not proselytize—indeed, must not—in teaching students about the Good Book … In Abington School District v. Schempp, decided in 1963, the Supreme Court stated that "study of the Bible or of religion, when presented objectively as part of a secular program of education," was permissible under the First Amendment.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Teach+the+Bible%3F+Of+course.&rft.date=2009-08-17&rft.aulast=Mattox&rft.aufirst=William+R.+Jr&rft.au=Trinko%2C+Katrina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.usatoday.com%2Foped%2F2009%2F08%2Fcolumn-teach-the-bible-of-course-.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct131-48"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct131_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080423044435/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898882,00.html">"The Law: The Retroactivity Riddle"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. June 18, 1965. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898882,00.html">the original</a> on April 23, 2008. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Last week, in a 7 to 2 decision, the court refused for the first time to give retroactive effect to a great Bill of Rights decision—Mapp v. Ohio (1961).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Law%3A+The+Retroactivity+Riddle&rft.date=1965-06-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C898882%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct203-49"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct203_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100528172220/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,841844,00.html">"The Supreme Court: Now Comes the Sixth Amendment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. April 16, 1965. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,841844,00.html">the original</a> on May 28, 2010. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Sixth Amendment's right to counsel (Gideon v. Wainwright in 1963). … the court said flatly in 1904: 'The Sixth Amendment does not apply to proceedings in state criminal courts.' But in the light of Gideon … ruled Black, statements 'generally declaring that the Sixth Amendment does not apply to states can no longer be regarded as law.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court%3A+Now+Comes+the+Sixth+Amendment&rft.date=1965-04-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C841844%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct132-50"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct132_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/31/opinion/guilt-and-mr-meese.html">"Guilt and Mr. Meese"</a>. The New York Times. January 31, 1987. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111536/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/31/opinion/guilt-and-mr-meese.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>1966 Miranda v. Arizona decision. That's the famous decision that made confessions inadmissible as evidence unless an accused person has been warned by police of the right to silence and to a lawyer, and waived it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Guilt+and+Mr.+Meese&rft.date=1987-01-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F01%2F31%2Fopinion%2Fguilt-and-mr-meese.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraglia2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lino_Graglia" title="Lino Graglia">Graglia, Lino A.</a> (October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170621023852/http://www.fed-soc.org/doclib/20090107_GragliaEngage93.pdf">"The Antitrust Revolution"</a> (PDF). Engage. 9 (3). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fed-soc.org/doclib/20090107_GragliaEngage93.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on June 21, 2017. Retrieved February 6, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Engage&rft.atitle=The+Antitrust+Revolution&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2008-10&rft.aulast=Graglia&rft.aufirst=Lino+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fed-soc.org%2Fdoclib%2F20090107_GragliaEngage93.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Earl M. Maltz, The Coming of the Nixon Court: The 1972 Term and the Transformation of Constitutional Law (University Press of Kansas; 2016). </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct204-53"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct204_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor2009" class="citation news cs1">O'Connor, Karen (January 22, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/articles/opinion/2009/01/22/roe-v-wade-on-anniversary-abortion-is-out-of-the-spotlight.html">"Roe v. Wade: On Anniversary, Abortion Is out of the Spotlight"</a>. U.S. News & World Report. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326104927/http://www.usnews.com/articles/opinion/2009/01/22/roe-v-wade-on-anniversary-abortion-is-out-of-the-spotlight.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 26, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The shocker, however, came in 1973, when the Court, by a vote of 7 to 2, relied on Griswold's basic underpinnings to rule that a Texas law prohibiting abortions in most situations was unconstitutional, invalidating the laws of most states. Relying on a woman's right to privacy...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=Roe+v.+Wade%3A+On+Anniversary%2C+Abortion+Is+out+of+the+Spotlight&rft.date=2009-01-22&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Farticles%2Fopinion%2F2009%2F01%2F22%2Froe-v-wade-on-anniversary-abortion-is-out-of-the-spotlight.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct205-54"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct205_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101014122411/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,946798,00.html">"Bakke Wins, Quotas Lose"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. July 10, 1978. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,946798,00.html">the original</a> on October 14, 2010. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Split almost exactly down the middle, the Supreme Court last week offered a Solomonic compromise. It said that rigid quotas based solely on race were forbidden, but it also said that race might legitimately be an element in judging students for admission to universities. It thus approved the principle of 'affirmative action'…</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Bakke+Wins%2C+Quotas+Lose&rft.date=1978-07-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C946798%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct207-55"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct207_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/12/opinion/time-to-rethink-buckley-v-valeo.html">"Time to Rethink Buckley v. Valeo"</a>. The New York Times. November 12, 1998. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111407/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/12/opinion/time-to-rethink-buckley-v-valeo.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>...Buckley v. Valeo. The nation's political system has suffered ever since from that decision, which held that mandatory limits on campaign spending unconstitutionally limit free speech. The decision did much to promote the explosive growth of campaign contributions from special interests and to enhance the advantage incumbents enjoy over underfunded challengers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Time+to+Rethink+Buckley+v.+Valeo&rft.date=1998-11-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1998%2F11%2F12%2Fopinion%2Ftime-to-rethink-buckley-v-valeo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct208-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct208_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct208_56-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/rehnquist/rehnquist_key_decisions.html">"Supreme Court Justice Rehnquist's Key Decisions"</a>. The Washington Post. June 29, 1972. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100525065231/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/rehnquist/rehnquist_key_decisions.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 25, 2010. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Furman v. Georgia … Rehnquist dissents from the Supreme Court conclusion that many state laws on capital punishment are capricious and arbitrary and therefore unconstitutional.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Justice+Rehnquist%27s+Key+Decisions&rft.date=1972-06-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-srv%2Fnation%2Frehnquist%2Frehnquist_key_decisions.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-history1-57"><a href="#cite_ref-history1_57-0">^</a> History of the Court, in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (eds.) The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6">0-19-505835-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct2122-58"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct2122_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120856145124627875?mod=opinion_main_review_and_outlooks">"A Supreme Revelation"</a>. The Wall Street Journal. April 19, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170824133310/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120856145124627875?mod=opinion_main_review_and_outlooks">Archived</a> from the original on August 24, 2017. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Thirty-two years ago, Justice John Paul Stevens sided with the majority in a famous "never mind" ruling by the Supreme Court. Gregg v. Georgia, in 1976, overturned Furman v. Georgia, which had declared the death penalty unconstitutional only four years earlier.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Supreme+Revelation&rft.date=2008-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB120856145124627875%3Fmod%3Dopinion_main_review_and_outlooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct2brn2b-59"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct2brn2b_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse2009" class="citation news cs1">Greenhouse, Linda (January 8, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/09/opinion/09greenhouse.html">"The Chief Justice on the Spot"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110512173851/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/09/opinion/09greenhouse.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The federalism issue at the core of the new case grows out of a series of cases from 1997 to 2003 in which the Rehnquist court applied a new level of scrutiny to Congressional action enforcing the guarantees of the Reconstruction amendments.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Chief+Justice+on+the+Spot&rft.date=2009-01-08&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F01%2F09%2Fopinion%2F09greenhouse.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31octrtr45-60"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31octrtr45_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse2005" class="citation news cs1">Greenhouse, Linda (September 4, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/04/politics/william-h-rehnquist-chief-justice-of-supreme-court-is-dead-at-80.html">"William H. Rehnquist, Chief Justice of Supreme Court, Is Dead at 80"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402053850/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/04/politics/04rehnquist.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>United States v. Lopez in 1995 raised the stakes in the debate over federal authority even higher. The decision declared unconstitutional a Federal law, the Gun Free School Zones Act of 1990, that made it a federal crime to carry a gun within 1,000 feet of a school.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=William+H.+Rehnquist%2C+Chief+Justice+of+Supreme+Court%2C+Is+Dead+at+80&rft.date=2005-09-04&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F09%2F04%2Fpolitics%2Fwilliam-h-rehnquist-chief-justice-of-supreme-court-is-dead-at-80.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct309-61"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct309_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse2005" class="citation news cs1">Greenhouse, Linda (June 12, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/12/weekinreview/12green.html">"The Rehnquist Court and Its Imperiled States' Rights Legacy"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110505214022/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/12/weekinreview/12green.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 5, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Intrastate activity that was not essentially economic was beyond Congress's reach under the Commerce Clause, Chief Justice Rehnquist wrote for the 5-to-4 majority in United States v. Morrison.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Rehnquist+Court+and+Its+Imperiled+States%27+Rights+Legacy&rft.date=2005-06-12&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F06%2F12%2Fweekinreview%2F12green.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct310-62"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct310_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse2005" class="citation news cs1">Greenhouse, Linda (March 22, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/22/politics/inmates-who-follow-satanism-and-wicca-find-unlikely-ally.html">"Inmates Who Follow Satanism and Wicca Find Unlikely Ally"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140326222133/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/22/politics/22religion.html?pagewanted=print&position=">Archived</a> from the original on March 26, 2014. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>His (Rehnquist's) reference was to a landmark 1997 decision, City of Boerne v. Flores, in which the court ruled that the predecessor to the current law, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, exceeded Congress's authority and was unconstitutional as applied to the states.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Inmates+Who+Follow+Satanism+and+Wicca+Find+Unlikely+Ally&rft.date=2005-03-22&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F03%2F22%2Fpolitics%2Finmates-who-follow-satanism-and-wicca-find-unlikely-ally.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct4004-63"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct4004_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmar2005" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vikram_David_Amar" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikram David Amar">Amar, Vikram David</a> (July 27, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/27/opinion/27amar.html">"Casing John Roberts"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081014000329/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/27/opinion/27amar.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 14, 2008. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Seminole Tribe v. Florida (1996) In this seemingly technical 11th Amendment dispute about whether states can be sued in federal courts, Justice O'Connor joined four others to override Congress's will and protect state prerogatives, even though the text of the Constitution contradicts this result.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Casing+John+Roberts&rft.date=2005-07-27&rft.aulast=Amar&rft.aufirst=Vikram+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F07%2F27%2Fopinion%2F27amar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct555-64"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct555_64-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse1999" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Greenhouse" title="Linda Greenhouse">Greenhouse, Linda</a> (April 1, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/01/us/justices-seem-ready-to-tilt-more-toward-states-in-federalism.html">"Justices Seem Ready to Tilt More Toward States in Federalism"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111138/http://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/01/us/justices-seem-ready-to-tilt-more-toward-states-in-federalism.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The argument in this case, Alden v. Maine, No. 98-436, proceeded on several levels simultaneously. On the surface … On a deeper level, the argument was a continuation of the Court's struggle over an even more basic issue: the Government's substantive authority over the states.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Justices+Seem+Ready+to+Tilt+More+Toward+States+in+Federalism&rft.date=1999-04-01&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1999%2F04%2F01%2Fus%2Fjustices-seem-ready-to-tilt-more-toward-states-in-federalism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct34654-65"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct34654_65-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindenberger" class="citation magazine cs1">Lindenberger, Michael A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080629115005/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1818504,00.html">"The Court's Gay Rights Legacy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1818504,00.html">the original</a> on June 29, 2008. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The decision in the Lawrence v. Texas case overturned convictions against two Houston men, whom police had arrested after busting into their home and finding them engaged in sex. And for the first time in their lives, thousands of gay men and women who lived in states where sodomy had been illegal were free to be gay without being criminals.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Court%27s+Gay+Rights+Legacy&rft.aulast=Lindenberger&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fnation%2Farticle%2F0%2C8599%2C1818504%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31octffsfs-66"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31octffsfs_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustice_Sotomayor2009" class="citation news cs1">Justice Sotomayor (July 16, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090822073852/http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/07/retire-the-ginsburg-rule-.html">"Retire the 'Ginsburg rule' – The 'Roe' recital"</a>. USA Today. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/07/retire-the-ginsburg-rule-.html">the original</a> on August 22, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>The court's decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey reaffirmed the court holding of Roe. That is the precedent of the court and settled, in terms of the holding of the court.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Retire+the+%27Ginsburg+rule%27+%E2%80%93+The+%27Roe%27+recital&rft.date=2009-07-16&rft.au=Justice+Sotomayor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.usatoday.com%2Foped%2F2009%2F07%2Fretire-the-ginsburg-rule-.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rds21nov12-67"><a href="#cite_ref-rds21nov12_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamiya2001" class="citation news cs1">Kamiya, Gary (July 5, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salon.com/2001/07/05/dershowitz_2/">"Against the Law"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Salon_(website)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salon (website)">Salon</a>. Retrieved November 21, 2012. <q>...the remedy was far more harmful than the problem. By stopping the recount, the high court clearly denied many thousands of voters who cast legal votes, as defined by established Florida law, their constitutional right to have their votes counted. … It cannot be a legitimate use of law to disenfranchise legal voters when recourse is available. …</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Salon&rft.atitle=Against+the+Law&rft.date=2001-07-05&rft.aulast=Kamiya&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salon.com%2F2001%2F07%2F05%2Fdershowitz_2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws31oct44454-68"><a href="#cite_ref-tws31oct44454_68-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauthammer2000" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Krauthammer" title="Charles Krauthammer">Krauthammer, Charles</a> (December 18, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101122083955/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998788,00.html">"The Winner in Bush v. Gore?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998788,00.html">the original</a> on November 22, 2010. Retrieved October 31, 2009. <q>Re-enter the Rehnquist court. Amid the chaos, somebody had to play Daddy. … the Supreme Court eschewed subtlety this time and bluntly stopped the Florida Supreme Court in its tracks—and stayed its willfulness. By, mind you, …</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Winner+in+Bush+v.+Gore%3F&rft.date=2000-12-18&rft.aulast=Krauthammer&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C998788%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDougall2020" class="citation web cs1">MacDougall, Ian (November 1, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.propublica.org/article/why-bush-v-gore-still-matters">"Why Bush v. Gore Still Matters in 2020"</a>. ProPublica. Retrieved March 18, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ProPublica&rft.atitle=Why+Bush+v.+Gore+Still+Matters+in+2020&rft.date=2020-11-01&rft.aulast=MacDougall&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.propublica.org%2Farticle%2Fwhy-bush-v-gore-still-matters&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayson-Denney2015" class="citation web cs1">Payson-Denney, Wade (October 31, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2015/10/31/politics/bush-gore-2000-election-results-studies/index.html">"So, who really won? What the Bush v. Gore studies showed | CNN Politics"</a>. CNN. Retrieved March 18, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=So%2C+who+really+won%3F+What+the+Bush+v.+Gore+studies+showed+%7C+CNN+Politics&rft.date=2015-10-31&rft.aulast=Payson-Denney&rft.aufirst=Wade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2015%2F10%2F31%2Fpolitics%2Fbush-gore-2000-election-results-studies%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws1nov01-71"><a href="#cite_ref-tws1nov01_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBabingtonBaker2005" class="citation news cs1">Babington, Charles; Baker, Peter (September 30, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/29/AR2005092900859.html">"Roberts Confirmed as 17th Chief Justice"</a>. The Washington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100116015122/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/29/AR2005092900859.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 16, 2010. Retrieved November 1, 2009. <q>John Glover Roberts Jr. was sworn in yesterday as the 17th chief justice of the United States, enabling President Bush to put his stamp on the Supreme Court for decades to come, even as he prepares to name a second nominee to the nine-member court.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Roberts+Confirmed+as+17th+Chief+Justice&rft.date=2005-09-30&rft.aulast=Babington&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Baker%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2005%2F09%2F29%2FAR2005092900859.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws1nov02-72"><a href="#cite_ref-tws1nov02_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse2007" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Greenhouse" title="Linda Greenhouse">Greenhouse, Linda</a> (July 1, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/01/washington/01scotus.html">"In Steps Big and Small, Supreme Court Moved Right"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090417081610/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/01/washington/01scotus.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 17, 2009. Retrieved November 1, 2009. <q>It was the Supreme Court that conservatives had long yearned for and that liberals feared … This was a more conservative court, sometimes muscularly so, sometimes more tentatively, its majority sometimes differing on methodology but agreeing on the outcome in cases big and small.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Steps+Big+and+Small%2C+Supreme+Court+Moved+Right&rft.date=2007-07-01&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F07%2F01%2Fwashington%2F01scotus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt-liptak01-73"><a href="#cite_ref-nyt-liptak01_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2010" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Liptak" title="Adam Liptak">Liptak, Adam</a> (July 24, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/25/us/25roberts.html">"Court Under Roberts Is Most Conservative in Decades"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210824164125/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/25/us/25roberts.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 24, 2021. Retrieved February 1, 2019. <q>When Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. and his colleagues on the Supreme Court left for their summer break at the end of June, they marked a milestone: the Roberts court had just completed its fifth term. In those five years, the court not only moved to the right but also became the most conservative one in living memory, based on an analysis of four sets of political science data.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Court+Under+Roberts+Is+Most+Conservative+in+Decades&rft.date=2010-07-24&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F07%2F25%2Fus%2F25roberts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-caplan-amerpros-74"><a href="#cite_ref-caplan-amerpros_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaplan2016" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Caplan" title="Lincoln Caplan">Caplan, Lincoln</a> (October 10, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://prospect.org/article/new-era-supreme-court">"A new era for the Supreme Court: the transformative potential of a shift in even one seat"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Prospect" title="The American Prospect">The American Prospect</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190202212119/https://prospect.org/article/new-era-supreme-court">Archived</a> from the original on February 2, 2019. Retrieved February 1, 2019. <q>The Court has gotten increasingly more conservative with each of the Republican-appointed chief justices—Warren E. Burger (1969–1986), William H. Rehnquist (1986–2005), and John G. Roberts Jr. (2005–present). All told, Republican presidents have appointed 12 of the 16 most recent justices, including the chiefs. During Roberts's first decade as chief, the Court was the most conservative in more than a half-century and likely the most conservative since the 1930s.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Prospect&rft.atitle=A+new+era+for+the+Supreme+Court%3A+the+transformative+potential+of+a+shift+in+even+one+seat&rft.date=2016-10-10&rft.aulast=Caplan&rft.aufirst=Lincoln&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fprospect.org%2Farticle%2Fnew-era-supreme-court&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws1nov04-75"><a href="#cite_ref-tws1nov04_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavage2009" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Savage_(author)" title="Charlie Savage (author)">Savage, Charlie</a> (July 14, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/15/us/politics/15abortion.html">"Respecting Precedent, or Settled Law, Unless It's Not Settled"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111502/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/15/us/politics/15abortion.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved November 1, 2009. <q>Gonzales v. Carhart—in which the Supreme Court narrowly upheld a federal ban on the late-term abortion procedure opponents call "partial birth abortion"—to be settled law.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Respecting+Precedent%2C+or+Settled+Law%2C+Unless+It%27s+Not+Settled&rft.date=2009-07-14&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=Charlie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F07%2F15%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2F15abortion.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2010/0122/Supreme-Court-s-campaign-ruling-a-bad-day-for-democracy">"A Bad Day for Democracy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor" title="The Christian Science Monitor">The Christian Science Monitor</a>. January 22, 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100125052239/http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2010/0122/Supreme-Court-s-campaign-ruling-a-bad-day-for-democracy">Archived</a> from the original on January 25, 2010. Retrieved January 22, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=A+Bad+Day+for+Democracy&rft.date=2010-01-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2FCommentary%2FOpinion%2F2010%2F0122%2FSupreme-Court-s-campaign-ruling-a-bad-day-for-democracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws1nov13-77"><a href="#cite_ref-tws1nov13_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2009" class="citation news cs1">Barnes, Robert (October 1, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/30/AR2009093001723.html">"Justices to Decide if State Gun Laws Violate Rights"</a>. The Washington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180423220110/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/30/AR2009093001723.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 23, 2018. Retrieved November 1, 2009. <q>The landmark 2008 decision to strike down the District of Columbia's ban on handgun possession was the first time the court had said the amendment grants an individual right to own a gun for self-defense. But the 5 to 4 opinion in District of Columbia v. Heller...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Justices+to+Decide+if+State+Gun+Laws+Violate+Rights&rft.date=2009-10-01&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F09%2F30%2FAR2009093001723.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws1nov21-78"><a href="#cite_ref-tws1nov21_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse2008" class="citation news cs1">Greenhouse, Linda (April 18, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/washington/18memo.html">"Justice Stevens Renounces Capital Punishment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211222154/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/washington/18memo.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 11, 2008. Retrieved November 1, 2009. <q>His renunciation of capital punishment in the lethal injection case, Baze v. Rees, was likewise low key and undramatic.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Justice+Stevens+Renounces+Capital+Punishment&rft.date=2008-04-18&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F04%2F18%2Fwashington%2F18memo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws1nov22-79"><a href="#cite_ref-tws1nov22_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse2008" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Greenhouse" title="Linda Greenhouse">Greenhouse, Linda</a> (June 26, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/washington/26scotuscnd.html">"Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190913065721/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/washington/26scotuscnd.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 13, 2019. Retrieved November 1, 2009. <q>The death penalty is unconstitutional as a punishment for the rape of a child, a sharply divided Supreme Court ruled Wednesday … The 5-to-4 decision overturned death penalty laws in Louisiana and five other states.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Rejects+Death+Penalty+for+Child+Rape&rft.date=2008-06-26&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F06%2F26%2Fwashington%2F26scotuscnd.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JOM222HGC-80"><a href="#cite_ref-JOM222HGC_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGinnis" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_McGinnis" title="John McGinnis">McGinnis, John O.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/91/appointments-clause">"Essays on Article II: Appointments Clause"</a>. The Heritage Guide To The Constitution. Heritage Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20200822232208/https://www.heritage.org/constitution/%23!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel-and-unusual-punishment#!/articles/2/essays/91/appointments-clause">Archived</a> from the original on August 22, 2020. Retrieved June 19, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Heritage+Guide+To+The+Constitution&rft.atitle=Essays+on+Article+II%3A+Appointments+Clause&rft.aulast=McGinnis&rft.aufirst=John+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritage.org%2Fconstitution%2F%23%21%2Farticles%2F2%2Fessays%2F91%2Fappointments-clause&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thelawdictionary.org/article/qualifications-to-become-a-supreme-court-justice/">"Qualifications To Become A Supreme Court Justice"</a>. The Law Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230708002502/https://thelawdictionary.org/article/qualifications-to-become-a-supreme-court-justice/">Archived</a> from the original on July 8, 2023. Retrieved July 8, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Law+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Qualifications+To+Become+A+Supreme+Court+Justice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthelawdictionary.org%2Farticle%2Fqualifications-to-become-a-supreme-court-justice%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/faq_general.aspx">"Frequently Asked Questions: General Information – Supreme Court of the United States"</a>. www.supremecourt.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230708002502/https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/faq_general.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on July 8, 2023. Retrieved July 8, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.supremecourt.gov&rft.atitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+General+Information+%E2%80%93+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fabout%2Ffaq_general.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Nominations.htm">"United States Senate. "Nominations""</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190407112442/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Nominations.htm">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2019. Retrieved February 16, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=United+States+Senate.+%22Nominations%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Fartandhistory%2Fhistory%2Fcommon%2Fbriefing%2FNominations.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrunner2017" class="citation news cs1">Brunner, Jim (March 24, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/politics/sen-patty-murray-will-oppose-neil-gorsuch-for-supreme-court/">"Sen. Patty Murray will oppose Neil Gorsuch for Supreme Court"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Seattle_Times" title="The Seattle Times">The Seattle Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170410133132/http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/politics/sen-patty-murray-will-oppose-neil-gorsuch-for-supreme-court/">Archived</a> from the original on April 10, 2017. Retrieved April 9, 2017. <q>In a statement Friday morning, Murray cited Republicans' refusal to confirm or even seriously consider President Obama's nomination of Judge Merrick Garland, a similarly well-qualified jurist – and went on to lambaste President Trump's conduct in his first few months in office. [...] And Murray added she's 'deeply troubled' by Gorsuch's 'extreme conservative perspective on women's health', citing his 'inability' to state a clear position on Roe v. Wade, the landmark abortion-legalization decision, and his comments about the 'Hobby Lobby' decision allowing employers to refuse to provide birth-control coverage.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Seattle+Times&rft.atitle=Sen.+Patty+Murray+will+oppose+Neil+Gorsuch+for+Supreme+Court&rft.date=2017-03-24&rft.aulast=Brunner&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seattletimes.com%2Fseattle-news%2Fpolitics%2Fsen-patty-murray-will-oppose-neil-gorsuch-for-supreme-court%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlegenheimer2017" class="citation news cs1">Flegenheimer, Matt (April 6, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/06/us/politics/neil-gorsuch-supreme-court-senate.html">"Senate Republicans Deploy 'Nuclear Option' to Clear Path for Gorsuch"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181002075315/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/06/us/politics/neil-gorsuch-supreme-court-senate.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 2, 2018. Retrieved April 7, 2017. <q>After Democrats held together Thursday morning and filibustered President Trump's nominee, Republicans voted to lower the threshold for advancing Supreme Court nominations from 60 votes to a simple majority.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Senate+Republicans+Deploy+%27Nuclear+Option%27+to+Clear+Path+for+Gorsuch&rft.date=2017-04-06&rft.aulast=Flegenheimer&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F04%2F06%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fneil-gorsuch-supreme-court-senate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Title_5_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 5 of the United States Code">5 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/5/2902">§ 2902</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/4">§ 4</a>. If two justices are commissioned on the same date, then the oldest one has precedence. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMears2010" class="citation news cs1">Mears, Bill (August 6, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/08/06/kagan.oath.faq/index.html">"Facts about Supreme Court oath ceremonies"</a>. CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220517151935/https://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/08/06/kagan.oath.faq/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 17, 2022. Retrieved May 17, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Facts+about+Supreme+Court+oath+ceremonies&rft.date=2010-08-06&rft.aulast=Mears&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2010%2FPOLITICS%2F08%2F06%2Fkagan.oath.faq%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSatola2017" class="citation magazine cs1">Satola, James W. (December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/At-Sidebar-pdf-1.pdf">"Mr. Justice Stanton"</a> (PDF). The Federal Lawyer. Arlington, Virginia: Federal Bar Association. pp. 5–9, 76–77. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1080-675X">1080-675X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220622110704/https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/At-Sidebar-pdf-1.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on June 22, 2022. Retrieved May 17, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Federal+Lawyer&rft.atitle=Mr.+Justice+Stanton&rft.pages=5-9%2C+76-77&rft.date=2017-12&rft.issn=1080-675X&rft.aulast=Satola&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fedbar.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F12%2FAt-Sidebar-pdf-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/members_text.aspx">"Justices 1789 to Present"</a>. Supreme Court of the United States. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100415034624/https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/members_text.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on April 15, 2010. Retrieved May 17, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.atitle=Justices+1789+to+Present&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fabout%2Fmembers_text.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalkin" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Balkin" title="Jack Balkin">Balkin, Jack M.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071218235804/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/symposium-jc/balkin.php">"The passionate intensity of the confirmation process"</a>. Jurist. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/symposium-jc/balkin.php">the original</a> on December 18, 2007. Retrieved February 13, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+passionate+intensity+of+the+confirmation+process&rft.pub=Jurist&rft.aulast=Balkin&rft.aufirst=Jack+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjurist.law.pitt.edu%2Fforum%2Fsymposium-jc%2Fbalkin.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/2016-supreme-court_us_56bfaee3e4b0c3c55051ad0c">"The Stakes of the 2016 Election Just Got Much, Much Higher"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Huffington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="The Huffington Post">The Huffington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160214021343/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/2016-supreme-court_us_56bfaee3e4b0c3c55051ad0c">Archived</a> from the original on February 14, 2016. Retrieved February 14, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=The+Stakes+of+the+2016+Election+Just+Got+Much%2C+Much+Higher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fentry%2F2016-supreme-court_us_56bfaee3e4b0c3c55051ad0c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMillion2015" class="citation web cs1">McMillion, Barry J. (October 19, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44234.pdf">"Supreme Court Appointment Process: Senate Debate and Confirmation Vote"</a> (PDF). Congressional Research Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151228195628/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44234.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on December 28, 2015. Retrieved February 14, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Congressional+Research+Service&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Appointment+Process%3A+Senate+Debate+and+Confirmation+Vote&rft.date=2015-10-19&rft.aulast=McMillion&rft.aufirst=Barry+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fsgp%2Fcrs%2Fmisc%2FR44234.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1992" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hall/page/965">"Appendix Two"</a>. Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hall/page/965">965–971</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505835-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505835-2"><bdi>978-0-19-505835-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+Two&rft.btitle=Oxford+Companion+to+the+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=965-971&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505835-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont00hall%2Fpage%2F965&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> See Evans v. Stephens, 387 F.3d 1220 (11th Cir. 2004), which concerned the recess appointment of <a href="/wiki/William_H._Pryor_Jr." title="William H. Pryor Jr.">William H. Pryor Jr.</a> Concurring in denial of certiorari, Justice Stevens observed that the case involved "the first such appointment of an Article III judge in nearly a half century." 544 U.S. 942 (2005), Stevens, J., concurring in denial of certiorari. </li> <li id="cite_note-recessapp-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-recessapp_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-recessapp_96-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher2001" class="citation journal cs1">Fisher, Louis (September 5, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200417150206/https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL31112.pdf">"Recess Appointments of Federal Judges"</a> (PDF). CRS Report for Congress. Congressional Research Service (RL31112): CRS-18. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL31112.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on April 17, 2020. Retrieved August 6, 2010. <q>Resolved, That it is the sense of the Senate that the making of recess appointments to the Supreme Court of the United States may not be wholly consistent with the best interests of the Supreme Court, the nominee who may be involved, the litigants before the Court, nor indeed the people of the United States, and that such appointments, therefore, should not be made except under unusual circumstances and for the purpose of preventing or ending a demonstrable breakdown in the administration of the Court's business.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CRS+Report+for+Congress&rft.atitle=Recess+Appointments+of+Federal+Judges&rft.issue=RL31112&rft.pages=CRS-18&rft.date=2001-09-05&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Freference%2Fresources%2Fpdf%2FRL31112.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines; Democrats supported the resolution 48–4, and Republicans opposed it 33–0. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/13pdf/12-1281_mc8p.pdf">"National Relations Board v. Noel Canning et al"</a> (PDF). pp. 34, 35. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201212030517/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/13pdf/12-1281_mc8p.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on December 12, 2020. Retrieved June 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Relations+Board+v.+Noel+Canning+et+al&rft.pages=34%2C+35&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2F13pdf%2F12-1281_mc8p.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> The Court continued, "In our view, however, the pro forma sessions count as sessions, not as periods of recess. We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business. The Senate met that standard here." Later, the opinion states: "For these reasons, we conclude that we must give great weight to the Senate's own determination of when it is and when it is not in session. But our deference to the Senate cannot be absolute. When the Senate is without the capacity to act, under its own rules, it is not in session even if it so declares." </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/02/15/466849025/white-house-seems-to-rule-out-recess-appointment-to-replace-scalia">"Obama Won't Appoint Scalia Replacement While Senate Is Out This Week"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201203102745/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/02/15/466849025/white-house-seems-to-rule-out-recess-appointment-to-replace-scalia">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2020. Retrieved January 25, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Obama+Won%27t+Appoint+Scalia+Replacement+While+Senate+Is+Out+This+Week&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthetwo-way%2F2016%2F02%2F15%2F466849025%2Fwhite-house-seems-to-rule-out-recess-appointment-to-replace-scalia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiblattLevitsky2023" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ziblatt" title="Daniel Ziblatt">Ziblatt, Daniel</a>; <a href="/wiki/Steven_Levitsky" title="Steven Levitsky">Levitsky, Steven</a> (September 5, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/09/american-constitution-norway/675199/">"How American Democracy Fell So Far Behind"</a>. The Atlantic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224356/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/09/american-constitution-norway/675199/">Archived</a> from the original on September 20, 2023. Retrieved September 20, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=How+American+Democracy+Fell+So+Far+Behind&rft.date=2023-09-05&rft.aulast=Ziblatt&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Levitsky%2C+Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fideas%2Farchive%2F2023%2F09%2Famerican-constitution-norway%2F675199%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws23oct16-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws23oct16_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws23oct16_101-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws23oct16_101-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabato2007" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Sabato" title="Larry Sabato">Sabato, Larry</a> (September 26, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/larry-sabato/its-time-to-reshape-the-c_b_66030.html">"It's Time to Reshape the Constitution and Make America a Fairer Country"</a>. The Huffington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100531222116/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/larry-sabato/its-time-to-reshape-the-c_b_66030.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 31, 2010. Retrieved October 23, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=It%27s+Time+to+Reshape+the+Constitution+and+Make+America+a+Fairer+Country&rft.date=2007-09-26&rft.aulast=Sabato&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Flarry-sabato%2Fits-time-to-reshape-the-c_b_66030.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws10oct12-102"><a href="#cite_ref-tws10oct12_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse2007" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Greenhouse" title="Linda Greenhouse">Greenhouse, Linda</a> (September 10, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/10/washington/10scotus.html">"New Focus on the Effects of Life Tenure"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100726224409/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/10/washington/10scotus.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 26, 2010. Retrieved October 10, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=New+Focus+on+the+Effects+of+Life+Tenure&rft.date=2007-09-10&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F09%2F10%2Fwashington%2F10scotus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws27oct304-103"><a href="#cite_ref-tws27oct304_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKakutani2009" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michiko_Kakutani" title="Michiko Kakutani">Kakutani, Michiko</a> (July 6, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/07/books/07kaku.html">"Appointees Who Really Govern America"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110512175527/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/07/books/07kaku.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2011. Retrieved October 27, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Appointees+Who+Really+Govern+America&rft.date=2009-07-06&rft.aulast=Kakutani&rft.aufirst=Michiko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F07%2F07%2Fbooks%2F07kaku.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws10octxx-104"><a href="#cite_ref-tws10octxx_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinson2009" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sanford_Levinson" title="Sanford Levinson">Levinson, Sanford</a> (February 9, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2009/feb/09/supreme-court-ruth-bader-ginsburg">"Supreme court prognosis – Ruth Bader Ginsburg's surgery for pancreatic cancer highlights why US supreme court justices shouldn't serve life terms"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. Manchester. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130906035306/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2009/feb/09/supreme-court-ruth-bader-ginsburg">Archived</a> from the original on September 6, 2013. Retrieved October 10, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Supreme+court+prognosis+%E2%80%93+Ruth+Bader+Ginsburg%27s+surgery+for+pancreatic+cancer+highlights+why+US+supreme+court+justices+shouldn%27t+serve+life+terms&rft.date=2009-02-09&rft.aulast=Levinson&rft.aufirst=Sanford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2Fcifamerica%2F2009%2Ffeb%2F09%2Fsupreme-court-ruth-bader-ginsburg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> See also Arthur D. Hellman, "Reining in the Supreme Court: Are Term Limits the Answer?", in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices (<a href="/wiki/Carolina_Academic_Press" title="Carolina Academic Press">Carolina Academic Press</a>, 2006), p. 291. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Epstein" title="Richard Epstein">Richard Epstein</a>, "Mandatory Retirement for Supreme Court Justices", in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. 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Independent Journal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100111055502/http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa78.htm">Archived</a> from the original on January 11, 2010. 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He was raised in the Catholic Church and confirmed in the Catholic Church as an adolescent, but he has been attending Episcopal services for the past 15 or so years."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=What+is+Neil+Gorsuch%27s+religion%3F+It%27s+complicated&rft.date=2017-03-22&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2017%2F03%2F18%2Fpolitics%2Fneil-gorsuch-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010405054827/http://www.adherents.com/adh_sc.html">"Religion of the Supreme Court"</a>. adherents.com. January 31, 2006. Archived from the original on April 5, 2001. 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Retrieved May 3, 2017. <q>He was the first Roman Catholic to serve on the Supreme Court.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Roger+B.+Taney&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Schumacher&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FRoger-B-Taney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_143-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_143-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_143-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_143-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170320120356/https://www.supremecourt.gov/faq_justices.aspx#faqjustice12">"Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)"</a>. Supreme Court of the United States. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/faq_justices.aspx#faqjustice12">the original</a> on March 20, 2017. 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USA Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220415131417/https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/columnist/2022/04/15/supreme-court-ketanji-brown-jackson-veteran/9510328002/">Archived</a> from the original on April 15, 2022. 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Annual Review of Political Science. 22 (1): 241–259. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-051617-090650">10.1146/annurev-polisci-051617-090650</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1094-2939">1094-2939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Bias+and+Judging&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=241-259&rft.date=2019-05-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-051617-090650&rft.issn=1094-2939&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Allison+P.&rft.au=Sen%2C+Maya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev-polisci-051617-090650&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DevinsBaum-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DevinsBaum_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DevinsBaum_154-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DevinsBaum_154-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevinsBaum2017" class="citation journal cs1">Devins, Neal; Baum, Lawrence (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/691096">"Split definitive: How party polarization turned the Supreme Court into a partisan court"</a>. The Supreme Court Review. 2016 (1). University of Chicago Law School: 301–365. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F691096">10.1086/691096</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142355294">142355294</a>. Retrieved November 13, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Supreme+Court+Review&rft.atitle=Split+definitive%3A+How+party+polarization+turned+the+Supreme+Court+into+a+partisan+court&rft.volume=2016&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=301-365&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F691096&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142355294%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Devins&rft.aufirst=Neal&rft.au=Baum%2C+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1086%2F691096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DevinsBaumBook-155"><a href="#cite_ref-DevinsBaumBook_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumDevins2019" class="citation book cs1">Baum, Lawrence; Devins, Neal (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwws.law.northwestern.edu/research-faculty/events/colloquium/public-law/documents/devins_baum_the%20company%20they%20keep.pdf">The company they keep: How partisan divisions came to the Supreme Court</a> (PDF). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190278052" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190278052"><bdi>978-0190278052</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+company+they+keep%3A+How+partisan+divisions+came+to+the+Supreme+Court&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0190278052&rft.aulast=Baum&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft.au=Devins%2C+Neal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwwws.law.northwestern.edu%2Fresearch-faculty%2Fevents%2Fcolloquium%2Fpublic-law%2Fdocuments%2Fdevins_baum_the%2520company%2520they%2520keep.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2022" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Liptak" title="Adam Liptak">Liptak, Adam</a> (February 25, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/25/us/supreme-court-ketanji-brown-jackson-rulings.html">"Judge Jackson's Rulings: Detailed, Methodical and Leaning Left"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230503193032/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/25/us/supreme-court-ketanji-brown-jackson-rulings.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 3, 2023. Retrieved May 3, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Judge+Jackson%27s+Rulings%3A+Detailed%2C+Methodical+and+Leaning+Left&rft.date=2022-02-25&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2022%2F02%2F25%2Fus%2Fsupreme-court-ketanji-brown-jackson-rulings.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetz2019" class="citation news cs1">Betz, Bradford (March 2, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foxnews.com/us/chief-justice-roberts-recent-voting-record-downplays-notion-of-conservative-revolution-in-supreme-court">"Chief Justice Roberts' recent votes raise doubts about 'conservative revolution' on Supreme Court"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201118001952/https://www.foxnews.com/us/chief-justice-roberts-recent-voting-record-downplays-notion-of-conservative-revolution-in-supreme-court">Archived</a> from the original on November 18, 2020. Retrieved April 20, 2019. <q>Erwin Chemerinsky, a law professor at the University of California at Berkeley, told Bloomberg that Roberts' recent voting record may indicate that he is taking his role as the median justice "very seriously" and that the recent period was "perhaps the beginning of his being the swing justice."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fox+News&rft.atitle=Chief+Justice+Roberts%27+recent+votes+raise+doubts+about+%27conservative+revolution%27+on+Supreme+Court&rft.date=2019-03-02&rft.aulast=Betz&rft.aufirst=Bradford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fus%2Fchief-justice-roberts-recent-voting-record-downplays-notion-of-conservative-revolution-in-supreme-court&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoeder2018" class="citation web cs1">Roeder, Oliver (October 6, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-kavanaugh-will-change-the-supreme-court/">"How Kavanaugh will change the Supreme Court"</a>. <a href="/wiki/FiveThirtyEight" title="FiveThirtyEight">FiveThirtyEight</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201207162032/https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-kavanaugh-will-change-the-supreme-court/">Archived</a> from the original on December 7, 2020. Retrieved April 20, 2019. <q>Based on what we know about measuring the ideology of justices and judges, the Supreme Court will soon take a hard and quick turn to the right. It's a new path that is likely to last for years. Chief Justice John Roberts, a George W. Bush appointee, will almost certainly become the new median justice, defining the court's new ideological center.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FiveThirtyEight&rft.atitle=How+Kavanaugh+will+change+the+Supreme+Court&rft.date=2018-10-06&rft.aulast=Roeder&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffivethirtyeight.com%2Ffeatures%2Fhow-kavanaugh-will-change-the-supreme-court%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-median-159"><a href="#cite_ref-median_159-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoche2021" class="citation news cs1">Roche, Darragh (October 5, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newsweek.com/brett-kavanaugh-supreme-court-ideological-median-new-term-conservatives-1635584">"Brett Kavanaugh Is Supreme Court's Ideological Median as New Term Begins"</a>. Newsweek. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211030175713/https://www.newsweek.com/brett-kavanaugh-supreme-court-ideological-median-new-term-conservatives-1635584">Archived</a> from the original on October 30, 2021. Retrieved October 30, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Brett+Kavanaugh+Is+Supreme+Court%27s+Ideological+Median+as+New+Term+Begins&rft.date=2021-10-05&rft.aulast=Roche&rft.aufirst=Darragh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Fbrett-kavanaugh-supreme-court-ideological-median-new-term-conservatives-1635584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson-DeVeauxBronner2022" class="citation web cs1">Thomson-DeVeaux, Amelia; Bronner, Laura (July 5, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/the-supreme-courts-partisan-divide-hasnt-been-this-sharp-in-generations/">"Just How Sharp Was The Supreme Court's Rightward Turn This Term?"</a>. FiveThirtyEight. Graphics by Elena Mejía. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230209161703/https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/the-supreme-courts-partisan-divide-hasnt-been-this-sharp-in-generations/">Archived</a> from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FiveThirtyEight&rft.atitle=Just+How+Sharp+Was+The+Supreme+Court%27s+Rightward+Turn+This+Term%3F&rft.date=2022-07-05&rft.aulast=Thomson-DeVeaux&rft.aufirst=Amelia&rft.au=Bronner%2C+Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffivethirtyeight.com%2Ffeatures%2Fthe-supreme-courts-partisan-divide-hasnt-been-this-sharp-in-generations%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2021" class="citation web cs1">Williams, Ryan C. (September 19, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/supreme-court-justices-say-institution-must-be-nonpartisan-they-make-ncna1279280">"Opinion"</a>. NBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230208062151/https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/supreme-court-justices-say-institution-must-be-nonpartisan-they-make-ncna1279280">Archived</a> from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Opinion&rft.date=2021-09-19&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Ryan+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fthink%2Fopinion%2Fsupreme-court-justices-say-institution-must-be-nonpartisan-they-make-ncna1279280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazarus2022" class="citation web cs1">Lazarus, Simon (March 23, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2022/03/23/how-to-rein-in-partisan-supreme-court-justices/">"How to rein in partisan Supreme Court justices"</a>. Brookings. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230208062152/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2022/03/23/how-to-rein-in-partisan-supreme-court-justices/">Archived</a> from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brookings&rft.atitle=How+to+rein+in+partisan+Supreme+Court+justices&rft.date=2022-03-23&rft.aulast=Lazarus&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Fblog%2Ffixgov%2F2022%2F03%2F23%2Fhow-to-rein-in-partisan-supreme-court-justices%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTotenberg2024" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nina_Totenberg" title="Nina Totenberg">Totenberg, Nina</a> (July 6, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2024/07/02/nx-s1-5026959/supreme-court-term">"Supreme Court's Roberts turns court to the right as Barrett emerges as a key player"</a>. NPR. <q>an Associated Press-NORC poll showed that 7 out of 10 Americans think that the justices make their decisions 'to fit their own ideologies,' instead of serving as 'an independent check on other branches of government by being fair and impartial.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court%27s+Roberts+turns+court+to+the+right+as+Barrett+emerges+as+a+key+player&rft.date=2024-07-06&rft.aulast=Totenberg&rft.aufirst=Nina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2024%2F07%2F02%2Fnx-s1-5026959%2Fsupreme-court-term&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/22/sandra-day-oconnor-withdraws-from-public-life.html">"Sandra Day O'Connor, first woman on the Supreme Court, withdraws from public life"</a>. CNBC. October 22, 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220630184420/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/22/sandra-day-oconnor-withdraws-from-public-life.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 30, 2022. Retrieved June 30, 2022. <q>For more than a decade after leaving the court in 2006, O'Connor kept up an active schedule: serving as a visiting federal appeals court judge, speaking on issues she cared about and founding her own education organization. But the 88-year-old, for more than two decades often the deciding vote in important cases, is now fully retired.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Sandra+Day+O%27Connor%2C+first+woman+on+the+Supreme+Court%2C+withdraws+from+public+life&rft.date=2018-10-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2018%2F10%2F22%2Fsandra-day-oconnor-withdraws-from-public-life.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> David N. Atkinson, Leaving the Bench (University Press of Kansas 1999) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7006-0946-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7006-0946-6">0-7006-0946-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse2010" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Greenhouse" title="Linda Greenhouse">Greenhouse, Linda</a> (September 9, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/09/an-invisible-chief-justice/">"An Invisible Chief Justice"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201125193759/https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/09/an-invisible-chief-justice/">Archived</a> from the original on November 25, 2020. Retrieved September 9, 2010. <q>Had [O'Connor] anticipated that the chief justice would not serve out the next Supreme Court term, she told me after his death, she would have delayed her own retirement for a year rather than burden the court with two simultaneous vacancies. […] Her reason for leaving was that her husband, suffering from Alzheimer's disease, needed her care at home.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=An+Invisible+Chief+Justice&rft.date=2010-09-09&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopinionator.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F09%2F09%2Fan-invisible-chief-justice%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard2003" class="citation book cs1">Ward, Artemus (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sunypress.edu/pdf/60710.pdf">Deciding to Leave: The Politics of Retirement from the United States Supreme Court</a> (PDF). SUNY Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5651-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5651-4"><bdi>978-0-7914-5651-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210217211651/http://www.sunypress.edu/pdf/60710.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on February 17, 2021. Retrieved January 31, 2013. <q>One byproduct of the increased [retirement benefit] provisions [in 1954], however has been a dramatic rise in the number of justices engaging in succession politics by trying to time their departures to coincide with a compatible president. The most recent departures have been partisan, some more blatantly than others, and have bolstered arguments to reform the process. A second byproduct has been an increase in justices staying on the Court past their ability to adequately contribute.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deciding+to+Leave%3A+The+Politics+of+Retirement+from+the+United+States+Supreme+Court&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5651-4&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Artemus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sunypress.edu%2Fpdf%2F60710.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStolzenbergLindgren2010" class="citation journal cs1">Stolzenberg, Ross M.; Lindgren, James (May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000028">"Retirement and Death in Office of U.S. Supreme Court Justices"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Demography_(journal)" title="Demography (journal)">Demography</a>. 47 (2): 269–298. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fdem.0.0100">10.1353/dem.0.0100</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000028">3000028</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20608097">20608097</a>. <q>If the incumbent president is of the same party as the president who nominated the justice to the Court, and if the incumbent president is in the first two years of a four-year presidential term, then the justice has odds of resignation that are about 2.6 times higher than when these two conditions are not met.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Demography&rft.atitle=Retirement+and+Death+in+Office+of+U.S.+Supreme+Court+Justices&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=269-298&rft.date=2010-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3000028%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20608097&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fdem.0.0100&rft.aulast=Stolzenberg&rft.aufirst=Ross+M.&rft.au=Lindgren%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3000028&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-salary-169"><a href="#cite_ref-salary_169-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uscourts.gov/judges-judgeships/judicial-compensation">"Judicial Compensation"</a>. United States Courts. Retrieved February 25, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Courts&rft.atitle=Judicial+Compensation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uscourts.gov%2Fjudges-judgeships%2Fjudicial-compensation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/2020-Order-of-Precedence-FINAL.pdf">"THE ORDER OF PRECEDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA"</a> (PDF). state.gov. May 14, 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201101024812/https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/2020-Order-of-Precedence-FINAL.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved October 21, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=state.gov&rft.atitle=THE+ORDER+OF+PRECEDENCE+OF+THE+UNITED+STATES+OF+AMERICA&rft.date=2020-05-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.state.gov%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2020%2F05%2F2020-Order-of-Precedence-FINAL.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/visiting/exhibitions/GroupPhotoExhibit/Default.aspx">"All Together for the Camera: A History of the Supreme Court's Group Photograph"</a>. supremecourt.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241001015805/https://www.supremecourt.gov/visiting/exhibitions/GroupPhotoExhibit/Default.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on October 1, 2024. Retrieved October 21, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=supremecourt.gov&rft.atitle=All+Together+for+the+Camera%3A+A+History+of+the+Supreme+Court%E2%80%99s+Group+Photograph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fvisiting%2Fexhibitions%2FGroupPhotoExhibit%2FDefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> See for example Sandra Day O'Connor: How the first woman on the Supreme Court became its most influential justice, by <a href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Joan Biskupic</a>, Harper Collins, 2005, p. 105. Also Rookie on the Bench: The Role of the Junior Justice by Clare Cushman (2008). Journal of Supreme Court History 32 (3): 282–296. </li> <li id="cite_note-tws24oct204-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct204_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct204_173-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct204_173-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct204_173-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct204_173-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091030224351/http://mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=VisitingWashingtonDC.PlanYourTrip#supremecourt">"Plan Your Trip"</a>. US Senator John McCain. October 24, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=VisitingWashingtonDC.PlanYourTrip#supremecourt">the original</a> on October 30, 2009. Retrieved October 24, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Plan+Your+Trip&rft.date=2009-10-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmccain.senate.gov%2Fpublic%2Findex.cfm%3FFuseAction%3DVisitingWashingtonDC.PlanYourTrip%23supremecourt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws24oct201-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct201_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct201_174-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct201_174-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/visiting/visiting.aspx">"Visiting the Court"</a>. Supreme Court of the United States. March 18, 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100322195841/http://www.supremecourt.gov/visiting/visiting.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on March 22, 2010. Retrieved March 19, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Visiting+the+Court&rft.pub=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.date=2010-03-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fvisiting%2Fvisiting.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws24oct211-175"><a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct211_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160821011148/http://www.docstoc.com/docs/11663498/Visiting-Capitol-Hill">"Visiting-Capitol-Hill"</a>. docstoc. October 24, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.docstoc.com/docs/11663498/Visiting-Capitol-Hill">the original</a> on August 21, 2016. Retrieved October 24, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Visiting-Capitol-Hill&rft.pub=docstoc&rft.date=2009-10-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.docstoc.com%2Fdocs%2F11663498%2FVisiting-Capitol-Hill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws24oct209-176"><a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct209_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140203081102/http://www.supremecourthistory.org/how-the-court-works/how-the-court-work/visiting-the-court/">"How The Court Works"</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Historical_Society" title="Supreme Court Historical Society">Supreme Court Historical Society</a>. October 24, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.supremecourthistory.org/how-the-court-works/how-the-court-work/visiting-the-court/">the original</a> on February 3, 2014. Retrieved January 31, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+The+Court+Works&rft.pub=The+Supreme+Court+Historical+Society&rft.date=2009-10-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourthistory.org%2Fhow-the-court-works%2Fhow-the-court-work%2Fvisiting-the-court%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cal-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cal_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cal_177-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/legendkeyinfo.aspx">"Calendar Info/Key"</a>. SupremeCourt.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230624124916/https://www.supremecourt.gov/legendkeyinfo.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on June 24, 2023. Retrieved July 6, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SupremeCourt.gov&rft.atitle=Calendar+Info%2FKey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Flegendkeyinfo.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1251#a">§ 1251(a)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2016" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Liptak" title="Adam Liptak">Liptak, Adam</a> (March 21, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/22/us/politics/supreme-court-declines-to-hear-challenge-to-colorados-marijuana-laws.html">"Supreme Court Declines to Hear Challenge to Colorado's Marijuana Laws"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170531161322/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/22/us/politics/supreme-court-declines-to-hear-challenge-to-colorados-marijuana-laws.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 31, 2017. Retrieved April 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Declines+to+Hear+Challenge+to+Colorado%27s+Marijuana+Laws&rft.date=2016-03-21&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F03%2F22%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fsupreme-court-declines-to-hear-challenge-to-colorados-marijuana-laws.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1251#b">§ 1251(b)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <cite><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Shipp" title="United States v. Shipp">United States v. Shipp</a></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/203/563">203 U.S. 563</a> (Supreme Court of the United States 1906). </li> <li id="cite_note-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp-182">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp_182-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp_182-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp_182-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurriden2009" class="citation web cs1">Curriden, Mark (June 2, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/a_supreme_case_of_contempt">"A Supreme Case of Contempt"</a>. ABA Journal. <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427193307/http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/a_supreme_case_of_contempt">Archived</a> from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved April 27, 2017. <q>On May 28, [U.S. Attorney General William] Moody did something unprecedented, then and now. He filed a petition charging Sheriff Shipp, six deputies and 19 leaders of the lynch mob with contempt of the Supreme Court. The justices unanimously approved the petition and agreed to retain original jurisdiction in the matter. ... May 24, 1909, stands out in the annals of the U.S. Supreme Court. On that day, the court announced a verdict after holding the first and only criminal trial in its history.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABA+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Supreme+Case+of+Contempt&rft.date=2009-06-02&rft.aulast=Curriden&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abajournal.com%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2Fa_supreme_case_of_contempt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Humanities-183">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Humanities_183-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humanities_183-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHindley2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hindley, Meredith (November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2014/novemberdecember/feature/chattanooga-versus-the-supreme-court">"Chattanooga versus the Supreme Court: The Strange Case of Ed Johnson"</a>. Humanities. 35 (6). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427195125/https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2014/novemberdecember/feature/chattanooga-versus-the-supreme-court">Archived</a> from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved April 27, 2017. <q>United States v. Shipp stands out in the history of the Supreme Court as an anomaly. It remains the only time the Court has conducted a criminal trial.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanities&rft.atitle=Chattanooga+versus+the+Supreme+Court%3A+The+Strange+Case+of+Ed+Johnson&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=6&rft.date=2014-11&rft.aulast=Hindley&rft.aufirst=Meredith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.neh.gov%2Fhumanities%2F2014%2Fnovemberdecember%2Ffeature%2Fchattanooga-versus-the-supreme-court&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinder" class="citation web cs1">Linder, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.famous-trials.com/sheriffshipp/1117-shippcase">"United States v. Shipp (U.S. Supreme Court, 1909)"</a>. Famous Trials. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427202728/http://www.famous-trials.com/sheriffshipp/1117-shippcase">Archived</a> from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved April 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Famous+Trials&rft.atitle=United+States+v.+Shipp+%28U.S.+Supreme+Court%2C+1909%29&rft.aulast=Linder&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.famous-trials.com%2Fsheriffshipp%2F1117-shippcase&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKusick1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vincent_L._McKusick" title="Vincent L. McKusick">McKusick, Vincent L.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/maine45&div=15&id=&page=">"Discretionary Gatekeeping: The Supreme Court's Management of Its Original Jurisdiction Docket Since 1961"</a>. Maine Law Review. 45: 185. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217020845/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/maine45&div=15&id=&page=">Archived</a> from the original on February 17, 2022. Retrieved February 17, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Maine+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Discretionary+Gatekeeping%3A+The+Supreme+Court%27s+Management+of+Its+Original+Jurisdiction+Docket+Since+1961&rft.volume=45&rft.pages=185&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=McKusick&rft.aufirst=Vincent+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FLandingPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Fmaine45%26div%3D15%26id%3D%26page%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1254">§ 1254</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1259">§ 1259</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1258">§ 1258</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1260">§ 1260</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-USC|28|1257-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USC|28|1257_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USC|28|1257_190-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1257">§ 1257</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrannockWeinzierl2003" class="citation journal cs1">Brannock, Steven; Weinzierl, Sarah (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stetson.edu/law/lawreview/media/confronting-a-pca-finding-a-path-around-a-brick-wall.pdf">"Confronting a PCA: Finding a Path Around a Brick Wall"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Stetson_University_College_of_Law" title="Stetson University College of Law">Stetson Law Review</a>. XXXII: 368–369, 387–390. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160804085916/http://www.stetson.edu/law/lawreview/media/confronting-a-pca-finding-a-path-around-a-brick-wall.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on August 4, 2016. Retrieved April 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stetson+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Confronting+a+PCA%3A+Finding+a+Path+Around+a+Brick+Wall&rft.volume=XXXII&rft.pages=368-369%2C+387-390&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Brannock&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Weinzierl%2C+Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stetson.edu%2Flaw%2Flawreview%2Fmedia%2Fconfronting-a-pca-finding-a-path-around-a-brick-wall.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> 🖉<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/489/288/case.html">"Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288 (1989)"</a>. Justia Law. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180602012722/https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/489/288/case.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2018. Retrieved October 31, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Justia+Law&rft.atitle=Teague+v.+Lane%2C+489+U.S.+288+%281989%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffederal%2Fus%2F489%2F288%2Fcase.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutman" class="citation web cs1">Gutman, Jeffrey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://federalpracticemanual.org/chapter3/section3">"Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys: 3.3 Mootness"</a>. Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys. Sargent Shriver National Center on Poverty Law. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427193132/http://federalpracticemanual.org/chapter3/section3">Archived</a> from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved April 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Practice+Manual+for+Legal+Aid+Attorneys&rft.atitle=Federal+Practice+Manual+for+Legal+Aid+Attorneys%3A+3.3+Mootness&rft.aulast=Gutman&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffederalpracticemanual.org%2Fchapter3%2Fsection3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlick2003" class="citation journal cs1">Glick, Joshua (April 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180925025629/http://supremecourthistory.org/assets/schs_publications-circuitriding.pdf">"On the road: The Supreme Court and the history of circuit riding"</a> (PDF). Cardozo Law Review. 24. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.supremecourthistory.org/assets/schs_publications-circuitriding.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on September 25, 2018. Retrieved September 24, 2018. <q>Gradually, however, circuit riding lost support. The Court's increasing business in the nation's capital following the Civil War made the circuit riding seem anachronistic and impractical and a slow shift away from the practice began. The Judiciary Act of 1869 established a separate circuit court judiciary. The justices retained nominal circuit riding duties until 1891 when the Circuit Court of Appeals Act was passed. With the Judicial Code of 1911, Congress officially ended the practice. The struggle between the legislative and judicial branches over circuit riding was finally concluded.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cardozo+Law+Review&rft.atitle=On+the+road%3A+The+Supreme+Court+and+the+history+of+circuit+riding&rft.volume=24&rft.date=2003-04&rft.aulast=Glick&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourthistory.org%2Fassets%2Fschs_publications-circuitriding.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Supreme Court Rule 44 (1980 revised) (titled "Stays"), published at 445 U.S. 985, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435028062743&view=page&seq=940">1038</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230511113513/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435028062743&view=page&seq=940">Archived</a> May 11, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Also available at the Supreme Court's website at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/pdfs/rules/rules_1980r.pdf">Historical Rules of the Supreme Court, 1980 revised</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230510230529/https://www.supremecourt.gov/pdfs/rules/rules_1980r.pdf">Archived</a> May 10, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Supreme Court Rule 23 (1989) (titled "Stays"; moved from Rule 44), published at 493 U.S. 1097, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015077149535&view=page&seq=1081&size=125">1125</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230511052131/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015077149535&view=page&seq=1081&size=125">Archived</a> May 11, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Also available at the Supreme Court's website at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/pdfs/rules/rules_1989.pdf">Historical Rules of the Supreme Court, 1989</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230510230532/https://www.supremecourt.gov/pdfs/rules/rules_1989.pdf">Archived</a> May 10, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. And "Injunction, writ of" was removed from the index. Compare 445 U.S. 1064 with 493 U.S. 1172. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gonen-197">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gonen_197-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gonen_197-1">b</a> Daniel Gonen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1282265">"Judging in Chambers: The Powers of a Single Justice of the Supreme Court"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231116063506/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1282265">Archived</a> November 16, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 76 U. Cinn. L. Rev. 1159, 1168–1170 (2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/45#b">§ 45(b)</a> ("The circuit justice, however, shall have precedence over all the circuit judges and shall preside at any session which he attends."). </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/courtorders/092822zr_1b72.pdf">"Miscellaneous Order (09/28/2022)"</a> (PDF). Supreme Court of the United States. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220928185520/https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/courtorders/092822zr_1b72.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on September 28, 2022. Retrieved September 28, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.atitle=Miscellaneous+Order+%2809%2F28%2F2022%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Forders%2Fcourtorders%2F092822zr_1b72.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-usc|28|1254-200">^ <a href="#cite_ref-usc|28|1254_200-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-usc|28|1254_200-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1254">§ 1254</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1257">§ 1257</a>; see also <a href="/wiki/Adequate_and_independent_state_grounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Adequate and independent state grounds">Adequate and independent state grounds</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1253">§ 1253</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames1998" class="citation journal cs1">James, Robert A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greenbag.org/v1n4/v1n4_articles_james.pdf">"Instructions in Supreme Court Jury Trials"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_Green_Bag_(1997)" title="The Green Bag (1997)">The Green Bag</a>. 2d. 1 (4): 378. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5216">1095-5216</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130818030849/http://www.greenbag.org/v1n4/v1n4_articles_james.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on August 18, 2013. Retrieved February 5, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Green+Bag&rft.atitle=Instructions+in+Supreme+Court+Jury+Trials&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=378&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=1095-5216&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenbag.org%2Fv1n4%2Fv1n4_articles_james.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1872">§ 1872</a> See <a href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Brailsford_(1794)" title="Georgia v. Brailsford (1794)">Georgia v. Brailsford</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_3" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 3">3</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/3/1/">1</a> (1794), in which the Court conducted a jury trial. </li> <li id="cite_note-yalejournal-205"><a href="#cite_ref-yalejournal_205-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShelfer2013" class="citation journal cs1">Shelfer, Lochlan F. 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Retrieved October 2, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Special+Juries+in+the+Supreme+Court&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=208-252&rft.date=2013-10&rft.issn=0044-0094&rft.aulast=Shelfer&rft.aufirst=Lochlan+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yalelawjournal.org%2Fnote%2Fspecial-juries-in-the-supreme-court&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMauro2005" class="citation web cs1">Mauro, Tony (October 21, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1129799113829">"Roberts Dips Toe into Cert Pool"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ALM_(company)" title="ALM (company)">Legal Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090602213822/http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1129799113829">Archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2009. Retrieved October 31, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Times&rft.atitle=Roberts+Dips+Toe+into+Cert+Pool&rft.date=2005-10-21&rft.aulast=Mauro&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.com%2Fjsp%2Farticle.jsp%3Fid%3D1129799113829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMauro2006" class="citation web cs1">Mauro, Tony (July 4, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1144330162287">"Justice Alito Joins Cert Pool Party"</a>. Legal Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930210355/http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1144330162287">Archived</a> from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved October 31, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Times&rft.atitle=Justice+Alito+Joins+Cert+Pool+Party&rft.date=2006-07-04&rft.aulast=Mauro&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.com%2Fjsp%2Farticle.jsp%3Fid%3D1144330162287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2008" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Liptak" title="Adam Liptak">Liptak, Adam</a> (September 25, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/26/washington/26memo.html">"A Second Justice Opts Out of a Longtime Custom: The 'Cert. Pool'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211090108/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/26/washington/26memo.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 11, 2008. Retrieved October 17, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Second+Justice+Opts+Out+of+a+Longtime+Custom%3A+The+%27Cert.+Pool%27&rft.date=2008-09-25&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F09%2F26%2Fwashington%2F26memo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2017" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Liptak" title="Adam Liptak">Liptak, Adam</a> (May 1, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/01/us/politics/gorsuch-supreme-court-labor-pool-clerks.html">"Gorsuch, in Sign of Independence, Is Out of Supreme Court's Clerical Pool"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170502063829/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/01/us/politics/gorsuch-supreme-court-labor-pool-clerks.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 2, 2017. Retrieved May 2, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Gorsuch%2C+in+Sign+of+Independence%2C+Is+Out+of+Supreme+Court%27s+Clerical+Pool&rft.date=2017-05-01&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F05%2F01%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fgorsuch-supreme-court-labor-pool-clerks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetherbridgeSchwartz2012" class="citation journal cs1">Petherbridge, Lee; Schwartz, David L. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=84861745651&partnerID=8YFLogxK">"An empirical Assessment of the Supreme Court's use of legal scholarship"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University_Law_Review" title="Northwestern University Law Review">Northwestern University Law Review</a>. 106 (3): 995–1032. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0029-3571">0029-3571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Northwestern+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=An+empirical+Assessment+of+the+Supreme+Court%27s+use+of+legal+scholarship&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=995-1032&rft.date=2012&rft.issn=0029-3571&rft.aulast=Petherbridge&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+David+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Fscp%3D84861745651%26partnerID%3D8YFLogxK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_211-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_211-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_211-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarsen2022" class="citation news cs1">Larsen, Allison Orr (July 26, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/07/26/scotus-history-is-from-motivated-advocacy-groups-00047249">"Opinion: The Supreme Court Decisions on Guns and Abortion Relied Heavily on History. But Whose History?"</a>. Politico Magazine.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politico+Magazine&rft.atitle=Opinion%3A+The+Supreme+Court+Decisions+on+Guns+and+Abortion+Relied+Heavily+on+History.+But+Whose+History%3F&rft.date=2022-07-26&rft.aulast=Larsen&rft.aufirst=Allison+Orr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine%2F2022%2F07%2F26%2Fscotus-history-is-from-motivated-advocacy-groups-00047249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-212">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_212-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_212-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabrielson2017" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ryan_Gabrielson" title="Ryan Gabrielson">Gabrielson, Ryan</a> (October 17, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.propublica.org/article/supreme-court-errors-are-not-hard-to-find">"It's a Fact: Supreme Court Errors Aren't Hard to Find"</a>. ProPublica. Retrieved July 2, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ProPublica&rft.atitle=It%27s+a+Fact%3A+Supreme+Court+Errors+Aren%27t+Hard+to+Find&rft.date=2017-10-17&rft.aulast=Gabrielson&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.propublica.org%2Farticle%2Fsupreme-court-errors-are-not-hard-to-find&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> See the arguments on the constitutionality of the <a href="/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act">Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act</a> took place over three days and lasted over six hours, covering several issues; the arguments for Bush v. Gore were 90 minutes long; oral arguments in <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon" title="United States v. Nixon">United States v. Nixon</a> lasted three hours; and <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times v. United States">the Pentagon papers case</a> was given a two-hour argument. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristy2011" class="citation web cs1">Christy, Andrew (November 15, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2011/11/15/142363047/obamacare-will-rank-among-the-longest-supreme-court-arguments-ever">"'Obamacare' will rank among the longest Supreme Court arguments ever"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111116000140/http://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2011/11/15/142363047/obamacare-will-rank-among-the-longest-supreme-court-arguments-ever">Archived</a> from the original on November 16, 2011. Retrieved March 31, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Obamacare%27+will+rank+among+the+longest+Supreme+Court+arguments+ever&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2011-11-15&rft.aulast=Christy&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fblogs%2Fitsallpolitics%2F2011%2F11%2F15%2F142363047%2Fobamacare-will-rank-among-the-longest-supreme-court-arguments-ever&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> The longest modern-day oral arguments were in the case of <a href="/wiki/California_v._Arizona" class="mw-redirect" title="California v. Arizona">California v. Arizona</a>, in which oral arguments lasted over sixteen hours over four days in 1962.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBobic2012" class="citation web cs1">Bobic, Igor (March 26, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://talkingpointsmemo.com/livewire/oral-arguments-on-health-care-reform-longest-in-45-years">"Oral arguments on health reform longest in 45 years"</a>. Talking Points Memo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140204025004/http://talkingpointsmemo.com/livewire/oral-arguments-on-health-care-reform-longest-in-45-years">Archived</a> from the original on February 4, 2014. Retrieved January 31, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oral+arguments+on+health+reform+longest+in+45+years&rft.pub=Talking+Points+Memo&rft.date=2012-03-26&rft.aulast=Bobic&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftalkingpointsmemo.com%2Flivewire%2Foral-arguments-on-health-care-reform-longest-in-45-years&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/03/politics/supreme-court-lawyers-2-minutes">"Supreme Court gives lawyers 2 minutes with no interruptions"</a>. CNN. October 3, 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221120230019/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/03/politics/supreme-court-lawyers-2-minutes">Archived</a> from the original on November 20, 2022. Retrieved November 20, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+gives+lawyers+2+minutes+with+no+interruptions&rft.date=2019-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2019%2F10%2F03%2Fpolitics%2Fsupreme-court-lawyers-2-minutes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> See generally, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Tushnet" title="Mark Tushnet">Tushnet, Mark, ed.</a> (2008) I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases, Malaysia: Beacon Press, pp. 256, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-0036-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-0036-6">978-0-8070-0036-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler" class="citation magazine cs1">Kessler, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/03/case-allowing-cameras-supreme-court-proceedings/316876/">"Why Aren't Cameras Allowed at the Supreme Court Again?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170325201504/https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/03/case-allowing-cameras-supreme-court-proceedings/316876/">Archived</a> from the original on March 25, 2017. Retrieved March 24, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Why+Aren%27t+Cameras+Allowed+at+the+Supreme+Court+Again%3F&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fnational%2Farchive%2F2013%2F03%2Fcase-allowing-cameras-supreme-court-proceedings%2F316876%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmy_Howe2022" class="citation web cs1">Amy Howe (December 12, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scotusblog.com/2022/12/court-will-resume-opinion-announcements-from-the-bench-but-wont-provide-live-audio/">"Court will resume opinion announcements from the bench, but won't provide live audio"</a>. SCOTUSblog. Retrieved April 2, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SCOTUSblog&rft.atitle=Court+will+resume+opinion+announcements+from+the+bench%2C+but+won%27t+provide+live+audio&rft.date=2022-12-12&rft.au=Amy+Howe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2F2022%2F12%2Fcourt-will-resume-opinion-announcements-from-the-bench-but-wont-provide-live-audio%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28_USC_1-218"><a href="#cite_ref-28_USC_1_218-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1">§ 1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/2109">§ 2109</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPepallRichardsNorman1999" class="citation book cs1">Pepall, Lynne; Richards, Daniel L.; Norman, George (1999). Industrial Organization: Contemporary Theory and Practice. Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing. pp. 11–12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industrial+Organization%3A+Contemporary+Theory+and+Practice&rft.place=Cincinnati&rft.pages=11-12&rft.pub=South-Western+College+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Pepall&rft.aufirst=Lynne&rft.au=Richards%2C+Daniel+L.&rft.au=Norman%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USRBV-221"><a href="#cite_ref-USRBV_221-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/boundvolumes.aspx">"Bound Volumes"</a>. Supreme Court of the United States. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190108025637/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/boundvolumes.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on January 8, 2019. 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United States Reports. 569. 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210331191802/https://www.supremecourt.gov//opinions/boundvolumes/569BV.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on March 31, 2021. Retrieved January 9, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=United+States+Reports&rft.atitle=Cases+adjudged+in+the+Supreme+Court+at+October+Term%2C+2012+%E2%80%93+March+26+through+June+13%2C+2013&rft.volume=569&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2Fboundvolumes%2F569bv.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sliplists-223"><a href="#cite_ref-sliplists_223-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170406114133/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/sliplists.aspx">"Sliplists"</a>. Supreme Court of the United States. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/sliplists.aspx">the original</a> on April 6, 2017. Retrieved January 1, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sliplists&rft.pub=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2Fsliplists.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.georgetown.edu/library/research/guides/supreme_court.cfm">"Supreme Court Research Guide"</a>. law.georgetown.edu. Georgetown Law Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120822172547/http://www.law.georgetown.edu/library/research/guides/supreme_court.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on August 22, 2012. Retrieved August 22, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=law.georgetown.edu&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Research+Guide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.georgetown.edu%2Flibrary%2Fresearch%2Fguides%2Fsupreme_court.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.guides.umd.edu/content.php?pid=128265&sid=1100770">"How to Cite Cases: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions"</a>. lib.guides.umd.edu. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Maryland">University of Maryland</a> University Libraries. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120822172846/http://lib.guides.umd.edu/content.php?pid=128265&sid=1100770">Archived</a> from the original on August 22, 2012. 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(1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=12520&context=journal_articles">"What Judge Bork Should Have Said"</a>. Connecticut Law Review. 23: 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201204052000/https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F&httpsredir=1&article=12520&context=journal_articles">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2020. Retrieved November 8, 2021 – via University of Chicago Law School – Chicago Unbound.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Connecticut+Law+Review&rft.atitle=What+Judge+Bork+Should+Have+Said&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Sunstein&rft.aufirst=Carl+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchicagounbound.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Freferer%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F%26httpsredir%3D1%26article%3D12520%26context%3Djournal_articles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws22oct33-333"><a href="#cite_ref-tws22oct33_333-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClymer1998" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clymer" title="Adam Clymer">Clymer, Adam</a> (May 29, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/01/specials/goldwater-obit.html">"Barry Goldwater, Conservative and Individualist, Dies at 89"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130307223049/http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/01/specials/goldwater-obit.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 7, 2013. Retrieved October 22, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Barry+Goldwater%2C+Conservative+and+Individualist%2C+Dies+at+89&rft.date=1998-05-29&rft.aulast=Clymer&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F01%2F04%2F01%2Fspecials%2Fgoldwater-obit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuinn2022" class="citation web cs1">Quinn, Colm (May 4, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240302002354/https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/05/04/supreme-court-international">"For a Less Politicized Supreme Court, Look Abroad"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Policy" title="Foreign Policy">Foreign Policy</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/05/04/supreme-court-international">the original</a> on March 2, 2024. Retrieved March 2, 2024. <q>A criticism leveled at the Supreme Court and U.S. institutions more generally is that after more than two centuries in operation, it's beginning to look its age, with questions of legitimacy, political interference, and power all combining to undermine the court.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=For+a+Less+Politicized+Supreme+Court%2C+Look+Abroad&rft.date=2022-05-04&rft.aulast=Quinn&rft.aufirst=Colm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2F2022%2F05%2F04%2Fsupreme-court-international&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldman2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Waldman" title="Michael Waldman">Waldman, Michael</a> (2023). The supermajority: how the Supreme Court divided America (First Simon & Schuster hardcover ed.). New York London; Toronto; Sydney; New Delhi: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-6680-0606-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-6680-0606-1"><bdi>978-1-6680-0606-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+supermajority%3A+how+the+Supreme+Court+divided+America&rft.place=New+York+London%3B+Toronto%3B+Sydney%3B+New+Delhi&rft.edition=First+Simon+%26+Schuster+hardcover&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-6680-0606-1&rft.aulast=Waldman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-twsvsfs32-336"><a href="#cite_ref-twsvsfs32_336-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodwardScott_Armstrong1979" class="citation book cs1">Woodward, Bob; Scott Armstrong (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6JtJ23GmD3AC">The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court</a>. United States of America: Simon & Schuster. p. 541. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-7402-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-7402-9"><bdi>978-0-7432-7402-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201118003022/https://books.google.com/books?id=6JtJ23GmD3AC">Archived</a> from the original on November 18, 2020. Retrieved October 29, 2020. <q>A court which is final and unreviewable needs more careful scrutiny than any other</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brethren%3A+Inside+the+Supreme+Court&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=541&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-7402-9&rft.aulast=Woodward&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft.au=Scott+Armstrong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6JtJ23GmD3AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:022-337"><a href="#cite_ref-:022_337-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2016" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Suja A. (2016). The missing American jury: restoring the fundamental constitutional role of the criminal, civil, and grand juries. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 75–77, 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-61803-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-61803-5"><bdi>978-1-316-61803-5</bdi></a>. <q>The Supreme Court's differing treatment of the traditional actors and the jury and the deference to traditional actors has contributed to the jury's decline…The Court has failed to acknowledge any specific authority in the jury or any necessity to guard that authority...Moreover it has ultimately held constitutional almost every modern procedure before and after the a jury deliberation that has eliminated or reduced jury authority. (75-77)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+missing+American+jury%3A+restoring+the+fundamental+constitutional+role+of+the+criminal%2C+civil%2C+and+grand+juries&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=75-77%2C+109&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-316-61803-5&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Suja+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2016" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Suja A. (2016). The missing American jury: restoring the fundamental constitutional role of the criminal, civil, and grand juries. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-05565-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-05565-0"><bdi>978-1-107-05565-0</bdi></a>. <q>as the jury continued to be more diverse in gender and race, the jury was less desirable to judges and corporations…this shift has occurred, particularly in the 1930s…The Supreme Court likely has been influenced by legal elites as well as by corporations to reduce jury authority over time.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+missing+American+jury%3A+restoring+the+fundamental+constitutional+role+of+the+criminal%2C+civil%2C+and+grand+juries&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-107-05565-0&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Suja+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2016" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Suja A. (2016). The missing American jury: restoring the fundamental constitutional role of the criminal, civil, and grand juries. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 92–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-61803-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-61803-5"><bdi>978-1-316-61803-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+missing+American+jury%3A+restoring+the+fundamental+constitutional+role+of+the+criminal%2C+civil%2C+and+grand+juries&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=92-93&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-316-61803-5&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Suja+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein2022" class="citation web cs1">Klein, Naomi (June 30, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theintercept.com/2022/06/30/supreme-court-climate-epa-coup/">"The Supreme Court's Shock-and-Awe Judicial Coup"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Intercept" title="The Intercept">The Intercept</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220630204421/https://theintercept.com/2022/06/30/supreme-court-climate-epa-coup/">Archived</a> from the original on June 30, 2022. Retrieved June 30, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Intercept&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court%27s+Shock-and-Awe+Judicial+Coup&rft.date=2022-06-30&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Naomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheintercept.com%2F2022%2F06%2F30%2Fsupreme-court-climate-epa-coup%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGersen2022" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeannie_Suk" title="Jeannie Suk">Gersen, Jeannie Suk</a> (July 3, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2022/07/11/the-supreme-courts-conservatives-have-asserted-their-power">"The Supreme Court's Conservatives Have Asserted Their Power"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Yorker_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="New Yorker (magazine)">New Yorker</a>. Retrieved July 3, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court%27s+Conservatives+Have+Asserted+Their+Power&rft.date=2022-07-03&rft.aulast=Gersen&rft.aufirst=Jeannie+Suk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2022%2F07%2F11%2Fthe-supreme-courts-conservatives-have-asserted-their-power&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptak2022" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Liptak" title="Adam Liptak">Liptak, Adam</a> (July 2, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/02/us/supreme-court-congress.html">"Gridlock in Congress Has Amplified the Power of the Supreme Court"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved July 3, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Gridlock+in+Congress+Has+Amplified+the+Power+of+the+Supreme+Court&rft.date=2022-07-02&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2022%2F07%2F02%2Fus%2Fsupreme-court-congress.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGersteinWard2022" class="citation web cs1">Gerstein, Josh; Ward, Alexander (June 30, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.com/news/2022/06/30/the-conservative-supreme-court-is-just-getting-warmed-up-00043656">"The conservative Supreme Court is just getting warmed up"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Politico" title="Politico">Politico</a>. Retrieved July 3, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Politico&rft.atitle=The+conservative+Supreme+Court+is+just+getting+warmed+up&rft.date=2022-06-30&rft.aulast=Gerstein&rft.aufirst=Josh&rft.au=Ward%2C+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.com%2Fnews%2F2022%2F06%2F30%2Fthe-conservative-supreme-court-is-just-getting-warmed-up-00043656&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws24oct22-344"><a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct22_344-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadison1789" class="citation news cs1">Madison, James (1789). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers/No._45">"The Federalist Papers/No. 45 The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to the State Governments Considered" </a> – via Wikisource. <q>the States will retain, under the proposed Constitution, a very extensive portion of active sovereignty</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Federalist+Papers%2FNo.+45+The+Alleged+Danger+From+the+Powers+of+the+Union+to+the+State+Governments+Considered&rft.date=1789&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws24oct47-345"><a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct47_345-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander_Hamilton_(aka_Publius)1789" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton (aka Publius)</a> (1789). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed28.asp">"Federalist No. 28"</a>. Independent Journal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090709224634/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed28.asp">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2009. Retrieved October 24, 2009. <q>Power being almost always the rival of power; the General Government will at all times stand ready to check the usurpations of the state government; and these will have the same disposition toward the General Government.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Federalist+No.+28&rft.date=1789&rft.au=Alexander+Hamilton+%28aka+Publius%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Ffed28.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws27oct501-346"><a href="#cite_ref-tws27oct501_346-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadison1788" class="citation news cs1">Madison, James (January 25, 1788). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa44.htm">"The Federalist"</a>. Independent Journal. No. 44 (quote: 8th para). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091027045224/http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa44.htm">Archived</a> from the original on October 27, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009. <q>seems well calculated at once to secure to the States a reasonable discretion in providing for the conveniency of their imports and exports, and to the United States a reasonable check against the abuse of this discretion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Independent+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Federalist&rft.issue=44+%28quote%3A+8th+para%29&rft.date=1788-01-25&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Ffed%2Ffedera44.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws27oct502-347"><a href="#cite_ref-tws27oct502_347-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadison1788" class="citation news cs1">Madison, James (February 16, 1788). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa56.htm">"The Federalist No. 56 (quote: 6th para)"</a>. Independent Journal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090215035104/http://constitution.org/fed/federa56.htm">Archived</a> from the original on February 15, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009. <q>In every State there have been made, and must continue to be made, regulations on this subject which will, in many cases, leave little more to be done by the federal legislature, than to review the different laws, and reduce them in one general act.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Federalist+No.+56+%28quote%3A+6th+para%29&rft.date=1788-02-16&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Ffed%2Ffedera56.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws27oct503-348"><a href="#cite_ref-tws27oct503_348-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamilton1787" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Hamilton, Alexander</a> (December 14, 1787). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa22.htm">"The Federalist No. 22 (quote: 4th para)"</a>. New York Packet. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100203031601/http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa22.htm">Archived</a> from the original on February 3, 2010. Retrieved October 27, 2009. <q>The interfering and unneighborly regulations of some States, contrary to the true spirit of the Union, have, in different instances, given just cause of umbrage and complaint to others, and it is to be feared that examples of this nature, if not restrained by a national control, would be multiplied and extended till they became not less serious sources of animosity and discord than injurious impediments to the intercourse between the different parts of the Confederacy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Federalist+No.+22+%28quote%3A+4th+para%29&rft.date=1787-12-14&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Ffed%2Ffedera22.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws27oct504-349"><a href="#cite_ref-tws27oct504_349-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadison1788" class="citation news cs1">Madison, James (January 22, 1788). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed42.asp">"The Federalist Papers"</a>. New York Packet. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090709224058/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed42.asp">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009. <q>The regulation of commerce with the Indian tribes is very properly unfettered from two limitations in the articles of Confederation, which render the provision obscure and contradictory. The power is there restrained to Indians, not members of any of the States, and is not to violate or infringe the legislative right of any State within its own limits.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Federalist+Papers&rft.date=1788-01-22&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Ffed42.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws24oct10-350"><a href="#cite_ref-tws24oct10_350-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmar1998" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Akhil_Reed_Amar" title="Akhil Reed Amar">Amar, Akhil Reed</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/a/amar-rights.html">"The Bill of Rights – Creation and Reconstruction"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>: Books. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090416221333/http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/a/amar-rights.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 16, 2009. Retrieved October 24, 2009. <q>many lawyers embrace a tradition that views state governments as the quintessential threat to individual and minority rights, and federal officials—especially federal courts—as the special guardians of those rights.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times%3A+Books&rft.atitle=The+Bill+of+Rights+%E2%80%93+Creation+and+Reconstruction&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Amar&rft.aufirst=Akhil+Reed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2Ffirst%2Fa%2Famar-rights.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws30oct08-351"><a href="#cite_ref-tws30oct08_351-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGold2005" class="citation news cs1">Gold, Scott (June 14, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-jun-14-na-cavebugs14-story.html">"Justices Swat Down Texans' Effort to Weaken Species Protection Law"</a>. Los Angeles Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120112210116/http://articles.latimes.com/2005/jun/14/nation/na-cavebugs14">Archived</a> from the original on January 12, 2012. Retrieved March 24, 2012. <q>Purcell filed a $60-million lawsuit against the U.S. government in 1999, arguing that cave bugs could not be regulated through the commerce clause because they had no commercial value and did not cross state lines. 'I'm disappointed,' Purcell said.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Justices+Swat+Down+Texans%27+Effort+to+Weaken+Species+Protection+Law&rft.date=2005-06-14&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-2005-jun-14-na-cavebugs14-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws27oct505-352">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws27oct505_352-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws27oct505_352-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReich1987" class="citation news cs1">Reich, Robert B. (September 13, 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/13/magazine/the-commerce-clause-the-expanding-economic-vista.html">"The Commerce Clause; The Expanding Economic Vista"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Magazine" title="The New York Times Magazine">The New York Times Magazine</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110512175507/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/13/magazine/the-commerce-clause-the-expanding-economic-vista.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2011. Retrieved October 27, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Commerce+Clause%3B+The+Expanding+Economic+Vista&rft.date=1987-09-13&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F09%2F13%2Fmagazine%2Fthe-commerce-clause-the-expanding-economic-vista.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws30oct09-353"><a href="#cite_ref-tws30oct09_353-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFDCH_e-Media2006" class="citation news cs1">FDCH e-Media (January 10, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/10/AR2006011001087.html">"U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court"</a>. The Washington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081019161905/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/10/AR2006011001087.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 19, 2008. Retrieved October 30, 2009. <q>I don't think there's any question at this point in our history that Congress' power under the commerce clause is quite broad, and I think that reflects a number of things, including the way in which our economy and our society has developed and all of the foreign and interstate activity that takes place – Samuel Alito</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=U.S.+Senate+Judiciary+Committee+Hearing+on+Judge+Samuel+Alito%27s+Nomination+to+the+Supreme+Court&rft.date=2006-01-10&rft.au=FDCH+e-Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F01%2F10%2FAR2006011001087.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws30oct03-354"><a href="#cite_ref-tws30oct03_354-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2003" class="citation news cs1">Cohen, Adam (December 7, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/07/opinion/editorial-observer-brandeis-s-views-states-rights-ice-making-have-new-relevance.html">"Editorial Observer; Brandeis's Views on States' Rights, and Ice-Making, Have New Relevance"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111215/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/07/opinion/editorial-observer-brandeis-s-views-states-rights-ice-making-have-new-relevance.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved October 30, 2009. <q>But Brandeis's dissent contains one of the most famous formulations in American law: that the states should be free to serve as laboratories of democracy</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Editorial+Observer%3B+Brandeis%27s+Views+on+States%27+Rights%2C+and+Ice-Making%2C+Have+New+Relevance&rft.date=2003-12-07&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2003%2F12%2F07%2Fopinion%2Feditorial-observer-brandeis-s-views-states-rights-ice-making-have-new-relevance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws23oct15-355"><a href="#cite_ref-tws23oct15_355-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraglia2005" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lino_Graglia" title="Lino Graglia">Graglia, Lino</a> (July 19, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101204214859/http://www.utexas.edu/law/news/2005/071905_court.html">"Altering 14th Amendment would curb court's activist tendencies"</a>. University of Texas School of Law. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/law/news/2005/071905_court.html">the original</a> on December 4, 2010. Retrieved October 23, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Altering+14th+Amendment+would+curb+court%27s+activist+tendencies&rft.date=2005-07-19&rft.aulast=Graglia&rft.aufirst=Lino&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.utexas.edu%2Flaw%2Fnews%2F2005%2F071905_court.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws30oct02-356"><a href="#cite_ref-tws30oct02_356-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornberger2005" class="citation news cs1">Hornberger, Jacob C. (November 1, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fff.org/explore-freedom/article/freedom-fourteenth-amendment/">"Freedom and the Fourteenth Amendment"</a>. The Future of Freedom Foundation. <q>Fourteenth Amendment. Some argue that it is detrimental to the cause of freedom because it expands the power of the federal government. Others contend that the amendment expands the ambit of individual liberty. I fall among those who believe that the Fourteenth Amendment has been a positive force for freedom.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Freedom+and+the+Fourteenth+Amendment&rft.date=2005-11-01&rft.aulast=Hornberger&rft.aufirst=Jacob+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fff.org%2Fexplore-freedom%2Farticle%2Ffreedom-fourteenth-amendment%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/gamble-v-united-states/">"Gamble v. United States"</a>. ScotusBlog. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180928200950/http://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/gamble-v-united-states/">Archived</a> from the original on September 28, 2018. Retrieved September 28, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScotusBlog&rft.atitle=Gamble+v.+United+States&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2Fcase-files%2Fcases%2Fgamble-v-united-states%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVazquez2018" class="citation web cs1">Vazquez, Maegan (June 28, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/28/politics/supreme-court-double-jeopardy-clause/index.html">"Supreme Court agrees to hear 'double jeopardy' case in the fall"</a>. CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180927065840/https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/28/politics/supreme-court-double-jeopardy-clause/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 27, 2018. Retrieved September 28, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+agrees+to+hear+%27double+jeopardy%27+case+in+the+fall&rft.date=2018-06-28&rft.aulast=Vazquez&rft.aufirst=Maegan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2018%2F06%2F28%2Fpolitics%2Fsupreme-court-double-jeopardy-clause%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws23oct12-359">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws23oct12_359-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws23oct12_359-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargolick2007" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Margolick" title="David Margolick">Margolick, David</a> (September 23, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/books/review/Margolick-t.html">"Meet the Supremes"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090411144020/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/books/review/Margolick-t.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 11, 2009. Retrieved October 23, 2009. <q>Beat reporters and academics initially denounced the court's involvement in that case, its hastiness to enter the political thicket and the half-baked and strained decision that resulted...Toobin remains white-hot about it, calling it 'one of the lowest moments in the court's history,' one that revealed the worst of just about everyone involved.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Meet+the+Supremes&rft.date=2007-09-23&rft.aulast=Margolick&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F09%2F23%2Fbooks%2Freview%2FMargolick-t.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws22oct40-360"><a href="#cite_ref-tws22oct40_360-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcConnell2001" class="citation web cs1">McConnell, Michael W. 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Retrieved February 16, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Chicago+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Two-and-a-Half+Cheers+for+Bush+v+Gore&rft.date=2001-06-01&rft.aulast=McConnell&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchicagounbound.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D5105%26context%3Duclrev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws23oct01-361"><a href="#cite_ref-tws23oct01_361-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCQ_Transcriptions_(Senator_Kohl)2009" class="citation news cs1">CQ Transcriptions (Senator Kohl) (July 14, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513210306/http://voices.washingtonpost.com/supreme-court/2009/07/key_excerpt_sotomayor_on_bush.html">"Key Excerpt: Sotomayor on Bush v. Gore"</a>. The Washington Post. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://voices.washingtonpost.com/supreme-court/2009/07/key_excerpt_sotomayor_on_bush.html">the original</a> on May 13, 2011. Retrieved October 23, 2009. <q>Many critics saw the Bush v. Gore decision as an example of the judiciary improperly injecting itself into a political dispute"</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Key+Excerpt%3A+Sotomayor+on+Bush+v.+Gore&rft.date=2009-07-14&rft.au=CQ+Transcriptions+%28Senator+Kohl%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvoices.washingtonpost.com%2Fsupreme-court%2F2009%2F07%2Fkey_excerpt_sotomayor_on_bush.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws23oct08-362"><a href="#cite_ref-tws23oct08_362-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2004" class="citation news cs1">Cohen, Adam (March 21, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111524/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/21/opinion/21SUN4.html">"Justice Rehnquist Writes on Hayes vs. Tilden, With His Mind on Bush v. 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The reason given is: Should have more recent books, as older books might be out of date and not contain the latest thinking, information and analysis about the court. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States, 5 vols., Detroit [etc.] Macmillan Reference USA, 2008</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/ctrules/2013RulesoftheCourt.pdf">The Rules of the Supreme Court of the United States</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170605075740/https://www.supremecourt.gov/ctrules/2013RulesoftheCourt.pdf">Archived</a> June 5, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2013 ed.) (PDF).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Biskupic, Joan</a> and Elder Witt (1997). <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly" title="Congressional Quarterly">Congressional Quarterly</a>'s Guide to the U.S. Supreme Court. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly" title="Congressional Quarterly">Congressional Quarterly</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56802-130-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-56802-130-5">1-56802-130-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1992" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hall">The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505835-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505835-2"><bdi>978-0-19-505835-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505835-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont00hall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallMcGuire2005" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Kermit L.; McGuire, Kevin T., eds. (2005). Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530917-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530917-1"><bdi>978-0-19-530917-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutions+of+American+Democracy%3A+The+Judicial+Branch&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530917-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a> Assn. (2000). <a href="/wiki/Bluebook" title="Bluebook">The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation</a>, 17th ed. [18th ed., 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-600-01-4329-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-600-01-4329-9">978-600-01-4329-9</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Irons" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter H. Irons">Irons</a>, Peter (1999). A People's History of the Supreme Court. New York: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Press" title="Viking Press">Viking Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-87006-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-87006-4">0-670-87006-4</a>.</li> <li>Rehnquist, William (1987). The Supreme Court. New York: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Alfred A. Knopf</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-40943-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-40943-2">0-375-40943-2</a>.</li> <li>Skifos, Catherine Hetos (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020607011454/http://supremecourthistory.org/04_library/subs_volumes/04_c01_e.html">"The Supreme Court Gets a Home"</a>, Supreme Court Historical Society 1976 Yearbook. [in 1990, renamed The Journal of Supreme Court History (ISSN 1059-4329)]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSupreme_Court_Historical_Society" class="citation web cs1">Supreme Court Historical Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/courtbuilding.pdf">"The Court Building"</a> (PDF). Retrieved February 13, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Court+Building&rft.au=Supreme+Court+Historical+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fabout%2Fcourtbuilding.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Warren_(U.S._author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Warren (U.S. author)">Warren</a>, Charles (1924). The Supreme Court in United States History (3 volumes). Boston: <a href="/wiki/Little,_Brown_and_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Little, Brown and Co.">Little, Brown and Co.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Woodward" title="Bob Woodward">Woodward, Bob</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scott_Armstrong_(journalist)" title="Scott Armstrong (journalist)">Armstrong, Scott</a> (1979). <a href="/wiki/The_Brethren_(non-fiction)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Brethren (non-fiction)">The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-7402-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-7402-9">978-0-7432-7402-9</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVladeck2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steve_Vladeck" title="Steve Vladeck">Vladeck, Stephen I.</a> (2023). The Shadow Docket: How the Supreme Court Uses Stealth Rulings to Amass Power and Undermine The Republic. New York, New York: Basic Books, Hachette Book Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-0263-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-0263-2"><bdi>978-1-5416-0263-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shadow+Docket%3A+How+the+Supreme+Court+Uses+Stealth+Rulings+to+Amass+Power+and+Undermine+The+Republic&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books%2C+Hachette+Book+Group&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-5416-0263-2&rft.aulast=Vladeck&rft.aufirst=Stephen+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldman2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Waldman" title="Michael Waldman">Waldman, Michael</a> (2023). The Supermajority: How the Supreme Court Divided America. New York; London, England; Toronto, Canada; Sydney, Australia; New Delhi, India: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-6680-0606-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-6680-0606-1"><bdi>978-1-6680-0606-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1380786442">1380786442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supermajority%3A+How+the+Supreme+Court+Divided+America&rft.place=New+York%3B+London%2C+England%3B+Toronto%2C+Canada%3B+Sydney%2C+Australia%3B+New+Delhi%2C+India&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Fon1380786442&rft.isbn=978-1-6680-0606-1&rft.aulast=Waldman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiskupic2023" class="citation book cs1">Biskupic, Joan (2023). Nine black robes: inside the Supreme Court's drive to the right and the historic consequences. New York, New York: William Morrow & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-305278-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-305278-9"><bdi>978-0-06-305278-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nine+black+robes%3A+inside+the+Supreme+Court%27s+drive+to+the+right+and+the+historic+consequences&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=William+Morrow+%26+Company&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-06-305278-9&rft.aulast=Biskupic&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_H._Tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurence H. Tribe">Tribe, Laurence H.</a>, "Constrain the Court – Without Crippling It", <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXX, no. 13 (August 17, 2023), pp. 50–54. "[J]udicial supremacy is neither woven into the Constitution's text and structure nor discoverable in the history of its creation – a reality that today's supposedly 'textualist' or at times 'originalist' Court conveniently ignores." (p. 51.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatzBommaritoBlackman2017" class="citation journal cs1">Katz, Daniel Martin; Bommarito, Michael James; <a href="/wiki/Josh_Blackman" title="Josh Blackman">Blackman, Josh</a> (January 19, 2017) [July 9, 2014]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5389610">"A General Approach for Predicting the Behavior of the Supreme Court of the United States"</a>. PLOS ONE. 12 (4). Social Science Research Network: e0174698. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1407.6333">1407.6333</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2463244">10.2139/ssrn.2463244</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5389610">5389610</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28403140">28403140</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2463244">2463244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=A+General+Approach+for+Predicting+the+Behavior+of+the+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e0174698&rft.date=2017-01-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5389610%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2463244&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1407.6333&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28403140&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2463244%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Martin&rft.au=Bommarito%2C+Michael+James&rft.au=Blackman%2C+Josh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5389610&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTribeMatz2014" class="citation book cs1">Tribe, Laurence H.; Matz, Joshua (2014). Uncertain Justice: The Roberts Court and the Constitution. New York: Henry Holt and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-9909-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-9909-6"><bdi>978-0-8050-9909-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uncertain+Justice%3A+The+Roberts+Court+and+the+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-9909-6&rft.aulast=Tribe&rft.aufirst=Laurence+H.&rft.au=Matz%2C+Joshua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Corley, Pamela C.; Steigerwalt, Amy; Ward, Artemus (2013). The Puzzle of Unanimity: Consensus on the United States Supreme Court. Stanford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8472-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8472-6">978-0-8047-8472-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToobin2013" class="citation book cs1">Toobin, Jeffrey (2013). The Oath: The Obama White House and The Supreme Court. New York: Anchor books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-39071-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-39071-4"><bdi>978-0-307-39071-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oath%3A+The+Obama+White+House+and+The+Supreme+Court&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Anchor+books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-307-39071-4&rft.aulast=Toobin&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Crawford_Greenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Crawford Greenburg">Greenburg, Jan Crawford</a> (2007). Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control for the United States Supreme Court. New York: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Penguin Press">Penguin Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-168217-180-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-168217-180-6">978-168217-180-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToobin2007" class="citation book cs1">Toobin, Jeffrey (2007). The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court. New York: Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-51640-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-51640-2"><bdi>978-0-385-51640-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nine%3A+Inside+the+Secret+World+of+the+Supreme+Court&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-385-51640-2&rft.aulast=Toobin&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li>McCloskey, Robert G. (2005). The American Supreme Court (4th ed.). Chicago, Illinois: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-55682-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-55682-4">0-226-55682-4</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:SCOTUS_horizontal" title="Template:SCOTUS horizontal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:SCOTUS_horizontal" title="Template talk:SCOTUS horizontal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS_horizontal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS horizontal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">The court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" title="Lists of United States Supreme Court cases">Lists of cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States">Court demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_leanings_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_justices" title="Ideological leanings of United States Supreme Court justices">Ideological leanings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomination_and_confirmation_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Nomination and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States">Nomination and confirmation</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Procedures_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States">Procedures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amicus_curiae#United_States_Supreme_Court_rules" title="Amicus curiae">Amicus curiae brief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certiorari#United_States" title="Certiorari">Certiorari</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Certiorari_before_judgment" title="Certiorari before judgment">Cert. before judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismissed_as_improvidently_granted" title="Dismissed as improvidently granted">Cert. dismissed as improvidently granted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant,_vacate,_remand" title="Grant, vacate, remand">Grant, vacate, remand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_docket" title="Shadow docket">Shadow docket</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In-chambers_opinion" title="In-chambers opinion">In-chambers opinion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief justice</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate justices</a>: <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Brett Kavanaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Retired_justices">Retired justices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="History of the Supreme Court of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Court" title="Jay Court">Jay Court</a> (1789–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutledge_Court" title="Rutledge Court">Rutledge Court</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Court" title="Ellsworth Court">Ellsworth Court</a> (1796–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a> (1801–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">Taney Court</a> (1836–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">Chase Court</a> (1864–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">Waite Court</a> (1874–1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">Fuller Court</a> (1888–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Court_(judges)" class="mw-redirect" title="White Court (judges)">White Court</a> (1910–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">Taft Court</a> (1921–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">Hughes Court</a> (1930–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Court" title="Stone Court">Stone Court</a> (1941–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">Vinson Court</a> (1946–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> (1953–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">Burger Court</a> (1969–1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">Rehnquist Court</a> (1986–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">Roberts Court</a> (2005–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists of justices and nominees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States#List_of_chief_justices" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#list_of_associate_justices" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">All justices</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_court_composition" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition">court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_attended_by_United_States_Supreme_Court_justices" title="List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court justices">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_seat" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by seat">seat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_justices_by_time_in_office" title="List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office">time in office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">All nominations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unsuccessful_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Unsuccessful nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">unsuccessful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._Supreme_Court_justices_who_also_served_in_the_U.S._Congress" title="List of U.S. Supreme Court justices who also served in the U.S. Congress">Justices who served in Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_places_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of burial places of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">Burial places of justices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutes affecting court size</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midnight_Judges_Act" title="Midnight Judges Act">Judiciary Act of 1801</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1802" title="Judiciary Act of 1802">Judiciary Act of 1802</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Circuit_Act_of_1807" title="Seventh Circuit Act of 1807">Seventh Circuit Act of 1807</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_and_Ninth_Circuits_Act_of_1837" title="Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837">Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Circuit_Act_of_1863" title="Tenth Circuit Act of 1863">Tenth Circuit Act of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Circuits_Act" title="Judicial Circuits Act">Judicial Circuits Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1869" title="Judiciary Act of 1869">Judiciary Act of 1869</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Functionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clerk_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States">Clerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court" title="Marshal of the United States Supreme Court">Marshal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Police" title="Supreme Court Police">Supreme Court Police</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">Reporter of Decisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_clerk_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Law clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States">Law clerk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Lists of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States">lists</a>: <a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Chief_Justice)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Chief Justice)">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_1)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 1)">Seat 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_2)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 2)">Seat 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_3)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 3)">Seat 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_4)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 4)">Seat 4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_6)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 6)">Seat 6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_8)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 8)">Seat 8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_9)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 9)">Seat 9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_10)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 10)">Seat 10</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">Supreme Court Building</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Former: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Exchange_(New_York_City)" title="Royal Exchange (New York City)">Royal Exchange, New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_City_Hall_(Philadelphia)" title="Old City Hall (Philadelphia)">Old City Hall, Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Supreme_Court_Chamber" title="Old Supreme Court Chamber">Old Supreme Court Chamber, U.S. Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Senate_Chamber" title="Old Senate Chamber">Old Senate Chamber, U.S. Capitol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article III, U.S. Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">original jurisdiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameras_in_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Cameras in the Supreme Court of the United States">Camera policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Conduct_for_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Code of Conduct for Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">Code of Conduct for Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Lochner era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Samuel_Chase" title="Impeachment of Samuel Chase">Impeachment of Samuel Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Commission_on_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Presidential Commission on the Supreme Court of the United States">Presidential Commission on the Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_in_fiction" title="Supreme Court of the United States in fiction">Supreme Court in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_leaks" title="List of United States Supreme Court leaks">Supreme Court leaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">United States Reports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lawyers%27_Edition" title="Lawyers' Edition">Lawyers' Edition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" title="Solicitor General of the United States">United States Solicitor General</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:National_supreme_courts" title="Category:National supreme courts">Other countries</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:SCOTUS_Justices" title="Template:SCOTUS Justices"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:SCOTUS_Justices" title="Template talk:SCOTUS Justices"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS_Justices" title="Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS Justices"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Justices of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd flatlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Chief_justices" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief justices</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jay_Court" title="Jay Court">1789–1795</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Jay_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Jay Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rutledge_Court" title="Rutledge Court">1795</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rutledge_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rutledge Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Court" title="Ellsworth Court">1796–1800</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Ellsworth_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Ellsworth Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">1801–1835</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Marshall_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Marshall Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">1836–1864</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taney_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taney Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">1864–1873</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Chase_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Chase Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrison_Waite" title="Morrison Waite">Morrison Waite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">1874–1888</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Waite_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Waite Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melville_Fuller" title="Melville Fuller">Melville Fuller</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">1888–1910</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Fuller_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Fuller Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">Edward Douglass White</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Court_(justices)" title="White Court (justices)">1910–1921</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_White_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the White Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">1921–1930</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taft_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">1930–1941</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Hughes_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Hughes Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan F. Stone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Court" title="Stone Court">1941–1946</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Stone_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Stone Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">1946–1953</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Vinson_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Vinson Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">1953–1969</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Warren E. Burger</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">1969–1986</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Burger_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Burger Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">1986–2005</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rehnquist_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">2005–present</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Roberts_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court">cases</a>)</li></ol> </div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd flatlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Associate_justices" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate justices</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 16em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">J. Rutledge</a>* (1790–1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cushing" title="William Cushing">Cushing</a> (1790–1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">Wilson</a> (1789–1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">Blair</a> (1790–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">Iredell</a> (1790–1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Johnson_(judge)" title="Thomas Johnson (judge)">T. Johnson</a> (1792–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">Paterson</a> (1793–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">S. Chase</a> (1796–1811)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Washington</a> (1798–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Moore" title="Alfred Moore">Moore</a> (1800–1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Johnson_(judge)" title="William Johnson (judge)">W. Johnson</a> (1804–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Brockholst_Livingston" title="Henry Brockholst Livingston">Livingston</a> (1807–1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Todd" title="Thomas Todd">Todd</a> (1807–1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Duvall" title="Gabriel Duvall">Duvall</a> (1811–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Story</a> (1812–1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Thompson" title="Smith Thompson">Thompson</a> (1823–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trimble" title="Robert Trimble">Trimble</a> (1826–1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McLean" title="John McLean">McLean</a> (1829–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Baldwin_(judge)" title="Henry Baldwin (judge)">Baldwin</a> (1830–1844)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Moore_Wayne" class="mw-redirect" title="James Moore Wayne">Wayne</a> (1835–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_P._Barbour" title="Philip P. Barbour">Barbour</a> (1836–1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Catron" title="John Catron">Catron</a> (1837–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McKinley" title="John McKinley">McKinley</a> (1838–1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_V._Daniel" title="Peter V. Daniel">Daniel</a> (1842–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Nelson" title="Samuel Nelson">Nelson</a> (1845–1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Woodbury" title="Levi Woodbury">Woodbury</a> (1845–1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cooper_Grier" title="Robert Cooper Grier">Grier</a> (1846–1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Robbins_Curtis" title="Benjamin Robbins Curtis">Curtis</a> (1851–1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Campbell" title="John Archibald Campbell">Campbell</a> (1853–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Clifford" title="Nathan Clifford">Clifford</a> (1858–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_Haynes_Swayne" title="Noah Haynes Swayne">Swayne</a> (1862–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Freeman_Miller" title="Samuel Freeman Miller">Miller</a> (1862–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Davis_(Supreme_Court_justice)" title="David Davis (Supreme Court justice)">Davis</a> (1862–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Johnson_Field" title="Stephen Johnson Field">Field</a> (1863–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Strong_(Pennsylvania_judge)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Strong (Pennsylvania judge)">Strong</a> (1870–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Bradley" title="Joseph P. Bradley">Bradley</a> (1870–1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ward_Hunt" title="Ward Hunt">Hunt</a> (1873–1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan" title="John Marshall Harlan">J. M. Harlan</a> (1877–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Burnham_Woods" title="William Burnham Woods">Woods</a> (1881–1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Matthews_(judge)" title="Stanley Matthews (judge)">Matthews</a> (1881–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Gray" title="Horace Gray">Gray</a> (1882–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Blatchford" title="Samuel Blatchford">Blatchford</a> (1882–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Quintus_Cincinnatus_Lamar" title="Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar">L. Lamar</a> (1888–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_J._Brewer" title="David J. Brewer">Brewer</a> (1890–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Billings_Brown" title="Henry Billings Brown">Brown</a> (1891–1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Shiras_Jr." title="George Shiras Jr.">Shiras</a> (1892–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howell_E._Jackson" title="Howell E. Jackson">H. Jackson</a> (1893–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">E. White</a>* (1894–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_W._Peckham" title="Rufus W. Peckham">Peckham</a> (1896–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McKenna" title="Joseph McKenna">McKenna</a> (1898–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Holmes</a> (1902–1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Day" title="William R. Day">Day</a> (1903–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Moody" title="William Henry Moody">Moody</a> (1906–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Harmon_Lurton" title="Horace Harmon Lurton">Lurton</a> (1910–1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a>* (1910–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Van_Devanter" title="Willis Van Devanter">Van Devanter</a> (1911–1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rucker_Lamar" title="Joseph Rucker Lamar">J. Lamar</a> (1911–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahlon_Pitney" title="Mahlon Pitney">Pitney</a> (1912–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_McReynolds" title="James Clark McReynolds">McReynolds</a> (1914–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a> (1916–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hessin_Clarke" title="John Hessin Clarke">Clarke</a> (1916–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">Sutherland</a> (1922–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(judge)" title="Pierce Butler (judge)">Butler</a> (1923–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Terry_Sanford" title="Edward Terry Sanford">Sanford</a> (1923–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Stone</a>* (1925–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">O. Roberts</a> (1930–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a> (1932–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Black</a> (1937–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Reed</a> (1938–1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Frankfurter</a> (1939–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">Douglas</a> (1939–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Murphy</a> (1940–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">Byrnes</a> (1941–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">R. Jackson</a> (1941–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge" title="Wiley Rutledge">W. Rutledge</a> (1943–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_H._Burton" title="Harold H. Burton">Burton</a> (1945–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Clark</a> (1949–1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton" title="Sherman Minton">Minton</a> (1949–1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">J. M. Harlan II</a> (1955–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">Brennan</a> (1956–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Whittaker</a> (1957–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Stewart</a> (1958–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">B. White</a> (1962–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Goldberg</a> (1962–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Fortas</a> (1965–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">T. Marshall</a> (1967–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackmun" title="Harry Blackmun">Blackmun</a> (1970–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_F._Powell_Jr." title="Lewis F. Powell Jr.">Powell</a> (1972–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a>* (1972–1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">Stevens</a> (1975–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">O'Connor</a> (1981–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a> (1986–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</a> (1988–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">Souter</a> (1990–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas</a> (1991–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ginsburg</a> (1993–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Breyer</a> (1994–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a> (2006–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a> (2009–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</a> (2010–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a> (2017–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a> (2018–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a> (2020–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">K. Jackson</a> (2022–present)</li></ol> </div> <div style="text-align: center;">*Also served as Chief Justice of the United States</div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_and_the_federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:U.S._presidents_and_the_judiciary" title="Template:U.S. presidents and the judiciary"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:U.S._presidents_and_the_judiciary" title="Template talk:U.S. presidents and the judiciary"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:U.S._presidents_and_the_judiciary" title="Special:EditPage/Template:U.S. presidents and the judiciary"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_and_the_federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidents</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal judiciary of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Supreme Court candidates and nomination results</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">All Supreme Court nominations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Woodrow Wilson Supreme Court candidates">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Warren G. Harding Supreme Court candidates">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge_Supreme_Court_candidates" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin Coolidge Supreme Court candidates">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Herbert Hoover Supreme Court candidates">Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Supreme Court candidates">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Harry S. Truman Supreme Court candidates">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="John F. Kennedy Supreme Court candidates">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Lyndon B. Johnson Supreme Court candidates">L. B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Richard Nixon Supreme Court candidates">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Gerald Ford Supreme Court candidates">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Jimmy Carter Supreme Court candidates">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Ronald Reagan Supreme Court candidates">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="George H. W. Bush Supreme Court candidates">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Bill Clinton Supreme Court candidates">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="George W. Bush Supreme Court candidates">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Barack Obama Supreme Court candidates">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Donald Trump Supreme Court candidates">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Joe Biden Supreme Court candidates">Biden</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">All presidential judicial appointments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Judicial_appointment_history_for_United_States_federal_courts" title="Judicial appointment history for United States federal courts">Judicial appointment history for United States federal courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_George_Washington" title="List of federal judges appointed by George Washington">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_John_Adams" title="List of federal judges appointed by John Adams">J. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Thomas_Jefferson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_James_Madison" title="List of federal judges appointed by James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_James_Monroe" title="List of federal judges appointed by James Monroe">Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_John_Quincy_Adams" title="List of federal judges appointed by John Quincy Adams">J. Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Martin_Van_Buren" title="List of federal judges appointed by Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_John_Tyler" title="List of federal judges appointed by John Tyler">Tyler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_James_K._Polk" title="List of federal judges appointed by James K. Polk">Polk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Zachary_Taylor" title="List of federal judges appointed by Zachary Taylor">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Millard_Fillmore" title="List of federal judges appointed by Millard Fillmore">Fillmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Franklin_Pierce" title="List of federal judges appointed by Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_James_Buchanan" title="List of federal judges appointed by James Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Abraham_Lincoln" title="List of federal judges appointed by Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Andrew_Johnson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Johnson">A. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="List of federal judges appointed by Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="List of federal judges appointed by Rutherford B. Hayes">Hayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_James_A._Garfield" title="List of federal judges appointed by James A. Garfield">Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Chester_A._Arthur" title="List of federal judges appointed by Chester A. Arthur">Arthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Grover_Cleveland" title="List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland">Cleveland (I)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Benjamin_Harrison" title="List of federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison">B. Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Grover_Cleveland" title="List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland">Cleveland (II)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_William_McKinley" title="List of federal judges appointed by William McKinley">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="List of federal judges appointed by Theodore Roosevelt">T. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_William_Howard_Taft" title="List of federal judges appointed by William Howard Taft">Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Woodrow_Wilson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Warren_G._Harding" title="List of federal judges appointed by Warren G. Harding">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Calvin_Coolidge" title="List of federal judges appointed by Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Herbert_Hoover" title="List of federal judges appointed by Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="List of federal judges appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Harry_S._Truman" title="List of federal judges appointed by Harry S. Truman">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="List of federal judges appointed by Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_John_F._Kennedy" title="List of federal judges appointed by John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Lyndon B. Johnson">L. B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Richard_Nixon" title="List of federal judges appointed by Richard Nixon">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Gerald_Ford" title="List of federal judges appointed by Gerald Ford">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Jimmy_Carter" title="List of federal judges appointed by Jimmy Carter">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Ronald_Reagan" title="List of federal judges appointed by Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_George_H._W._Bush" title="List of federal judges appointed by George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Bill_Clinton" title="List of federal judges appointed by Bill Clinton">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_George_W._Bush" title="List of federal judges appointed by George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Barack_Obama" title="List of federal judges appointed by Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Donald_Trump" title="List of federal judges appointed by Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Joe_Biden" title="List of federal judges appointed by Joe Biden">Biden</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appointment controversies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Lyndon B. Johnson judicial appointment controversies">L. B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Richard Nixon judicial appointment controversies">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Gerald Ford judicial appointment controversies">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Jimmy Carter judicial appointment controversies">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Ronald Reagan judicial appointment controversies">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="George H. W. Bush judicial appointment controversies">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Bill Clinton judicial appointment controversies">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="George W. Bush judicial appointment controversies">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Barack Obama judicial appointment controversies">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Donald Trump judicial appointment controversies">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Joe Biden judicial appointment controversies">Biden</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_by_judicial_appointments" title="List of presidents of the United States by judicial appointments">List of presidents of the United States by judicial appointments</a> • <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court demographics</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Supreme_Courts_of_the_Americas" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Americas_topic" title="Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Americas_topic" title="Template talk:Americas topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Americas_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Supreme_Courts_of_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Supreme Courts of the Americas</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states in the Americas">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Argentina" title="Supreme Court of Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Bahamas" title="Supreme Court of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Barbados" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Belize" title="Supreme Court of Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Chile" title="Supreme Court of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Costa_Rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Supreme Court of the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Ecuador" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_El_Salvador" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Guatemala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Guatemala (page does not exist)">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Guyana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Guyana (page does not exist)">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Haiti" title="Supreme Court of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Honduras" title="Supreme Court of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Jamaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Nicaragua" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Panama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Panama (page does not exist)">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Peru" title="Supreme Court of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Suriname" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Trinidad and Tobago (page does not exist)">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Uruguay" title="Supreme Court of Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/100px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/200px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_North_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of North America (page does not exist)">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Central_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Central America (page does not exist)">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_Caribbean&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of the Caribbean (page does not exist)">Caribbean</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Highest_judicial_bodies_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_judiciaries" title="Template:United States judiciaries"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_judiciaries" title="Template talk:United States judiciaries"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_judiciaries" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States judiciaries"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Highest_judicial_bodies_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_court" title="Supreme court">Highest judicial bodies</a> in the United States</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Federal courts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supreme Court of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">State supreme courts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Alabama" title="Supreme Court of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Supreme_Court" title="Alaska Supreme Court">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Supreme_Court" title="Arizona Supreme Court">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Supreme_Court" title="Arkansas Supreme Court">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_California" title="Supreme Court of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Supreme_Court" title="Colorado Supreme Court">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Supreme_Court" title="Connecticut Supreme Court">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_Supreme_Court" title="Delaware Supreme Court">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Florida" title="Supreme Court of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Supreme Court of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Hawaii" title="Supreme Court of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Supreme_Court" title="Idaho Supreme Court">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Illinois" title="Supreme Court of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_Supreme_Court" title="Indiana Supreme Court">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_Supreme_Court" title="Iowa Supreme Court">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_Supreme_Court" title="Kansas Supreme Court">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_Supreme_Court" title="Kentucky Supreme Court">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Supreme_Court" title="Louisiana Supreme Court">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_Supreme_Judicial_Court" title="Maine Supreme Judicial Court">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Maryland" title="Supreme Court of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Supreme_Judicial_Court" title="Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court" title="Michigan Supreme Court">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Supreme_Court" title="Minnesota Supreme Court">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Mississippi" title="Supreme Court of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Missouri" title="Supreme Court of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_Supreme_Court" title="Montana Supreme Court">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Supreme_Court" title="Nebraska Supreme Court">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Nevada" title="Supreme Court of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Supreme_Court" title="New Hampshire Supreme Court">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_Jersey" title="Supreme Court of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Supreme_Court" title="New Mexico Supreme Court">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals" title="New York Court of Appeals">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Supreme_Court" title="North Carolina Supreme Court">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Dakota_Supreme_Court" title="North Dakota Supreme Court">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Ohio" title="Supreme Court of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li>Oklahoma <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Supreme_Court" title="Oklahoma Supreme Court">civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals">criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Supreme_Court" title="Oregon Supreme Court">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pennsylvania" title="Supreme Court of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_Supreme_Court" title="Rhode Island Supreme Court">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Supreme_Court" title="South Carolina Supreme Court">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_Supreme_Court" title="South Dakota Supreme Court">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court" title="Tennessee Supreme Court">Tennessee</a></li> <li>Texas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Texas" title="Supreme Court of Texas">civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="Texas Court of Criminal Appeals">criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_Supreme_Court" title="Utah Supreme Court">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_Supreme_Court" title="Vermont Supreme Court">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Virginia" title="Supreme Court of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Supreme_Court" title="Washington Supreme Court">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Appeals_of_West_Virginia" title="Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Supreme_Court" title="Wisconsin Supreme Court">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyoming_Supreme_Court" title="Wyoming Supreme Court">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a> supreme courts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_American_Samoa" title="High Court of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Court_of_Appeals" title="District of Columbia Court of Appeals">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Guam" title="Supreme Court of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands_Supreme_Court" title="Northern Mariana Islands Supreme Court">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Supreme Court of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Obsolete</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Canal_Zone" title="United States District Court for the Canal Zone">Panama Canal Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Philippines#American_period" title="Supreme Court of the Philippines">Philippine Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Complete list</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_courts_of_the_United_States" title="List of courts of the United States">Courts of the United States</a> (federal and state, all levels)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Military_Judicial_Authority" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:U.S.-Mil-Judicial" title="Template:U.S.-Mil-Judicial"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:U.S.-Mil-Judicial" title="Template talk:U.S.-Mil-Judicial"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:U.S.-Mil-Judicial" title="Special:EditPage/Template:U.S.-Mil-Judicial"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Military_Judicial_Authority" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">United States Military Judicial Authority</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Authority</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8:_Powers_of_Congress" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">United States Constitution, Article I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice" title="Uniform Code of Military Justice">Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ)</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/40px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/60px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/80px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manual_for_Courts-Martial" title="Manual for Courts-Martial">Manual for Courts-Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convening_authority_(court-martial)" title="Convening authority (court-martial)">Convening authority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps" title="Judge Advocate General's Corps">Judge Advocate General's Corps (JAG)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Army</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps" title="United States Army Judge Advocate General's Corps">Judge Advocate General's Corps, Army</a> (<a href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Judge Advocate General of the United States Army">Army JAG</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Marine Corps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Judge_Advocate_Division" title="United States Marine Corps Judge Advocate Division">Marine Corps Judge Advocate Division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Navy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps" title="United States Navy Judge Advocate General's Corps">Judge Advocate General's Corps, Navy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General_of_the_Navy" title="Judge Advocate General of the Navy">Navy JAG</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Air Force</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps" title="United States Air Force Judge Advocate General's Corps">Judge Advocate General's Corps, Air Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Coast Guard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Legal_Division" title="United States Coast Guard Legal Division">Coast Guard Legal Division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Non-judicial punishment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-judicial_punishment" title="Non-judicial punishment">UCMJ Article 15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Military tribunals in the United States">Military tribunals in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Court systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Trial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Courts-martial_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts-martial in the United States">Courts-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_military_commission" title="Guantanamo military commission">Guantanamo military commissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Appeal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals">Army Court of Criminal Appeals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals">Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals">Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy-Marine_Corps_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals">Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Military_Commission_Review" title="United States Court of Military Commission Review">Court of Military Commission Review</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Discretionary review</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Armed_Forces" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces">Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supreme Court</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Law of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Law of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Law_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Law of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_federal_legislation" title="List of United States federal legislation">legislation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">Civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_(United_States_Congress)" title="Bill (United States Congress)">Bill (United States Congress)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Scales of justice"><img alt="Scales of justice" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Scale_of_justice.svg/40px-Scale_of_justice.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Scale_of_justice.svg/60px-Scale_of_justice.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Scale_of_justice.svg/80px-Scale_of_justice.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="203" data-file-height="206" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_courts_of_the_United_States" title="List of courts of the United States">Courts of the United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Federal courts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supreme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Appeals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_bankruptcy_court" title="United States bankruptcy court">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Federal_Claims" title="United States Court of Federal Claims">Claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_International_Trade" title="United States Court of International Trade">International Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Tax_Court" title="United States Tax Court">Tax</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">State courts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">State supreme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legal_education_in_the_United_States" title="Legal education in the United States">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school_in_the_United_States" title="Law school in the United States">Law school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_School_Admission_Test" title="Law School Admission Test">Law School Admission Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_examination_in_the_United_States" title="Bar examination in the United States">US bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_States" title="Admission to the bar in the United States">Admission to the bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_law" title="Reading law">Reading law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_administrative_law" title="United States administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_custody_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child custody laws in the United States">Child custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child sexual abuse laws in the United States">Child sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure_in_the_United_States" title="Civil procedure in the United States">Civil procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Conflict of laws in the United States">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_contract_law" title="United States contract law">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law_in_the_United_States" title="Property law in the United States">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_corporate_law" title="United States corporate law">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law_of_the_United_States" title="Criminal law of the United States">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_criminal_procedure" title="United States criminal procedure">Procedure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_energy_law" title="United States energy law">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_law_in_the_United_States" title="Gun law in the United States">Gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_juvenile_justice_system" title="American juvenile justice system">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_the_United_States" title="Martial law in the United States">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">Privacy</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="State privacy laws of the United States">State</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_aspects_of_race_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial aspects of race in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_tort_law" title="United States tort law">Tort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_trust_law" title="United States trust law">Trust</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_topics" title="Template:United States topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_topics" title="Template talk:United States topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media 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class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/21px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/32px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/41px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, 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