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Geologic modelling components subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geologic_modelling_components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structural_framework" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_framework"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Structural framework</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_framework-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rock_type" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rock_type"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Rock type</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rock_type-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reservoir_quality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reservoir_quality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Reservoir quality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reservoir_quality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluid_saturation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluid_saturation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Fluid saturation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluid_saturation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geostatistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geostatistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Geostatistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geostatistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mineral_Deposits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mineral_Deposits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Mineral Deposits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mineral_Deposits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_in_Geomodelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_in_Geomodelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Research in Geomodelling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_in_Geomodelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geologic_modelling_software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geologic_modelling_software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Geologic modelling software</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geologic_modelling_software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Applied science of creating computerized representations of portions of the Earth's crust</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg/220px-Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg/330px-Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg/440px-Contour_map_software_screen_snapshot_of_isopach_map_for_8500ft_deep_OIL_reservoir_with_a_Fault_line.jpg 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="1056" /></a><figcaption> Geological mapping software displaying a screenshot of a structure map generated for an 8500ft deep gas & <a href="/wiki/Oil_reservoir" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil reservoir">Oil reservoir</a> in the Earth field, <a href="/wiki/Vermilion_Parish" class="mw-redirect" title="Vermilion Parish">Vermilion Parish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erath,_Louisiana" title="Erath, Louisiana">Erath, Louisiana</a>. The left-to-right gap, near the top of the <a href="/wiki/Contour_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Contour map">contour map</a> indicates a <a href="/wiki/Fault_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Fault line">Fault line</a>. This fault line is between the blue/green contour lines and the purple/red/yellow contour lines. The thin red circular contour line in the middle of the map indicates the top of the oil reservoir. Because gas floats above oil, the thin red contour line marks the gas/oil contact zone.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Geologic modelling,</b> <b>geological modelling</b> or <b>geomodelling</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a> of creating <a href="/wiki/Digitizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Digitizing">computerized</a> representations of portions of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Geophysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Geophysical">geophysical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geological" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological">geological</a> observations made on and below the Earth surface. A geomodel is the numerical equivalent of a three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Geological_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological map">geological map</a> complemented by a description of <a href="/wiki/Physical_quantities" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical quantities">physical quantities</a> in the domain of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-mallet_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mallet-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geomodelling is related to the concept of Shared Earth Model;<sup id="cite_ref-franchi_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-franchi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is a multidisciplinary, interoperable and updatable knowledge base about the subsurface. </p><p>Geomodelling is commonly used for managing <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a>, identifying <a href="/wiki/Natural_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural hazards">natural hazards</a>, and quantifying <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological processes</a>, with main applications to <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">oil</a> and gas fields, groundwater <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> deposits. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil and gas industry">oil and gas industry</a>, realistic geologic models are required as input to <a href="/wiki/Reservoir_simulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoir simulator">reservoir simulator</a> programs, which predict the behavior of the rocks under various <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> recovery scenarios. A reservoir can only be developed and produced once; therefore, making a mistake by selecting a site with poor conditions for development is tragic and wasteful. Using geological models and <a href="/wiki/Reservoir_simulation" title="Reservoir simulation">reservoir simulation</a> allows <a href="/wiki/Reservoir_engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoir engineers">reservoir engineers</a> to identify which recovery options offer the safest and most economic, efficient, and effective development plan for a particular reservoir. </p><p>Geologic modelling is a relatively recent subdiscipline of <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> which integrates <a href="/wiki/Structural_geology" title="Structural geology">structural geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">sedimentology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimatology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">diagenesis</a>; </p><p>In 2-dimensions (2D), a <a href="/wiki/Geologic_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic formation">geologic formation</a> or unit is represented by a polygon, which can be bounded by faults, unconformities or by its lateral extent, or crop. In geological models a geological unit is bounded by 3-dimensional (3D) triangulated or gridded surfaces. The equivalent to the mapped polygon is the fully enclosed geological unit, using a triangulated mesh. For the purpose of property or fluid modelling these volumes can be separated further into an array of cells, often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Voxel" title="Voxel">voxels</a> (volumetric elements). These 3D grids are the equivalent to 2D grids used to express properties of single surfaces. </p><p>Geomodelling generally involves the following steps:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Preliminary analysis of geological context of the domain of study.</li> <li>Interpretation of available data and observations as point sets or polygonal lines (e.g. "fault sticks" corresponding to faults on a vertical seismic section).</li> <li>Construction of a structural model describing the main rock boundaries (horizons, unconformities, intrusions, faults)<sup id="cite_ref-StructMod_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StructMod-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Definition of a three-dimensional mesh honoring the structural model to support volumetric representation of heterogeneity (see <a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a>) and solving the <a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">Partial Differential Equations</a> which govern physical processes in the subsurface (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismic wave propagation</a>, fluid transport in porous media).</li></ol> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geologic_modelling_components">Geologic modelling components</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geologic modelling components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_framework">Structural framework</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structural framework"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Incorporating the spatial positions of the major formation boundaries, including the effects of <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">faulting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fold_(geology)" title="Fold (geology)">folding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unconformity" title="Unconformity">unconformities</a>). The major stratigraphic divisions are further subdivided into layers of cells with differing geometries with relation to the bounding surfaces (parallel to top, parallel to base, proportional). Maximum cell dimensions are dictated by the minimum sizes of the features to be resolved (everyday example: On a digital map of a city, the location of a city park might be adequately resolved by one big green pixel, but to define the locations of the basketball court, the baseball field, and the pool, much smaller pixels – higher resolution – need to be used). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rock_type">Rock type</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rock type"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Each cell in the model is assigned a rock type. In a coastal <a href="/wiki/Clastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Clastic">clastic environment</a>, these might be beach sand, high water energy marine <a href="/wiki/Upper_shoreface" title="Upper shoreface">upper shoreface</a> sand, intermediate water energy marine <a href="/wiki/Lower_shoreface" title="Lower shoreface">lower shoreface</a> sand, and deeper low energy marine <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shale</a>. The distribution of these rock types within the model is controlled by several methods, including map boundary polygons, rock type probability maps, or statistically emplaced based on sufficiently closely spaced well data. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reservoir_quality">Reservoir quality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reservoir quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reservoir quality parameters almost always include <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Permeability_(fluid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (fluid)">permeability</a>, but may include measures of clay content, cementation factors, and other factors that affect the storage and deliverability of fluids contained in the pores of those rocks. <a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistical</a> techniques are most often used to populate the cells with porosity and permeability values that are appropriate for the rock type of each cell. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fluid_saturation">Fluid saturation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fluid saturation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MODFLOW_3D_grid.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/MODFLOW_3D_grid.png/220px-MODFLOW_3D_grid.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/MODFLOW_3D_grid.png/330px-MODFLOW_3D_grid.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/MODFLOW_3D_grid.png/440px-MODFLOW_3D_grid.png 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>A 3D <a href="/wiki/Finite_difference" title="Finite difference">finite difference</a> grid used in <a href="/wiki/MODFLOW" title="MODFLOW">MODFLOW</a> for simulating groundwater flow in an aquifer.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most rock is completely <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">saturated</a> with <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. Sometimes, under the right conditions, some of the pore space in the rock is occupied by other liquids or gases. In the energy industry, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> are the fluids most commonly being modelled. The preferred methods for calculating hydrocarbon saturations in a geologic model incorporate an estimate of pore throat size, the <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">densities</a> of the fluids, and the height of the cell above the <a href="/wiki/Water_contact" title="Water contact">water contact</a>, since these factors exert the strongest influence on <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a>, which ultimately controls fluid saturations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Geostatistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An important part of geologic modelling is related to <a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">geostatistics</a>. In order to represent the observed data, often not on regular grids, we have to use certain interpolation techniques. The most widely used technique is <a href="/wiki/Kriging" title="Kriging">kriging</a> which uses the spatial correlation among data and intends to construct the interpolation via semi-variograms. To reproduce more realistic spatial variability and help assess spatial uncertainty between data, geostatistical simulation based on variograms, training images, or parametric geological objects is often used, e.g.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mineral_Deposits">Mineral Deposits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mineral Deposits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geologists involved in <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineral_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral exploration">mineral exploration</a> use geologic modelling to determine the geometry and placement of <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> deposits in the subsurface of the earth. Geologic models help define the volume and concentration of minerals, to which <a href="/wiki/Economic_geology" title="Economic geology">economic constraints</a> are applied to determine the economic value of the <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(geology)" title="Mineralization (geology)">mineralization</a>. Mineral deposits that are deemed to be economic may be developed into a <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mine</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geomodelling and <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">CAD</a> share a lot of common technologies. Software is usually implemented using object-oriented programming technologies in <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> or <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> on one or multiple computer platforms. The graphical user interface generally consists of one or several 3D and 2D graphics windows to visualize spatial data, interpretations and modelling output. Such visualization is generally achieved by exploiting <a href="/wiki/Graphics_hardware" title="Graphics hardware">graphics hardware</a>. User interaction is mostly performed through mouse and keyboard, although 3D pointing devices and <a href="/wiki/Cave_Automatic_Virtual_Environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cave Automatic Virtual Environment">immersive environments</a> may be used in some specific cases. GIS (Geographic Information System) is also a widely used tool to manipulate geological data. </p><p>Geometric objects are represented with parametric curves and surfaces or discrete models such as <a href="/wiki/Polygon_mesh" title="Polygon mesh">polygonal meshes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-StructMod_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StructMod-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mallet02_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallet02-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gravity_Highs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Gravity_Highs.jpg/220px-Gravity_Highs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Gravity_Highs.jpg/330px-Gravity_Highs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Gravity_Highs.jpg/440px-Gravity_Highs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="867" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>Gravity Highs</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_in_Geomodelling">Research in Geomodelling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Research in Geomodelling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Problems pertaining to Geomodelling cover:<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Defining an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontology</a> to describe geological objects at various scales of interest,</li> <li>Integrating diverse types of observations into 3D geomodels: geological mapping data, borehole data and interpretations, seismic images and interpretations, potential field data, well test data, etc.,</li> <li>Better accounting for geological processes during model building,</li> <li>Characterizing uncertainty about the geomodels to help assess risk. Therefore, Geomodelling has a close connection to <a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inverse_problem" title="Inverse problem">Inverse problem theory</a>,</li> <li>Applying of the recent developed Multiple Point Geostatistical Simulations (MPS) for integrating different data sources,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Automated geometry optimization and topology conservation<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 70's, geomodelling mainly consisted of automatic 2D cartographic techniques such as contouring, implemented as <a href="/wiki/FORTRAN" class="mw-redirect" title="FORTRAN">FORTRAN</a> routines communicating directly with <a href="/wiki/Plotter" title="Plotter">plotting hardware</a>. The advent of workstations with <a href="/wiki/3D_graphics" class="mw-redirect" title="3D graphics">3D graphics</a> capabilities during the 80's gave birth to a new generation of geomodelling software with graphical user interface which became mature during the 90's.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since its inception, geomodelling has been mainly motivated and supported by oil and gas industry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geologic_modelling_software">Geologic modelling software</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Geologic modelling software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Software developers have built several packages for geologic modelling purposes. Such software can display, edit, digitise and automatically calculate the parameters required by engineers, geologists and surveyors. Current software is mainly developed and commercialized by oil and gas or mining industry software vendors: </p> <dl><dt>Geologic modelling and visualisation</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IRAP_RMS_Suite" title="IRAP RMS Suite">IRAP RMS Suite</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GeoticMine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GeoticMine (page does not exist)">GeoticMine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomodeller3D" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomodeller3D">Geomodeller3D</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=DecisionSpace_Geosciences_Suite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DecisionSpace Geosciences Suite (page does not exist)">DecisionSpace Geosciences Suite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Syst%C3%A8mes" title="Dassault Systèmes">Dassault Systèmes</a> <a href="/wiki/GEOVIA" title="GEOVIA">GEOVIA</a> provides Surpac, GEMS and Minex for geologic modeling</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GSI3D" title="GSI3D">GSI3D</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mira_Geoscience&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mira Geoscience (page does not exist)">Mira Geoscience</a> provides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mirageoscience.com/mining-industry-software/gocad-mining-suite/">GOCAD Mining Suite</a>, a 3D geological modelling software that compiles, models, and analyzes for valid interpretation that honours all data.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seequent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seequent (page does not exist)">Seequent</a> provides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leapfrog3d.com/">Leapfrog 3D</a> geological modeling & <a href="/wiki/Geosoft" title="Geosoft">Geosoft</a> GM-SYS and VOXI 3D modelling software.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maptek" title="Maptek">Maptek</a> provides Vulcan, 3D modular software visualisation for geological modelling and mine planning</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Micromine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Micromine (page does not exist)">Micromine</a> is a comprehensive and easy to use exploration and mine design solution, which offers integrated tools for modelling, estimation, design, optimisation and scheduling.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrel_(reservoir_software)" title="Petrel (reservoir software)">Petrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockworks" title="Rockworks">Rockworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SGS_Genesis" title="SGS Genesis">SGS Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Move_(software)" title="Move (software)">Move</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SKUA-GOCAD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SKUA-GOCAD (page does not exist)">SKUA-GOCAD</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Datamine_Software&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Datamine Software (page does not exist)">Datamine Software</a> provides Studio EM and Studio RM for geological modelling</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BGS_Groundhog_Desktop" title="BGS Groundhog Desktop">BGS Groundhog Desktop</a> free-to-use software developed by the GeoAnalytics and Modelling directorate of British Geological Survey.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GeoScene3D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GeoScene3D (page does not exist)">GeoScene3D</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Groundwater modelling</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FEFLOW" title="FEFLOW">FEFLOW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FEHM" title="FEHM">FEHM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MODFLOW" title="MODFLOW">MODFLOW</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/GMS_(software)" title="GMS (software)">GMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_MODFLOW" title="Visual MODFLOW">Visual MODFLOW</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li>ZOOMQ3D</li></ul> <p>Moreover, industry Consortia or companies are specifically working at improving standardization and interoperability of earth science databases and geomodelling software: </p> <ul><li>Standardization: <a href="/wiki/GeoSciML" title="GeoSciML">GeoSciML</a> by the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information, of the International Union of Geological Sciences.</li> <li>Standardization: <a href="/wiki/RESQML" class="mw-redirect" title="RESQML">RESQML</a>(tm) by Energistics</li> <li>Interoperability: <a href="/w/index.php?title=OpenSpirit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OpenSpirit (page does not exist)">OpenSpirit</a>, by TIBCO(r)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_modeling_(geology)" title="Numerical modeling (geology)">Numerical modeling (geology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_to_simulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic to simulation">Seismic to simulation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bolduc, A.M., Riverin, M-N., Lefebvre, R., Fallara, F. et Paradis, S.J., 2006. Eskers: À la recherche de l'or bleu. La Science au Québec : <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciencepresse.qc.ca/archives/quebec/capque0606f.html">http://www.sciencepresse.qc.ca/archives/quebec/capque0606f.html</a></li> <li>Faure, Stéphane, Godey, Stéphanie, Fallara, Francine and Trépanier, Sylvain. (2011). Seismic Architecture of the Archean North American Mantle and Its Relationship to Diamondiferous Kimberlite Fields. Economic Geology, March–April 2011, v. 106, p. 223–240. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://econgeol.geoscienceworld.org/content/106/2/223.abstract">http://econgeol.geoscienceworld.org/content/106/2/223.abstract</a></li> <li>Fallara, Francine, Legault, Marc and Rabeau, Olivier (2006). 3-D Integrated Geological Modeling in the Abitibi Subprovince (Québec, Canada): Techniques and Applications. Exploration and Mining Geology, Vol. 15, Nos. 1–2, pp. 27–41. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://web.cim.org/geosoc/docs/pdf/EMG15_3_Fallara_etal.pdf">http://web.cim.org/geosoc/docs/pdf/EMG15_3_Fallara_etal.pdf</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Berg, R.C., Mathers, S.J., Kessler, H., and Keefer, D. A., 2011. 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(2009), Surface-based 3D modeling of geological structures, <i>Mathematical Geosciences</i>, 41(9):927–945</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCardenas2023" class="citation journal cs1">Cardenas, IC (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enggeo.2023.107001">"A two-dimensional approach to quantify stratigraphic uncertainty from borehole data using non-homogeneous random fields"</a>. <i>Engineering Geology</i>. <b>314</b>: 107001. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023EngGe.31407001C">2023EngGe.31407001C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enggeo.2023.107001">10.1016/j.enggeo.2023.107001</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255634245">255634245</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Engineering+Geology&rft.atitle=A+two-dimensional+approach+to+quantify+stratigraphic+uncertainty+from+borehole+data+using+non-homogeneous+random+fields&rft.volume=314&rft.pages=107001&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A255634245%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.enggeo.2023.107001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023EngGe.31407001C&rft.aulast=Cardenas&rft.aufirst=IC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.enggeo.2023.107001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeologic+modelling" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mallet02-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mallet02_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mallet, J.-L., Geomodeling, Applied Geostatistics Series. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514460-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514460-4">978-0-19-514460-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caumon, G., Towards stochastic time-varying geological modeling (2010), <i>Mathematical Geosciences</i>, 42(5):(555-569)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perrin, M., Zhu, B., Rainaud, J.F. and Schneider, S. (2005), Knowledge-driven applications for geological modeling, "Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering", 47(1–2):89–104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tahmasebi, P., Hezarkhani, A., Sahimi, M., 2012, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10596-012-9287-1">Multiple-point geostatistical modeling based on the cross-correlation functions</a>, Computational Geosciences, 16(3):779-79742</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M.R. Alvers, H.J. Götze, B. Lahmeyer, C. Plonka and S. Schmidt, 2013, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earthdoc.org/publication/publicationdetails/?publication=68364">Advances in 3D Potential Field Modeling</a> EarthDoc, 75th EAGE Conference & Exhibition incorporating SPE EUROPEC 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dgi.com/dynamicgraphics/dgimain.html">Dynamic Graphics History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110725233528/http://www.dgi.com/dynamicgraphics/dgimain.html">Archived</a> 2011-07-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gocad.org/w4/index.php/gocad/origin">Origin of the Gocad software</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. L. Mallet, P. Jacquemin, and N. Cheimanoff (1989). GOCAD project: Geometric modeling of complex geological surfaces, SEG Expanded Abstracts 8, 126, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1190%2F1.1889515">10.1190/1.1889515</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geologic_modelling&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/services/3Dgeology/home.html">Geological Modelling at the British Geological Survey</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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