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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_Disputes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Slavery Disputes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_Disputes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failed_Attempts_To_Keep_the_Peace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failed_Attempts_To_Keep_the_Peace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Failed Attempts To Keep the Peace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failed_Attempts_To_Keep_the_Peace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1860_Presidential_Election" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1860_Presidential_Election"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>1860 Presidential Election</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1860_Presidential_Election-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_In_Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_In_Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Differences In Population</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences_In_Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_tensions_and_compromises" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_tensions_and_compromises"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Historical tensions and compromises</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historical_tensions_and_compromises-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historical tensions and compromises subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_tensions_and_compromises-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Early Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Missouri_Compromise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Missouri_Compromise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Missouri Compromise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Missouri_Compromise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nullification_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nullification_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Nullification crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nullification_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gag_Rule_debates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gag_Rule_debates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Gag Rule debates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gag_Rule_debates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antebellum_South_and_the_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antebellum_South_and_the_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Antebellum South and the Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antebellum_South_and_the_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Southern_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Southern culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Militant_defense_of_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Militant_defense_of_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.2</span> <span>Militant defense of slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Militant_defense_of_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolitionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolitionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.3</span> <span>Abolitionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolitionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_fears_of_modernization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_fears_of_modernization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.4</span> <span>Southern fears of modernization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_fears_of_modernization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sectional_tensions_and_the_emergence_of_mass_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sectional_tensions_and_the_emergence_of_mass_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Sectional tensions and the emergence of mass politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sectional_tensions_and_the_emergence_of_mass_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_value_of_slavery_to_the_South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_value_of_slavery_to_the_South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.1</span> <span>Economic value of slavery to the South</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_value_of_slavery_to_the_South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_economic_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_economic_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.2</span> <span>Regional economic differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_economic_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_labor_vs._pro-slavery_arguments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_labor_vs._pro-slavery_arguments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.3</span> <span>Free labor vs. pro-slavery arguments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_labor_vs._pro-slavery_arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_conflict_over_the_slavery_question" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_conflict_over_the_slavery_question"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Religious conflict over the slavery question</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_conflict_over_the_slavery_question-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_territorial_crisis_and_the_United_States_Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_territorial_crisis_and_the_United_States_Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>The territorial crisis and the United States Constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_territorial_crisis_and_the_United_States_Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolitionism_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolitionism_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Abolitionism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Abolitionism_2-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Abolitionism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Abolitionism_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arguments_for_and_against_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_for_and_against_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Arguments for and against slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arguments_for_and_against_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Free_soil"_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Free_soil"_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>"Free soil" movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Free_soil"_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_question_in_territories_acquired_from_Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_question_in_territories_acquired_from_Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Slavery question in territories acquired from Mexico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_question_in_territories_acquired_from_Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-States'_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#States'_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>States' rights</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-States'_rights-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle States' rights subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-States'_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-States'_rights_and_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#States'_rights_and_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>States' rights and slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-States'_rights_and_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-States'_rights_and_minority_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#States'_rights_and_minority_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>States' rights and minority rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-States'_rights_and_minority_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compromise_of_1850" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compromise_of_1850"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Compromise of 1850</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Compromise_of_1850-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Compromise of 1850 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Compromise_of_1850-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fugitive_Slave_Law_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fugitive_Slave_Law_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Fugitive Slave Law issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fugitive_Slave_Law_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kansas–Nebraska_Act_(1854)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kansas–Nebraska_Act_(1854)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Kansas–Nebraska Act (1854)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kansas–Nebraska_Act_(1854)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fragmentation_of_the_American_party_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fragmentation_of_the_American_party_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Fragmentation of the American party system</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fragmentation_of_the_American_party_system-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fragmentation of the American party system subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fragmentation_of_the_American_party_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Founding_of_the_Republican_Party_(1854)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding_of_the_Republican_Party_(1854)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Founding of the Republican Party (1854)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding_of_the_Republican_Party_(1854)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Bleeding_Kansas"_and_the_elections_of_1856" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Bleeding_Kansas"_and_the_elections_of_1856"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>"Bleeding Kansas" and the elections of 1856</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Bleeding_Kansas"_and_the_elections_of_1856-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dred_Scott_decision_(1857)_and_the_Lecompton_Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dred_Scott_decision_(1857)_and_the_Lecompton_Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span><i>Dred Scott</i> decision (1857) and the Lecompton Constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dred_Scott_decision_(1857)_and_the_Lecompton_Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buchanan,_Republicans_and_anti-administration_Democrats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buchanan,_Republicans_and_anti-administration_Democrats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Buchanan, Republicans and anti-administration Democrats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buchanan,_Republicans_and_anti-administration_Democrats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.5</span> <span>Honor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Assault_on_Sumner_(1856)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assault_on_Sumner_(1856)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.5.1</span> <span>Assault on Sumner (1856)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assault_on_Sumner_(1856)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_Lincoln" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_Lincoln"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Emergence of Lincoln</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Emergence_of_Lincoln-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Emergence of Lincoln subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_Lincoln-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Republican_Party_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republican_Party_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Republican Party structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republican_Party_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sectional_battles_over_federal_policy_in_the_late_1850s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sectional_battles_over_federal_policy_in_the_late_1850s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Sectional battles over federal policy in the late 1850s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sectional_battles_over_federal_policy_in_the_late_1850s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lincoln–Douglas_Debates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lincoln–Douglas_Debates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2.1</span> <span>Lincoln–Douglas Debates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lincoln–Douglas_Debates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2.2</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Panic_of_1857_and_sectional_realignments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Panic_of_1857_and_sectional_realignments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2.3</span> <span>Panic of 1857 and sectional realignments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Panic_of_1857_and_sectional_realignments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2.4</span> <span>Southern response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Brown_and_Harpers_Ferry_(1859)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Brown_and_Harpers_Ferry_(1859)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>John Brown and Harpers Ferry (1859)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Brown_and_Harpers_Ferry_(1859)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elections_of_1860" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elections_of_1860"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Elections of 1860</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elections_of_1860-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Result_and_impact_of_the_election_of_1860" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Result_and_impact_of_the_election_of_1860"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4.1</span> <span>Result and impact of the election of 1860</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Result_and_impact_of_the_election_of_1860-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Split_in_the_Democratic_Party" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Split_in_the_Democratic_Party"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Split in the Democratic Party</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Split_in_the_Democratic_Party-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_secession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_secession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6</span> <span>Southern secession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_secession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.7</span> <span>Other issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fort_Sumter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fort_Sumter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Fort Sumter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fort_Sumter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiographical_debates_on_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiographical_debates_on_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Historiographical debates on causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiographical_debates_on_causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiographical debates on causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiographical_debates_on_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Needless_war_argument" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Needless_war_argument"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Needless war argument</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Needless_war_argument-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irrepressible_conflict_argument" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irrepressible_conflict_argument"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Irrepressible conflict argument</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irrepressible_conflict_argument-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revisionists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revisionists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Revisionists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revisionists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Needless_war"_school" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Needless_war"_school"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.3</span> <span>"Needless war" school</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Needless_war"_school-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_causation_and_modernization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_causation_and_modernization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.4</span> <span>Economic causation and modernization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_causation_and_modernization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nationalism_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nationalism_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.5</span> <span>Nationalism and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationalism_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_as_cause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_as_cause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.6</span> <span>Slavery as cause</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_as_cause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Origins of the American Civil War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">13 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="أصول الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أصول الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%9E_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Перадумовы Грамадзянскай вайны ў ЗША – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Перадумовы Грамадзянскай вайны ў ЗША" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Or%C3%ADgenes_de_la_Guerra_de_Secesi%C3%B3n" title="Orígenes de la Guerra de Secesión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Orígenes de la Guerra de Secesión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A8se_de_la_guerre_de_S%C3%A9cession" title="Genèse de la guerre de Sécession – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Genèse de la guerre de Sécession" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%A8%EB%B6%81_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81%EC%9D%98_%EC%9B%90%EC%9D%B8" title="남북 전쟁의 원인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="남북 전쟁의 원인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%84%D5%86_%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%AB_%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="ԱՄՆ քաղաքացիական պատերազմի նախադրյալներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="ԱՄՆ քաղաքացիական պատերազմի նախադրյալներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzroci_gra%C4%91anskog_rata_u_Sjedinjenim_Ameri%C4%8Dkim_Dr%C5%BEavama" title="Uzroci građanskog rata u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Uzroci građanskog rata u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origini_della_guerra_di_secessione_americana" title="Origini della guerra di secessione americana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Origini della guerra di secessione americana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikas_pilso%C5%86u_kara_c%C4%93lo%C5%86i" title="Amerikas pilsoņu kara cēloņi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Amerikas pilsoņu kara cēloņi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89%E3%81%AE%E5%8E%9F%E5%9B%A0" title="南北戦争の原因 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="南北戦争の原因" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%DB%90_%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%DB%90" title="د امریکا د کورنۍ جګړې رېښې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د امریکا د کورنۍ جګړې رېښې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Предпосылки Гражданской войны в США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Предпосылки Гражданской войны в США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%A7%E6%88%B0%E8%B5%B7%E5%9B%A0" title="美國內戰起因 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="美國內戰起因" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2991747#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_size" title="Wikipedia:Article size">too long</a> to read and navigate comfortably</b>. When this tag was added, its <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SIZERULE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SIZERULE">readable prose size</a> was 16,000 words.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Consider <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> content into sub-articles, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">condensing</a> it, or adding <a href="/wiki/Help:Section#Subsections" title="Help:Section">subheadings</a>. Please discuss this issue on the article's <a href="/wiki/Talk:Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Talk:Origins of the American Civil War">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Artwork Despite him stopping fort at center surrounded by water. The fort is on fire and shells explode in the air above it." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg/290px-Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg/435px-Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg/580px-Bombardment_of_Fort_Sumter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4448" data-file-height="2859" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Battle of Fort Sumter</a>, the first hostilities of the war, as depicted by <a href="/wiki/Currier_and_Ives" title="Currier and Ives">Currier and Ives</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="border:4px double #000000;;"><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; width: 285px; background: #FFFFFF;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Events leading to the American Civil War</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="font-size: 85%;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions" title="Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions">Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions</a> (1798–99)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#End_of_the_Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">End of Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_Abominations" title="Tariff of Abominations">Tariff of 1828</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion" title="Nat Turner's Rebellion">Nat Turner's Rebellion</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a> (1832–33)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">Abolition of slavery in the British Empire</a> (1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas Revolution</a> (1835–36)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Reuben_Crandall" title="Trial of Reuben Crandall">United States v. Crandall</a></i> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule</a> (1836–44)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Aves" title="Commonwealth v. Aves">Commonwealth v. Aves</a></i> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Murder of Elijah Lovejoy</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Hall_(Philadelphia)" title="Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia)">Burning of Pennsylvania Hall</a> (1838)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Slavery_As_It_Is" class="mw-redirect" title="American Slavery As It Is">American Slavery As It Is</a></i> (1839)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._The_Amistad" title="United States v. The Amistad">United States v. The Amistad</a></i> (1841)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prigg_v._Pennsylvania" title="Prigg v. Pennsylvania">Prigg v. Pennsylvania</a></i> (1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_annexation" title="Texas annexation">Texas annexation</a> (1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> (1846–48)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmot_Proviso" title="Wilmot Proviso">Wilmot Proviso</a> (1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Convention" title="Nashville Convention">Nashville Convention</a> (1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Burns" title="Anthony Burns">Recapture of Anthony Burns</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostend_Manifesto" title="Ostend Manifesto">Ostend Manifesto</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a> (1854–61)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">Caning of Charles Sumner</a> (1856)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Impending_Crisis_of_the_South" title="The Impending Crisis of the South">The Impending Crisis of the South</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlin%E2%80%93Wellington_Rescue" title="Oberlin–Wellington Rescue">Oberlin–Wellington Rescue</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a> (1859)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown" title="Virginia v. John Brown">Virginia v. John Brown</a></i> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a> (1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession of Southern states</a> (1860–61)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Conference_of_1861" title="Peace Conference of 1861">Peace Conference of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Battle of Fort Sumter</a> (1861)</li></ol></div></div> </div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:An_address_-_setting_forth_the_declaration_of_the_immediate_causes_which_induce_and_justify_the_secession_of_Mississippi_from_the_Federal_Union_and_the_ordinance_of_secession_(IA_addresssettingfo01miss).pdf&page=5" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/An_address_-_setting_forth_the_declaration_of_the_immediate_causes_which_induce_and_justify_the_secession_of_Mississippi_from_the_Federal_Union_and_the_ordinance_of_secession_%28IA_addresssettingfo01miss%29.pdf/page5-220px-thumbnail.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/An_address_-_setting_forth_the_declaration_of_the_immediate_causes_which_induce_and_justify_the_secession_of_Mississippi_from_the_Federal_Union_and_the_ordinance_of_secession_%28IA_addresssettingfo01miss%29.pdf/page5-330px-thumbnail.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/An_address_-_setting_forth_the_declaration_of_the_immediate_causes_which_induce_and_justify_the_secession_of_Mississippi_from_the_Federal_Union_and_the_ordinance_of_secession_%28IA_addresssettingfo01miss%29.pdf/page5-440px-thumbnail.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="735" data-file-height="1220" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Secession_Convention" title="Mississippi Secession Convention">Mississippi Secession Convention</a> (1861)</figcaption></figure> <p>The origins of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> were rooted in the desire of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern states</a> to preserve the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">institution of slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians in the 21st century overwhelmingly agree on the centrality of slavery in the conflict. They disagree on which aspects (ideological, economic, political, or social) were most important, and on the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">North</a>'s reasons for refusing to allow the Southern states to secede.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">pseudo-historical</a> <a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause</a> ideology denies that slavery was the principal cause of the secession, a view disproven by historical evidence, notably some of the seceding states' own <a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Secession" title="Ordinance of Secession">secession documents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After leaving the Union, Mississippi issued a declaration stating, "Our position is thoroughly identified with the institution of slavery—the greatest material interest of the world."<sup id="cite_ref-Coates-2015_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coates-2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery">Slavery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_Disputes">Slavery Disputes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Slavery Disputes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The principal political battle leading to Southern secession was over whether slavery would expand into the Western territories destined to become states. Initially <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> had admitted new states into the Union in pairs, <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">one slave and one free</a>. This had kept a sectional balance in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> but not in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>, as free states outstripped slave states in numbers of eligible voters.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Brien2002qs_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Brien2002qs-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, at mid-19th century, the free-versus-slave status of the new territories was a critical issue, both for the North, where anti-slavery sentiment had grown, and for the South, where the fear of slavery's <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolition</a> had grown. Another factor leading to secession and the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a> was the development of <a href="/wiki/White_Southerners" title="White Southerners">white Southern</a> nationalism in the preceding decades.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary reason for the North to reject secession was to preserve the Union, a cause based on <a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">American nationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, "Republicans did not believe that the Constitution allowed them to wage a war for any 'purpose' other than the restoration of the Union". Nevertheless, "from the very beginning they insisted that slavery was the cause of the rebellion and emancipation an appropriate and ultimately indispensable means of suppressing it".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Background factors in the run up to the Civil War were <a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">partisan politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nullification_(U.S._Constitution)" title="Nullification (U.S. Constitution)">nullification</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">secession</a>, Southern and Northern nationalism, <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">expansionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">economics</a>, and modernization in the <a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">antebellum period</a>. As a panel of historians emphasized in 2011, "while slavery and its various and multifaceted discontents were the primary cause of disunion, it was disunion itself that sparked the war."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failed_Attempts_To_Keep_the_Peace">Failed Attempts To Keep the Peace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Failed Attempts To Keep the Peace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the interest of maintaining unity, politicians had mostly moderated opposition to slavery, resulting in numerous compromises such as the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a> of 1820 under the presidency of <a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> of 1846 to 1848, the issue of slavery in the new <a href="/wiki/Historic_regions_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Historic regions of the United States">territories</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a>. While the compromise averted an immediate political crisis, it did not permanently resolve the issue of the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a> (the power of slaveholders to control the national government on the slavery issue). Part of the Compromise of 1850 was the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a>, which required Northerners to assist Southerners in reclaiming fugitive slaves, which many Northerners found to be extremely offensive. </p><p>Amid the emergence of increasingly virulent and hostile sectional ideologies in national politics, the collapse of the old <a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second Party System</a> in the 1850s hampered politicians' efforts to reach yet another compromise. The compromise that was reached (the 1854 <a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a>) outraged many Northerners and led to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>, the first major party that was almost entirely Northern-based. The industrializing North and agrarian Midwest became committed to the economic ethos of free-labor <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">industrial capitalism</a>. </p><p>Arguments that slavery was undesirable for the nation had long existed, and early in U.S. history were made even by some prominent Southerners. After 1840, abolitionists denounced slavery as not only a social evil but also a moral wrong. Activists in the new Republican Party, usually Northerners, had another view: They believed the Slave Power conspiracy was controlling the national government with the goal of extending slavery and limiting access to good farm land to rich slave owners.<sup id="cite_ref-Leonard_L._Richards_2000_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leonard_L._Richards_2000-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern defenders of slavery, for their part, increasingly came to contend that black people benefited from slavery. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1860_Presidential_Election">1860 Presidential Election</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1860 Presidential Election"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> won the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 presidential election</a>. His victory triggered declarations of <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">secession</a> by seven slave states of the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>, all of whose riverfront or coastal economies were based on cotton that was cultivated by slave labor. They formed the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> after Lincoln was elected in November 1860 but before <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="First inauguration of Abraham Lincoln">he took office</a> in March 1861. Nationalists in the North and "Unionists" in the South refused to accept the declarations of secession. No foreign government ever recognized the Confederacy. The U.S. government, under President <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a>, refused to relinquish its forts that were in territory claimed by the Confederacy. The war itself began on April 12, 1861, when <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Confederate forces bombarded the Union's Fort Sumter</a>, in the harbor of <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a>.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style></p><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Differences_In_Population">Differences In Population</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Differences In Population"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the mid-19th century the United States had become a nation of two distinct regions. The <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">free states</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeast</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had a rapidly growing economy based on family farms, industry, mining, commerce, and transportation, with a large and rapidly growing urban population. Their growth was fed by a high birth rate and large numbers of European immigrants, especially from <a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans" title="Irish Americans">Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">Germany</a>. The South was dominated by a settled <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">plantation system</a> based on slavery; there was some rapid growth taking place in the Southwest (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>), based on high birth rates and high migration from the Southeast; there was also immigration by Europeans, but in much smaller number. The heavily rural South had few cities of any size, and little manufacturing except in border areas such as <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>. Slave owners controlled politics and the economy, although about 75% of white Southern families owned no slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overall, the Northern population was growing much more quickly than the Southern population, which made it increasingly difficult for the South to dominate the national government. By the time the 1860 election occurred, the heavily agricultural Southern states as a group had fewer <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a> votes than the rapidly <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">industrializing</a> Northern states. Abraham Lincoln was able to win the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 presidential election</a> without even being on the ballot in ten Southern states. Southerners felt a loss of federal concern for Southern pro-slavery political demands, and their continued domination of the federal government was threatened. This political calculus provided a very real basis for Southerners' worry about the relative political decline of their region, due to the North growing much faster in terms of population and industrial output. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_tensions_and_compromises">Historical tensions and compromises</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Historical tensions and compromises"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Republic">Early Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Secession_map_1861.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="1861 Map of U.S. states and territories showing two phases of secession" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/US_Secession_map_1861.svg/290px-US_Secession_map_1861.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/US_Secession_map_1861.svg/435px-US_Secession_map_1861.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/US_Secession_map_1861.svg/580px-US_Secession_map_1861.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption>1861 United States Secession Crisis map: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#A40000; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span>  States that seceded before April 15, 1861</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#EF2929; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span>  States that seceded after April 15, 1861</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FCE94F; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span>  States that permitted slavery, but did not secede</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#204A87; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span>  States of the Union that banned slavery</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#D3D7CF; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span>  U.S. territories, under <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> control</div></figcaption></figure> <p>At the time of the American Revolution, the institution of slavery was firmly established in the American colonies. It was most important in the six southern states from Maryland to Georgia, but the total of a half million slaves were spread out through all of the colonies. In the South, 40 percent of the population was made up of slaves, and as Americans moved into Kentucky and the rest of the southwest, one-sixth of the settlers were slaves. By the end of the Revolutionary War, the <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> states provided most of the American ships that were used in the foreign slave trade, while most of their customers were in Georgia and <a href="/wiki/Carolinas" title="Carolinas">the Carolinas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this time many Americans found it easy to reconcile slavery with <a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">the Bible</a>, but a growing number rejected this defense of slavery. A small antislavery movement, led by the <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>, appeared in the 1780s, and by the late 1780s all of the states had banned the international slave trade.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> No serious national political movement against slavery developed, largely due to the overriding concern over achieving national unity.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Constitutional Convention met, slavery was the one issue "that left the least possibility of compromise, the one that would most pit morality against pragmatism."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the end, many would take comfort in the fact that the word "slavery" never occurs in the Constitution. The <a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">three-fifths clause</a> was a compromise between those (in the North) who wanted no slaves counted, and those (in the South) who wanted all the slaves counted. The Constitution (Article IV, section 4) also allowed the federal government to suppress domestic violence, a provision that could be used against slave revolts. Congress could not ban the importation of slaves for 20 years. The need for the approval of three-fourths of the states for <a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Procedures_for_amending_the_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">amendments</a> made the constitutional abolition of slavery virtually impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The importation of slaves into the United States <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1794" title="Slave Trade Act of 1794">was restricted in 1794</a>, and finally <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">banned in 1808</a>, the earliest date the Constitution permitted (Article 1, section 9). Many Americans believed that the passage of these laws had finally resolved the issue of slavery in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Any national discussion that might have continued over slavery was drowned out by other issues such as trade embargoes, maritime competition with Great Britain and France, the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_Wars" title="Barbary Wars">Barbary Wars</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>. A notable exception to this quiet regarding slavery was the New Englanders' association of <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812#Internal_American_political_conflict" title="War of 1812">their frustration with the war</a> with their resentment of the three-fifths clause that seemed to allow the South to dominate national politics.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the aftermath of the American Revolution (1775–1783), the Northern states (north of the <a href="/wiki/Mason%E2%80%93Dixon_line" title="Mason–Dixon line">Mason–Dixon line</a> separating Maryland from Pennsylvania and Delaware) abolished slavery by 1804, although in some states older slaves were turned into <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servants</a> who could not be bought or sold. In the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> of 1787, Congress (at that time under the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>) barred slavery from the Midwestern territory north of the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Congress organized the territories acquired through the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> of 1803, there was no ban on slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Missouri_Compromise">Missouri Compromise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Missouri Compromise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></div> <p>With the admission of Alabama as a <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">slave state</a> in 1819, the U.S. was equally divided, with 11 slave states and 11 free states. Later that year, Congressman <a href="/wiki/James_Tallmadge_Jr." title="James Tallmadge Jr.">James Tallmadge Jr.</a> of New York initiated an uproar in the South when he proposed two amendments to a bill admitting <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> to the Union as a free state. The first would have barred slaves from being moved to Missouri, and the second would have freed at age 25 all Missouri slaves born after admission to the Union.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The admission of the new state of Missouri as a slave state would give the slave states a majority in the Senate, while passage of the <a href="/wiki/Tallmadge_Amendment" title="Tallmadge Amendment">Tallmadge Amendment</a> would give the free states a majority. </p><p>The Tallmadge amendments passed the House of Representatives but failed in the Senate when five Northern senators voted with all the Southern senators.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The question was now the admission of Missouri as a slave state, and many leaders shared <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>'s fear of a crisis over slavery – a fear that Jefferson described as "a fire bell in the night". The crisis was solved by the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> agreed to cede control over its relatively large, sparsely populated and disputed <a href="/wiki/Enclave_and_exclave" title="Enclave and exclave">exclave</a>, the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Maine" title="District of Maine">District of Maine</a>. The compromise allowed <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> to be admitted to the Union as a free state at the same time that Missouri was admitted as a slave state. The Compromise also banned slavery in the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> territory north and west of the state of Missouri along <a href="/wiki/Parallel_36%C2%B030%E2%80%B2_north#In_the_United_States" title="Parallel 36°30′ north">parallel 36°30′ north</a>. The Missouri Compromise quieted the issue until its limitations on slavery were repealed by the <a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> of 1854.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the South, the Missouri crisis reawakened old fears that a strong federal government could be a fatal threat to slavery. The <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian coalition</a> that united southern planters and northern farmers, mechanics and artisans in opposition to the threat presented by the <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a> had started to dissolve after the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until the Missouri crisis that Americans became aware of the political possibilities of a sectional attack on slavery, and it was not until the <a href="/wiki/Mass_politics" title="Mass politics">mass politics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>'s administration that this type of organization around this issue became practical.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nullification_crisis">Nullification crisis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nullification crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/American_System_(economic_plan)" title="American System (economic plan)">American System</a>, advocated by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> in Congress and supported by many nationalist supporters of the War of 1812 such as <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a>, was a program for rapid economic modernization featuring protective tariffs, <a href="/wiki/Internal_improvements" title="Internal improvements">internal improvements</a> at federal expense, and a national bank. The purpose was to develop American industry and international commerce. Since iron, coal, and water power were mainly in the North, this tax plan was doomed to cause rancor in the South, where economies were agriculture-based.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southerners claimed it demonstrated favoritism toward the North.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrew_Jackson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Andrew_Jackson.jpg/220px-Andrew_Jackson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Andrew_Jackson.jpg/330px-Andrew_Jackson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Andrew_Jackson.jpg/440px-Andrew_Jackson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> viewed South Carolina's attempts to nullify the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 as tantamount to treason.</figcaption></figure> <p>The nation suffered an economic downturn throughout the 1820s, and South Carolina was particularly affected. The highly protective Tariff of 1828 (called the "<a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_Abominations" title="Tariff of Abominations">Tariff of Abominations</a>" by its detractors), designed to protect American industry by taxing imported manufactured goods, was enacted into law during the last year of the presidency of <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>. Opposed in the South and parts of New England, the expectation of the tariff's opponents was that with the election of <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> the tariff would be significantly reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1828 South Carolina state politics increasingly organized around the tariff issue. When the Jackson administration failed to take any actions to address their concerns, the most radical faction in the state began to advocate that the state declare the tariff null and void within South Carolina. In Washington, an open split on the issue occurred between Jackson and his vice-president John C. Calhoun, the most effective proponent of the constitutional theory of state nullification through his 1828 "<a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Exposition_and_Protest" title="South Carolina Exposition and Protest">South Carolina Exposition and Protest</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Congress enacted a new <a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1832" title="Tariff of 1832">tariff in 1832</a>, but it offered the state little relief, resulting in the most dangerous sectional crisis since the Union was formed. Some militant South Carolinians even hinted at withdrawing from the Union in response. The newly elected South Carolina legislature then quickly called for the election of delegates to a state convention. Once assembled, the convention voted to declare null and void the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 within the state. President Andrew Jackson responded firmly, declaring nullification an act of <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a>. He then took steps to strengthen federal forts in the state. </p><p>Violence seemed a real possibility early in 1833 as Jacksonians in Congress introduced a "<a href="/wiki/Force_Bill" title="Force Bill">Force Bill</a>" authorizing the President to use the federal Army and Navy in order to enforce acts of Congress. No other state had come forward to support South Carolina, and the state itself was divided on its willingness to continue the showdown with the federal government. The crisis ended when Clay and Calhoun worked to devise a compromise tariff. Both sides later claimed victory. Calhoun and his supporters in South Carolina claimed a victory for nullification, insisting that it had forced the revision of the tariff. Jackson's followers, however, saw the episode as a demonstration that no single state could assert its rights by independent action. </p><p>Calhoun, in turn, devoted his efforts to building up a sense of Southern solidarity so that when another standoff should come, the whole section might be prepared to act as a bloc in resisting the federal government. As early as 1830, in the midst of the crisis, Calhoun identified the right to own slaves – the foundation of the plantation agricultural system – as the chief southern minority right being threatened: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I consider the tariff act as the occasion, rather than the real cause of the present unhappy state of things. The truth can no longer be disguised, that the peculiar domestick  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] institution of the Southern States and the consequent direction which that and her soil have given to her industry, has placed them in regard to taxation and appropriations in opposite relation to the majority of the Union, against the danger of which, if there be no protective power in the reserved rights of the states they must in the end be forced to rebel, or, submit to have their paramount interests sacrificed, their domestic institutions subordinated by Colonization and other schemes, and themselves and children reduced to wretchedness.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>On May 1, 1833, Jackson wrote of this idea, "the tariff was only the pretext, and disunion and Southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The issue appeared again after 1842's <a href="/wiki/Black_Tariff" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Tariff">Black Tariff</a>. A period of relative free trade followed 1846's <a href="/wiki/Walker_Tariff" class="mw-redirect" title="Walker Tariff">Walker Tariff</a>, which had been largely written by Southerners. Northern industrialists (and some in western Virginia) complained it was too low to encourage the growth of industry.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gag_Rule_debates">Gag Rule debates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gag Rule debates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule (United States)</a></div> <p>From 1831 to 1836 <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Slavery_Society" title="American Anti-Slavery Society">American Anti-Slavery Society</a> initiated a campaign to petition Congress to end <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Slavery in the District of Columbia">slavery in the District of Columbia</a> and all federal territories. Hundreds of thousands of petitions were sent, with the number reaching a peak in 1835.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House</a> passed the Pinckney Resolutions on May 26, 1836. The first of these stated that Congress had no constitutional authority to interfere with slavery in the states and the second that it "ought not" do so in the District of Columbia. The third resolution, known from the beginning as the "gag rule", provided that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>All petitions, memorials, resolutions, propositions, or papers, relating in any way, or to any extent whatsoever, to the subject of slavery or the abolition of slavery, shall, without being either printed or referred, be laid on the table and that no further action whatever shall be had thereon.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The first two resolutions passed by votes of 182 to 9 and 132 to 45. The gag rule, supported by Northern and Southern Democrats as well as some Southern Whigs, was passed with a vote of 117 to 68.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Former President <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, who was elected to the House of Representatives in 1830, became an early and central figure in the opposition to the gag rules.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that they were a direct violation of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> right "to petition the Government for a redress of grievances". A majority of Northern <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whigs</a> joined the opposition. Rather than suppress anti-slavery petitions, however, the gag rules only served to offend Americans from Northern states, and dramatically increase the number of petitions.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the original gag was a resolution, not a standing House Rule, it had to be renewed every session, and the Adams' faction often gained the floor before the gag could be imposed. However, in January 1840, the House of Representatives passed the Twenty-first Rule, which prohibited even the reception of anti-slavery petitions and was a standing House rule. Now the pro-petition forces focused on trying to revoke a standing rule. The Rule raised serious doubts about its constitutionality and had less support than the original Pinckney gag, passing only by 114 to 108. Throughout the gag period, Adams' "superior talent in using and abusing parliamentary rules" and skill in baiting his enemies into making mistakes, enabled him to evade the rule and debate the slavery issues. The gag rule was finally rescinded on December 3, 1844, by a strongly sectional vote of 108 to 80, all the Northern and four Southern Whigs voting for repeal, along with 55 of the 71 Northern Democrats.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antebellum_South_and_the_Union">Antebellum South and the Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Antebellum South and the Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There had been a continuing contest between the states and the national government over the power of the latter – and over the loyalty of the citizenry – almost since the founding of the republic. The <a href="/wiki/Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions" title="Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions">Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions</a> of 1798, for example, had defied the <a href="/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts" title="Alien and Sedition Acts">Alien and Sedition Acts</a>, and at the <a href="/wiki/Hartford_Convention" title="Hartford Convention">Hartford Convention</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> voiced its opposition to President <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> and the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, and discussed secession from the Union. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southern_culture">Southern culture</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Southern culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cottonfieldpanorama-edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cottonfieldpanorama-edited.jpg/660px-Cottonfieldpanorama-edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="660" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cottonfieldpanorama-edited.jpg/990px-Cottonfieldpanorama-edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cottonfieldpanorama-edited.jpg/1320px-Cottonfieldpanorama-edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="344" /></a><figcaption>Picking <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although a minority of free Southerners owned slaves, free Southerners of all classes nevertheless defended the institution of slavery<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – threatened by the rise of free labor abolitionist movements in the Northern states – as the cornerstone of their social order. </p><p>Per the 1860 census, the percentage of slaveholding families was as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>26% in the 15 Slave states (AL, AR, DE, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, MO, NC, SC, TN, TX, VA)</li> <li>16% in the 4 Border states (DE, KY, MD, MO)</li> <li>31% in the 11 Confederate states (AL, AR, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TN, TX, VA)</li> <li>37% in the first 7 Confederate states (AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, SC, TX)</li> <li>25% in the second 4 Confederate states (AR, NC, TN, VA)</li></ul> <p>Mississippi was the highest at 49%, followed by South Carolina at 46% </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Confederate_100_Dollars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Confederate_100_Dollars.jpg/290px-Confederate_100_Dollars.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Confederate_100_Dollars.jpg/435px-Confederate_100_Dollars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Confederate_100_Dollars.jpg/580px-Confederate_100_Dollars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4476" data-file-height="1908" /></a><figcaption>Slaves working in the fields, on the Confederate $100 bill, 1862–63. On the left is <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a>, on the right <a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Based on a system of <a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">plantation</a> slavery, the social structure of the South was far more stratified and patriarchal than that of the North. In 1850 there were around 350,000 slaveholders in a total free Southern population of about six million. Among slaveholders, the concentration of slave ownership was unevenly distributed. Perhaps around 7 percent of slaveholders owned roughly three-quarters of the slave population. The largest slaveholders, generally owners of large plantations, represented the top stratum of Southern society. They benefited from <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a> and needed large numbers of slaves on big plantations to produce cotton, a highly profitable labor-intensive crop.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Per the 1860 Census, in the 15 slave states, slaveholders owning 30 or more slaves (7% of all slaveholders) owned approximately 1,540,000 slaves (39% of all slaves).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>(PDF p. 64/1860 Census p. 247) </p><p>In the 1850s, as large plantation owners outcompeted smaller farmers, more slaves were owned by fewer planters. Yet poor whites and small farmers generally accepted the political leadership of the planter elite. Several factors helped explain why slavery was not under serious threat of internal collapse from any move for democratic change initiated from the South. First, given the opening of new territories in the West for white settlement, many non-slaveowners also perceived a possibility that they, too, might own slaves at some point in their life.<sup id="cite_ref-Brinkley,_1986_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brinkley,_1986-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver,_1863,_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg/180px-Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg/270px-Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg/360px-Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1252" data-file-height="2020" /></a><figcaption>Violent repression of slaves was a common theme in abolitionist literature in the North. Above, this famous 1863 photo of a slave, <a href="/wiki/Gordon_(slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon (slave)">Gordon</a>, deeply scarred from whipping by an overseer, was distributed by abolitionists to illustrate what they saw as the barbarism of Southern society.</figcaption></figure> <p>Second, small free farmers in the South often embraced <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a>, making them unlikely agents for internal democratic reforms in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore,_1966_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore,_1966-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principle of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>, accepted by almost all white Southerners of all classes, made slavery seem legitimate, natural, and essential for a civilized society. Racial discrimination was completely legal. White racism in the South was sustained by official systems of repression such as the <a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">slave codes</a> and elaborate codes of speech, behavior, and social practices illustrating the subordination of blacks to whites. For example, the "<a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">slave patrols</a>" were among the institutions bringing together southern whites of all classes in support of the prevailing economic and racial order. Serving as slave "patrollers" and "overseers" offered white Southerners positions of power and honor in their communities. Policing and punishing blacks who transgressed the regimentation of slave society was a valued community service in the South, where the fear of free blacks threatening law and order figured heavily in the public discourse of the period.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Third, many <a href="/wiki/Yeoman" title="Yeoman">yeomen</a> and small farmers with a few slaves were linked to elite planters through the market economy.<sup id="cite_ref-North,_1961_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-North,_1961-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many areas, small farmers depended on local planter elites for vital goods and services, including access to <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gins</a>, markets, feed and livestock, and even loans (since the banking system was not well developed in the antebellum South). Southern tradesmen often depended on the richest planters for steady work. Such dependency effectively deterred many white non-slaveholders from engaging in any political activity that was not in the interest of the large slaveholders. Furthermore, whites of varying social class, including poor whites and "plain folk" who worked outside or in the periphery of the market economy (and therefore lacked any real economic interest in the defense of slavery) might nonetheless be linked to elite planters through extensive kinship networks. Since <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">inheritance</a> in the South was often unequitable (and generally favored eldest sons), it was not uncommon for a poor white person to be perhaps the first cousin of the richest plantation owner of his county and to share the same militant support of slavery as his richer relatives. Finally, there was no <a href="/wiki/Secret_ballot" title="Secret ballot">secret ballot</a> at the time anywhere in the United States – this innovation did not become widespread in the U.S. until the 1880s. For a typical white Southerner, this meant that casting a ballot against the wishes of the establishment meant running the risk of being socially <a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">ostracized</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Thus, by the 1850s, Southern slaveholders and non-slaveholders alike felt increasingly encircled psychologically and politically in the national political arena because of the rise of <a href="/wiki/Free_Soil_Party" title="Free Soil Party">free soilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolitionism</a> in the Northern states. Increasingly dependent on the North for manufactured goods, for commercial services, and for loans, and increasingly cut off from the flourishing agricultural regions of the Northwest, they faced the prospects of a growing abolitionist movement in the North. </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/William_C._Davis_(historian)" title="William C. Davis (historian)">William C. Davis</a> disputes that Southern culture was different from that of Northern states or that it was a cause of the war, stating, "Socially and culturally the North and South were not much different. They prayed to the same deity, spoke the same language, shared the same ancestry, sang the same songs. National triumphs and catastrophes were shared by both." Davis argues that slavery, not culture, was the cause of the war: "For all the myths they would create to the contrary, the only significant and defining difference between them was slavery, where it existed and where it did not, for by 1804 it had virtually ceased to exist north of Maryland. Slavery demarked not just their labor and economic situations, but power itself in the new republic."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Militant_defense_of_slavery">Militant defense of slavery</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Militant defense of slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the outcry over developments in Kansas strong in the North, defenders of slavery – increasingly committed to a way of life that abolitionists and their sympathizers considered obsolete or immoral – articulated a militant pro-slavery ideology that would lay the groundwork for secession upon the election of a Republican president. Southerners waged a vitriolic response to political change in the North. Slaveholding interests sought to uphold their constitutional rights in the territories and to maintain sufficient political strength to repulse "hostile" and "ruinous" legislation. Behind this shift was the growth of the cotton textile industry in the North and in Europe, which left slavery more important than ever to the Southern economy.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Abolitionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Southern spokesmen greatly exaggerated the power of abolitionists, looking especially at the great popularity of <i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1852), the novel and play by <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a> (whom Abraham Lincoln reputedly called "the little woman that started this great war"). They saw a vast growing abolitionist movement after the success of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Liberator_(newspaper)" title="The Liberator (newspaper)">The Liberator</a></i> in 1831 by <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a>. The fear was a <a href="/wiki/Race_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Race war">race war</a> by blacks that would massacre whites, especially in counties where whites were a small minority.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The South reacted with an elaborate intellectual defense of slavery. <a href="/wiki/J._D._B._De_Bow" title="J. D. B. De Bow">J. D. B. De Bow</a> of New Orleans established <i><a href="/wiki/De_Bow%27s_Review" title="De Bow's Review">De Bow's Review</a></i> in 1846, which quickly grew to become the leading Southern magazine, warning about the dangers of depending on the North economically. <i>De Bow's Review</i> also emerged as the leading voice for secession. The magazine emphasized the South's economic inequality, relating it to the concentration of manufacturing, shipping, banking and international trade in the North. Searching for Biblical passages endorsing slavery and forming economic, sociological, historical and scientific arguments, slavery went from being a "necessary evil" to a "positive good". Dr. <a href="/wiki/John_H._Van_Evrie" title="John H. Van Evrie">John H. Van Evrie</a>'s book <i>Negroes and Negro slavery: The First an Inferior Race: The Latter Its Normal Condition</i> – setting out the arguments the title would suggest – was an attempt to apply scientific support to the Southern arguments in favor of race-based slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Latent sectional divisions suddenly activated derogatory sectional imagery which emerged into sectional ideologies. As industrial capitalism gained momentum in the North, Southern writers emphasized whatever aristocratic traits they valued (but often did not practice) in their own society: courtesy, grace, <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalry</a>, the slow pace of life, orderly life and leisure. This supported their argument that slavery provided a more humane society than industrial labor.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i>Cannibals All!</i>, <a href="/wiki/George_Fitzhugh" title="George Fitzhugh">George Fitzhugh</a> argued that the antagonism between labor and capital in a free society would result in "<a href="/wiki/Robber_baron_(industrialist)" title="Robber baron (industrialist)">robber barons</a>" and "pauper slavery", while in a slave society such antagonisms were avoided. He advocated enslaving Northern factory workers, for their own benefit. Abraham Lincoln, on the other hand, denounced such Southern insinuations that Northern wage earners were fatally fixed in that condition for life. To Free Soilers, the stereotype of the South was one of a diametrically opposite, static society in which the slave system maintained an entrenched anti-democratic aristocracy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southern_fears_of_modernization">Southern fears of modernization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Southern fears of modernization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to historian <a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</a>, exceptionalism applied not to the South but to the North after the North ended slavery and launched an industrial revolution that led to urbanization, which in turn led to increased education, which led to various reform movements, especially abolitionism, gaining strength. The fact that seven immigrants out of eight settled in the North (and the fact that most immigrants viewed slavery with disfavor), compounded by the fact that twice as many whites left the South for the North as vice versa, contributed to the South's defensive-aggressive political behavior. The <i><a href="/wiki/Charleston_Mercury" title="Charleston Mercury">Charleston Mercury</a></i> wrote that on the issue of slavery the North and South "are not only two Peoples, but they are rival, hostile Peoples."<sup id="cite_ref-McPhersonExceptionalism_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McPhersonExceptionalism-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <i>De Bow's Review</i> said, "We are resisting revolution.... We are not engaged in a Quixotic fight for the rights of man.... We are conservative."<sup id="cite_ref-McPhersonExceptionalism_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McPhersonExceptionalism-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Allan Nevins</a> argued that the Civil War was an "irrepressible" conflict, adopting a phrase from Senator <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a>. Nevins synthesized contending accounts emphasizing moral, cultural, social, ideological, political, and economic issues. In doing so, he brought the historical discussion back to an emphasis on social and cultural factors. Nevins pointed out that the North and the South were rapidly becoming two different peoples, a point made also by historian <a href="/wiki/Avery_Craven" title="Avery Craven">Avery Craven</a>. At the root of these cultural differences was the problem of slavery, but fundamental assumptions, tastes, and cultural aims of the regions were diverging in other ways as well. More specifically, the North was rapidly modernizing in a manner some perceived as threatening to the South. Historian McPherson explains:<sup id="cite_ref-McPhersonExceptionalism_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McPhersonExceptionalism-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p> When secessionists protested in 1861 that they were acting to preserve traditional rights and values, they were correct. They fought to preserve their constitutional liberties against the perceived Northern threat to overthrow them. The South's concept of republicanism had not changed in three-quarters of a century; the North's had. ... The ascension to power of the Republican Party, with its ideology of competitive, egalitarian free-labor capitalism, was a signal to the South that the Northern majority had turned irrevocably towards this frightening, revolutionary future.</p></blockquote> <p>Harry L. Watson has synthesized research on antebellum southern social, economic, and political history. Self-sufficient <a href="/wiki/Yeomen" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeomen">yeomen</a>, in Watson's view, "collaborated in their own transformation" by allowing promoters of a market economy to gain political influence. Resultant "doubts and frustrations" provided fertile soil for the argument that southern rights and liberties were menaced by Black Republicanism.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>J. Mills Thornton III explained the viewpoint of the average white Alabamian. Thornton contends that Alabama was engulfed in a severe crisis long before 1860. Deeply held principles of freedom, equality, and autonomy, as expressed in <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republican values</a>, appeared threatened, especially during the 1850s, by the relentless expansion of market relations and commercial agriculture. Alabamians were thus, he judged, prepared to believe the worst once Lincoln was elected.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sectional_tensions_and_the_emergence_of_mass_politics">Sectional tensions and the emergence of mass politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sectional tensions and the emergence of mass politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>The cry of Free Man was raised, not for the extension of liberty to the black man, but for the protection of the liberty of the white. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""> – <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>The politicians of the 1850s were acting in a society in which the traditional restraints that suppressed sectional conflict in the 1820s and 1850s – the most important of which being the stability of the two-party system – were being eroded as this rapid extension of democracy went forward in the North and South. It was an era when the mass political party galvanized voter participation to 80% or 90% turnout rates, and a time in which politics formed an essential component of American mass culture. Historians agree that political involvement was a larger concern to the average American in the 1850s than today. Politics was, in one of its functions, a form of mass entertainment, a spectacle with rallies, parades, and colorful personalities. Leading politicians, moreover, often served as a focus for popular interests, aspirations, and values.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frederick_Douglass_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Frederick_Douglass_%282%29.jpg/180px-Frederick_Douglass_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Frederick_Douglass_%282%29.jpg/270px-Frederick_Douglass_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Frederick_Douglass_%282%29.jpg/360px-Frederick_Douglass_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3472" data-file-height="5202" /></a><figcaption>Abolitionist <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Historian Allan Nevins, for instance, writes of political rallies in 1856 with turnouts of anywhere from twenty to fifty thousand men and women. Voter turnouts even ran as high as 84% by 1860. An abundance of new parties emerged 1854–56, including the Republicans, People's party men, Anti-Nebraskans, Fusionists, <a href="/wiki/Know_Nothing" title="Know Nothing">Know Nothings</a>, Know-Somethings (anti-slavery nativists), Maine Lawites, Temperance men, Rum Democrats, Silver Gray Whigs, Hindus, Hard Shell Democrats, Soft Shells, Half Shells and Adopted Citizens. By 1858, they were mostly gone, and politics divided four ways. Republicans controlled most Northern states with a strong Democratic minority. The Democrats were split North and South and fielded two tickets in 1860. Southern non-Democrats tried different coalitions; most supported the Constitutional Union party in 1860.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Many Southern states held constitutional conventions in 1851 to consider the questions of nullification and secession. With the exception of South Carolina, whose convention election did not even offer the option of "no secession" but rather "no secession without the collaboration of other states", the Southern conventions were dominated by Unionists who voted down articles of secession.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics">Economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historians today generally agree that economic conflicts were not a major cause of the war. Though an economic basis to the sectional crisis was popular among the "Progressive school" of historians from the 1910s to the 1940s, few professional historians now subscribe to this explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to economic historian Lee A. Craig, "In fact, numerous studies by economic historians over the past several decades reveal that economic conflict was not an inherent condition of North-South relations during the antebellum era and did not cause the Civil War."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When numerous groups tried at the last minute in 1860–61 to find a compromise to avert war, they did not turn to economic policies. The three major attempts at compromise, the <a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a> and the Washington Peace Conference, addressed only the slavery-related issues of fugitive slave laws, personal liberty laws, slavery in the territories and interference with slavery within the existing slave states.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_value_of_slavery_to_the_South">Economic value of slavery to the South</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Economic value of slavery to the South"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historian James L. Huston emphasizes the role of slavery as an economic institution. In October 1860 <a href="/wiki/William_Lowndes_Yancey" title="William Lowndes Yancey">William Lowndes Yancey</a>, a leading advocate of secession, placed the value of Southern-held slaves at $2.8 billion (~$77.5 billion in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Huston writes: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Understanding the relations between wealth, slavery, and property rights in the South provides a powerful means of understanding southern political behavior leading to disunion. First, the size dimensions of slavery are important to comprehend, for slavery was a colossal institution. Second, the property rights argument was the ultimate defense of slavery, and white southerners and the proslavery radicals knew it. Third, the weak point in the protection of slavery by property rights was the federal government. ... Fourth, the intense need to preserve the sanctity of property rights in Africans led southern political leaders to demand the nationalization of slavery – the condition under which slaveholders would always be protected in their property holdings.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> greatly increased the efficiency with which cotton could be harvested, contributing to the consolidation of "<a href="/wiki/King_Cotton" title="King Cotton">King Cotton</a>" as the backbone of the economy of the Deep South, and to the entrenchment of the system of slave labor on which the cotton plantation economy depended. Any chance that the South would industrialize was over.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The tendency of <a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">monoculture</a> cotton plantings to lead to soil exhaustion created a need for cotton planters to move their operations to new lands, and therefore to the westward expansion of slavery from the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">Eastern seaboard</a> into new areas (e.g., Alabama, Mississippi, and beyond to <a href="/wiki/East_Texas" title="East Texas">East Texas</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regional_economic_differences">Regional economic differences</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Regional economic differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif/440px-US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif" decoding="async" width="440" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif/660px-US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>An animation showing the free/slave status of U.S. states and territories, 1789–1861</figcaption></figure> <p>The South, Midwest, and Northeast had quite different economic structures. They traded with each other and each became more prosperous by staying in the Union, a point many businessmen made in 1860–61. However, <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Charles A. Beard</a> in the 1920s made a highly influential argument to the effect that these differences caused the war (rather than slavery or constitutional debates). He saw the industrial Northeast forming a coalition with the agrarian Midwest against the plantation South. Critics challenged his image of a unified Northeast and said that the region was in fact highly diverse with many different competing economic interests. In 1860–61, most business interests in the Northeast opposed war.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After 1950, only a few mainstream historians accepted the Beard interpretation, though it was accepted by <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarian</a> economists.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Stampp" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Stampp">Kenneth Stampp</a>, who abandoned Beardianism after 1950, sums up the scholarly consensus:<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Most historians ... now see no compelling reason why the divergent economies of the North and South should have led to disunion and civil war; rather, they find stronger practical reasons why the sections, whose economies neatly complemented one another, should have found it advantageous to remain united."<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Free_labor_vs._pro-slavery_arguments">Free labor vs. pro-slavery arguments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Free labor vs. pro-slavery arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> argued that a free-labor ideology dominated thinking in the North, which emphasized economic opportunity. By contrast, Southerners described free labor as "greasy mechanics, filthy operators, small-fisted farmers, and moonstruck theorists".<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They strongly opposed the <a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts" title="Homestead Acts">homestead laws</a> that were proposed to give free farms in the west, fearing the small farmers would oppose plantation slavery. Indeed, opposition to homestead laws was far more common in secessionist rhetoric than opposition to tariffs.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southerners such as Calhoun argued that slavery was "a positive good", and that slaves were more civilized and morally and intellectually improved because of slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, developing his economic theories in the mid-19th century, expressed a class-based view of conditions in North America in 1861, believing "that the defeat of the 'slave-holding <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>' would enable the world's free workers to prosper as small landholders on America's endless frontier".<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_conflict_over_the_slavery_question">Religious conflict over the slavery question</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Religious conflict over the slavery question"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Historical_Geography,_by_John_F._Smith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg/440px-Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg/660px-Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg/880px-Historical_Geography%2C_by_John_F._Smith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4680" data-file-height="3104" /></a><figcaption>An 1888 map highlights the Religious view over the slavery question.</figcaption></figure> <p>Led by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Noll" title="Mark Noll">Mark Noll</a>, a body of scholarship<sup id="cite_ref-Noll,_2002_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noll,_2002-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Noll,_2006_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noll,_2006-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has argued that the American debate over slavery became a shooting war in part because the two sides reached diametrically opposite conclusions based on reading the same authoritative source of guidance on moral questions: the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">disestablishment</a> of government-sponsored churches, the U.S. experienced the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a>, a massive <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> revival. Without centralized church authorities, American Protestantism was heavily reliant on the Bible, which was read in the standard 19th-century Reformed <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic">hermeneutic</a> of "common sense", literal interpretation as if the Bible were speaking directly about the modern American situation instead of events that occurred in a much different context, millennia ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Noll,_2002_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noll,_2002-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the mid-19th century this form of religion and Bible interpretation had become a dominant strand in American religious, moral and political discourse, almost serving as a de facto state religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Noll,_2002_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noll,_2002-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Bible, interpreted under these assumptions, seemed to clearly suggest that slavery was Biblically justified:<sup id="cite_ref-Noll,_2002_72-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noll,_2002-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The pro-slavery South could point to slaveholding by the godly patriarch <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (Gen 12:5; 14:14; 24:35–36; 26:13–14), a practice that was later incorporated into Israelite national law (Lev 25:44–46). It was never denounced by <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, who made slavery a model of discipleship (Mk 10:44). The <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Apostle Paul</a> supported slavery, counseling obedience to earthly masters (Eph 6:5–9; Col 3:22–25) as a duty in agreement with "the sound words of our Lord Jesus Christ and the teaching which accords with godliness" (1 Tim 6:3). Because slaves were to remain in their present state unless they could win their freedom (1 Cor 7:20–24), he sent the fugitive slave <a href="/wiki/Onesimus" title="Onesimus">Onesimus</a> back to his owner <a href="/wiki/Philemon_(biblical_figure)" title="Philemon (biblical figure)">Philemon</a> (Phlm 10–20). The abolitionist north had a difficult time matching the pro-slavery south passage for passage. ... Professor Eugene Genovese, who has studied these biblical debates over slavery in minute detail, concludes that the pro-slavery faction clearly emerged victorious over the abolitionists except for one specious argument based on the so-called <a href="/wiki/Curse_of_Ham" title="Curse of Ham">Curse of Ham</a> (Gen 9:18–27). For our purposes, it is important to realize that the South won this crucial contest with the North by using the prevailing hermeneutic, or method of interpretation, on which both sides agreed. So decisive was its triumph that the South mounted a vigorous counterattack on the abolitionists as infidels who had abandoned the plain words of Scripture for the secular ideology of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hull,_2003_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hull,_2003-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Protestant churches in the U.S., unable to agree on what God's Word said about slavery, ended up with schisms between Northern and Southern branches: the <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Methodist Episcopal Church">Methodist Episcopal Church</a> in 1844, the <a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_United_States" title="Baptists in the United States">Baptists</a> in 1845,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_the_United_States" title="Presbyterian Church in the United States">Presbyterian Church</a> in 1857.<sup id="cite_ref-Gaustad,_1982_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaustad,_1982-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These splits presaged the subsequent split in the nation: "The churches played a major role in the dividing of the nation, and it is probably true that it was the splits in the churches which made a final split of the nation inevitable."<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson,_1976_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson,_1976-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conflict over how to interpret the Bible was central: </p> <blockquote><p>The theological crisis occasioned by reasoning like [conservative Presbyterian theologian James H.] Thornwell's was acute. Many Northern Bible-readers and not a few in the South <i>felt</i> that slavery was evil. They somehow <i>knew</i> the Bible supported them in that feeling. Yet when it came to using the Bible as it had been used with such success to evangelize and civilize the United States, the sacred page was snatched out of their hands. Trust in the Bible and reliance upon a Reformed, literal hermeneutic had created a crisis that only bullets, not arguments, could resolve.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The result: </p> <blockquote><p>The question of the Bible and slavery in the era of the Civil War was never a simple question. The issue involved the American expression of a Reformed literal hermeneutic, the failure of hermeneutical alternatives to gain cultural authority, and the exercise of deeply entrenched intuitive racism, as well as the presence of Scripture as an authoritative religious book and slavery as an inherited social-economic relationship. The North – forced to fight on unfriendly terrain that it had helped to create – lost the exegetical war. The South certainly lost the shooting war. But constructive orthodox theology was the major loser when American believers allowed bullets instead of hermeneutical self-consciousness to determine what the Bible said about slavery. For the history of theology in America, the great tragedy of the Civil War is that the most persuasive theologians were the Rev. Drs. <a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>There were many causes of the Civil War, but the religious conflict, almost unimaginable in modern America, cut very deep at the time. Noll and others highlight the significance of the religion issue for the famous phrase in <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln%27s_second_inaugural_address" title="Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address">Lincoln's second inaugural</a>: "Both read the same Bible and pray to the same God, and each invokes His aid against the other." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_territorial_crisis_and_the_United_States_Constitution">The territorial crisis and the United States Constitution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: The territorial crisis and the United States Constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Secession_map_1863_(BlankMap_derived).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/US_Secession_map_1863_%28BlankMap_derived%29.png/330px-US_Secession_map_1863_%28BlankMap_derived%29.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/US_Secession_map_1863_%28BlankMap_derived%29.png/495px-US_Secession_map_1863_%28BlankMap_derived%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/US_Secession_map_1863_%28BlankMap_derived%29.png/660px-US_Secession_map_1863_%28BlankMap_derived%29.png 2x" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>United States map, 1863: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#002255; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span>  Union states</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#6895c9; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span>  Union territories not permitting slavery</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff00; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span>  Border Union states, permitting slavery</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#dd5500; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span>  Confederate states</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#EDB360; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span>  Union territories permitting slavery (claimed by Confederacy)</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a>), negotiation (<a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Treaty" title="Oregon Treaty">Oregon Treaty</a>), and conquest (the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Cession" title="Mexican Cession">Mexican Cession</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the states carved out of these territories by 1845, all had entered the union as slave states: Louisiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Florida, and Texas, as well as the southern portions of Alabama and Mississippi.<sup id="cite_ref-McPherson,_2007,_p._14_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McPherson,_2007,_p._14-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the conquest of northern Mexico, including California, in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to the institution flourishing in these lands as well. Southerners also anticipated annexing as slave states Cuba (see <a href="/wiki/Ostend_Manifesto" title="Ostend Manifesto">Ostend Manifesto</a>), Mexico, and Central America (see <a href="/wiki/Golden_Circle_(proposed_country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Circle (proposed country)">Golden Circle (proposed country)</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-McPherson,_2007,_p._14_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McPherson,_2007,_p._14-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Northern free soil interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave soil. It was these territorial disputes that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided over.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The existence of slavery in the southern states was far less politically polarizing than the explosive question of the territorial expansion of the institution in the west.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Americans were informed by two well-established readings of the Constitution regarding human bondage: that the slave states had complete autonomy over the institution within their boundaries, and that the domestic slave trade – trade among the states – was immune to federal interference.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only feasible strategy available to attack slavery was to restrict its expansion into the new territories.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaveholding interests fully grasped the danger that this strategy posed to them.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the South and the North believed: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself."<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed to be sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two of the "conservative" doctrines emphasized the written text and historical precedents of the founding document, while the other two doctrines developed arguments that transcended the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._21_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._21-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Jordan_Crittenden_-_Brady_1855.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/John_Jordan_Crittenden_-_Brady_1855.jpg/180px-John_Jordan_Crittenden_-_Brady_1855.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/John_Jordan_Crittenden_-_Brady_1855.jpg/270px-John_Jordan_Crittenden_-_Brady_1855.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/John_Jordan_Crittenden_-_Brady_1855.jpg/360px-John_Jordan_Crittenden_-_Brady_1855.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1123" data-file-height="1432" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_J._Crittenden" title="John J. Crittenden">John J. Crittenden</a>, author of the <a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a> bill, December 18, 1860</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the "conservative" theories, represented by the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Union Party (United States)">Constitutional Union Party</a>, argued that the historical designation of free and slave apportionments in territories should become a Constitutional mandate. The <a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a> of 1860 was an expression of this view.<sup id="cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._20_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._20-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance – that slavery could be excluded altogether in a territory at the discretion of Congress<sup id="cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._20_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._20-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – with one caveat: the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">due process clause of the Fifth Amendment</a> must apply. In other words, Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it.<sup id="cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._21_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._21-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Wilmot_Proviso" title="Wilmot Proviso">Wilmot Proviso</a> announced this position in 1846.<sup id="cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._20_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._20-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of the two doctrines that rejected federal authority, one was articulated by northern Democrat of Illinois Senator <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Stephen A. Douglas</a>, and the other by southern Democratic Senator <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a> of Mississippi and Senator <a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">John C. Breckinridge</a> of Kentucky.<sup id="cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._21_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._21-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stephen_Arnold_Douglas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Stephen_Arnold_Douglas.jpg/180px-Stephen_Arnold_Douglas.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Stephen_Arnold_Douglas.jpg/270px-Stephen_Arnold_Douglas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Stephen_Arnold_Douglas.jpg/360px-Stephen_Arnold_Douglas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1379" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Stephen A. Douglas – author and proponent of the <a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> of 1854</figcaption></figure> <p>Douglas devised the doctrine of territorial or "popular" sovereignty, which declared that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery – a purely local matter.<sup id="cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._21_95-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._21-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress, having created the territory, was barred, according to Douglas, from exercising any authority in domestic matters. To do so would violate historic traditions of self-government, implicit in the US Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._23_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._23-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> of 1854 legislated this doctrine. </p><p>The fourth in this quartet is the theory of state sovereignty ("<a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a>"),<sup id="cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._23_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._23-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as the "Calhoun doctrine" after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self-government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the federal union under the US Constitution – and not merely as an argument for secession.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic premise was that all authority regarding matters of slavery in the territories resided in each state. The role of the federal government was merely to enable the implementation of state laws when residents of the states entered the territories.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calhoun asserted that the federal government in the territories was only the agent of the several sovereign states, and hence incapable of forbidding the bringing into any territory of anything that was legal property in any state. State sovereignty, in other words, gave the laws of the slaveholding states <i>extra-jurisdictional</i> effect.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"States' rights" was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As historian Thomas L Krannawitter points out, "[T]he Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power."<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1860, these four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the US Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a practical matter, however, slavery was practically defunct in the territories by 1860. The 1860 census showed: Utah Territory (controlled by Mormons) had 29 slaves; Nebraska had 15; Kansas had 2 (it was abolished there in early 1861 with statehood). There were no slaves in the other territories of Colorado, Washington, Nevada, New Mexico and Dakota, and none in the new states of California & Oregon. See <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_census#Population_of_U.S._states_and_territories" title="1860 United States census">1860 United States census#Population of U.S. states and territories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Nebraska" title="History of slavery in Nebraska">History of slavery in Nebraska</a>, .<a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kansas" title="History of slavery in Kansas">History of slavery in Kansas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Utah" title="History of slavery in Utah">History of slavery in Utah</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abolitionism_2">Abolitionism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Abolitionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Anti-Slavery_Society.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/American_Anti-Slavery_Society.gif/220px-American_Anti-Slavery_Society.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/American_Anti-Slavery_Society.gif/330px-American_Anti-Slavery_Society.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/American_Anti-Slavery_Society.gif/440px-American_Anti-Slavery_Society.gif 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="789" /></a><figcaption>Platform of the <a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Slavery_Society" title="American Anti-Slavery Society">American Anti-Slavery Society</a>, founded in 1833 by <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Tappan" title="Arthur Tappan">Arthur Tappan</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></div> <p>Antislavery movements in the North gained momentum in the 1830s and 1840s, a period of rapid transformation of Northern society that inspired a social and political reformism. Many of the reformers of the period, including abolitionists, attempted in one way or another to transform the lifestyle and work habits of labor, helping workers respond to the new demands of an <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">industrializing</a>, capitalistic society. </p><p>Antislavery, like many other reform movements of the period, was influenced by the legacy of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a>, a period of religious revival in the new country stressing the reform of individuals, which was still relatively fresh in the American memory. Thus, while the reform spirit of the period was expressed by a variety of movements with often-conflicting political goals, most reform movements shared a common feature in their emphasis on the Great Awakening principle of transforming the human personality through discipline, order, and restraint. </p><p>"Abolitionist" had several meanings at the time. The followers of <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Phillips" title="Wendell Phillips">Wendell Phillips</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, demanded the "immediate abolition of slavery", hence the name. A more pragmatic group of abolitionists, including <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Dwight_Weld" title="Theodore Dwight Weld">Theodore Weld</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Tappan" title="Arthur Tappan">Arthur Tappan</a>, wanted immediate action, but that action might well be a program of gradual emancipation, with a long intermediate stage. "Antislavery men", like <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, did what they could to limit slavery, but were not part of any abolitionist group. For example, in 1841 Adams represented the <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._The_Amistad" title="United States v. The Amistad">Amistad</a> African slaves in the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> and argued that they should be set free.<sup id="cite_ref-AmistadCase_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmistadCase-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the last years before the war, "antislavery" could mean the Northern majority, like <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, who opposed <i>expansion</i> of slavery or its influence, as by the Kansas–Nebraska Act, or the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">Fugitive Slave Act</a>. Many Southerners called all these abolitionists, without distinguishing them from the Garrisonians. <a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</a> explains the abolitionists' deep beliefs: "All people were equal in God's sight; the souls of black folks were as valuable as those of whites; for one of God's children to enslave another was a violation of the Higher Law, even if it was sanctioned by the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stressing the <a href="/wiki/Yankee" title="Yankee">Yankee</a> Protestant ideals of self-improvement, industry, and thrift, most abolitionists – most notably William Lloyd Garrison – condemned slavery as a lack of control over one's own destiny and the fruits of one's labor. <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Phillips" title="Wendell Phillips">Wendell Phillips</a>, one of the most ardent abolitionists, attacked the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a> and presaged disunion as early as 1845: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavepatrols.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Slavepatrols.jpg/290px-Slavepatrols.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Slavepatrols.jpg/435px-Slavepatrols.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Slavepatrols.jpg/580px-Slavepatrols.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>A woodcut from the abolitionist <i><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_Almanac" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Slavery Almanac">Anti-Slavery Almanac</a></i> (1839) depicts the kidnapping of a free African American with the intention of selling him as a slave.</figcaption></figure> <blockquote><p> The experience of the fifty years ... shows us the slaves trebling in numbers – slaveholders monopolizing the offices and dictating the policy of the Government – prostituting the strength and influence of the Nation to the support of slavery here and elsewhere – trampling on the rights of the free States, and making the courts of the country their tools. To continue this disastrous alliance longer is madness. ... Why prolong the experiment?<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Abolitionists also attacked slavery as a threat to the freedom of white Americans. Defining freedom as more than a simple lack of restraint, antebellum reformers held that the truly free man was one who imposed restraints upon himself. Thus, for the anti-slavery reformers of the 1830s and 1840s, the promise of free labor and upward social mobility (opportunities for advancement, rights to own property, and to control one's own labor), was central to the ideal of reforming individuals. </p><p>Controversy over the so-called <a href="/wiki/Ostend_Manifesto" title="Ostend Manifesto">Ostend Manifesto</a> (which proposed the U.S. annexation of <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> as a slave state) and the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a> kept sectional tensions alive before the issue of slavery in the West could occupy the country's politics in the mid-to-late 1850s. </p><p>Antislavery sentiment among some groups in the North intensified after the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a>, when Southerners began appearing in Northern states to pursue fugitives or often to claim as slaves free African Americans who had resided there for years. Meanwhile, some abolitionists openly sought to prevent enforcement of the law. Violation of the Fugitive Slave Act was often open and organized. In <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> – a city from which it was boasted that no fugitive had ever been returned – <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Parker" title="Theodore Parker">Theodore Parker</a> and other members of the city's elite helped form mobs to prevent enforcement of the law as early as April 1851. A pattern of public resistance emerged in city after city, notably in <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York" title="Syracuse, New York">Syracuse, New York</a>, in 1851 (culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rescue" title="Jerry Rescue">Jerry Rescue</a> incident late that year), and Boston again in 1854. But the issue did not lead to a crisis until revived by the same issue underlying the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise of 1820</a>: slavery in the territories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arguments_for_and_against_slavery">Arguments for and against slavery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Arguments for and against slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>William Lloyd Garrison, a prominent abolitionist, was motivated by a belief in the growth of democracy. Because the Constitution had a <a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">three-fifths clause</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive slave clause">fugitive slave clause</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9:_Limits_on_Congress" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">20-year protection of the Atlantic slave trade</a>, Garrison publicly burned a copy of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">U.S. Constitution</a>, and called it "a covenant with death and an agreement with hell".<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1854, he said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I am a believer in that portion of the Declaration of American Independence in which it is set forth, as among self-evident truths, "that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Hence, I am an abolitionist. Hence, I cannot but regard oppression in every form – and most of all, that which turns a man into a thing – with indignation and abhorrence.<sup id="cite_ref-AbolWill_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AbolWill-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The opposite opinion on slavery was expressed by Confederate Vice President <a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Alexander Stephens</a> in his "<a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a>". Stephens said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The new [Confederate] Constitution has put at rest forever all the agitating questions relating to our peculiar institutions – African slavery as it exists among us – the proper status of the negro in our form of civilization. This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution. ... [<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>'s] ideas, however, were fundamentally wrong. They rested upon the assumption of the equality of races. This was an error. ... Our new government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its corner-stone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery – subordination to the superior race – is his natural and normal condition.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Free_soil"_movement"><span id=".22Free_soil.22_movement"></span>"Free soil" movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: "Free soil" movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Free_Soil_Party" title="Free Soil Party">Free Soil Party</a></div> <p>Opposition to the 1847 <a href="/wiki/Wilmot_Proviso" title="Wilmot Proviso">Wilmot Proviso</a> helped to consolidate the "free-soil" forces. In 1848 Radical New York Democrats known as <a href="/wiki/Barnburners_and_Hunkers" title="Barnburners and Hunkers">Barnburners</a>, members of the <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Party_(United_States,_1840)" title="Liberty Party (United States, 1840)">Liberty Party</a>, and anti-slavery Whigs formed the Free-Soil Party. The party supported former President <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Charles Francis Adams Sr.</a> for President and Vice President. The party opposed the expansion of slavery into territories where it had not yet existed, such as <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> and the ceded Mexican territory. It had the effect of dividing the Democratic Party in the North, especially in areas of Yankee settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> in <i>Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War</i> (1970) emphasized the importance of free labor ideology to Northern opponents of slavery, pointing out that the moral concerns of the abolitionists were not necessarily the dominant sentiments in the North. Many Northerners (including Lincoln) opposed slavery also because they feared that rich slave owners would buy up the best lands and block opportunity for free white farmers using family and hired labor. Free Soilers joined the Republican party in 1854, with their appeal to powerful demands in the North through a broader commitment to "<a href="/wiki/Free-produce_movement" title="Free-produce movement">free labor</a>" principles. Fear of the "<a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a>" had a far greater appeal to Northern self-interest than did abolitionist arguments based on the plight of black slaves in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-Leonard_L._Richards_2000_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leonard_L._Richards_2000-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_question_in_territories_acquired_from_Mexico">Slavery question in territories acquired from Mexico</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Slavery question in territories acquired from Mexico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soon after the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican War</a> started and long before negotiation of the new <a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Mexico–United States border">US-Mexico border</a>, the question of slavery in the territories to be acquired polarized the Northern and <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> in the most bitter sectional conflict up to this time, which lasted for a deadlock of four years during which the <a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second Party System</a> broke up, <a href="/wiki/Mormon_pioneers" title="Mormon pioneers">Mormon pioneers</a> settled <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a> settled <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, and New Mexico under a federal military government turned back <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>'s attempt to assert control over territory Texas claimed as far west as the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a>. Eventually the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a> preserved the Union, but only for another decade.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proposals included: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Wilmot_Proviso" title="Wilmot Proviso">Wilmot Proviso</a> banning slavery in any new territory to be acquired from Mexico, not including Texas, which had been annexed the previous year. Passed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a> in August 1846 and February 1847 but not the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>. Later an effort to attach the proviso to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Guadalupe_Hidalgo" title="Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo">Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</a> also failed.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Failed amendments to the Wilmot Proviso by <a href="/wiki/William_W._Wick" title="William W. Wick">William W. Wick</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Stephen Douglas</a> extending the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a> line (<a href="/wiki/Parallel_36%C2%B030%E2%80%B2_north" title="Parallel 36°30′ north">36°30′ parallel north</a>) west to the Pacific Ocean , allowing slavery in most of present-day <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Southern_California" title="Southern California">Southern California</a>, as well as any other territories that might be acquired from Mexico. The line was again proposed by the <a href="/wiki/Nashville_Convention" title="Nashville Convention">Nashville Convention</a> of June 1850.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a>, developed by <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a> and Douglas as the eventual <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> position, letting each territory decide whether to allow slavery.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lowndes_Yancey" title="William Lowndes Yancey">William L. Yancey</a>'s "Alabama Platform", endorsed by the <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> legislatures and by Democratic state conventions in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, called for no restrictions on slavery in the territories either by the federal government or by territorial governments before statehood, opposition to any candidates supporting either the Wilmot Proviso or popular sovereignty, and federal legislation overruling Mexican anti-slavery laws.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>General <a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a>, who became the <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig</a> candidate in 1848 and then President from March 1849 to July 1850, proposed after becoming President that the entire area become two free states, called California and New Mexico, but much larger than the eventual ones. None of the area would be left as an unorganized or <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">organized territory</a>, avoiding the question of slavery in the territories.</li> <li>The Mormons' proposal for a <a href="/wiki/State_of_Deseret" title="State of Deseret">State of Deseret</a>, incorporating most of the area of the Mexican Cession but excluding the large non-Mormon populations in <a href="/wiki/Northern_California" title="Northern California">Northern California</a> and central New Mexico, was considered unlikely to succeed in <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, but nevertheless in 1849 President Zachary Taylor sent his agent <a href="/wiki/John_Thomas_Wilson" title="John Thomas Wilson">John Wilson</a> westward with a proposal to combine California and Deseret as a single state, decreasing the number of new <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">free states</a> and the erosion of Southern parity in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_Territorial_Growth_1850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/USA_Territorial_Growth_1850.jpg/440px-USA_Territorial_Growth_1850.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/USA_Territorial_Growth_1850.jpg/660px-USA_Territorial_Growth_1850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/USA_Territorial_Growth_1850.jpg/880px-USA_Territorial_Growth_1850.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="616" /></a><figcaption>Territorial growth from 1840 to 1850</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a>, proposed by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> in January 1850, guided to passage by Douglas over Northern Whig and Southern Democrat opposition, and enacted September 1850, admitted California as a free state, including <a href="/wiki/Southern_California" title="Southern California">Southern California</a>, and organized <a href="/wiki/Utah_Territory" title="Utah Territory">Utah Territory</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory" title="New Mexico Territory">New Mexico Territory</a> with slavery to be decided by popular sovereignty. Texas dropped its claim to the disputed northwestern areas in return for debt relief, and the areas were divided between the two new territories and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States#Formerly_unorganized_territories" title="Territories of the United States">unorganized territory</a>. <a href="/wiki/El_Paso,_Texas" title="El Paso, Texas">El Paso</a>, where Texas had successfully established county government, was left in Texas. No territory dominated by Southerners (like the later short-lived <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Arizona" title="Confederate Arizona">Confederate Territory of Arizona</a>) was created. Also, the slave trade was abolished in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> (but not slavery itself), and the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">Fugitive Slave Act</a> was strengthened.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="States'_rights"><span id="States.27_rights"></span>States' rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: States' rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a> was an issue in the 19th century for those who believed that the authority of the federal government was superseded by that of the individual states and had exceeded the role intended for it by the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_M._Stampp" title="Kenneth M. Stampp">Kenneth M. Stampp</a> notes that each section used states' rights arguments when convenient, and shifted positions when convenient.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was enacted by southern representatives to use federal authority to suppress northern states' rights. The constitution gave federal protection to slave property rights, and slaveholders demanded that this federal power should be strengthened and take precedence over northern state laws. Anti-slavery forces in northern legislatures had resisted this constitutional right in the form of state personal liberty laws that placed state laws above the federal mandate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="States'_rights_and_slavery"><span id="States.27_rights_and_slavery"></span>States' rights and slavery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: States' rights and slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a> noted that the states' rights position "never had any real vitality independent of underlying conditions of vast social, economic, or political significance."<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He elaborated: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>From the close of the nullification episode of 1832–1833 to the outbreak of the Civil War, the agitation of state rights was intimately connected with a new issue of growing importance, the slavery question, and the principal form assumed by the doctrine was that of the right of secession. The pro-slavery forces sought refuge in the state rights position as a shield against federal interference with pro-slavery projects. ... As a natural consequence, anti-slavery legislatures in the North were led to lay great stress on the national character of the Union and the broad powers of the general government in dealing with slavery. Nevertheless, it is significant to note that when it served anti-slavery purposes better to lapse into state rights dialectic, northern legislatures did not hesitate to be inconsistent.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Echoing Schlesinger, <a href="/wiki/Forrest_McDonald" title="Forrest McDonald">Forrest McDonald</a> wrote that "the dynamics of the tension between federal and state authority changed abruptly during the late 1840s" as a result of the acquisition of territory in the Mexican War. McDonald states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>And then, as a by-product or offshoot of a war of conquest, slavery – a subject that leading politicians had, with the exception of the gag rule controversy and Calhoun's occasional outbursts, scrupulously kept out of partisan debate – erupted as the dominant issue in that arena. So disruptive was the issue that it subjected the federal Union to the greatest strain the young republic had yet known.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In a February 1861 speech to the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Secession_Convention_of_1861" title="Virginia Secession Convention of 1861">Virginian secession convention</a>, Georgian <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Benning" title="Henry L. Benning">Henry L. Benning</a> stated the reason that Georgia seceded from the Union: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This reason may be summed up in one single proposition. It was a conviction, a deep conviction ... that a separation from the North – was the only thing that could prevent the abolition of [Georgia's] slavery....<sup id="cite_ref-GordonRhea_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GordonRhea-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Feb1861Speech_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feb1861Speech-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="States'_rights_and_minority_rights"><span id="States.27_rights_and_minority_rights"></span>States' rights and minority rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: States' rights and minority rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>States' rights theories gained strength from the awareness that the Northern population was growing much faster than that of the South, so it was only a matter of time before the North controlled the federal government. Acting as a "conscious minority", Southerners hoped that a strict constructionist interpretation of the Constitution would limit federal power over the states, and that a defense of states' rights against federal encroachments or even <a href="/wiki/Nullification_(U.S._Constitution)" title="Nullification (U.S. Constitution)">nullification</a> or secession would save the South.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before 1860, most presidents were either Southern or pro-South. The North's growing population would mean the election of pro-North presidents, and the addition of <a href="/wiki/Free_Soil_Party" title="Free Soil Party">free-soil</a> states would end Southern parity with the North in the Senate. As historian <a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Allan Nevins</a> described Calhoun's theory of states' rights, "Governments, observed Calhoun, were formed to protect minorities, for majorities could take care of themselves."<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until the 1860 election, the South's interests nationally were entrusted to the Democratic Party. In 1860, the Democratic Party split into Northern and Southern factions as the result of a "bitter debate in the Senate between Jefferson Davis and Stephen Douglas". The debate was over resolutions proposed by Davis "opposing popular sovereignty and supporting a federal slave code and states' rights" which carried over to the national convention in Charleston.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jefferson Davis defined equality in terms of the equal rights of states,<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and opposed the declaration that all men are created equal.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jefferson Davis stated that a "disparaging discrimination" and a fight for "liberty" against "the tyranny of an unbridled majority" gave the Confederate states a right to secede.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1860, Congressman <a href="/wiki/Laurence_M._Keitt" title="Laurence M. Keitt">Laurence M. Keitt</a> of South Carolina said, "The <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">anti-slavery party</a> contend that slavery is wrong in itself, and the Government is a consolidated national democracy. We of the South contend that slavery is right, and that this is a confederate Republic of sovereign States."<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stampp mentioned Confederate Vice President <a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Alexander Stephens</a>, author of <i>A Constitutional View of the Late War Between the States</i>, as an example of a Southern leader who said that slavery was the "<a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">cornerstone of the Confederacy</a>" when the war began and then later switched course by saying after the Confederacy's defeat that the war was not about slavery but was about states' rights. Stampp said that Stephens became one of the most ardent defenders of the Lost Cause mythology.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian William C. Davis also mentioned inconsistencies in Southern states' rights arguments. He explained the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Confederate_States" title="Constitution of the Confederate States">Confederate Constitution</a>'s protection of slavery at the national level as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To the old Union they had said that the Federal power had no authority to interfere with slavery issues in a state. To their new nation they would declare that the state had no power to interfere with a federal protection of slavery. Of all the many testimonials to the fact that slavery, and not states rights, really lay at the heart of their movement, this was the most eloquent of all.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>William C. Davis also stated: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In fact, the state rights defense of secession in 1860–1861 did not really appear in force until after 1865 as builders of the Lost Cause myth sought to distance themselves from slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Southern historian <a href="/wiki/Gordon_C._Rhea" title="Gordon C. Rhea">Gordon Rhea</a> wrote in 2011 that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Tariffs appear nowhere in ... sermons and speeches, and 'states' rights' are mentioned only in the context of the rights of states to ... own other humans. The central message was to play on the fear of African barbarians ... The preachers and politicians delivered on their promise. The Confederate States were established explicitly to preserve and expand the institution of slavery. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Alexander Stephens</a>, the Confederacy's vice president, <a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">said so himself in 1861</a>, in unambiguous terms.<sup id="cite_ref-GordonRhea_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GordonRhea-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compromise_of_1850">Compromise of 1850</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Compromise of 1850"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></div> <p>The victory of the United States over Mexico resulted in the addition of large new territories conquered from Mexico. Controversy over whether the territories would be slave or free raised the risk of a war between slave and free states, and Northern support for the <a href="/wiki/Wilmot_Proviso" title="Wilmot Proviso">Wilmot Proviso</a>, which would have banned slavery in the conquered territories, increased sectional tensions. The controversy was temporarily resolved by the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a>, which allowed the territories of <a href="/wiki/Utah_Territory" title="Utah Territory">Utah</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory" title="New Mexico Territory">New Mexico</a> to decide for or against slavery, but also allowed the admission of <a href="/wiki/California_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="California Territory">California</a> as a free state, reduced the size of the slave state of <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> by adjusting the boundary, and ended the slave trade but not slavery itself in the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a>. In return, the South got a stronger <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">fugitive slave law</a> than the version mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/US_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US Constitution">US Constitution</a>. The Fugitive Slave Law would reignite controversy over slavery. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fugitive_Slave_Law_issues">Fugitive Slave Law issues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Fugitive Slave Law issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a> required Northerners to assist Southerners in reclaiming fugitive slaves, which many Northerners strongly opposed. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Burns" title="Anthony Burns">Anthony Burns</a> was among the fugitive slaves captured and returned in chains to slavery as a result of the law. <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a>'s best-selling novel <i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> greatly increased opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kansas–Nebraska_Act_(1854)"><span id="Kansas.E2.80.93Nebraska_Act_.281854.29"></span>Kansas–Nebraska Act (1854)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Kansas–Nebraska Act (1854)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a></div> <p>Most people thought the Compromise had ended the territorial issue, but <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Stephen A. Douglas</a> reopened it in 1854. Douglas proposed the Kansas–Nebraska Bill with the intention of opening up vast new high-quality farm lands to settlement. As a <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicagoan</a>, he was especially interested in the railroad connections from Chicago into Kansas and Nebraska, but that was not a controversial point. More importantly, Douglas firmly believed in democracy at the grass roots – that actual settlers have the right to decide on slavery, not politicians from other states. His bill provided that <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a>, through the territorial legislatures, should decide "all questions pertaining to slavery", thus effectively repealing the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a>. The ensuing public reaction against it created a firestorm of protest in the Northern states. It was seen as an effort to repeal the Missouri Compromise. However, the popular reaction in the first month after the bill's introduction failed to foreshadow the gravity of the situation. As Northern papers initially ignored the story, Republican leaders lamented the lack of a popular response. </p><p>Eventually, the popular reaction did come, but the leaders had to spark it. <a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a>'s "Appeal of the Independent Democrats" did much to arouse popular opinion. In New York, <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a> finally took it upon himself to organize a rally against the Nebraska bill, since none had arisen spontaneously. Press such as the <i>National Era</i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/New-York_Tribune" title="New-York Tribune">New-York Tribune</a></i>, and local free-soil journals, condemned the bill. The <a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates of 1858</a> drew national attention to the issue of slavery expansion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fragmentation_of_the_American_party_system">Fragmentation of the American party system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Fragmentation of the American party system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding_of_the_Republican_Party_(1854)"><span id="Founding_of_the_Republican_Party_.281854.29"></span>Founding of the Republican Party (1854)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Founding of the Republican Party (1854)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">History of the Republican Party (United States)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CSumner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/CSumner.jpg/220px-CSumner.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/CSumner.jpg/330px-CSumner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/CSumner.jpg/440px-CSumner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="743" /></a><figcaption>Charles Sumner, the Senate's leading opponent of slavery</figcaption></figure> <p>The American party system had been dominated by Whigs and Democrats for decades leading up to the Civil War. But the Whig party's increasing internal divisions had made it a party of strange bedfellows by the 1850s. An ascendant anti-slavery wing clashed with a traditionalist and increasingly pro-slavery southern wing. These divisions came to a head in the 1852 election, where Whig candidate <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a> was trounced by <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a>. Southern Whigs, who had supported the prior Whig president Zachary Taylor, had been burned by Taylor and were unwilling to support another Whig. Taylor, who despite being a slaveowner, had proved notably anti-slavery despite campaigning neutrally on the issue. With the loss of Southern Whig support, and the loss of votes in the North to the <a href="/wiki/Free_Soil_Party" title="Free Soil Party">Free Soil Party</a>, Whigs seemed doomed. So they were, as they would never again contest a presidential election.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988117–119_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988117–119-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The final nail in the Whig coffin was the Kansas-Nebraska act. It was also the spark that began the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>, which would take in both Whigs and Free Soilers and create an anti-slavery party that the Whigs had always resisted becoming.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988117–119_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988117–119-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Act opened <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Territory" title="Kansas Territory">Kansas Territory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Territory" title="Nebraska Territory">Nebraska Territory</a> to slavery and future admission as <a href="/wiki/Slave_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave state">slave states</a>, thus implicitly repealing the prohibition on slavery in territory north of <a href="/wiki/36%C2%B0_30%E2%80%B2_latitude" class="mw-redirect" title="36° 30′ latitude">36° 30′ latitude</a> that had been part of the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-senate.gov_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-senate.gov-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This change was viewed by anti-slavery Northerners as an aggressive, expansionist maneuver by the slave-owning South. Opponents of the Act were intensely motivated and began forming a new party. The Party began as a coalition of anti-slavery <a href="/wiki/Conscience_Whigs" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscience Whigs">Conscience Whigs</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Zachariah_Chandler" title="Zachariah Chandler">Zachariah Chandler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_Soil_Party" title="Free Soil Party">Free Soilers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eric_Foner_1970_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eric_Foner_1970-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Anti-Nebraska_movement" title="Anti-Nebraska movement">anti-Nebraska</a> local meeting where "Republican" was suggested as a name for a new anti-slavery party was held in a <a href="/wiki/Ripon,_Wisconsin" title="Ripon, Wisconsin">Ripon, Wisconsin</a> schoolhouse on March 20, 1854.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first statewide convention that formed a platform and nominated candidates under the Republican name was held near <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Michigan" title="Jackson, Michigan">Jackson, Michigan</a>, on July 6, 1854. At that convention, the party opposed the expansion of slavery into new territories and selected a statewide slate of candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Midwest took the lead in forming state Republican Party tickets; apart from <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a> and a few areas adjacent to free states, there were no efforts to organize the Party in the southern states.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So was born the Republican Party – campaigning on the popular, emotional issue of "free soil" in the frontier – which would capture the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> just six years later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988117–119_135-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988117–119-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Bleeding_Kansas"_and_the_elections_of_1856"><span id=".22Bleeding_Kansas.22_and_the_elections_of_1856"></span>"Bleeding Kansas" and the elections of 1856</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: "Bleeding Kansas" and the elections of 1856"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Augustus_Washington_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Augustus_Washington_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Augustus_Washington_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Augustus_Washington_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Augustus_Washington_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Augustus_Washington_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Augustus_Washington_-_John_Brown_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3513" data-file-height="4137" /></a><figcaption>Radical abolitionist <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/1856_United_States_presidential_election" title="1856 United States presidential election">1856 United States presidential election</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></div> <p>In Kansas around 1855, the slavery issue reached a condition of intolerable tension and violence. But this was in an area where an overwhelming proportion of settlers were merely land-hungry Westerners indifferent to the public issues. The majority of the inhabitants were not concerned with sectional tensions or the issue of slavery. Instead, the tension in Kansas began as a contention between rival claimants. During the first wave of settlement, no one held titles to the land, and settlers rushed to occupy newly open land fit for <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">cultivation</a>. While the tension and violence did emerge as a pattern pitting Yankee and Missourian settlers against each other, there is little evidence of any ideological divides on the questions of slavery. Instead, the Missouri claimants, thinking of Kansas as their own domain, regarded the Yankee <a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatters</a> as invaders, while the Yankees accused the Missourians of grabbing the best land without honestly settling on it. </p><p>However, the 1855–56 violence in "<a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a>" did reach an ideological climax after <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a> – regarded by followers as the instrument of God's will to destroy slavery – entered the melee. His assassination of five pro-slavery settlers (the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Pottawatomie_massacre" title="Pottawatomie massacre">Pottawatomie massacre</a>", during the night of May 24, 1856) resulted in some irregular, <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla-style</a> strife. Aside from John Brown's fervor, the strife in Kansas often involved only armed bands more interested in land claims or loot. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:35%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>His zeal in the cause of freedom was infinitely superior to mine ... Mine was as the taper light; his was as the burning sun. I could live for the slave; John Brown could die for him. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""> – <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> speaking of John Brown</cite></div> </div> <p>Of greater importance than the civil strife in Kansas, however, was the reaction against it nationwide and in Congress. In both North and South, the belief was widespread that the aggressive designs of the other section were epitomized by (and responsible for) what was happening in Kansas. Consequently, "Bleeding Kansas" emerged as a symbol of sectional controversy. </p><p>Indignant over the developments in Kansas, the Republicans – the first entirely <a href="/wiki/Sectionalism" title="Sectionalism">sectional</a> major party in U.S. history – entered their first presidential campaign with confidence. Their nominee, <a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">John C. Frémont</a>, was a generally safe candidate for the new party.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although his nomination upset some of their Nativist Know-Nothing supporters (his mother was a Catholic), the nomination of the famed explorer of the Far West and ex-senator from California with a short political record was an attempt to woo ex-Democrats. The other two Republican contenders, <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a>, were seen as too radical. </p><p>Nevertheless, the <a href="/wiki/1856_United_States_presidential_election" title="1856 United States presidential election">campaign of 1856</a> was waged almost exclusively on the slavery issue – pitted as a struggle between democracy and aristocracy – focusing on the question of Kansas. The Republicans condemned the Kansas–Nebraska Act and the expansion of slavery, but they advanced a program of <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">internal improvements</a> combining the idealism of anti-slavery with the economic aspirations of the North. The new party rapidly developed a powerful partisan culture, and energetic activists drove voters to the polls in unprecedented numbers. People reacted with fervor. Young Republicans organized the "Wide Awake" clubs and chanted "Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, Frémont!" With Southern <a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a> and even some moderates uttering threats of secession if Frémont won, the Democratic candidate, <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">Buchanan</a>, benefited from apprehensions about the future of the Union. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a>, the candidate of the American Party (Know-Nothings) and the Silver Gray Whigs, said in a speech at <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York" title="Albany, New York">Albany, New York</a>, that the election of a Republican candidate would <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">dissolve the Union</a>. Abraham Lincoln replied on July 23 in a speech at <a href="/wiki/Galena,_Illinois" title="Galena, Illinois">Galena, Illinois</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sandburg" title="Carl Sandburg">Carl Sandburg</a> wrote that this speech probably resembled <a href="/wiki/Lincoln%27s_Lost_Speech" title="Lincoln's Lost Speech">Lincoln's Lost Speech</a>: "This Government would be very weak, indeed, if a majority, with a disciplined army and navy, and a well-filled treasury, could not preserve itself, when attacked by an unarmed, undisciplined, unorganized minority. All this talk about the dissolution of the Union is humbug – nothing but folly. <i>We won't</i> dissolve the Union, and <i>you shan't</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dred_Scott_decision_(1857)_and_the_Lecompton_Constitution"><span id="Dred_Scott_decision_.281857.29_and_the_Lecompton_Constitution"></span><i>Dred Scott</i> decision (1857) and the Lecompton Constitution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Dred Scott decision (1857) and the Lecompton Constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_on_Canvas_Portrait_of_Dred_Scott_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Oil_on_Canvas_Portrait_of_Dred_Scott_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Oil_on_Canvas_Portrait_of_Dred_Scott_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Oil_on_Canvas_Portrait_of_Dred_Scott_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Oil_on_Canvas_Portrait_of_Dred_Scott_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Oil_on_Canvas_Portrait_of_Dred_Scott_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Oil_on_Canvas_Portrait_of_Dred_Scott_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3495" data-file-height="4321" /></a><figcaption>Slave <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott" title="Dred Scott">Dred Scott</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Lecompton_Constitution" title="Lecompton Constitution">Lecompton Constitution</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (the respondent's name, Sanford,<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was misspelled in the reports)<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were both part of the <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a> controversy over slavery that arose as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a>, which was <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Stephen Douglas</a>' attempt to replace the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a>'s ban on slavery in the Kansas and Nebraska territories with popular sovereignty, which would have allowed the people of a territory to vote for or against slavery. The Lecompton Constitution, which would have allowed slavery in Kansas, was the result of massive vote fraud by the pro-slavery <a href="/wiki/Border_ruffian" title="Border ruffian">border ruffians</a>. Douglas defeated the Lecompton Constitution because it was supported by the minority of pro-slavery people in Kansas, and Douglas believed in majority rule. Douglas hoped that both the South and the North would support popular sovereignty, but neither did, as neither trusted Douglas.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Supreme Court decision of 1857 in <i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> escalated the controversy. <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a>'s decision said that blacks were "so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect,"<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that slavery could spread into the territories even if the majority of people in the territories were anti-slavery. Lincoln warned that "the next <i>Dred Scott</i> decision" could impose slavery on Northern states.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians agree that the decision dramatically inflamed tensions leading to the Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-Carrafiello-A_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carrafiello-A-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2022 historian <a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">David W. Blight</a> argued that the year 1857 was "the great pivot on the road to disunion...largely because of the Dred Scott case, which stoked the fear, distrust and conspiratorial hatred already common in both the North and the South to new levels of intensity."<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buchanan,_Republicans_and_anti-administration_Democrats"><span id="Buchanan.2C_Republicans_and_anti-administration_Democrats"></span>Buchanan, Republicans and anti-administration Democrats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Buchanan, Republicans and anti-administration Democrats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lecompton_Constitution" title="Lecompton Constitution">Lecompton Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Stephen A. Douglas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a></div> <p>President <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a> decided to end the troubles in Kansas by urging Congress to admit Kansas as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution. Kansas voters, however, soundly rejected this constitution by a vote of 10,226 to 138. As Buchanan directed his presidential authority to promoting the Lecompton Constitution, he further angered the Republicans and alienated members of his own party. Prompting their break with the administration, the Douglasites saw this scheme as an attempt to pervert the principle of popular sovereignty on which the Kansas–Nebraska Act was based. Nationwide, conservatives were incensed, feeling as though the principles of <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a> had been violated. Even in the South, ex-Whigs and <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">border state</a> Know-Nothings – most notably <a href="/wiki/John_Bell_(Tennessee_politician)" title="John Bell (Tennessee politician)">John Bell</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_J._Crittenden" title="John J. Crittenden">John J. Crittenden</a> (key figures in the event of sectional controversies) – urged the Republicans to oppose the administration's moves and take up the demand that the territories be given the power to accept or reject slavery.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buchanan-thumbnail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Buchanan-thumbnail.jpg/220px-Buchanan-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Buchanan-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="228" data-file-height="242" /></a><figcaption>President James Buchanan</figcaption></figure> <p>As the schism in the Democratic party deepened, moderate Republicans argued that an alliance with anti-administration Democrats, especially Stephen Douglas, would be a key advantage in the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 elections</a>. Some Republican observers saw the controversy over the Lecompton Constitution as an opportunity to peel off Democratic support in the border states, where Frémont picked up little support. After all, the border states had often gone for Whigs with a Northern base of support in the past without prompting threats of Southern withdrawal from the Union.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Among the proponents of this strategy was <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, which called on the Republicans to downplay opposition to popular sovereignty in favor of a compromise policy calling for "no more slave states" in order to quell sectional tensions. The <i>Times</i> maintained that for the Republicans to be competitive in the 1860 elections, they would need to broaden their base of support to include all voters who for one reason or another were upset with the Buchanan Administration.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Indeed, pressure was strong for an alliance that would unite the growing opposition to the Democratic Administration. But such an alliance was no novel idea; it would essentially entail transforming the Republicans into the national, conservative, Union party of the country. In effect, this would be a successor to the <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig party</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Republican leaders, however, staunchly opposed any attempts to modify the party position on slavery, appalled by what they considered a surrender of their principles when, for example, all the ninety-two Republican members of Congress voted for the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Crittenden-Montgomery_bill&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crittenden-Montgomery bill (page does not exist)">Crittenden-Montgomery bill</a> in 1858. Although this compromise measure blocked Kansas' entry into the union as a slave state, the fact that it called for popular sovereignty, instead of rejecting slavery altogether, was troubling to the party leaders.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the end, the Crittenden-Montgomery bill did not create a grand anti-administration coalition of Republicans, ex-Whig Southerners in the border states, and Northern Democrats. Instead, the Democratic Party merely split along sectional lines. Anti-Lecompton Democrats complained that certain leaders had imposed a pro-slavery policy upon the party. The Douglasites, however, refused to yield to administration pressure. Like the anti-Nebraska Democrats, who were now members of the Republican Party, the Douglasites insisted that they – not the administration – commanded the support of most northern Democrats.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Extremist sentiment in the South advanced dramatically as the Southern planter class perceived its hold on the executive, legislative, and judicial apparatuses of the central government wane. It also grew increasingly difficult for Southern Democrats to manipulate power in many of the Northern states through their allies in the Democratic Party.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Honor">Honor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Honor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historians have emphasized that the sense of honor was a central concern of upper-class white Southerners.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of being treated like a second-class citizen was anathema and could not be tolerated by an honorable southerner. The abolitionist position held that slavery was a negative or evil phenomenon that damaged the rights of white men and the prospects of republicanism. To the white South this rhetoric made Southerners second-class citizens because it trampled what they believed was their Constitutional right to take their chattel property anywhere.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Assault_on_Sumner_(1856)"><span id="Assault_on_Sumner_.281856.29"></span>Assault on Sumner (1856)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Assault on Sumner (1856)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">Caning of Charles Sumner</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Southern_Chivalry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Southern_Chivalry.jpg/220px-Southern_Chivalry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Southern_Chivalry.jpg/330px-Southern_Chivalry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Southern_Chivalry.jpg/440px-Southern_Chivalry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1648" /></a><figcaption>Northern image of the 1856 attack on Sumner</figcaption></figure> <p>On May 19 Massachusetts Senator <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> gave a long speech in the Senate entitled <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Crime_against_Kansas" class="extiw" title="s:The Crime against Kansas">"The Crime Against Kansas</a>", which condemned the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a> as the evil force behind the nation's troubles. Sumner said the Southerners had committed a "crime against Kansas", singling out Senator <a href="/wiki/Andrew_P._Butler" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew P. Butler">Andrew P. Butler</a> of South Carolina.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sumner famously cast the South Carolinian as having "chosen a mistress ... who, though ugly to others, is always lovely to him; though polluted in the sight of the world, is chaste in his sight – I mean the harlot, slavery!"<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Williamjames Hull Hoffer, "It is also important to note the sexual imagery that recurred throughout the oration, which was neither accidental nor without precedent. Abolitionists routinely accused slaveholders of maintaining slavery so that they could engage in forcible sexual relations with their slaves."<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three days later, Sumner, working at his desk on the Senate floor, was beaten almost to death by Congressman <a href="/wiki/Preston_S._Brooks" class="mw-redirect" title="Preston S. Brooks">Preston S. Brooks</a>, Butler's nephew. Sumner took years to recover; he became the martyr to the antislavery cause and said that the episode proved the barbarism of slave society. Brooks was lauded as a hero upholding Southern honor. The episode further polarized North and South, strengthened the new Republican Party, and added a new element of violence on the floor of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergence_of_Lincoln">Emergence of Lincoln</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Emergence of Lincoln"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Buchanan" title="Presidency of James Buchanan">Presidency of James Buchanan</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">History of the Republican Party (United States)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republican_Party_structure">Republican Party structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Republican Party structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Seward,_Secretary_of_State,_bw_photo_portrait_circa_1860-1865.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/William_Seward%2C_Secretary_of_State%2C_bw_photo_portrait_circa_1860-1865.jpg/200px-William_Seward%2C_Secretary_of_State%2C_bw_photo_portrait_circa_1860-1865.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/William_Seward%2C_Secretary_of_State%2C_bw_photo_portrait_circa_1860-1865.jpg/300px-William_Seward%2C_Secretary_of_State%2C_bw_photo_portrait_circa_1860-1865.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/William_Seward%2C_Secretary_of_State%2C_bw_photo_portrait_circa_1860-1865.jpg/400px-William_Seward%2C_Secretary_of_State%2C_bw_photo_portrait_circa_1860-1865.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2936" data-file-height="3296" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a>, Secretary of State under Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite their significant loss in the <a href="/wiki/1856_United_States_presidential_election" title="1856 United States presidential election">election of 1856</a>, Republican leaders realized that even though they appealed only to Northern voters, they needed to win only two more states, such as Pennsylvania and Illinois, to win the presidency in 1860.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As the Democrats were grappling with their own troubles, leaders in the Republican party fought to keep elected members focused on the issue of slavery in the West, which allowed them to mobilize popular support. Chase wrote Sumner that if the conservatives succeeded, it might be necessary to recreate the Free Soil Party. He was also particularly disturbed by the tendency of many Republicans to eschew moral attacks on slavery for political and economic arguments.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The controversy over slavery in the West was still not creating a fixation on the issue of slavery. Although the old restraints on the sectional tensions were being eroded with the rapid extension of <a href="/wiki/Mass_politics" title="Mass politics">mass politics</a> and mass democracy in the North, the perpetuation of conflict over the issue of slavery in the West still required the efforts of radical Democrats in the South and radical Republicans in the North. They had to ensure that the sectional conflict would remain at the center of the political debate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William Seward</a> contemplated this potential in the 1840s, when the Democrats were the nation's majority party, usually controlling Congress, the presidency, and many state offices. The country's institutional structure and party system allowed slaveholders to prevail in more of the nation's territories and to garner a great deal of influence over national policy. With growing popular discontent with the unwillingness of many Democratic leaders to take a stand against slavery, and growing consciousness of the party's increasingly pro-Southern stance, Seward became convinced that the only way for the Whig Party to counteract the Democrats' strong monopoly of the rhetoric of democracy and equality was for the Whigs to embrace anti-slavery as a party platform. Once again, to increasing numbers of Northerners, the Southern labor system was increasingly seen as contrary to the ideals of American democracy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Republicans believed in the existence of "the Slave Power Conspiracy", which had seized control of the federal government and was attempting to pervert the Constitution for its own purposes. The "Slave Power" idea gave the Republicans the anti-aristocratic appeal with which men like Seward had long wished to be associated politically. By fusing older anti-slavery arguments with the idea that slavery posed a threat to Northern free labor and democratic values, it enabled the Republicans to tap into the egalitarian outlook which lay at the heart of Northern society.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In this sense, during the 1860 presidential campaign, Republican orators even cast "Honest Abe" as an embodiment of these principles, repeatedly referring to him as "the child of labor" and "son of the frontier", who had proved how "honest industry and toil" were rewarded in the North. Although Lincoln had been a Whig, the "<a href="/wiki/Wide_Awakes" title="Wide Awakes">Wide Awakes</a>" (members of the Republican clubs) used replicas of rails that he had split to remind voters of his humble origins.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In almost every northern state, organizers attempted to have a Republican Party or an anti-Nebraska fusion movement on ballots in 1854. In areas where the radical Republicans controlled the new organization, the comprehensive radical program became the party policy. Just as they helped organize the Republican Party in the summer of 1854, the radicals played an important role in the national organization of the party in 1856. Republican conventions in New York, Massachusetts, and Illinois adopted radical platforms. These radical platforms in such states as <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a> usually called for the divorce of the government from slavery, the repeal of the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">Fugitive Slave Laws</a>, and no more slave states, as did platforms in <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, and Massachusetts when radical influence was high.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Conservatives at the Republican 1860 <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_nominating_convention" title="United States presidential nominating convention">nominating convention</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> were able to block the nomination of <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William Seward</a>, who had an earlier reputation as a radical (but by 1860 had been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Horace Greeley</a> as being too moderate). Other candidates had earlier joined or formed parties opposing the Whigs and had thereby made enemies of many delegates. Lincoln was selected on the third ballot. However, conservatives were unable to bring about the resurrection of "Whiggery". The convention's resolutions regarding slavery were roughly the same as they had been in 1856, but the language appeared less radical. In the following months, even Republican conservatives like <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ewing" title="Thomas Ewing">Thomas Ewing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Dickinson_Baker" title="Edward Dickinson Baker">Edward Baker</a> embraced the platform language that "the normal condition of territories was freedom". All in all, the organizers had done an effective job of shaping the official policy of the Republican Party.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Southern slaveholding interests now faced the prospects of a Republican president and the entry of new free states that would alter the nation's balance of power between the sections. To many Southerners, the resounding defeat of the Lecompton Constitution foreshadowed the entry of more free states into the Union. Dating back to the Missouri Compromise, the Southern region desperately sought to maintain an equal balance of slave states and free states so as to be competitive in the Senate. Since the last slave state was admitted in 1845, five more free states had entered. The tradition of maintaining a balance between North and South was abandoned in favor of the addition of more free soil states.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sectional_battles_over_federal_policy_in_the_late_1850s">Sectional battles over federal policy in the late 1850s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Sectional battles over federal policy in the late 1850s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lincoln–Douglas_Debates"><span id="Lincoln.E2.80.93Douglas_Debates"></span>Lincoln–Douglas Debates</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Lincoln–Douglas Debates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a></div> <p>The Lincoln-Douglas debates were a series of seven debates in 1858 between <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Stephen Douglas</a>, United States senator from Illinois, and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, the Republican who sought to replace Douglas in the Senate. The debates were mainly about slavery. Douglas defended his <a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a>, which replaced the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a> ban on slavery in the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> territory north and west of <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> with <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a>, which allowed residents of territories such as the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Territory" title="Kansas Territory">Kansas</a> to vote either for or against slavery. Douglas put Lincoln on the defensive by accusing him of being a Black Republican abolitionist, but Lincoln responded by asking Douglas to reconcile popular sovereignty with the <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a>. Douglas' <a href="/wiki/Freeport_Doctrine" title="Freeport Doctrine">Freeport Doctrine</a> was that residents of a territory could keep slavery out by refusing to pass a slave code and other laws needed to protect slavery. Douglas' Freeport Doctrine, and the fact that he helped defeat the pro-slavery <a href="/wiki/Lecompton_Constitution" title="Lecompton Constitution">Lecompton Constitution</a>, made Douglas unpopular in the South, which led to the 1860 split of the Democratic Party into Northern and Southern wings. The Democrats retained control of the Illinois legislature, and Douglas thus retained his seat in the U.S. Senate (at that time senators were elected by the state legislatures, not by popular vote); however, Lincoln's national profile was greatly raised, paving the way for his election as president of the United States two years later.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Background">Background</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>The Rise of American Civilization</i> (1927), <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Charles and Mary Beard</a> argue that slavery was not so much a social or cultural institution as an economic one (a labor system). The Beards cited inherent conflicts between Northeastern finance, manufacturing, and commerce and Southern plantations, which competed to control the federal government so as to protect their own interests. According to the economic determinists of the era, both groups used arguments over slavery and states' rights as a cover.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Recent historians have rejected the Beardian thesis. But their economic determinism has influenced subsequent historians in important ways. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_on_the_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Time on the Cross">Time on the Cross</a>: The Economics of American Negro Slavery</i> (1974) by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Robert William Fogel</a> (who would win the 1993 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Engerman" title="Stanley Engerman">Stanley L. Engerman</a>, wrote that slavery was profitable and that the price of slaves would have continued to rise. Modernization theorists, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Raimondo_Luraghi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Raimondo Luraghi (page does not exist)">Raimondo Luraghi</a>, have argued that as the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> was expanding on a worldwide scale, the days of wrath were coming for a series of agrarian, pre-capitalistic, "backward" societies throughout the world, from the Italian and American South to India. But most American historians point out the South was highly developed and on average about as prosperous as the North.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Panic_of_1857_and_sectional_realignments">Panic of 1857 and sectional realignments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Panic of 1857 and sectional realignments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abraham-lincoln.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Abraham-lincoln.png/200px-Abraham-lincoln.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Abraham-lincoln.png/300px-Abraham-lincoln.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Abraham-lincoln.png 2x" data-file-width="313" data-file-height="343" /></a><figcaption>"Vote yourself a farm – vote yourself a tariff": a campaign slogan for <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> in 1860<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure> <p>A few historians<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2015)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> believe that the serious financial <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a> and the economic difficulties leading up to it strengthened the Republican Party and heightened sectional tensions. Before the panic, strong economic growth was being achieved under relatively low tariffs. Hence much of the nation concentrated on growth and prosperity.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The iron and textile industries were facing acute, worsening trouble each year after 1850. By 1854, stocks of iron were accumulating in each world market. Iron prices fell, forcing many American iron mills to shut down.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Republicans urged western farmers and northern manufacturers to blame the depression on the domination of the low-tariff economic policies of southern-controlled Democratic administrations. However, the depression revived suspicion of Northeastern banking interests in both the South and the West. Eastern demand for western farm products shifted the West closer to the North. As the "transportation revolution" (canals and railroads) went forward, an increasingly large share and absolute amount of <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a>, and other staples of western producers – once difficult to haul across the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachians</a> – went to markets in the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeast</a>. The depression emphasized the value of the western markets for eastern goods and homesteaders who would furnish markets and respectable profits.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Aside from the land issue, economic difficulties strengthened the Republican case for higher tariffs for industries in response to the depression. This issue was important in Pennsylvania and perhaps New Jersey.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southern_response">Southern response</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Southern response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meanwhile, many Southerners grumbled over "radical" notions of giving land away to farmers that would "abolitionize" the area. While the ideology of Southern sectionalism was well-developed before the Panic of 1857 by figures like J.D.B. De Bow, the panic helped convince even more cotton barons that they had grown too reliant on Eastern financial interests.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National-atlas-1970-1860.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/National-atlas-1970-1860.png/330px-National-atlas-1970-1860.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/National-atlas-1970-1860.png 1.5x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="305" /></a><figcaption>The United States, immediately before the Civil War. All of the lands east of, or bordering, the Mississippi River were organized as states in the Union, but the West was still largely unsettled.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kettell" title="Thomas Kettell">Thomas Prentice Kettell</a>, former editor of the <i>Democratic Review</i>, was another commentator popular in the South to enjoy a great degree of prominence between 1857 and 1860. Kettell gathered an array of statistics in his book on <i>Southern Wealth and Northern Profits</i>, to show that the South produced vast wealth, while the North, with its dependence on raw materials, siphoned off the wealth of the South.<sup id="cite_ref-Donald,_1961_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donald,_1961-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguing that sectional inequality resulted from the concentration of manufacturing in the North, and from the North's supremacy in communications, transportation, finance, and international trade, his ideas paralleled old <a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">physiocratic</a> doctrines that all profits of manufacturing and trade come out of the land.<sup id="cite_ref-Allan,_1947_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allan,_1947-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political sociologists, such as Barrington Moore, have noted that these forms of romantic nostalgia tend to arise when industrialization takes hold.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such Southern hostility to the free farmers gave the North an opportunity for an alliance with Western farmers. After the political realignments of 1857–58 – manifested by the emerging strength of the Republican Party and their networks of local support nationwide – almost every issue was entangled with the controversy over the expansion of slavery in the West. While questions of tariffs, banking policy, public land, and subsidies to railroads did not always unite all elements in the North and the Northwest against the interests of slaveholders in the South under the pre-1854 party system, they were translated in terms of sectional conflict – with the expansion of slavery in the West involved.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As the depression strengthened the Republican Party, slaveholding interests were becoming convinced that the North had aggressive and hostile designs on the Southern way of life. The South was thus increasingly fertile ground for secessionism.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Republicans' Whig-style personality-driven "hurrah" campaign helped stir hysteria in the slave states upon the emergence of Lincoln and intensify divisive tendencies, while Southern "fire eaters" gave credence to notions of the slave power conspiracy among Republican constituencies in the North and West. New Southern demands to re-open the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">African slave trade</a> further fueled sectional tensions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>From the early 1840s until the outbreak of the Civil War, the cost of slaves had been rising steadily. Meanwhile, the price of cotton was experiencing market fluctuations typical of raw commodities. After the Panic of 1857, the price of cotton fell while the price of slaves continued its steep rise. At the 1858 Southern commercial convention, William L. Yancey of <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> called for the reopening of the African slave trade. Only the delegates from the states of the Upper South, who profited from the domestic trade, opposed the reopening of the slave trade since they saw it as a potential form of competition. The convention in 1858 wound up voting to recommend the repeal of all laws against slave imports, despite some reservations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Brown_and_Harpers_Ferry_(1859)"><span id="John_Brown_and_Harpers_Ferry_.281859.29"></span>John Brown and Harpers Ferry (1859)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: John Brown and Harpers Ferry (1859)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></div> <p>On October 16, 1859, radical abolitionist <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a> led an attempt to start an armed slave revolt by seizing the <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_Armory" title="Harpers Ferry Armory">U.S. Army arsenal</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry,_West_Virginia" title="Harpers Ferry, West Virginia">Harper's Ferry, Virginia</a> (now West Virginia). Brown and twenty-one followers, including whites (three of whom were Brown's sons) and Blacks (three free Blacks, one freedman, and one fugitive slave), planned to seize the armory and use weapons stored there to arm Black slaves in order to spark a general uprising by the slave population. </p><p>Although the raiders were initially successful in cutting the telegraph line and capturing the Armory, they allowed a passing train to continue, and at the next station with a working telegraph the conductor alerted authorities to the attack. The raiders were forced by the militia and other locals to barricade themselves in the Armory, in a sturdy building later known as <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Fort" title="John Brown's Fort">John Brown's Fort</a>. <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a> (then a colonel in the U.S. Army) led a company of U.S. Marines in storming the armory on October 18. Ten of the raiders were killed, including two of Brown's sons; Brown himself along with a half dozen of his followers were captured; five of the raiders escaped immediate capture. Six locals were killed and nine injured; the Marines suffered one dead and one injured. </p><p>Brown was subsequently hanged by the state of Virginia for treason, murder, and inciting a slave insurrection, as were six of his followers.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raiders" title="John Brown's raiders">John Brown's raiders</a>.) The raid, trial, and execution were covered in great detail by the press, which sent reporters and sketch artists to the scene on the next train. It immediately became a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cause_c%C3%A9l%C3%A8bre" class="extiw" title="wikt:cause célèbre">cause célèbre</a> in both the North and the South, with Brown vilified by Southerners as a bloodthirsty fanatic, but celebrated by many Northern abolitionists as a martyr to the cause of ending slavery. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elections_of_1860">Elections of 1860</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Elections of 1860"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 United States presidential election</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1860.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/ElectoralCollege1860.svg/330px-ElectoralCollege1860.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/ElectoralCollege1860.svg/495px-ElectoralCollege1860.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/ElectoralCollege1860.svg/660px-ElectoralCollege1860.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>1860 electoral map</figcaption></figure> <p>Initially, <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a> of New York, <a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a> of Ohio, and <a href="/wiki/Simon_Cameron" title="Simon Cameron">Simon Cameron</a> of Pennsylvania were the leading contenders for the Republican presidential nomination. But <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, a former one-term House member who gained fame amid the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a> of 1858, had fewer political opponents within the party and outmaneuvered the other contenders. On May 16, 1860, he received the Republican nomination at their convention in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The schism in the Democratic Party over the <a href="/wiki/Lecompton_Constitution" title="Lecompton Constitution">Lecompton Constitution</a> and Douglas' <a href="/wiki/Freeport_Doctrine" title="Freeport Doctrine">Freeport Doctrine</a> caused Southern "<a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a>" to oppose front runner <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Stephen A. Douglas</a>' bid for the Democratic presidential nomination. Douglas defeated the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution for Kansas because the majority of Kansans were antislavery, and Douglas' popular sovereignty doctrine would allow the majority to vote slavery up or down as they chose. Douglas' Freeport Doctrine alleged that the antislavery majority of Kansans could thwart the <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott" title="Dred Scott">Dred Scott</a> decision that allowed slavery by withholding legislation for a slave code and other laws needed to protect slavery. As a result, Southern extremists demanded a slave code for the territories, and used this issue to divide the northern and southern wings of the Democratic Party. Southerners left the party and in June nominated <a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">John C. Breckinridge</a>, while Northern Democrats supported Douglas. As a result, the Southern planter class lost a considerable measure of sway in national politics. Because of the Democrats' division, the Republican nominee faced a divided opposition. Adding to Lincoln's advantage, ex-<a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whigs</a> from the border states had earlier formed the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Union Party (United States)">Constitutional Union Party</a>, nominating <a href="/wiki/John_Bell_(Tennessee_politician)" title="John Bell (Tennessee politician)">John C. Bell</a> for president. Thus, party nominees waged regional campaigns. Douglas and Lincoln competed for Northern votes, while Bell, Douglas and Breckinridge competed for Southern votes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Result_and_impact_of_the_election_of_1860">Result and impact of the election of 1860</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Result and impact of the election of 1860"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lincoln handily won the electoral votes:<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i><b>Abraham Lincoln: 180 (40% of the <a href="/wiki/Direct_election" title="Direct election">popular vote</a>)</b></i></li> <li><b>J.C. Breckinridge</b>: 72 (18% of the popular vote)</li> <li><b>John Bell</b>: 39 (13% of the popular vote)</li> <li><b>Stephen A. Douglas</b>: 12 (30% of the popular vote)</li></ul> <p>Voting [on November 6, 1860] split sharply along sectional lines. Lincoln was elected by carrying the electoral votes of the North; he had a sweeping majority of 180 electoral votes. Given the vote count in each state, he would still have won the electoral college even if all three opponents had somehow been able to merge their tickets.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Split_in_the_Democratic_Party">Split in the Democratic Party</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Split in the Democratic Party"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Alabama extremist <a href="/wiki/William_Lowndes_Yancey" title="William Lowndes Yancey">William Lowndes Yancey</a>'s demand for a federal slave code for the territories split the Democratic Party between North and South, which made the election of Lincoln possible. Yancey tried to make his demand for a slave code moderate enough to get Southern support and yet extreme enough to enrage Northerners and split the party. He demanded that the party support a slave code for the territories <i>if later necessary</i>, so that the demand would be conditional enough to win Southern support. His tactic worked, and lower South delegates left the Democratic Convention at Institute Hall in <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a>, and walked over to Military Hall. The South Carolina extremist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rhett" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Rhett">Robert Barnwell Rhett</a> hoped that the lower South would completely break with the Northern Democrats and attend a separate convention at <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond, Virginia</a>, but lower South delegates gave the national Democrats one last chance at unification by going to the convention at <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore, Maryland</a>, before the split became permanent. The result was that <a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">John C. Breckinridge</a> became the candidate of the Southern Democrats, and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Stephen Douglas</a> became the candidate of the Northern Democrats.<sup id="cite_ref-DemocraticPartySplit_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DemocraticPartySplit-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yancey's previous 1848 attempt at demanding a slave code for the territories was his <a href="/wiki/William_Lowndes_Yancey" title="William Lowndes Yancey">Alabama Platform</a>, which was in response to the Northern <a href="/wiki/Wilmot_Proviso" title="Wilmot Proviso">Wilmot Proviso</a> attempt at banning slavery in territories conquered from <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>. Justice <a href="/wiki/Peter_Vivian_Daniel" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Vivian Daniel">Peter V. Daniel</a> wrote a letter about the Proviso to former President <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a>: "It is that view of the case which pretends to an insulting exclusiveness or superiority on the one hand, and denounces a degrading inequality or inferiority on the other; which says in effect to the Southern man, 'Avaunt! you are not my equal, and hence are to be excluded as carrying a moral taint with you.' Here is at once the extinction of all fraternity, of all sympathy, of all endurance even; the creation of animosity fierce, implacable, undying."<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the Alabama Platform and the Wilmot Proviso failed, but Yancey learned to be less overtly radical in order to get more support. Southerners thought they were merely demanding equality, in that they wanted Southern property in slaves to get the same (or more) protection as Northern forms of property.<sup id="cite_ref-DemocraticPartySplit_167-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DemocraticPartySplit-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_secession">Southern secession</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Southern secession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charleston_Mercury_Secession_Broadside,_1860.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Charleston_Mercury_Secession_Broadside%2C_1860.jpg/170px-Charleston_Mercury_Secession_Broadside%2C_1860.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Charleston_Mercury_Secession_Broadside%2C_1860.jpg/255px-Charleston_Mercury_Secession_Broadside%2C_1860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Charleston_Mercury_Secession_Broadside%2C_1860.jpg/340px-Charleston_Mercury_Secession_Broadside%2C_1860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1530" data-file-height="2997" /></a><figcaption>The first published Confederate imprint of secession</figcaption></figure> <p>With the emergence of the Republicans as the nation's first major sectional party by the mid-1850s, politics became the stage on which sectional tensions were played out. Although much of the West – the focal point of sectional tensions – was unfit for cotton cultivation, Southern secessionists read the political fallout as a sign that their power in national politics was rapidly weakening. Before, the slave system had been buttressed to an extent by the Democratic Party, which was increasingly seen as representing a more pro-Southern position that unfairly permitted Southerners to prevail in the nation's territories and to dominate national policy before the Civil War. But Democrats suffered a significant reverse in the electoral realignment of the mid-1850s. 1860 was a critical election that marked a stark change in existing patterns of party loyalties among groups of voters; Abraham Lincoln's election was a watershed in the balance of power of competing national and parochial interests and affiliations.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Immediately after finding out the election results, a special South Carolina convention <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Declaration_of_Secession" title="South Carolina Declaration of Secession">declared</a> "that the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and other states under the name of the 'United States of America' is hereby dissolved;" by February six more cotton states would follow (<a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Secession_Ordinance" title="Mississippi Secession Ordinance">Mississippi</a>, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas), forming the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a>. In 1960, Lipset examined the secessionist vote in each Southern state in 1860–61. In each state he divided the counties by the proportion of slaves, low, medium and high. He found that in the 181 high-slavery counties, the vote was 72% for secession. In the 205 low-slavery counties, the vote was only 37% for secession, and in the 153 middle counties, the vote for secession was at 60%.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the outgoing Buchanan administration and the incoming Lincoln administration refused to recognize the legality of secession or the legitimacy of the Confederacy. After Lincoln called for troops, four border states (that lacked cotton) seceded (Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee).<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Upper Southern States were in a dilemma: they wanted to retain their slaves but were afraid that if they joined with the lower southern states that were rebelling they would be caught in the middle of a conflict, and their states would be the battle ground. By staying in the Union the Upper Southern states felt that their slave rights would continue to be recognized by the Union.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_issues">Other issues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Other issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariff</a> issue was and is sometimes cited – long after the war – by <a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause</a> historians and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confederate" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Confederate">neo-Confederate</a> apologists. In 1860–61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession brought up the tariff issue as a major issue.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff,<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and when some did, for instance, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury" title="Matthew Fontaine Maury">Matthew Fontaine Maury</a><sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/John_Lothrop_Motley" title="John Lothrop Motley">John Lothrop Motley</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they were generally writing for a foreign audience. </p><p>The tariff in effect prior to the enactment of the <a href="/wiki/Morrill_Tariff" title="Morrill Tariff">Morrill Tariff</a> of 1861 had been written and approved by the South for the benefit of the South. Complaints came from the Northeast (especially Pennsylvania) and regarded the rates as too low. Some Southerners feared that eventually the North would grow so big that it would control Congress and could raise the tariff at will.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As for states' rights, while a state's right of revolution mentioned in the Declaration of Independence was based on the inalienable equal rights of man, secessionists believed in a modified version of states' rights that was safe for slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-Freehling_1854_1861_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freehling_1854_1861-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These issues were especially important in the lower South, where 47 percent of the population were slaves. The upper South, where 32 percent of the population were slaves, considered the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter crisis</a> – especially <a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln%27s_75,000_volunteers" title="President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers">Lincoln's call for troops</a> to march south to recapture it – a cause for secession. The northernmost border slave states, where 13 percent of the population were slaves, did not secede.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fort_Sumter">Fort Sumter</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Fort Sumter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="South Carolina in the American Civil War">South Carolina seceded</a> in December 1860, Major <a href="/wiki/Robert_Anderson_(Union_officer)" title="Robert Anderson (Union officer)">Robert Anderson</a>, a pro-slavery, former slave owner from <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a>, remained loyal to the Union. He was the commanding officer of United States Army forces in <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a> – the last remaining important Union post in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>. Acting upon orders from the War Department to hold and defend the U.S. forts, he moved his small garrison from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Moultrie" title="Fort Moultrie">Fort Moultrie</a>, which was indefensible, to the more modern, more defensible, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Sumter" title="Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a> in the middle of <a href="/wiki/Charleston_Harbor" title="Charleston Harbor">Charleston Harbor</a>. South Carolina leaders cried betrayal, while the North celebrated with enormous excitement at this show of defiance against secessionism. In February 1861 the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> were formed and took charge. Jefferson Davis, the Confederate president, ordered the fort be captured. The artillery attack was commanded by <a href="/wiki/General_officers_in_the_Confederate_States_Army" title="General officers in the Confederate States Army">Brig. Gen.</a> <a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">P. G. T. Beauregard</a>, who had been Anderson's student at West Point. The attack began April 12, 1861, and continued until Anderson, badly outnumbered and outgunned, surrendered the fort on April 14. The battle began the American Civil War, as an overwhelming demand for war swept both the North and South, with only Kentucky attempting to remain neutral.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fort_Sumter_telegram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Fort_Sumter_telegram.jpg/170px-Fort_Sumter_telegram.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Fort_Sumter_telegram.jpg/255px-Fort_Sumter_telegram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Fort_Sumter_telegram.jpg/340px-Fort_Sumter_telegram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2431" data-file-height="3063" /></a><figcaption>Robert Anderson's telegram announcing the surrender of Fort Sumter</figcaption></figure> <p>According to Adam Goodheart (2011), the modern meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">American flag</a> was also forged in the defense of Fort Sumter. Thereafter, the flag was used throughout the North to symbolize American nationalism and rejection of secessionism. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Before that day, the flag had served mostly as a military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory, flown from forts, embassies, and ships, and displayed on special occasions like the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_of_July" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth of July">Fourth of July</a>. But in the weeks after Major Anderson's surprising stand, it became something different. Suddenly the Stars and Stripes flew – as it does today, and especially as it did after <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11</a> – from houses, from storefronts, from churches; above the village greens and college quads. For the first time American flags were mass-produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiographical_debates_on_causes">Historiographical debates on causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Historiographical debates on causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">Historiographic issues about the American Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HenryWilson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/HenryWilson.jpg/220px-HenryWilson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/HenryWilson.jpg/330px-HenryWilson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/HenryWilson.jpg/440px-HenryWilson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="2976" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wilson" title="Henry Wilson">Henry Wilson</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Slave_Power_in_America" title="History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America">History of The Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America</a></i> (1872–1877)</figcaption></figure> <p>Abraham Lincoln's rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a>, the failure to secure the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a> in 1861, and the inability of the Washington <a href="/wiki/Peace_Conference_of_1861" title="Peace Conference of 1861">Peace Conference of 1861</a> to provide an effective alternative to Crittenden and Corwin came together to prevent a compromise that is still debated by Civil War historians. Even as the war was going on, William Seward and James Buchanan were outlining a debate over the question of inevitability that would continue among historians.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Needless_war_argument">Needless war argument</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Needless war argument"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two competing explanations of the sectional tensions inflaming the nation emerged even before the war. The first was the "Needless War" argument.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buchanan believed the sectional hostility to be the accidental, unnecessary work of self-interested or fanatical agitators. He also singled out the "fanaticism" of the Republican Party. Seward, on the other hand, believed there to be an irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring forces. Shelden argues that, "Few scholars in the twenty-first century would call the Civil War 'needless,' as the emancipation of 4 million slaves hinged on Union victory."<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irrepressible_conflict_argument">Irrepressible conflict argument</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Irrepressible conflict argument"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "Irrepressible Conflict" argument was the first to dominate historical discussion.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first decades after the fighting, histories of the Civil War generally reflected the views of Northerners who had participated in the conflict. The war appeared to be a stark moral conflict in which the South was to blame, a conflict that arose as a result of the designs of slave power. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wilson" title="Henry Wilson">Henry Wilson</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Slave_Power_in_America" title="History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America">History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America</a></i> (1872–1877) is the foremost representative of this moral interpretation, which argued that Northerners had fought to preserve the union against the aggressive designs of "slave power". Later, in his seven-volume <i>History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the Civil War</i> (1893–1900), <a href="/wiki/James_Ford_Rhodes" title="James Ford Rhodes">James Ford Rhodes</a> identified slavery as the central – and virtually only – cause of the Civil War. The North and South had reached positions on the issue of slavery that were both irreconcilable and unalterable. The conflict had become inevitable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revisionists">Revisionists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Revisionists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The idea that the war was avoidable became central among historians in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. Revisionist historians, led by <a href="/wiki/James_G._Randall" title="James G. Randall">James G. Randall</a> (1881–1953) at the University of Illinois, <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> (1856–1924) at Princeton University and <a href="/wiki/Avery_Craven" title="Avery Craven">Avery Craven</a> (1885–1980) at the University of Chicago, saw in the social and economic systems of the South no differences so fundamental as to require a war. Historian <a href="/wiki/Mark_E._Neely_Jr." title="Mark E. Neely Jr.">Mark Neely</a> explains their position: </p> <blockquote><p>Revisionism challenged the view that fundamental and irreconcilable sectional differences made the outbreak of war inevitable. It scorned a previous generation's easy identification of the Northern cause with abolition, but it continued a tradition of hostility to the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a> measures that followed the war. The Civil War became a needless conflict brought on by a blundering generation that exaggerated sectional differences between North and South. Revisionists revived the reputation of the Democratic party as great nationalists before the war and as dependable loyalists during it. Revisionism gave Lincoln's Presidency a tragic beginning at Fort Sumter, a rancorous political setting of bitter factional conflicts between radicals and moderates within Lincoln's own party, and an even more tragic ending. The benevolent Lincoln died at the moment when benevolence was most needed to blunt radical designs for revenge on the South.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Randall blamed the ineptitude of a "blundering generation" of leaders. He also saw slavery as essentially a benign institution, crumbling in the presence of 19th century tendencies.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Craven, the other leading revisionist, placed more emphasis on the issue of slavery than Randall but argued roughly the same points. In <i>The Coming of the Civil War</i> (1942), Craven argued that slave laborers were not much worse off than Northern workers, that the institution was already on the road to ultimate extinction, and that the war could have been averted by skillful and responsible leaders in the tradition of Congressional statesmen <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Webster" title="Daniel Webster">Daniel Webster</a>. Two of the key leaders in antebellum politics, Clay and Webster, in contrast to the 1850s generation of leaders, shared a predisposition to compromises marked by a passionate patriotic devotion to the Union.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But it is possible that the politicians of the 1850s were not inept. More recent studies have kept elements of the revisionist interpretation alive, emphasizing the role of political agitation (the efforts of Democratic politicians of the South and Republican politicians in the North to keep the sectional conflict at the center of the political debate). <a href="/wiki/David_Herbert_Donald" title="David Herbert Donald">David Herbert Donald</a> (1920–2009), a student of Randall, argued in 1960 that the politicians of the 1850s were not unusually inept but that they were operating in a society in which traditional restraints were being eroded in the face of the rapid extension of democracy. The stability of the two-party system kept the union together, but would collapse in the 1850s, thus reinforcing, rather than suppressing, sectional conflict. The union, Donald said, died of democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/28px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/42px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/56px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png 2x" data-file-width="1875" data-file-height="1875" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:American_Civil_War" title="Portal:American Civil War">American Civil War portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conclusion_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Conclusion of the American Civil War">Conclusion of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWoods2012" class="citation journal cs1">Woods, M. E. (August 20, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jahist/jas272">"What Twenty-First-Century Historians Have Said about the Causes of Disunion: A Civil War Sesquicentennial Review of the Recent Literature"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of American History">Journal of American History</a></i>. <b>99</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">415–</span>439. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjahist%2Fjas272">10.1093/jahist/jas272</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8723">0021-8723</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=What+Twenty-First-Century+Historians+Have+Said+about+the+Causes+of+Disunion%3A+A+Civil+War+Sesquicentennial+Review+of+the+Recent+Literature&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E415-%3C%2Fspan%3E439&rft.date=2012-08-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjahist%2Fjas272&rft.issn=0021-8723&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=M.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Fjahist%2Fjas272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aaron Sheehan-Dean, "A Book for Every Perspective: Current Civil War and Reconstruction Textbooks", <i>Civil War History</i> (2005) 51#3 pp. 317–324</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Loewen, James W. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23210244">"Using Confederate Documents to Teach About Secession, Slavery, and the Origins of the Civil War"</a>. <i>OAH Magazine of History</i>. <b>25</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">35–</span>44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foahmag%2Foar002">10.1093/oahmag/oar002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0882-228X">0882-228X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23210244">23210244</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407021438/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23210244">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 7,</span> 2023</span>. <q>Confederate leaders themselves made it plain that slavery was the key issue sparking secession.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OAH+Magazine+of+History&rft.atitle=Using+Confederate+Documents+to+Teach+About+Secession%2C+Slavery%2C+and+the+Origins+of+the+Civil+War&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=0882-228X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23210244%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foahmag%2Foar002&rft.aulast=Loewen&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23210244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coates-2015-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Coates-2015_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoates2015" class="citation news cs1">Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 23, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20171031234944/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/06/what-this-cruel-war-was-over/396482/">"What This Cruel War Was Over"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/06/what-this-cruel-war-was-over/396482/">the original</a> on October 31, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=What+This+Cruel+War+Was+Over&rft.date=2015-06-23&rft.aulast=Coates&rft.aufirst=Ta-Nehisi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fpolitics%2Farchive%2F2015%2F06%2Fwhat-this-cruel-war-was-over%2F396482%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/declaration-causes-seceding-states#South_Carolina">"A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union"</a>. <i>The Declaration of Causes of Seceding States</i>. 1861<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 12,</span> 2024</span> – via American Battlefield Trust.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Declaration+of+Causes+of+Seceding+States&rft.atitle=A+Declaration+of+the+Immediate+Causes+which+Induce+and+Justify+the+Secession+of+the+State+of+Mississippi+from+the+Federal+Union.&rft.date=1861&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.battlefields.org%2Flearn%2Fprimary-sources%2Fdeclaration-causes-seceding-states%23South_Carolina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Brien2002qs-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-O'Brien2002qs_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_Karl_O'Brien2002" class="citation book cs1">Patrick Karl O'Brien (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA184"><i>Atlas of World History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521921-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521921-0"><bdi>978-0-19-521921-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905202421/https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA184">Archived</a> from the original on September 5, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+World+History&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-521921-0&rft.au=Patrick+Karl+O%27Brien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DffZy5tDjaUkC%26pg%3DPA184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John McCardell, <i>The Idea of a Southern Nation: Southern Nationalists and Southern Nationalism, 1830–1860</i> (1981)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan-Mary Grant, <i>North Over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era</i> (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_Oakes_(historian)" title="James Oakes (historian)">Oakes, James</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MaVp-YES1F0C&q=freedom+national"><i>Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865</i></a>. W. W. Norton & Company. 2013. p. xxiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393065312" title="Special:BookSources/9780393065312"><bdi>9780393065312</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+National%3A+The+Destruction+of+Slavery+in+the+United+States%2C+1861-1865&rft.pages=xxiii&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780393065312&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMaVp-YES1F0C%26q%3Dfreedom%2Bnational&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_R._Varon" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth R. Varon">Elizabeth R. Varon</a>, Bruce Levine, Marc Egnal, and Michael Holt at a plenary session of the organization of American Historians, March 17, 2011, reported by David A. Walsh. "Highlights from the 2011 Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians in Houston, Texas". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hnn.us/articles/137673.html">HNN online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111204081355/http://hnn.us/articles/137673.html">Archived</a> December 4, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leonard_L._Richards_2000-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leonard_L._Richards_2000_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leonard_L._Richards_2000_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Leonard L. Richards, <i>The Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860</i> (2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William E. Gienapp, "The Republican Party and the Slave Power" in Michael Perman and Amy Murrell Taylor, eds., <i>Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction: Documents and Essays</i> (2010): 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Mason%E2%80%93Dixon_line" title="Mason–Dixon line">Mason–Dixon line</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a> were key boundaries.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Boyer2010" class="citation book cs1">Paul Boyer; et al. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqawVJRMd8YC&pg=PA343"><i>The Enduring Vision, Volume I: To 1877</i></a>. Cengage Learning. p. 343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0495800941" title="Special:BookSources/978-0495800941"><bdi>978-0495800941</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160514055111/https://books.google.com/books?id=jqawVJRMd8YC&pg=PA343">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enduring+Vision%2C+Volume+I%3A+To+1877&rft.pages=343&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0495800941&rft.au=Paul+Boyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjqawVJRMd8YC%26pg%3DPA343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fehrenbacher pp. 15–17. Don Fehrenbacher wrote, "As a racial caste system, slavery was the most distinctive element in the southern social order. The slave production of <a href="/wiki/Staple_crop" class="mw-redirect" title="Staple crop">staple crops</a> dominated southern agriculture and eminently suited the development of a national market economy."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fehrenbacher, pp. 16–18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldstone, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDougall, p. 318</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forbes, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mason, pp. 3–4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Finkelman, "Slavery and the Northwest Ordinance: A Study in Ambiguity", <i>Journal of the Early Republic</i> 6.4 (1986): 343–370.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Craig Hammond, "'They Are Very Much Interested in Obtaining an Unlimited Slavery': Rethinking the Expansion of Slavery in the Louisiana Purchase Territories, 1803–1805", <i>Journal of the Early Republic</i> 23.3 (2003): 353–380.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Freehling, p. 144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Freehling, p. 149. In the House the votes for the Tallmadge amendments in the North were 86–10 and 80–14 in favor, while in the South the vote to oppose was 66–1 and 64–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Missouri.html">"Missouri Compromise"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171129191309/http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Missouri.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 29, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 28,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Missouri+Compromise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Frr%2Fprogram%2Fbib%2Fourdocs%2FMissouri.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forbes, pp. 6–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mason p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/solguide/VUS06/essay06c.html">"Leah S. Glaser, "United States Expansion, 1800–1860"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061231041625/http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/solguide/VUS06/essay06c.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 31, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 21,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leah+S.+Glaser%2C+%22United+States+Expansion%2C+1800%E2%80%931860%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vcdh.virginia.edu%2Fsolguide%2FVUS06%2Fessay06c.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard J. Ellis, Review of <i>The Shaping of American Liberalism: The Debates over Ratification, Nullification, and Slavery</i>. by David F. Ericson, <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i>, Vol. 51, No. 4 (1994), pp. 826–829</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/Ampres/essays/tyler/biography/2">John Tyler, Life Before the Presidency</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jane H. Pease, William H. Pease, "The Economics and Politics of Charleston's Nullification Crisis", <i>Journal of Southern History</i>, Vol. 47, No. 3 (1981), pp. 335–362</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Remini, <i>Andrew Jackson</i>, v. 2 pp. 136–137. Niven pp. 135–137. Freehling, <i>Prelude to Civil War</i> p. 143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Craven p. 65. Niven pp. 135–137. Freehling, <i>Prelude to Civil War</i> p. 143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ellis, Richard E. <i>The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States' Rights, and the Nullification Crisis</i> (1987), p. 193; Freehling, William W. <i>Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Crisis in South Carolina 1816–1836</i>. (1965), p. 257</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ellis p. 193. Ellis further notes that "Calhoun and the nullifiers were not the first southerners to link slavery with states' rights. At various points in their careers, <a href="/wiki/John_Taylor_of_Caroline" title="John Taylor of Caroline">John Taylor</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Randolph_of_Roanoke" title="John Randolph of Roanoke">John Randolph</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Macon" title="Nathaniel Macon">Nathaniel Macon</a> had warned that giving too much power to the federal government, especially on such an open-ended issue as internal improvement, could ultimately provide it with the power to emancipate slaves against their owners' wishes."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jon_Meacham" title="Jon Meacham">Jon Meacham</a> (2009), <i><a href="/wiki/American_Lion_(book)" title="American Lion (book)">American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House</a></i>, p. 247; <i>Correspondence of Andrew Jackson</i>, Vol. V, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Hofstadter, "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War." <i>American Historical Review</i> (1938) 44#1 pp. 50–55 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840850">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161017035830/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840850">Archived</a> October 17, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Varon (2008) p. 109. Wilentz (2005) p. 451</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller (1995) pp. 144–146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller (1995) pp. 209–210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilentz (2005) pp. 470–472</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, 112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, pp. 476, 479–481</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huston p. 41. Huston writes, "on at least three matters southerners were united. First, slaves were property. Second, the sanctity of southerners' property rights in slaves was beyond the questioning of anyone inside or outside of the South. Third, slavery was the only means of adjusting social relations properly between Europeans and Africans."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bonekemper III, Edward H. (2015) <i>The Myth of the Lost Cause: Why the South fought the Civil War and Why the North Won</i>. Regnery Publishing p. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1860b-08.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170817153640/https://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1860b-08.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on August 17, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 11,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.census.gov%2Fprod2%2Fdecennial%2Fdocuments%2F1860b-08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brinkley,_1986-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brinkley,_1986_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinkley1986" class="citation book cs1">Brinkley, Alan (1986). <i>American History: A Survey</i>. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 328.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+History%3A+A+Survey&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=328&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Brinkley&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moore,_1966-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moore,_1966_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1966" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Barrington (1966). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialoriginsofd00barr"><i>Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy</i></a></span>. New York: Beacon Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialoriginsofd00barr/page/117">117</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807050750" title="Special:BookSources/9780807050750"><bdi>9780807050750</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Origins+of+Dictatorship+and+Democracy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=9780807050750&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Barrington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialoriginsofd00barr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-North,_1961-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-North,_1961_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth1961" class="citation book cs1">North, Douglas C. (1961). <i>The Economic Growth of the United States 1790–1860</i>. Englewood Cliffs. p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+Growth+of+the+United+States+1790%E2%80%931860&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Englewood+Cliffs&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Douglas+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_C._Davis_(historian)" title="William C. Davis (historian)">Davis, William C.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=%22slavery%20and%20say%20that%20Southerners%20would%20have%20seceded%20and%20fought%20over%20it%22"><i>Look Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America</i></a>. New York: The Free Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7432-2771-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7432-2771-9"><bdi>0-7432-2771-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220430221004/https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=%22slavery+and+say+that+Southerners+would+have+seceded+and+fought+over+it%22">Archived</a> from the original on April 30, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2016</span>. <q>Inextricably intertwined in the question was slavery, and it only became the more so in the years that followed.... [S]o long as the number of slave states was the same as or greater than the number of free states, then in the Senate the South had a check on the government.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Look+Away%21%3A+A+History+of+the+Confederate+States+of+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=The+Free+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7432-2771-9&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Ftbm%3Dbks%26hl%3Den%26q%3D%2522slavery%2520and%2520say%2520that%2520Southerners%2520would%2520have%2520seceded%2520and%2520fought%2520over%2520it%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and Eugene D. Genovese, <i>Slavery in White and Black: Class and Race in the Southern Slaveholders' New World Order</i> (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanley_Harrold2015" class="citation book cs1">Stanley Harrold (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gKQeBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA45"><i>The Abolitionists and the South, 1831–1861</i></a>. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 45, <span class="nowrap">149–</span>150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813148243" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813148243"><bdi>978-0813148243</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Abolitionists+and+the+South%2C+1831%E2%80%931861&rft.pages=45%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E149-%3C%2Fspan%3E150&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0813148243&rft.au=Stanley+Harrold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgKQeBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSorisio2002" class="citation book cs1">Sorisio, Carolyn (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u8t1wHF4Z24C"><i>Fleshing Out America: Race, Gender, and the Politics of the Body in American Literature, 1833–1879</i></a>. Athens: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_Press" title="University of Georgia Press">University of Georgia Press</a>. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0820326372" title="Special:BookSources/0820326372"><bdi>0820326372</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 24,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fleshing+Out+America%3A+Race%2C+Gender%2C+and+the+Politics+of+the+Body+in+American+Literature%2C+1833%E2%80%931879&rft.place=Athens&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0820326372&rft.aulast=Sorisio&rft.aufirst=Carolyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du8t1wHF4Z24C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_P._HinksJohn_R._McKivigan2007" class="citation book cs1">Peter P. Hinks; John R. McKivigan (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d7b_trbfXugC&pg=PA258"><i>Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition</i></a>. Greenwood. p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313331435" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313331435"><bdi>978-0313331435</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Antislavery+and+Abolition&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0313331435&rft.au=Peter+P.+Hinks&rft.au=John+R.+McKivigan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd7b_trbfXugC%26pg%3DPA258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McPhersonExceptionalism-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McPhersonExceptionalism_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McPhersonExceptionalism_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McPhersonExceptionalism_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</a>, "Antebellum Southern Exceptionalism: A New Look at an Old Question", <i>Civil War History</i> 29 (September 1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Conflict and Collaboration: Yeomen, Slaveholders, and Politics in the Antebellum South", <i>Social History</i> 10 (October 1985): 273–298. quote at p. 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thornton, <i>Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800–1860</i> (Louisiana State University Press, 1978)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James A. Rawley, Race and Politics: "Bleeding Kansas" and the Coming of the Civil War (New York, 1969), 12, 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson (2007) pp. 4–7. James M. McPherson wrote in referring to the Progressive historians, the Vanderbilt agrarians, and revisionists writing in the 1940s, "While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few historians now subscribe to them."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Craig in Woodworth, ed. <i>The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research</i> (1996), p. 505.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald 2001 pp. 134–138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huston pp. 24–25. Huston lists other estimates of the value of slaves; James D. B. De Bow puts it at $2 billion in 1850, while in 1858 Governor James Pettus of Mississippi estimated the value at $2.6 billion in 1858.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huston, "<i>Calculating the Value of the Union</i>", p. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sc.edu/uscpress/2007/3681.html">"Soil Exhaustion as a Factor in the Agricultural History of Virginia and Maryland, 1606–1860"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081203190037/http://www.sc.edu/uscpress/2007/3681.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 16,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Soil+Exhaustion+as+a+Factor+in+the+Agricultural+History+of+Virginia+and+Maryland%2C+1606%E2%80%931860&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sc.edu%2Fuscpress%2F2007%2F3681.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Steven_E._Woodworth" title="Steven E. Woodworth">Woodworth, Steven E.</a>, ed. <i>The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research</i> (1996), 145 151 505 512 554 557 684; Richard Hofstadter, <i>The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington</i> (1969); for one dissenter see Marc Egnal. "The Beards Were Right: Parties in the North, 1840–1860". <i>Civil War History</i> 47, no. 1. (2001): 30–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth M. Stampp, <i>The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Background of the Civil War</i> (1981) p. 198</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also from Kenneth M. Stampp, <i>The Imperiled Union</i>, p. 198:<blockquote><p>Most historians ... now see no compelling reason why the divergent economies of the North and South should have led to disunion and civil war; rather, they find stronger practical reasons why the sections, whose economies neatly complemented one another, should have found it advantageous to remain united. Beard oversimplified the controversies relating to federal economic policy, for neither section unanimously supported or opposed measures such as the protective tariff, appropriations for internal improvements, or the creation of a national banking system. ... During the 1850s, federal economic policy gave no substantial cause for southern disaffection, for policy was largely determined by prosouthern [<i>sic</i>] Congresses and administrations. Finally, the characteristic posture of the conservative northeastern business community was far from antisouthern [<i>sic</i>]. Most merchants, bankers, and manufacturers were outspoken in their hostility to antislavery agitation and eager for sectional compromise in order to maintain their profitable business connections with the South. The conclusion seems inescapable that if economic differences, real though they were, had been all that troubled relations between North and South, there would be no substantial basis for the idea of an irrepressible conflict.</p></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</a>, "Antebellum Southern Exceptionalism: A New Look at an Old Question". <i>Civil War History</i> – Volume 50, Number 4, December 2004, p. 421</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Hofstadter, "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War", <i>The American Historical Review</i> Vol. 44, No. 1 (1938), pp. 50–55 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840850">full text in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161017035830/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840850">Archived</a> October 17, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130415091112/http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=71">"John Calhoun, "Slavery a Positive Good", February 6, 1837"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=71">the original</a> on April 15, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 30,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Calhoun%2C+%22Slavery+a+Positive+Good%22%2C+February+6%2C+1837&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fteachingamericanhistory.org%2Flibrary%2Findex.asp%3Fdocument%3D71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleche2012" class="citation book cs1">Fleche, Andre (2012). "World Revolutions and the Coming of the American Civil War". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HgXyUBZCY98C"><i>Revolution of 1861: The American Civil War in the Age of Nationalist Conflict</i></a>. Civil War America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807835234" title="Special:BookSources/9780807835234"><bdi>9780807835234</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 8,</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=World+Revolutions+and+the+Coming+of+the+American+Civil+War&rft.btitle=Revolution+of+1861%3A+The+American+Civil+War+in+the+Age+of+Nationalist+Conflict&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.series=Civil+War+America&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780807835234&rft.aulast=Fleche&rft.aufirst=Andre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHgXyUBZCY98C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Noll,_2002-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Noll,_2002_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Noll,_2002_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Noll,_2002_72-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Noll,_2002_72-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoll2002" class="citation book cs1">Noll, Mark A. (2002). <i>America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 640.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+God%3A+From+Jonathan+Edwards+to+Abraham+Lincoln&rft.pages=640&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Noll,_2006-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Noll,_2006_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoll2006" class="citation book cs1">Noll, Mark A. (2006). <i>The Civil War as a Theological Crisis</i>. UNC Press. p. 216.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+as+a+Theological+Crisis&rft.pages=216&rft.pub=UNC+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hague, Euan, and Sebesta, Edward. "The U.S. Civil War as a Theological War: Confederate Christian Nationalism and the League of the South". <i>Canadian Review of American Studies</i>. 32 #3 (2002): 253-84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hull,_2003-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hull,_2003_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHull2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hull, William E. (February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071211214614/http://www.christianethicstoday.com/Issue/043/Learning%20the%20Lessons%20of%20Slavery%20By%20William%20E.%20Hull_043_05_.htm">"Learning the Lessons of Slavery"</a>. <i>Christian Ethics Today</i>. <b>9</b> (43). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianethicstoday.com/Issue/043/Learning%20the%20Lessons%20of%20Slavery%20By%20William%20E.%20Hull_043_05_.htm">the original</a> on December 11, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 19,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Christian+Ethics+Today&rft.atitle=Learning+the+Lessons+of+Slavery&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=43&rft.date=2003-02&rft.aulast=Hull&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianethicstoday.com%2FIssue%2F043%2FLearning%2520the%2520Lessons%2520of%2520Slavery%2520By%2520William%2520E.%2520Hull_043_05_.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter B. Shurden, and Lori Redwine Varnadoe, "The origins of the Southern Baptist Convention: A historiographical study." <i>Baptist History and Heritage</i> (2002) 37#1 pp. 71–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gaustad,_1982-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gaustad,_1982_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaustad1982" class="citation book cs1">Gaustad, Edwin S. (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/documentaryhisto00rces"><i>A Documentary History of Religion in America to the Civil War</i></a></span>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/documentaryhisto00rces/page/491">491–502</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802818744" title="Special:BookSources/9780802818744"><bdi>9780802818744</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Documentary+History+of+Religion+in+America+to+the+Civil+War&rft.pages=491-502&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780802818744&rft.aulast=Gaustad&rft.aufirst=Edwin+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdocumentaryhisto00rces&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson,_1976-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Johnson,_1976_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Johnson, Paul</a> (1976). <i>A History of Christianity</i>. Simon & Schuster. p. 438.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=438&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoll2002" class="citation book cs1">Noll, Mark A. (2002). <i>America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">399–</span>400.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+God%3A+From+Jonathan+Edwards+to+Abraham+Lincoln&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E399-%3C%2Fspan%3E400&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noll, Mark A. "The Bible and Slavery", in Miller, Randall M.; Stout, Harry S.; and Wilson, Charles Reagan, eds. <i>Religion and the American Civil War</i>. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, pp. 10–11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McPherson,_2007,_p._14-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McPherson,_2007,_p._14_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McPherson,_2007,_p._14_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson, 2007, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stampp, pp. 190–193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Krannawitter, 2008, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson, 2007, pp. 13–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, pp. 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guelzo, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, 2008, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson, 2007, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson, 2007, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, pp. 19–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._21-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._21_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._21_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._21_95-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._21_95-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._20-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._20_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._20_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._20_96-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, p. 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, 1966, pp. 468–469</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bestor,_1964,_p._23-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._23_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bestor,_1964,_p._23_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, 1966, p. 470</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, pp. 23–24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holt, 2004, pp. 34–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson, 2007, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Krannawitter, 2008, p. 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bestor, 1964, pp. 24–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jos. C. G. Kennedy, <i>Preliminary Report of the Eighth Census, 1860</i> (1862) pp. 259, 291–294.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AmistadCase-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AmistadCase_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071106090007/http://www.npg.si.edu/col/amistad/index.htm">"The Amistad Case"</a>. National Portrait Gallery. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.npg.si.edu/col/amistad/index.htm">the original</a> on November 6, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Amistad+Case&rft.pub=National+Portrait+Gallery&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.npg.si.edu%2Fcol%2Famistad%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson, <i>Battle Cry</i> p. 8; James Brewer Stewart, <i>Holy Warriors: The Abolitionists and American Slavery</i> (1976); Pressly, pp. 270ff</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wendell Phillips, "No Union With Slaveholders", January 15, 1845, in Louis Ruchames, ed. <i>The Abolitionists</i> (1963), p. 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mason Lowance, <i>Against Slavery: An Abolitionist Reader</i>, (2000), p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AbolWill-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AbolWill_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071202082656/http://members.aol.com/jfepperson/garrison.html">"Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison Admits of No Compromise with the Evil of Slavery"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://members.aol.com/jfepperson/garrison.html">the original</a> on December 2, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Abolitionist+William+Lloyd+Garrison+Admits+of+No+Compromise+with+the+Evil+of+Slavery&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmembers.aol.com%2Fjfepperson%2Fgarrison.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexander Stephen's Cornerstone Speech, Savannah; Georgia, March 21, 1861</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick J. Blue, <i>The Free Soilers: Third Party Politics, 1848–54</i> (1973).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Herbert Donald et al. <i>The Civil War and Reconstruction</i> (2000) pp. 74–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Foner, "The Wilmot Proviso Revisited." <i>Journal of American History</i> 56.2 (1969): 262–279. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric H. Walther, <i>William Lowndes Yancey and the Coming of the Civil War</i> (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2006.) </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce Tap, "Compromise of 1850." in <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Civil War</i> (2011): pp. 80+. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John C. Waugh, <i>On the brink of Civil War: The compromise of 1850 and how it changed the course of American history</i> (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stampp, <i>The Causes of the Civil War</i>, p. 59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schlesinger, Arthur. "The State Rights Fetish" in Stampp, ed., <i>The Causes of the Civil War</i>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlesinger1991" class="citation book cs1">Schlesinger, Arthur (March 20, 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yTyuTDhmsIwC&pg=PA68"><i><span></span></i>"The State Rights Fetish" in<i> Stampp, ed. </i>The Causes of the Civil War<i><span></span></i></a>. Simon and Schuster. pp. <span class="nowrap">68–</span>69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780671751555" title="Special:BookSources/9780671751555"><bdi>9780671751555</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160629174929/https://books.google.com/books?id=yTyuTDhmsIwC&pg=PA68&lpg=PA68">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22The+State+Rights+Fetish%22+in+Stampp%2C+ed.+The+Causes+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E68-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1991-03-20&rft.isbn=9780671751555&rft.aulast=Schlesinger&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyTyuTDhmsIwC%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDonald p. 143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GordonRhea-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GordonRhea_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GordonRhea_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhea2011" class="citation web cs1">Rhea, Gordon (January 25, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110321183207/http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/civil-war-overview/why-non-slaveholding.html">"Why Non-Slaveholding Southerners Fought"</a>. <i>Civil War Trust</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/civil-war-overview/why-non-slaveholding.html">the original</a> on March 21, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 21,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+Trust&rft.atitle=Why+Non-Slaveholding+Southerners+Fought&rft.date=2011-01-25&rft.aulast=Rhea&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.civilwar.org%2Feducation%2Fhistory%2Fcivil-war-overview%2Fwhy-non-slaveholding.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Feb1861Speech-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Feb1861Speech_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenning1861" class="citation web cs1">Benning, Henry L. (February 18, 1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150713102827/http://civilwarcauses.org/benningva.htm">"Speech of Henry Benning to the Virginia Convention"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Virginia State Convention of 1861</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">62–</span>75. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://civilwarcauses.org/benningva.htm">the original</a> on July 13, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 17,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Virginia+State+Convention+of+1861&rft.atitle=Speech+of+Henry+Benning+to+the+Virginia+Convention&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E62-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.date=1861-02-18&rft.aulast=Benning&rft.aufirst=Henry+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcivilwarcauses.org%2Fbenningva.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth M. Stampp, <i>The Causes of the Civil War</i>, p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nevins, <i>Ordeal of the Union: Fruits of Manifest Destiny 1847–1852</i>, p. 155</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald, Baker, and Holt, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">When arguing for the equality of states, he said, "Who has been in advance of him in the fiery charge on the rights of the States, and in assuming to the Federal Government the power to crush and to coerce them? Even to-day he has repeated his doctrines. He tells us this is a Government which we will learn is not merely a Government of the States, but a Government of each individual of the people of the United States." – Jefferson Davis' reply in the Senate to William H. Seward, Senate Chamber, U.S. Capitol, February 29, 1860, From <i>The Papers of Jefferson Davis</i>, Volume 6, pp. 277–284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">When arguing against equality of individuals, Davis said, "We recognize the fact of the inferiority stamped upon <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">that race of men</a> by the <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Creator</a>, and from the cradle to the grave, our Government, as a civil institution, marks that inferiority."  –  Jefferson Davis's reply in the Senate to William H. Seward, Senate Chamber, U.S. Capitol, February 29, 1860 – From <i>The Papers of Jefferson Davis</i>, Volume 6, pp. 277–284. Transcribed from the <i>Congressional Globe</i>, 36th Congress, 1st Session, pp. 916–918.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jefferson Davis' Second Inaugural Address, Virginia Capitol, Richmond, February 22, 1862, transcribed from Dunbar Rowland, ed., <i>Jefferson Davis, Constitutionalist</i>, Volume 5, pp. 198–203. Summarized in <i>The Papers of Jefferson Davis</i>, Volume 8, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawrence Keitt, congressman from South Carolina, in a speech to the House on January 25, 1860: <i>Congressional Globe</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stampp, ed., <i>The Causes of the Civil War</i>, pp. 63–65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2002" class="citation book cs1">Davis, William C. (2002). <i>Look Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">97–</span>98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Look+Away%21%3A+A+History+of+the+Confederate+States+of+America&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E97-%3C%2Fspan%3E98&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1996" class="citation book cs1">Davis, William C. (1996). <i>The Cause Lost: Myths and Realities of the Confederacy</i>. Kansas: University Press of Kansas. p. 180.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cause+Lost%3A+Myths+and+Realities+of+the+Confederacy&rft.place=Kansas&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988117–119-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988117–119_135-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988117–119_135-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1988117–119_135-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1988">McPherson 1988</a>, pp. 117–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-senate.gov-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-senate.gov_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Kansas_Nebraska_Act.htm">"U.S. Senate: The Kansas-Nebraska Act"</a>. <i>www.senate.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200412071245/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Kansas_Nebraska_Act.htm">Archived</a> from the original on April 12, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 23,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.senate.gov&rft.atitle=U.S.+Senate%3A+The+Kansas-Nebraska+Act&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Fartandhistory%2Fhistory%2Fminute%2FKansas_Nebraska_Act.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/wealthy-activist-who-helped-turn-bleeding-kansas-free-180964494/">"The Wealthy Activist Who Helped Turn "Bleeding Kansas" Free"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Magazine</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190331200944/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/wealthy-activist-who-helped-turn-bleeding-kansas-free-180964494/">Archived</a> from the original on March 31, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 23,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Wealthy+Activist+Who+Helped+Turn+%22Bleeding+Kansas%22+Free&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Fwealthy-activist-who-helped-turn-bleeding-kansas-free-180964494%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Finkelman, and Peter Wallenstein, eds. <i>The encyclopedia of American political history</i> (2001) p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eric_Foner_1970-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eric_Foner_1970_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Foner, <i>Free soil, free labor, free men: the ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War</i>(1970).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.F. Gilman, <i>The origin of the Republican Party</i> (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/search.asp?id=137">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624003914/https://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/search.asp?id=137">Archived</a> June 24, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Stocking, ed. <i>Under the Oaks: Commemorating the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Founding of the Republican Party, at Jackson, Michigan, July 6, 1854</i> (1904) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9VniAAAAMAAJ&dq=Jackson+Michigan++republican+party+1854&pg=PA9">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210505140031/https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=lang_en&id=9VniAAAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA9&dq=Jackson+Michigan++republican+party+1854&ots=wP9Wk94j1M&sig=E529yUR9YESEQfYO4xMzi-obxSI">Archived</a> May 5, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allan Nevins, <i>. Ordeal of the Union: A house dividing, 1852–1857. Vol. 2</i> (1947) pp. 316–323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William E. Gienapp, <i>The origins of the Republican Party, 1852–1856</i> (1987) pp. 189–223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sandburg" title="Carl Sandburg">Carl Sandburg</a> (1954), <i>Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years</i>, reprint, New York: Dell, Volume 1 of 3, Chapter 10, "The Deepening Slavery Issue", p. [221].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The speech was reported by newspapers in Galena and Springfield, IL. Carl Sandburg (1954), <i>Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years</i>, reprint, New York: Dell, Volume 1 of 3, Chapter 10, "The Deepening Slavery Issue", p. 223. Italics as in Sandburg.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2006" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Austin (2006). <i>Origins of the</i> Dred Scott <i>Case: Jacksonian Jurisprudence and the Supreme Court 1837–1857</i>. <a href="/wiki/Athens,_Georgia" title="Athens, Georgia">Athens, Georgia</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_Press" title="University of Georgia Press">University of Georgia Press</a>. p. 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+Dred+Scott+Case%3A+Jacksonian+Jurisprudence+and+the+Supreme+Court+1837%E2%80%931857&rft.place=Athens%2C+Georgia&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Austin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Vishneski (1988), "What the Court Decided in Scott v. Sandford", <i>The American Journal of Legal History</i>, 32 (4): 373–390.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Potter, <i>The Impending Crisis</i>, p. 275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln3/1:1?rgn=div1;singlegenre=All;sort=occur;subview=detail;type=simple;view=fulltext;q1=next+dred+scott+decision">"First Lincoln Douglas Debate at Ottawa, Illinois August 21, 1858"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220609131547/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln3/1:1?rgn=div1;singlegenre=All;sort=occur;subview=detail;type=simple;view=fulltext;q1=next+dred+scott+decision">Archived</a> from the original on June 9, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 9,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+Lincoln+Douglas+Debate+at+Ottawa%2C+Illinois+August+21%2C+1858&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fl%2Flincoln%2Flincoln3%2F1%3A1%3Frgn%3Ddiv1%3Bsinglegenre%3DAll%3Bsort%3Doccur%3Bsubview%3Ddetail%3Btype%3Dsimple%3Bview%3Dfulltext%3Bq1%3Dnext%2Bdred%2Bscott%2Bdecision&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Don E. Fehrenbacher, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dred_Scott_Case:_Its_Significance_in_American_Law_and_Politics" title="The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics">The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics</a></i> (1978), pp. 445–446.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carrafiello-A-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carrafiello-A_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrafiello2010" class="citation journal cs1">Carrafiello, Michael L. (Spring 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/59920/59737">"Diplomatic Failure: James Buchanan's Inaugural Address"</a>. <i>Pennsylvania History</i>. <b>77</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">145–</span>165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5325%2Fpennhistory.77.2.0145">10.5325/pennhistory.77.2.0145</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/pennhistory.77.2.0145">10.5325/pennhistory.77.2.0145</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221226052553/https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/59920/59737">Archived</a> from the original on December 26, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 26,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pennsylvania+History&rft.atitle=Diplomatic+Failure%3A+James+Buchanan%27s+Inaugural+Address&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E145-%3C%2Fspan%3E165&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5325%2Fpennhistory.77.2.0145&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5325%2Fpennhistory.77.2.0145%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Carrafiello&rft.aufirst=Michael+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.psu.edu%2Fphj%2Farticle%2Fview%2F59920%2F59737&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gregory J. Wallance, "The Lawsuit That Started the Civil War." <i>Civil War Times</i> 45: 46–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roberta Alexander, "Dred Scott: The decision that sparked a civil war." <i>Northern Kentucky Law Review</i> 34 (2007): 643+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/nkenlr34&div=32&id=&page=">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221226051351/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/nkenlr34&div=32&id=&page=">Archived</a> December 26, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David W. Blight, "Was the Civil War Inevitable?" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/21/magazine/civil-war-jan-6.html?campaign_id=2&emc=edit_th_20221225&instance_id=81112&nl=todaysheadlines&regi_id=8258846&segment_id=120813&user_id=1c19d41d13bc01bd139ed1efb9272ccf"><i>The New York Times</i> Dec. 22, 2022</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221226052225/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/21/magazine/civil-war-jan-6.html?campaign_id=2&emc=edit_th_20221225&instance_id=81112&nl=todaysheadlines&regi_id=8258846&segment_id=120813&user_id=1c19d41d13bc01bd139ed1efb9272ccf">Archived</a> December 26, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bertram Wyatt-Brown, <i>Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South</i> (1982) pp. 22–23, 363</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_J._Olsen2002" class="citation book cs1">Christopher J. Olsen (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RrBb2ThDuCkC&pg=PA237"><i>Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195160970" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195160970"><bdi>978-0195160970</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160501064322/https://books.google.com/books?id=RrBb2ThDuCkC&pg=PA237">Archived</a> from the original on May 1, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Culture+and+Secession+in+Mississippi%3A+Masculinity%2C+Honor%2C+and+the+Antiparty+Tradition%2C+1830%E2%80%931860&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0195160970&rft.au=Christopher+J.+Olsen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRrBb2ThDuCkC%26pg%3DPA237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span> footnote 33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLacy_Ford2011" class="citation book cs1">Lacy Ford, ed. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xeQAERwie80C&pg=PT28%7C"><i>A Companion to the Civil War and Reconstruction</i></a>. Wiley. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1444391626" title="Special:BookSources/978-1444391626"><bdi>978-1444391626</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160428012457/https://books.google.com/books?id=xeQAERwie80C&pg=PT28%7C">Archived</a> from the original on April 28, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1444391626&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxeQAERwie80C%26pg%3DPT28%257C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael William Pfau, "Time, Tropes, and Textuality: Reading Republicanism in Charles Sumner's 'Crime Against Kansas'", <i>Rhetoric & Public Affairs</i> vol 6 #3 (2003) 385–413, quote on p. 393 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v006/6.3pfau.html">online in Project MUSE</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200406041127/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/48700">Archived</a> April 6, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In modern terms Sumner accused Butler of being a "pimp who attempted to introduce the whore, slavery, into Kansas" says <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudith_N._McArthurOrville_Vernon_Burton1996" class="citation book cs1">Judith N. McArthur; Orville Vernon Burton (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRDsgcnbqr8C&pg=PA40"><i>"A Gentleman and an Officer": A Military and Social History of James B. Griffin's Civil War</i></a>. Oxford U.P. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195357660" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195357660"><bdi>978-0195357660</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923102838/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRDsgcnbqr8C&pg=PA40">Archived</a> from the original on September 23, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22A+Gentleman+and+an+Officer%22%3A+A+Military+and+Social+History+of+James+B.+Griffin%27s+Civil+War&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Oxford+U.P.&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0195357660&rft.au=Judith+N.+McArthur&rft.au=Orville+Vernon+Burton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZRDsgcnbqr8C%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williamjames Hull Hoffer, <i>The Caning of Charles Sumner: Honor, Idealism, and the Origins of the Civil War</i> (2010), p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William E. Gienapp, "The Crime Against Sumner: The Caning of Charles Sumner and the Rise of the Republican Party", <i>Civil War History</i> (1979) 25#3 pp. 218–245 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.1979.0005">10.1353/cwh.1979.0005</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Donald,_1961-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Donald,_1961_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonaldRandall,_J.G.1961" class="citation book cs1">Donald, David; Randall, J.G. (1961). <i>The Civil War and Reconstruction</i>. Boston: D.C. Health and Company. p. 79.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=D.C.+Health+and+Company&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Donald&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Randall%2C+J.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allan,_1947-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Allan,_1947_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllan1947" class="citation book cs1">Allan, Nevins (1947). <i>Ordeal of the Union (vol. 3)</i>. Vol. III. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 218.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ordeal+of+the+Union+%28vol.+3%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Allan&rft.aufirst=Nevins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moore-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moore_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore, Barrington, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGinty2009" class="citation book cs1">McGinty, Brian (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aZQxEsFJV-IC&q=john+brown%27s+trial"><i>John Brown's Trial</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03517-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03517-1"><bdi>978-0-674-03517-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240330163354/https://books.google.com/books?id=aZQxEsFJV-IC&q=john+brown%27s+trial#v=snippet&q=john%20brown's%20trial&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on March 30, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 23,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Brown%27s+Trial&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03517-1&rft.aulast=McGinty&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaZQxEsFJV-IC%26q%3Djohn%2Bbrown%2527s%2Btrial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/bookreviewsoct09-pdf-1.pdf">Reviewed</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220706191119/https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/bookreviewsoct09-pdf-1.pdf">Archived</a> July 6, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1860">"1860 Presidential Election Results"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927074600/http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1860">Archived</a> from the original on September 27, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 26,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1860+Presidential+Election+Results&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuselectionatlas.org%2FRESULTS%2Fnational.php%3Fyear%3D1860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DemocraticPartySplit-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DemocraticPartySplit_167-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DemocraticPartySplit_167-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">William W. Freehling, <i>The Road to Disunion: Secessionists Triumphant 1854–1861</i>, pp. 271–341</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Don E. Fehrenbacher (1978/2001), New York: Oxford, Part III, <i>Echoes and Consequences</i>, Chapter 22, "Reasons Why" [cf. "<a href="/wiki/Charge_of_the_Light_Brigade" title="Charge of the Light Brigade">Charge of the Light Brigade</a>"], p. 561; Daniel to Van Buren, November 1, 1847, Martin Van Buren Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roy Nichols, <i>The Disruption of American Democracy: A History of the Political Crisis That Led up to the Civil War</i> (1949)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seymour Martin Lipset, <i>Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics</i> (Doubleday, 1960) p. 349.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maury Klein, <i>Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War</i> (1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Gray Gunderson, <i>Old Gentleman's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861</i>. (1961)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJon_L._Wakelyn1996" class="citation book cs1">Jon L. Wakelyn (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=By6K9VHfWtIC&pg=PT23"><i>Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860–April 1861</i></a>. U. of North Carolina Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-6614-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-6614-6"><bdi>978-0-8078-6614-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160514182307/https://books.google.com/books?id=By6K9VHfWtIC&pg=PT23">Archived</a> from the original on May 14, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southern+Pamphlets+on+Secession%2C+November+1860%E2%80%93April+1861&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.pub=U.+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-6614-6&rft.au=Jon+L.+Wakelyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBy6K9VHfWtIC%26pg%3DPT23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew Fontaine Maury (1861/1967), "Captain Maury's Letter on American Affairs: A Letter Addressed to Rear-Admiral Fitz Roy, of England", reprinted in Frank Friedel, ed., <i>Union Pamphlets of the Civil War: 1861–1865</i>, Cambridge, MA: Harvard, A John Harvard Library Book, Vol. I, pp. 171–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Lothrop Motley (1861/1967), "The Causes of the American Civil War: A Paper Contributed to <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">the London Times</a>", reprinted in Frank Friedel, ed., <i>Union Pamphlets of the Civil War: 1861–1865</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard, A John Harvard Library Book, Vol.1, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Hofstadter, "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War", <i>American Historical Review</i> Vol. 44, No. 1 (October 1938), pp. 50–55 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840850">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161017035830/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840850">Archived</a> October 17, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Freehling_1854_1861-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Freehling_1854_1861_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William W. Freehling, <i>The Road to Disunion, Secessionists Triumphant: 1854–1861</i>, pp. 345–516</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Crofts, <i>Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis</i> (1989)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Goodheart, <i>1861: The Civil War Awakening </i> (2011) ch. 2–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Goodheart, "Prologue", in <i>1861: The Civil War Awakening </i> (2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven E. Woodworth, ed., <i>The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research</i> (1996) pp. 131–143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas J. Pressly, <i>Americans Interpret Their Civil War</i> (1954) pp. 127–148</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRachel_A._Shelden2013" class="citation book cs1">Rachel A. Shelden (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pZj9AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5"><i>Washington Brotherhood: Politics, Social Life, and the Coming of the Civil War</i></a>. U of North Carolina Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1469610856" title="Special:BookSources/978-1469610856"><bdi>978-1469610856</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160602220259/https://books.google.com/books?id=pZj9AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">Archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Washington+Brotherhood%3A+Politics%2C+Social+Life%2C+and+the+Coming+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=U+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1469610856&rft.au=Rachel+A.+Shelden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpZj9AQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas J. Pressly, <i>Americans Interpret Their Civil War</i> (1954) pp. 149–226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark E. Neely, "The Lincoln Theme Since Randall's Call: The Promises and Perils of Professionalism." <i>Papers of the Abraham Lincoln Association</i> 1 (1979): 10–70. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0001.104/--lincoln-theme-since-randalls-call-the-promises-and-perils?rgn=main;view=fulltext">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150908200737/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0001.104/--lincoln-theme-since-randalls-call-the-promises-and-perils?rgn=main;view=fulltext">Archived</a> September 8, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James G. Randall, "The Blundering Generation." <i>Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i> 27.1 (1940): 3–28. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1896569">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303115023/http://www.jstor.org/stable/1896569">Archived</a> March 3, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Avery Craven, <i>The Coming of the Civil War</i> (1942).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Avery Craven, "Coming of the War Between the States: An Interpretation." <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 2#3 (1936): 303–322. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2191911">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303123059/http://www.jstor.org/stable/2191911">Archived</a> March 3, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David H. Donald, "Died of Democracy." in Donald, ed., <i>Why the North Won the Civil War</i> (1960) pp. 79–90.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For additional sources: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the American Civil War">Bibliography of the American Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography of slavery in the United States</a> </p> <ul><li>Craven, Avery. <i>The Coming of the Civil War</i> (1942) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-11894-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-11894-0">0-226-11894-0</a></li> <li>Donald, David Herbert; Baker, Jean Harvey; and Holt, Michael F. <i>The Civil War and Reconstruction</i> (2001)</li> <li>Ellis, Richard E. <i>The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States' Rights and the Nullification Crisis</i> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_E._Fehrenbacher" title="Don E. Fehrenbacher">Fehrenbacher, Don E.</a> <i>The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government's Relations to Slavery</i> (2001) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-514177-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-514177-6">0-19-514177-6</a></li> <li>Forbes, Robert Pierce. <i>The Missouri Compromise and Its Aftermath: Slavery and the Meaning of America</i> (2007) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3105-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3105-2">978-0-8078-3105-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_W._Freehling" title="William W. Freehling">Freehling, William W.</a> <i>Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Crisis in South Carolina 1816–1836</i> (1965) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507681-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507681-8">0-19-507681-8</a></li> <li>Freehling, William W. <i>The Road to Disunion: Secessionists at Bay 1776–1854</i> (1990) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505814-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505814-3">0-19-505814-3</a></li> <li>Freehling, William W. and Craig M. Simpson, eds. <i>Secession Debated: Georgia's Showdown in 1860</i> (1992), speeches</li> <li>Hesseltine, William B., ed. <i>The Tragic Conflict: The Civil War and Reconstruction</i> (1962), primary documents</li> <li>Huston, James L. <i>Calculating the Value of the Union: Slavery, Property Rights, and the Economic Origins of the Civil War.</i> (2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2804-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2804-1">0-8078-2804-1</a></li> <li>Mason, Matthew. <i>Slavery and Politics in the Early American Republic</i> (2006) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3049-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3049-9">978-0-8078-3049-9</a></li> <li>McDonald, Forrest. <i>States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876</i> (2000)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1988" class="citation book cs1">McPherson, James M. (1988). <a href="/wiki/Battle_Cry_of_Freedom:_The_Civil_War_Era" title="Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era"><i>Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era</i></a>. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503863-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503863-7"><bdi>978-0-19-503863-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+Cry+of+Freedom%3A+The+Civil+War+Era&rft.place=Oxford%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503863-7&rft.aulast=McPherson&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>McPherson, James M. <i>This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War</i> (2007)</li> <li>Miller, William Lee. <i>Arguing About Slavery: John Quincy Adams and the Great Battle in the United States Congress</i> (1995) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-56922-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-56922-9">0-394-56922-9</a></li> <li>Nichols, Roy. <i>The Disruption of American Democracy: A History of the Political Crisis That Led up to the Civil War</i> (1949) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.61505">online</a></li> <li>Niven, John. <i>John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union</i> (1988) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8071-1451-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8071-1451-0">0-8071-1451-0</a></li> <li>Perman, Michael, and Amy Murrell Taylor, eds. <i>Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction: Documents and Essays</i> (3rd ed. 2010) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0618875207" title="Special:BookSources/978-0618875207">978-0618875207</a></li> <li>Remini, Robert V. <i>Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832, vol. 2</i> (1981) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-014844-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-014844-6">0-06-014844-6</a></li> <li>Stampp, Kenneth, ed. <i>The Causes of the Civil War</i> (3rd ed. 1992), primary and secondary sources.</li> <li>Varon, Elizabeth R. <i>Disunion: The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859</i> (2008) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3232-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3232-5">978-0-8078-3232-5</a></li> <li>Wakelyn, Jon L., ed. <i>Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860 – April 1861</i> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean_Wilentz" title="Sean Wilentz">Wilentz, Sean</a>. <i>The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln</i> (2005) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-05820-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-05820-4">0-393-05820-4</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackowski2019" class="citation cs2">Mackowski, Chris (January 22, 2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emergingcivilwar.com/2019/01/22/primary-sources-slavery-as-the-cause-of-the-civil-war/">"Primary Sources: Slavery as the Cause of the Civil War"</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emerging_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emerging Civil War (page does not exist)">Emerging Civil War</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120013621/https://emergingcivilwar.com/2019/01/22/primary-sources-slavery-as-the-cause-of-the-civil-war/">archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 15,</span> 2021</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerging+Civil+War&rft.atitle=Primary+Sources%3A+Slavery+as+the+Cause+of+the+Civil+War&rft.date=2019-01-22&rft.aulast=Mackowski&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femergingcivilwar.com%2F2019%2F01%2F22%2Fprimary-sources-slavery-as-the-cause-of-the-civil-war%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilwar.com/">CivilWar.com</a>, many source materials, including states' secession declarations</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://civilwarcauses.org/">Causes of the Civil War</a>, collection of primary documents</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150213033216/http://civilwarcauses.org/reasons.htm">Declarations of Causes of Seceding States</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051201024514/http://civilwartalk.com/cwt_alt/resources/documents/cornerstone_addy.htm">Alexander H. Stephens' Cornerstone Address</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ayers, Edward L. <i>What Caused the Civil War? Reflections on the South and Southern History</i> (2005). 222 pp.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_K._Beale" title="Howard K. Beale">Beale, Howard K.</a>, "What Historians Have Said About the Causes of the Civil War", <i>Social Science Research Bulletin</i> 54, 1946.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabor_Boritt" title="Gabor Boritt">Boritt, Gabor S.</a>, ed. <i>Why the Civil War Came</i> (1996)</li> <li>Childers, Christopher. "Interpreting Popular Sovereignty: A Historiographical Essay", <i>Civil War History</i> Volume 57, Number 1, March 2011 pp. 48–70 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/civil_war_history/v057/57.1.childers.html">in Project MUSE</a></li> <li>Crofts, Daniel. <i>Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis</i> (1989), pp. 353–382, 457–480</li> <li>Etcheson, Nicole. "The Origins of the Civil War", <i>History Compass</i> 2005 #3 (North America)</li> <li>Foner, Eric. "The Causes of the American Civil War: Recent Interpretations and New Directions". In <i>Beyond the Civil War Synthesis: Political Essays of the Civil War Era</i>, edited by Robert P. Swierenga, 1975.</li> <li>Foner, Eric et al. "Talking Civil War History: A Conversation with Eric Foner and James McPherson," <i>Australasian Journal of American Studies</i> (2011) 30#2 pp. 1–32 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23264085">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Grow, Matthew. "The shadow of the civil war: A historiography of civil war memory." <i>American Nineteenth Century History</i> 4.2 (2003): 77–103.</li> <li>Kornblith, Gary J., "Rethinking the Coming of the Civil War: A Counterfactual Exercise". <i>Journal of American History</i> 90.1 (2003): detailed historiography; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151114003517/http://jah.oxfordjournals.org/content/90/1/76.short">online version</a></li> <li>Pressly, Thomas. <i>Americans Interpret Their Civil War</i> (1954), old survey that sorts historians into schools of interpretation; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americansinterpr00pres">online</a></li> <li>SenGupta, Gunja. "Bleeding Kansas: A Review Essay", <i>Kansas History </i> 24 (Winter 2001/2002): 318–341. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kshs.org/publicat/history/2001winter_sengupta.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Smith, Stacey L. "Beyond North and South: Putting the West in the Civil War and Reconstruction", <i>Journal of the Civil War Era</i> (Dec 2016) 6#4 pp. 566–591. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwe.2016.0073">10.1353/cwe.2016.0073</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/article/635054">excerpt</a></li> <li>Towers, Frank. "Partisans, New History, and Modernization: The Historiography of the Civil War's Causes, 1861–2011." <i>The Journal of the Civil War Era</i> (2011) 1#2 pp. 237–264.</li> <li>Tulloch, Hugh. <i>The Debate on the American Civil War Era</i> (Issues in Historiography) (2000)</li> <li>Woods, Michael E., "What Twenty-First-Century Historians Have Said about the Causes of Disunion: A Civil War Sesquicentennial Review of the Recent Literature", <i>Journal of American History</i> (2012) 99#2 pp. 415–439. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151031010455/http://jah.oxfordjournals.org/content/99/2/415.full">online</a></li> <li>Woodward, Colin Edward. <i>Marching Masters: Slavery, Race, and the Confederate Army during the Civil War</i>. University of Virginia Press, 2014. Introduction pp. 1–10</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_E._Woodworth" title="Steven E. Woodworth">Woodworth, Steven E.</a> ed. <i>The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research</i> (1996), 750 pages of historiography; see part IV on Causation.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Needless_war"_school"><span id=".22Needless_war.22_school"></span>"Needless war" school</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: "Needless war" school"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bonner, Thomas N. "Civil War Historians and the 'Needless War' Doctrine." <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i> (1956): 193–216. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2707742">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Childers, Christopher. "Interpreting Popular Sovereignty: A Historiographical Essay." <i>Civil War History</i> (2011) 57#1 pp. 48–70. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/civil_war_history/v057/57.1.childers.html">online</a></li> <li>Craven, Avery, <i>The Repressible Conflict</i>, 1830–61 (1939) <ul><li><i>The Coming of the Civil War</i> (1942)</li> <li>"The Coming of the War Between the States", <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 2 (August 1936): 30–63; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/2191911">in JSTOR</a></li></ul></li> <li>Donald, David. "An Excess of Democracy: The Civil War and the Social Process", in David Donald, <i>Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era</i>, 2nd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966), 209–235.</li> <li>Goldfield, David. <i>America Aflame: How the Civil War Created a Nation</i> (2011), New York: Bloomsbury Press.</li> <li>Holt, Michael F. <i>The Political Crisis of the 1850s</i> (1978) emphasis on political parties and voters</li> <li>Pressly, Thomas J. "The Repressible Conflict", chapter 7 of <i>Americans Interpret Their Civil War</i> (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americansinterpr00pres">online</a></li> <li>Ramsdell, Charles W. "The Natural Limits of Slavery Expansion", <i>Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i>, 16 (September 1929), 151–171, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/30235318">in JSTOR</a>; says slavery had almost reached its outer limits of growth by 1860, so war was unnecessary to stop further growth. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080605153248/http://edweb.tusd.k12.az.us/uhs/website/Courses/APUSH/1st%20Sem/Articles%20Semester%201/Artiles%20Semester%201/Ramsdell.htm">online version without footnotes</a></li> <li>Randall, James G. "The Blundering Generation", <i>Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i> 27 (June 1940): 3–28 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1896569">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Randall, James G. <i>The Civil War and Reconstruction</i>. (1937), survey and statement of "needless war" interpretation</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_causation_and_modernization">Economic causation and modernization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Economic causation and modernization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Beard, Charles</a>, and Mary Beard. <i>The Rise of American Civilization.</i> Two volumes (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Hofstadter, Richard</a>. "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War," <i>American Historical Review</i> (1938) 44#1 pp. 50–55. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1840850">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Luraghi, Raimondo, "The Civil War and the Modernization of American Society: Social Structure and Industrial Revolution in the Old South Before and During the War", <i>Civil War History</i> XVIII (September 1972), in JSTOR</li> <li>McPherson, James M. <i>Ordeal by Fire: the Civil War and Reconstruction</i> (1982), uses modernization interpretation</li> <li>Moore, Barrington. <i>Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy</i> (1966), modernization interpretation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Thornton" title="Mark Thornton">Thornton, Mark</a>; Ekelund, Robert B. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Tariffs-Blockades-Inflation-Economics-American/dp/0842029613">Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War</a></i> (2004) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0842029612" title="Special:BookSources/978-0842029612">978-0842029612</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nationalism_and_culture">Nationalism and culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Nationalism and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Crofts, Daniel. <i>Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis</i> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Current" title="Richard N. Current">Current, Richard N.</a> <i>Lincoln and the First Shot</i> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Nevins, Allan</a>, author of most detailed history <ul><li><i>Ordeal of the Union</i> 2 vols. (1947) covers 1850–57</li> <li><i>The Emergence of Lincoln</i>, 2 vols. (1950) covers 1857–61; does not take strong position on causation</li></ul></li> <li>Olsen, Christopher J. <i>Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860 (2000), cultural interpretation</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_M._Potter" title="David M. Potter">Potter, David M.</a>, completed and edited by <a href="/wiki/Don_E._Fehrenbacher" title="Don E. Fehrenbacher">Don E. Fehrenbacher</a>. <i>The Impending Crisis: America Before the Civil War: 1848–1861</i> (1976), Pulitzer Prize-winning history emphasizing rise of Southern nationalism</li> <li>Potter, David M. <i>Lincoln and His Party in the Secession Crisis</i> (1942)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_as_cause">Slavery as cause</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Slavery as cause"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ashworth, John <ul><li><i>Slavery, Capitalism, and Politics in the Antebellum Republic</i> (1995)</li> <li>"Free labor, wage labor, and the slave power: Republicanism and the Republican party in the 1850s", in Melvyn Stokes and Stephen Conway (eds.), <i>The Market Revolution in America: Social, Political and Religious Expressions, 1800–1880</i>, pp. 128–146. (1996)</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Herbert_Donald" title="David Herbert Donald">Donald, David Herbert</a>, Jean Harvey Baker, and Michael F. Holt. <i>The Civil War and Reconstruction</i> (2001) 780pp survey</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fellman" title="Michael Fellman">Fellman, Michael</a>, Leslie J. Gordon, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_E._Sutherland" title="Daniel E. Sutherland">Daniel E. Sutherland</a>. <i>This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath</i> (3rd ed., 2014) 432pp survey</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> <ul><li><i>Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War</i> (1970, 1995), stress on ideology</li> <li><i>Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War.</i> New York: Oxford University Press (1981)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_W._Freehling" title="William W. Freehling">Freehling, William W.</a> <i>The Road to Disunion: Secessionists at Bay, 1776–1854</i> (1991), emphasis on slavery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gienapp" title="William Gienapp">Gienapp, William</a>. <i>The Origins of the Republican Party, 1852–1856</i> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandra_Manning" title="Chandra Manning">Manning, Chandra</a>. <i>What This Cruel War Was Over: Soldiers, Slavery, and the Civil War</i>. New York: Vintage Books (2007)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCauley2018" class="citation news cs1">McCauley, Byron (April 5, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/2018/04/05/confederacy-preserving-slavery-proof-its-money/489694002/">"The Confederacy was about preserving slavery. The proof? It's on the money"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cincinnati_Enquirer" title="The Cincinnati Enquirer">The Cincinnati Enquirer</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cincinnati+Enquirer&rft.atitle=The+Confederacy+was+about+preserving+slavery.+The+proof%3F+It%27s+on+the+money&rft.date=2018-04-05&rft.aulast=McCauley&rft.aufirst=Byron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cincinnati.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2F2018%2F04%2F05%2Fconfederacy-preserving-slavery-proof-its-money%2F489694002%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+the+American+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Morrison, Michael. <i>Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny and the Coming of the Civil War</i> (1997)</li> <li>Morrow, Ralph E. "The Proslavery Argument Revisited", <i>The Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i>, Vol. 48, No. 1 (June 1961), pp. 79–94. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1902405">in JSTOR</a> (Maintains that antebellum pro-slavery writing was not intended to, or not solely intended to, convince Northerners, but was intended to reduce the guilt felt by many in slave states)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Oakes_(historian)" title="James Oakes (historian)">Oakes, James</a>. <ul><li><i>Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861–1865</i> (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/bookrev-octnov13-pdf-1.pdf">Review</a></li> <li><i>The Scorpion's Sting: Antislavery and the Coming of the Civil War</i> (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2014)</li> <li><i>The Crooked Path to Abolition: Abraham Lincoln and the Antislavery Constitution</i> (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2021)</li></ul></li> <li>Paulus, Carl Lawrence. <i>The Slaveholding Crisis: Fear of Insurrection and the Coming of the Civil War</i> (LSU Press, 2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ford_Rhodes" title="James Ford Rhodes">Rhodes, James Ford</a>. <i>History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley–Bryan Campaign of 1896</i>, v. 1. 1850-1854, v. 2. 1854-1860. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchArg=History+of+the+United+States+from+the+Compromise+of+1850+to+the+McKinley%E2%80%93Bryan+Campaign+of+1896&searchCode=GKEY%5E*&searchType=0&recCount=25&sk=en_US">Port Washington, N.Y., Kennikat Press</a> [1967, c1892-1919]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schlesinger_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Schlesinger Jr.">Schlesinger, Arthur Jr.</a> "The Causes of the Civil War" (1949), reprinted in his <i>The Politics of Hope</i> (1963); reintroduced new emphasis on slavery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_M._Stampp" title="Kenneth M. Stampp">Stampp, Kenneth M.</a> <ul><li><i>America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink</i> (1990)</li> <li><i>And the War Came: The North and the Secession Crisis, 1860–1861</i> (1950)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/American_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="q:American Civil War">American Civil War</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/civwar.htm">Civil War and Reconstruction: Jensen's Guide to WWW Resources</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150801072445/http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/civwar.htm">Archived</a> August 1, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tulane.edu/~sumter/">Tulane course – article on Fort Sumter</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.albany.edu/talkinghistory/index.html">Onuf, Peter. "Making Two Nations: The Origins of the Civil War". 2003 speech</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gilderlehrman.org/">The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051103073639/http://www.adena.com/adena/usa/cw/cw223.htm">An entry from Alexander Stephens' diary, dated 1866, reflecting on the origins of the Civil War</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="American_Civil_War250" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:American_Civil_War" title="Template:American Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:American_Civil_War" title="Template talk:American Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:American_Civil_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:American Civil War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="American_Civil_War250" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Origins250" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Origins</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Origins</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_events_leading_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War">Timeline leading to the War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">Border states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas-Nebraska_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Kansas-Nebraska Act">Kansas-Nebraska Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Popular sovereignty in the United States">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Declaration_of_Secession" title="South Carolina Declaration of Secession">South Carolina Declaration of Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln%27s_75,000_volunteers" title="President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers">President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">Fugitive slave laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Positive good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony" title="Susan B. Anthony">Susan B. Anthony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Birney" title="James G. Birney">James G. Birney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lane_Debates_on_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Lane Debates on Slavery">Lane Debates on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Elijah Parish Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Sella_Martin" title="J. Sella Martin">J. Sella Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Luther_Stearns" title="George Luther Stearns">George Luther Stearns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">Caning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="CombatantsTheatersCampaignsBattlesStates250" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Combatants</li><li>Theaters</li><li>Campaigns</li><li>Battles</li><li>States</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Combatants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_army" title="Union army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Navy" title="Union Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service" title="United States Revenue Cutter Service">Revenue Cutter Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Navy" title="Confederate States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Marine_Corps" title="Confederate States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Theaters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Eastern theater of the American Civil War">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Western theater of the American Civil War">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_seaboard_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Lower seaboard theater of the American Civil War">Lower Seaboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War">Trans-Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_coast_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pacific coast theater of the American Civil War">Pacific Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_blockade" title="Union blockade">Union naval blockade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Campaigns of the American Civil War">campaigns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaconda_Plan" title="Anaconda Plan">Anaconda Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_runners_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Blockade runners of the American Civil War">Blockade runners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_campaign" title="New Mexico campaign">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson%27s_Valley_campaign" title="Jackson's Valley campaign">Jackson's Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula_campaign" title="Peninsula campaign">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Virginia_campaign" title="Northern Virginia campaign">Northern Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_campaign" title="Maryland campaign">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_campaign" title="Vicksburg campaign">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullahoma_campaign" title="Tullahoma campaign">Tullahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_campaign" title="Gettysburg campaign">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan%27s_Raid" title="Morgan's Raid">Morgan's Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristoe_campaign" title="Bristoe campaign">Bristoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoxville_campaign" title="Knoxville campaign">Knoxville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_campaign" title="Red River campaign">Red River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overland_Campaign" title="Overland Campaign">Overland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_campaign" title="Atlanta campaign">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_campaigns_of_1864" title="Valley campaigns of 1864">Valley 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Hundred_campaign" title="Bermuda Hundred campaign">Bermuda Hundred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg" title="Siege of Petersburg">Richmond-Petersburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin%E2%80%93Nashville_campaign" title="Franklin–Nashville campaign">Franklin–Nashville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price%27s_Missouri_Expedition" title="Price's Missouri Expedition">Price's Missouri Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea" title="Sherman's March to the Sea">Sherman's March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_of_the_Carolinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign of the Carolinas">Carolinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_campaign_(1865)" title="Mobile campaign (1865)">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appomattox_campaign" title="Appomattox campaign">Appomattox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_battles" title="List of American Civil War battles">battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="First Battle of Bull Run">1st Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wilson%27s_Creek" title="Battle of Wilson's Creek">Wilson's Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Donelson" title="Battle of Fort Donelson">Fort Donelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pea_Ridge" title="Battle of Pea Ridge">Pea Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Hampton Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh" title="Battle of Shiloh">Shiloh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Forts_Jackson_and_St._Philip" title="Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Corinth" title="Siege of Corinth">Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Seven_Pines" title="Battle of Seven Pines">Seven Pines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles" title="Seven Days Battles">Seven Days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="Second Battle of Bull Run">2nd Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Antietam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Perryville" title="Battle of Perryville">Perryville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg" title="Battle of Fredericksburg">Fredericksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville" title="Battle of Chancellorsville">Chancellorsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg" title="Siege of Vicksburg">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga" title="Battle of Chickamauga">Chickamauga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_campaign" title="Chattanooga campaign">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness" title="Battle of the Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Pillow" title="Battle of Fort Pillow">Fort Pillow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House" title="Battle of Spotsylvania Court House">Spotsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cold_Harbor" title="Battle of Cold Harbor">Cold Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Atlanta" title="Battle of Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Crater" title="Battle of the Crater">Crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mobile_Bay" title="Battle of Mobile Bay">Mobile Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Franklin_(1864)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Franklin (1864)">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nashville" title="Battle of Nashville">Nashville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Five_Forks" title="Battle of Five Forks">Five Forks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Involvement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">States and<br />territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Alabama in the American Civil War">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Arkansas in the American Civil War">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Arizona" title="Confederate Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="California in the American Civil War">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorado in the American Civil War">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Connecticut in the American Civil War">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_Territory#Dakota_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Dakota Territory">Dakota Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware#Delaware_in_the_Civil_War" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Florida in the American Civil War">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Georgia in the American Civil War">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_and_the_American_Civil_War" title="Hawaii and the American Civil War">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Idaho in the American Civil War">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Illinois in the American Civil War">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indian Territory in the American Civil War">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indiana in the American Civil War">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Iowa in the American Civil War">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kansas in the American Civil War">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kentucky in the American Civil War">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Louisiana in the American Civil War">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Maine in the American Civil War">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Maryland in the American Civil War">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Massachusetts in the American Civil War">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Michigan in the American Civil War">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota#Civil_War_era_and_Dakota_War_of_1862" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Mississippi in the American Civil War">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Missouri in the American Civil War">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Montana in the American Civil War">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Nebraska Territory in the American Civil War">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Nevada in the American Civil War">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire#Civil_War:_1861–1865" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Jersey in the American Civil War">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Mexico Territory in the American Civil War">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New York in the American Civil War">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="North Carolina in the American Civil War">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Ohio in the American Civil War">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Oregon in the American Civil War">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pennsylvania in the American Civil War">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Rhode Island in the American Civil War">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="South Carolina in the American Civil War">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Tennessee in the American Civil War">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Texas in the American Civil War">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah in the American Civil War">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Vermont in the American Civil War">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Virginia in the American Civil War">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington in the American Civil War">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="West Virginia in the American Civil War">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Wisconsin in the American Civil War">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Atlanta in the American Civil War">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Charleston in the American Civil War">Charleston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Chattanooga in the American Civil War">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Orleans in the American Civil War">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Richmond in the American Civil War">Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winchester,_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Winchester, Virginia in the American Civil War">Winchester</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Leaders250" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military_leadership_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military leadership in the American Civil War">Leaders</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Confederate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Anderson_(general)" title="Richard H. Anderson (general)">R. H. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">Beauregard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braxton_Bragg" title="Braxton Bragg">Bragg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Buchanan" title="Franklin Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Cooper_(general)" title="Samuel Cooper (general)">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubal_Early" title="Jubal Early">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Ewell" title="Richard S. Ewell">Ewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest">Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gorgas" title="Josiah Gorgas">Gorgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Hill" title="A. P. Hill">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bell_Hood" title="John Bell Hood">Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston" title="Albert Sidney Johnston">A. S. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston" title="Joseph E. Johnston">J. E. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Longstreet" title="James Longstreet">Longstreet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hunt_Morgan" title="John Hunt Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_S._Mosby" title="John S. Mosby">Mosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonidas_Polk" title="Leonidas Polk">Polk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterling_Price" title="Sterling Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Semmes" title="Raphael Semmes">Semmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Kirby_Smith" title="Edmund Kirby Smith">E. K. Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._E._B._Stuart" title="J. E. B. Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Taylor_(Confederate_general)" title="Richard Taylor (Confederate general)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wheeler" title="Joseph Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_P._Benjamin" title="Judah P. Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Bocock" title="Thomas S. Bocock">Bocock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._T._Hunter" title="Robert M. T. Hunter">Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Mallory" title="Stephen Mallory">Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Memminger" title="Christopher Memminger">Memminger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Seddon" title="James Seddon">Seddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Stephens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Anderson_(Union_officer)" title="Robert Anderson (Union officer)">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Carlos_Buell" title="Don Carlos Buell">Buell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Burnside" title="Ambrose Burnside">Burnside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Francis_Du_Pont" title="Samuel Francis Du Pont">Du Pont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Farragut" title="David Farragut">Farragut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hull_Foote" title="Andrew Hull Foote">Foote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">Frémont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Halleck" title="Henry Halleck">Halleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooker" title="Joseph Hooker">Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Jackson_Hunt" title="Henry Jackson Hunt">Hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">McClellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irvin_McDowell" title="Irvin McDowell">McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Meade" title="George Meade">Meade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_C._Meigs" title="Montgomery C. Meigs">Meigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Ord" title="Edward Ord">Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pope (military officer)">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Dixon_Porter" title="David Dixon Porter">D. D. Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rosecrans" title="William Rosecrans">Rosecrans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Sheridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Thomas" title="George Henry Thomas">Thomas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ericsson" title="John Ericsson">Ericsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin" title="Hannibal Hamlin">Hamlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Pinkerton" title="Allan Pinkerton">Pinkerton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Stanton" title="Edwin Stanton">Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Wade" title="Benjamin Wade">Wade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Welles" title="Gideon Welles">Welles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Aftermath250" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aftermath</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Claims" title="Alabama Claims">Alabama Claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpetbagger" title="Carpetbagger">Carpetbaggers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax riot of 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_colonies" title="Confederate colonies">Confederate refugees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederados" title="Confederados">Confederados</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_riot_of_1874" class="mw-redirect" title="Election riot of 1874">Eufaula riot of 1874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman%27s_Savings_Bank" title="Freedman's Savings Bank">Freedman's Savings Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts" title="Homestead Acts">Homestead Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Homestead_Act_of_1866" title="Southern Homestead Act of 1866">Southern Homestead Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_Culture_Act" title="Timber Culture Act">Timber Culture Act</a> of 1873</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">Impeachment of Andrew Johnson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_trial_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson">trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efforts_to_impeach_Andrew_Johnson" title="Efforts to impeach Andrew Johnson">efforts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Timeline of the impeachment of Andrew Johnson">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="First impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">first inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="Second impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">second inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_impeachment_managers_investigation" title="1868 impeachment managers investigation">impeachment managers investigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirk%E2%80%93Holden_war" title="Kirk–Holden war">Kirk–Holden war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_White_Camelia" title="Knights of the White Camelia">Knights of the White Camelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis riots of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_race_riot_of_1871" title="Meridian race riot of 1871">Meridian riot of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_massacre_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans massacre of 1866">New Orleans riot of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_riot" title="Pulaski riot">Pulaski (Tennessee) riot of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina riots of 1876</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_of_1867" title="Habeas Corpus Act of 1867">Habeas Corpus Act of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act" title="Second Enforcement Act">Enforcement Act of February 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Enforcement Act of April 1871</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_military_districts" title="Reconstruction military districts">Reconstruction military districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Treaties" title="Reconstruction Treaties">Reconstruction Treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Smith_Council" title="Fort Smith Council">Indian Council at Fort Smith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalawag" title="Scalawag">Scalawags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina riots of 1876</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Claims_Commission" title="Southern Claims Commission">Southern Claims Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Post-<br />Reconstruction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemoration_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Commemoration of the American Civil War">Commemoration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Centennial" title="American Civil War Centennial">Centennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Discovery_Trail" title="Civil War Discovery Trail">Civil War Discovery Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Roundtable" title="Civil War Roundtable">Civil War Roundtables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Trails_Program" title="Civil War Trails Program">Civil War Trails Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil War Trust">Civil War Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_History_Month" title="Confederate History Month">Confederate History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Day" title="Confederate Memorial Day">Confederate Memorial Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Day" title="Memorial Day">Decoration Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_reenactment" title="American Civil War reenactment">Historical reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Day" title="Robert E. Lee Day">Robert E. Lee Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Hall" title="Confederate Memorial Hall">Confederate Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disenfranchisement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">Historiographic issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_display_of_the_Confederate_battle_flag" title="Modern display of the Confederate battle flag">Modern display of the Confederate flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Confederate_Veterans" title="Sons of Confederate Veterans">Sons of Confederate Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Union_Veterans_of_the_Civil_War" title="Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War">Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Historical_Society" title="Southern Historical Society">Southern Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Confederate_Veterans" title="United Confederate Veterans">United Confederate Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Daughters_of_the_Confederacy" title="United Daughters of the Confederacy">United Daughters of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Children of the Confederacy">Children of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Monuments<br />and memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Union_Civil_War_monuments_and_memorials" title="List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_the_Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="List of memorials to the Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Abraham_Lincoln" title="List of memorials to Abraham Lincoln">memorials to Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Confederate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Confederate monuments and memorials">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_artworks_in_the_United_States_Capitol" title="Confederate artworks in the United States Capitol">artworks in Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Jefferson_Davis" title="List of memorials to Jefferson Davis">memorials to Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Robert_E._Lee" title="List of memorials to Robert E. Lee">memorials to Lee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" title="Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials">Removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Cemeteries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ladies%27_Memorial_Association" title="Ladies' Memorial Association">Ladies' Memorial Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Era_National_Cemeteries_MPS" title="Civil War Era National Cemeteries MPS">U.S. national cemeteries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Veterans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1913_Gettysburg_reunion" title="1913 Gettysburg reunion">1913 Gettysburg reunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Gettysburg_reunion" title="1938 Gettysburg reunion">1938 Gettysburg reunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Hall" title="Confederate Memorial Hall">Confederate Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Veteran" title="Confederate Veteran">Confederate Veteran</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Order_of_the_Loyal_Legion_of_the_United_States" title="Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States">Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_soldiers%27_home" title="Old soldiers' home">Old soldiers' homes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_of_Honor" title="Southern Cross of Honor">Southern Cross of Honor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Confederate_Veterans" title="United Confederate Veterans">United Confederate Veterans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Related_topics250" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of weapons in the American Civil War">Arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Campaign_Medal" title="Civil War Campaign Medal">Campaign Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cavalry in the American Civil War">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Home_Guard" title="Confederate Home Guard">Confederate Home Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_railroads_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Confederate railroads in the American Civil War">Confederate railroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_revolving_cannon" title="Confederate revolving cannon">Confederate revolving cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_artillery_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Field artillery in the American Civil War">Field artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients">Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Medicine in the American Civil War">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of naval battles of the American Civil War">Naval battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Records_of_the_Union_and_Confederate_Armies" title="Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies">Official Records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partisan_Ranger_Act" title="Partisan Ranger Act">Partisan rangers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_prison_camps" title="American Civil War prison camps">POW camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foods_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Foods of the American Civil War">Rations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_Corps_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Signal Corps in the American Civil War">Signal Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Corps_Badges" title="American Civil War Corps Badges">Union corps badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Army_Balloon_Corps" title="Union Army Balloon Corps">U.S. Balloon Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Guard_(Union)" title="Home Guard (Union)">U.S. Home Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Railroad" title="United States Military Railroad">U.S. Military Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress_Joint_Committee_on_the_Conduct_of_the_War" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War">Committee on the Conduct of the War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate States presidential election">Confederate States presidential election of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1861" title="Confiscation Act of 1861">Confiscation Act of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1862" title="Confiscation Act of 1862">Confiscation Act of 1862</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copperhead_(politics)" title="Copperhead (politics)">Copperheads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Diplomacy of the American Civil War">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Suspension_Act_(1863)" title="Habeas Corpus Suspension Act (1863)">Habeas Corpus Act of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads_Conference" title="Hampton Roads Conference">Hampton Roads Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_politicians_killed_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of politicians killed in the American Civil War">Politicians killed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trent_Affair" title="Trent Affair">Trent Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_League" title="Union League">Union Leagues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">U.S. Presidential Election of 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Democrat" title="War Democrat">War Democrats</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Music of the American Civil War">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Hymn_of_the_Republic" title="Battle Hymn of the Republic">Battle Hymn of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_(song)" title="Dixie (song)">Dixie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body" title="John Brown's Body">John Brown's Body</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Lincoln_Portrait" class="mw-redirect" title="A Lincoln Portrait">A Lincoln Portrait</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marching_Through_Georgia" title="Marching Through Georgia">Marching Through Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland,_My_Maryland" title="Maryland, My Maryland">Maryland, My Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/When_Johnny_Comes_Marching_Home" title="When Johnny Comes Marching Home">When Johnny Comes Marching Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daar_kom_die_Alibama" title="Daar kom die Alibama">Daar kom die Alibama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">By ethnicity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="German Americans in the American Civil War">German Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Irish Americans in the American Civil War">Irish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans_in_the_Civil_War" title="Italian Americans in the Civil War">Italian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catawba_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Catawba in the American Civil War">Catawba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Choctaw in the American Civil War">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Seminole in the American Civil War">Seminole</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_riot_of_1861" title="Baltimore riot of 1861">Baltimore riot of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_battlefield_preservation" title="American Civil War battlefield preservation">Battlefield preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the American Civil War">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_war_finance" title="Confederate war finance">Confederate war finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_dollar" title="Confederate States dollar">Confederate States dollar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_spies" title="American Civil War spies">Espionage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Secret_Service" title="Confederate Secret Service">Confederate Secret Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Hanging_at_Gainesville" title="Great Hanging at Gainesville">Great Hanging at Gainesville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army_revival" title="Confederate States Army revival">Great Revival of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_issues_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Gender issues in the American Civil War">Gender issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Names of the American Civil War">Naming the war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_gold_hoax" title="Civil War gold hoax">New York City Gold Hoax of 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City riots of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographers_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Photographers of the American Civil War">Photographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_bread_riots" title="Southern bread riots">Richmond riots of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Salt in the American Civil War">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_cases_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Supreme Court cases of the American Civil War">Supreme Court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_token" title="Civil War token">Tokens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Sanitary_Commission" title="United States Sanitary Commission">U.S. Sanitary Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_American_Civil_War_soldiers" title="List of female American Civil War soldiers">Women soldiers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_and_television_shows_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of films and television shows about the American Civil War">List of films and television shows about the American Civil War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:American_Civil_War" title="Category:American Civil War">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:American_Civil_War" title="Portal:American Civil War">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slavery_in_the_United_States75" style="text-align:left;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavery_in_the_United_States75" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alabama" title="History of slavery in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alaska" title="History of slavery in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arizona" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arkansas" title="History of slavery in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_California" title="History of slavery in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Colorado" title="History of slavery in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Connecticut" title="History of slavery in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Delaware" title="History of slavery in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Florida" title="History of slavery in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Idaho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Idaho (page does not exist)">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Illinois" title="History of slavery in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Indiana" title="History of slavery in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Iowa" title="History of slavery in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kansas" title="History of slavery in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kentucky" title="History of slavery in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Maine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Maine (page does not exist)">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="History of slavery in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Michigan" title="History of slavery in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Minnesota" title="History of slavery in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Mississippi" title="History of slavery in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Missouri" title="History of slavery in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Montana" title="History of slavery in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Nebraska" title="History of slavery in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Nevada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Nevada (page does not exist)">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Hampshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Jersey" title="History of slavery in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Mexico" title="History of slavery in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Carolina" title="History of slavery in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Dakota" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Oklahoma" title="History of slavery in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Oregon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Oregon (page does not exist)">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Pennsylvania" title="History of slavery in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Rhode_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Carolina" title="History of slavery in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Dakota" title="History of slavery in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Tennessee" title="History of slavery in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Texas" title="History of slavery in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Utah" title="History of slavery in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Vermont" title="History of slavery in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia" title="History of slavery in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Washington_(state)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Washington (state) (page does not exist)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_West_Virginia" title="History of slavery in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Wyoming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Wyoming (page does not exist)">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_district" title="Federal district">Federal district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands#Danish_period" title="United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery among Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_Spain" title="Slavery in New Spain">Slavery in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">Slavery in New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude in British America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Slave trade in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_markets_and_slave_jails_in_the_United_States" title="Slave markets and slave jails in the United States">Slave markets and slave jails in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_into_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Kidnapping into slavery in the United States">Kidnapping into slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">Slave states and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_labor_on_United_States_military_installations_1799%E2%80%931863" title="Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863">Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_American_colleges_and_universities" title="Slavery at American colleges and universities">Slavery at American colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_American_slavery" title="Glossary of American slavery">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural and<br />social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_proslavery_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="American proslavery movement">American proslavery movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Slavery as a positive good in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treatment_of_the_slaves_in_the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treatment of the slaves in the United States (page does not exist)">Treatment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-literacy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-literacy laws in the United States">Mandatory illiteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Slave quarters in the United States">Slave quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Domestic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_slave_traders" class="mw-redirect" title="List of American slave traders">List of American slave traders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_slave_ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway slave ad">Runaway slave ad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">Freedmen's towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Black Canadians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">List of abolitionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_system" title="Gang system">Gang system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_system" title="Task system">Task system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">List of plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">Amerindian slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_slave_owners" title="African-American slave owners">African-American slave owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Slavery and the United States Constitution">Slavery and the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_slave_court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="American slave court cases">American slave court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Freedom_suits_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Freedom suits in the United States">Freedom suits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_and_free_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave and free states">Slave and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="History of slavery in the United States by state">History of slavery by U.S. state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> (1808)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule (1836–1840)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullifier_Party" title="Nullifier Party">Nullifier Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_to_reopen_the_transatlantic_slave_trade" title="Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade">Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Presidents and slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">George Washington and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Thomas Jefferson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_and_slavery" title="James Madison and slavery">James Madison and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">John Quincy Adams and abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler_and_slavery" title="John Tyler and slavery">John Tyler and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor_and_slavery" title="Zachary Taylor and slavery">Zachary Taylor and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Abraham Lincoln and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Johnson and slavery">Andrew Johnson and slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of vice presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Vice presidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress_who_owned_slaves" title="List of members of the United States Congress who owned slaves">Members of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_who_owned_slaves" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices who owned slaves">Supreme Court Justices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marriage,<br />sexual slavery<br />and procreation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">Female slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States#Sexual_relations_and_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Sexual relations and rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age" title="Plaçage">Plaçage</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_family" title="Shadow family">Shadow family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War and after</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery during the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="End of slavery in the United States">End of slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation_in_the_United_States" title="Compensated emancipation in the United States">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">Contraband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">Colored Troops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_reunification_ads_after_emancipation" title="Family reunification ads after emancipation">Family reunification ads after emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_town" title="Freedmen's town">Freedmen's town</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Military_historiography605" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_historiography" title="Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_historiography" title="Template talk:Military historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_historiography605" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_museums" title="List of military museums">List of military museums</a></b></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-18th century<br />conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade#Legacy" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catharism#Historical_and_current_scholarship" title="Catharism">Catharism debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Crusades" title="Historiography of the Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_the_crusades" title="Islamic views on the crusades">Islamic views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Historiography of the Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Origins of the Eighty Years' War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon#Historiography" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars#Historiography" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />century conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coalition_Wars(1792–1815)77" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a><br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">French Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_pre-revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French pre-revolution (page does not exist)">Pre-revolution</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Prérévolution française">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Russian_School_(French_Revolution)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Russian School (French Revolution) (page does not exist)">New Russian School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%C2%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_XVIII_%D0%B2." class="extiw" title="ru:«Новая русская школа» в историографии Французской революции XVIII в.">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e#Historiography" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Napoleonic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Historical_assessment" title="French invasion of Russia">Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo#Historical_importance" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li></ul></li> <li>Franco-Prussian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune" title="Historiography of the Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857#Historiography" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paraguayan_War" title="Historiography of the Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Historiography of the War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>War of the Pacific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of the War of the Pacific">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myth_of_English_aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myth of English aid (page does not exist)">Myth of English aid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_de_la_ayuda_inglesa" class="extiw" title="es:Mito de la ayuda inglesa">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Causes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)#Fischer_thesis" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fischer thesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Causes of the Armenian genocide">Causes of the Armenian genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patriotic_consent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patriotic consent (page does not exist)">Patriotic consent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_patriotique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consentement patriotique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_keg_of_Europe" title="Powder keg of Europe">Powder keg of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan#History" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1914" title="Spirit of 1914">Spirit of 1914</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1917" title="Spirit of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (page does not exist)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Брестского мира">ru</a>]</span></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Treaty_ofVersailles73" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Historical_assessments" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of<br />Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations#Analysis" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_burning_of_Smyrna" title="Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna">Burning of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Causes of the Polish–Soviet War">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spanish Civil War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Background</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II" title="Historiography of World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg#Post-war_controversy" title="Blitzkrieg">"Blitzkrieg" concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_front_versus_narrow_front_controversy_in_World_War_II" title="Broad front versus narrow front controversy in World War II">Broad vs. narrow front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="Historiography of German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_foreign_policy_debate" title="Nazi foreign policy debate">Nazi foreign policy debate</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact#Postwar_commentary_on_motives_of_Stalin_and_Hitler" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising#Soviet_stance" title="Warsaw Uprising">Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Historiography of the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Winter_War" title="Aftermath of the Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Winter_War" title="Background of the Winter War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Winter_War" title="Spirit of the Winter War">Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">The Holocaust</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism–intentionalism debate</a></li> <li>In relation to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_and_the_Nakba" title="The Holocaust and the Nakba">Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust#Historiography" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pius_Wars" title="Pius Wars">Pius Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Polish_death_camp%22_controversy" title=""Polish death camp" controversy">"Polish death camp"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="Historiography of the Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Australia" title="Battle for Australia">"Battle for Australia"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943#Historiography" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Historiography of the Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guilty_Men" title="Guilty Men">Guilty Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistancialisme" title="Résistancialisme">Résistancialisme</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Vichy_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Vichy France (page does not exist)">Vichy France</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_r%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du régime de Vichy">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war#Historiography" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_Nakba" title="Ongoing Nakba">Ongoing Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historians" title="New Historians">New Historians</a></li></ul></li> <li>Malayan Emergency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Malayan_Emergency" title="Background and causes of the Malayan Emergency">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li>Six-Day War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iranian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Iranian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_memory_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Legacy and memory of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War" title="Aftermath of the Falklands War">Falklands War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sri Lankan civil war <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war">Origins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russo-Georgian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Background of the Russo-Georgian War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Responsibility for the Russo-Georgian War">Responsibility</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syrian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Syrian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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